Chapter 2  Sound is a wave

CHAPTER 2

Sound is a wave
Features of a wave model can be used to account for the
properties of sound

Introduction
The wave model is a powerful tool that can be
used to explain observations of the behaviour
of sound. Studies of the nature of sound have
been made for thousands of years. During this
time there have been several explanations for
what sound actually is. From being one of the
most important tools for communication to being
a potential weapon in warfare, sound’s many
applications are often taken for granted. This
chapter explains some of the properties of sound,
using the wave model.
Condensation
clouds around an
F-A/18 Hornet,
caused by the
shockwave as the
aircraft exceeds
the speed of sound

Sound consists of vibrations travelling through a medium

n Identify that sound waves are vibrations or oscillations of
2.1
particles in a medium
Sound waves are vibrations of the medium through which it is travelling as
longitudinal waves, that is, compressions and rarefactions. Sound may travel through
gases, liquids and solids.
Sound travels as a mechanical wave, requiring a medium through which to
travel. However, in most popular space movies, sound appears to be able to travel
through empty space. If the movie makers were truthful, their movies would be much
quieter.
The nature of the medium has a profound effect on the speed of sound. At
normal air pressure in dry air, sound travels at about 331 m s–1 and increases with
the air temperature. Table 2.1 lists the speed of sound in a variety of different
media.
Other types of waves such as shear waves (a type of transverse wave) may
also travel in solids. These travel at different speeds and can also convey sound
through the solid medium. As can be seen from Table 2.1, the speed of sound varies
considerably in different media.

15
 the world communicates

n
ssio

n
pre

ctio
Com

efa
Rar

Wavelength

Figure 2.1  Table 2.1 The speed of sound in different media Tying two tin cans together with
Sound being
produced by a Medium Speed of sound ( m s–1) a length of string demonstrates how
vibrating speaker Air (0oC) 331 sound will travel through the string, but
cone
Helium 972
only when the string is held taut. The
longitudinal wave can only move along
SR Water 1493
Giambattista
College Physics 2nd Ed.
the string when the string is in tension.
Iron 1130
Figure 12.01 The vibrations in the string are caused by
Lead CMY 1322
K the base of the tin can vibrating in time
Diamond 12 000 with the compressions in the air.
Animation:
sound waves

2.2 Sound waves may be graphically represented as

transverse waves because longitudinal waves such as
sound are difficult to draw
18.02 n  elate compressions and
R
rarefactions of sound waves to the
(a)
crests and troughs of transverse
waves used to represent them
To draw a sound wave as a compression wave is
(b) much more difficult than representing the same
wave as a transverse wave. Figure 2.2 shows a
sound wave represented as a longitudinal (or
m compression) wave travelling through a gas, and
the same wave represented as a transverse wave.

w Figure 2.2  A sound wave shown as (a) a transverse wave (note that
the crests correspond with compressions and troughs correspond
w with troughs) and (b) compressions and rarefactions of the particles
in
D8a gas

16
 Chapter 2  Sound is a wave

The physics of pitch and volume

n Explain qualitatively that pitch is related to frequency and
2.3
volume to amplitude of sound waves
The frequency of a sound wave is, by definition, the number of whole wave
oscillations passing a point in one second. As sound travels as longitudinal waves, our
eardrums will vibrate with the same frequency as the sound waves. Our brains perceive
the pitch of a sound according to how rapidly the vibrations occur in our ears. A higher
frequency sound will be perceived by the brain as a higher pitch and vice versa.
The volume of the sound we hear is determined by the degree to which the various
parts of our ears vibrate. The greater the extent of the movements of the parts of our
ears, the stronger the electrical impulse generated and sent to our brain, and the louder
the sound. The amplitude of the sound wave determines just how much the eardrums
and other parts of the ear will be moved with a greater amplitude causing more
movement. If this movement is too great, permanent hearing damage can result. Being
exposed to loud music at concerts can, over time, lead to premature hearing loss.
Older people tend to lose the ability to hear higher frequencies first. This is a
gradual process and not easily noticed until a high-pitched sound goes unnoticed.
It is possible to use a sound generator in the school laboratory to demonstrate this.
The following investigation can be used to demonstrate these important
relationships.

Analysing sound waves

first-hand
n Perform a first-hand investigation and gather information investigation
to analyse sound waves from a variety of sources using
PFA
the Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) or an alternative
computer technology P3

You can use a variety of musical instruments (see Fig. 2.3) as well as an electronic sound physics skills
generator for the different sound sources for analysis. Other suitable sound sources include 11.1 A, D
voices, whistling, scraping and mechanical noises. Use a microphone connected to a CRO 12.1 A, B, D
to capture the sound and display the signal. The microphone converts the compressions and 12.2 A, B
rarefactions travelling through the air into tiny movements that generate electrical signals. 12.4 C
The CRO displays these signals 14.1 A, E, F, G
as transverse waves on the
screen.
There are also numerous
data-logging hardware and
software packages available that
can capture the display on a
computer rather than using the
CRO. Figure 2.3 
Capture the sound from the Various musical
available instruments and signal instruments
produce different-
generators on the equipment. shaped sound
It is possible to photograph the waves

17
 the world communicates

Figure 2.4 
Waveforms shown
on the screen of a
CRO: (a) a jagged
wave indicative
of the imperfect
nature of the
output of the violin,
which gives it its
distinctive sound
and character, (b)
a pure sound wave
of constant pitch

(a) (b)
screen of a CRO when continuous sounds are being displayed, to help compare the various
waveforms. Figure 2.4 shows some examples of waveforms captured on the screen of a
CRO.

2.4 Echoes have practical applications

n Explain an echo as a reflection of a sound wave
A child loves to hear their voice come back to them after shouting at a cliff or into
a tunnel. As sound is a wave, when it meets an obstacle such as a cliff or wall it is
either absorbed or reflected (see Fig. 2.5). The harder the surface, the greater the
reflection. This is why concrete tunnels and rock faces make for good reflections
of sound. The echo is heard some time after the original sound was produced due
to the comparatively slow speed of sound (compared to light). At approximately
340 m s–1, it would take an echo about six seconds to return from a cliff face one
kilometre away.
There are practical applications of echoes. ‘Sonar’ (sound navigation and ranging)
relies on the detection of echoes of sound pulses. Bats use a natural sonar navigation
system to navigate
Figure 2.5  successfully in total
The cliff face darkness by emitting
formed by high-frequency sound
sandstone in the
Blue Mountains pulses and detecting
may produce where the echoes come
echoes from, thus locating
cave walls and other
obstacles. Whales and
dolphins use a similar
system under water.
Technological uses of
sonar include depth
sounders on boats
(see Fig. 2.6), and fish
finders, where sound
pulses are reflected off
the fish under the boat.

18
 Chapter 2  Sound is a wave

Acoustic engineers study the behaviour Figure 2.6 

The principle of
of reflected sound waves and apply sonar: dolphins
this knowledge to constructing concert and whales use the
halls, theatres and recording studios. same system
Soft furnishings and carpets in cinemas
are designed to prevent the reflection ship motion
of sound, which might cause annoying
echoes and decrease the clarity of the emitted pulses
movie soundtrack. 1
– v∆ t reflected pulses
2

Giambattista

2.5
College Physics 2nd Ed.

How the CRO has helped to advance understanding in

Figure 12.18
CMYK
physics
The invention of the CRO has helped our knowledge and understanding in many PFA

P3
areas of physics. The technological advances that made the CRO possible date back
to the first cathode ray tubes (CRTs). William Crookes (1832–1919) (see Fig. 2.7)
discovered that as the gas pressure within a glass tube was lowered sufficiently,
rays began to emanate from the cathode and flow towards the anode when a high ‘Assesses the
voltage was applied. These rays were observed to travel in straight lines and cause impact of particular
the glass to fluoresce. When an object was struck by these rays, heat was produced. technological
J. J. Thomson (1856–1940) identified these ‘rays’ as negatively charged particles that advances on
understanding in
were a part of all atoms: electrons. Thomson was able to manipulate the stream of physics’
electrons by deflecting them using electric and magnetic fields. This is the basis for
the operation of the CRO and cathode ray television sets.
A CRO uses a beam of electrons from an ‘electron gun’, similar
to Thomson’s arrangement with his source of electrons for his CRT
experiments. An electron gun consists of a cathode and an anode
connected to a high-voltage source. Electrons are pulled off the surface
of the cathode and are accelerated towards the anode. Holes in the
anode allow some electrons through. These electrons then travel through
a velocity selector and continue towards the screen. Upon striking the
screen, green light is produced as the material phosphoresces in one
place so that a single dot is seen. The beam is controlled and directed
by varying the voltage on the metal plates through which they pass.
The beam can also be focused using magnetic field coils placed
around the CRT.
The beam’s horizontal sweep time can be set (dial ‘A’ in Fig. 2.9)
so that each square on the grid marked on the screen represents an
accurately known time. Due to a combination of the time lag of our eyes
in keeping up with motion and the way in which the screen continues
to glow for a short time after phosphorescing (green phosphors continue
to glow for 1–10 ms), rapid movement of the glowing dot produces a
continuous line on the screen of the CRO. The applied input signal is
used to deflect the electron beam in the vertical axis. Moving a marker
from left to right across a whiteboard, while simultaneously moving it
Figure 2.7 
up and down, produces a wave shape on the board. At sufficiently high William Crookes

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 the world communicates

Figure 2.8  sweep speeds, the repeated motion

A screen showing
a single wave CRO
of the dot on the screen appears as
a continuous wave signal. Dial ‘B’
in Figure 2.9 is used to adjust the
vertical scale of the wave so that it
can be analysed.
The push button switches
labelled ‘C’ allow two signals to
be displayed simultaneously, or
add the two signals to show the
result as a single wave. Most CROs
also have a subtraction function so
that the difference between two
waves can be seen on the screen.
B A C If possible, spend some time using
Figure 2.9 
The controls of a
the CRO by connecting the output
typical CRO: dial A, of an audio generator to one of the
dial B and input terminals of the CRO. If only
switches C
one audio generator is available,
the AC output of a power pack can
be connected to the other input
terminals as a source of a 50 Hz
signal. Use the lowest voltage on the
power pack and adjust the vertical
scale accordingly.
The advances in electronics that
made CROs possible occurred in
parallel with the technology that
led to the first television, as far
back as the early 1900s. It has only
been in recent years that CRT displays for televisions, radar screens and computer
monitors have been replaced by plasma and liquid crystal display (LCD) panels. The
technology behind the CRO had a very significant impact on communications and
understanding in the field of electronics in the 20th century.

2.6 Waves can add to form a resultant wave

n Describe the principle of superposition and compare the
resulting waves to the original waves in sound
When waves coincide or meet, they interact to form a new resultant wave. The
resultant wave can be determined by adding the displacements of the contributing
waves. While there is no theoretical limit to the number of waves that may coincide,
only two waves will be considered here. If two identical pulses are sent down the
same side of a slinky spring from opposite ends, they will briefly coincide and
form a new, resultant wave (with a height equal to the sum of the individual pulse
heights), and then continue on their way unchanged by their brief interaction. See
Figure 2.10.

20
 Chapter 2  Sound is a wave

Figure 2.10 
The interaction of
two pulses, ‘A’ and
‘B’, on the same
‘A’ ‘B’ side of a slinky
spring

‘A’ ‘B’

‘A + B’

‘A + B’
‘B’ ‘A’

An interesting situation occurs when the two pulses are sent down the spring on
opposite sides. When these‘B’two identical but opposite pulses
‘A’ coincide, the sum of
their heights is zero. For an instant it appears as if the pulses have disappeared or
annihilated each other. However, the energy being conveyed by each pulse continues
on, and as soon as the pulses pass, they too continue on their way unaffected by
their interaction. See Figure 2.11.
Figure 2.11 
Two pulses on
‘A’ ‘B’ opposite sides of a
spring or string

‘A + B’
‘A’ ‘B’

‘A + B’

‘B’ ‘A’

‘B’ ‘A’

The way in which the resultant wave is the result of the sum of the contributing SR
waves’ displacements, as demonstrated with the pulses in the slinky spring (see Fig
2.10 and Fig. 2.11), is known as the principle of superposition. This principle is
applicable to continuous waves as well as single pulses.
The addition of the displacements of two waves may result in a wave with an
Excel spreadsheet:
increased amplitude. This is known as constructive interference, and occurs superposition
when the crests and the troughs of the two waves (see Fig. 2.12) coincide when the simulator
waves meet. In the opposite case, when the crests from one wave arrive with
the troughs of the other wave, the resultant wave has a smaller amplitude
(see Fig. 2.13) than either of the waves that contribute to it. This is known as
destructive interference. A simple superposition simulator using Excel is found
on the SRCD.

21
 the world communicates

red wave = blue wave + green wave

Figure 2.14 shows examples of both constructive interference as the crests and
troughs from the two waves coincide (the waves are said to be ‘in phase’), and
destructive interference when the crests of one wave are meeting the troughs of the
Figure 2.12  other and the two waves tend to cancel one another (are ‘out of phase’).
Two waves
constructively
interfering, having
crests coinciding
with crests and
troughs with
troughs

red wave = blue wave + green wave

Figure 2.13 
Two waves red wave = blue wave + green wave
destructively
interfering, having
crests coinciding
with troughs

red wave = blue wave + green wave

Figure 2.14 
Two waves 2.5
with different
wavelengths 2
coinciding to
produce a 1.5
resultant wave
1
showing both
constructive 0.5
and destructive
interference 2.5
0
2
-0.5
1.5
-1
1 red wave = blue wave + green wave
-1.5
0.5
-2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
0

Sound waves
-0.5 behave in exactly this way. When two or more sound waves coincide
(e.g. upon reaching a microphone or the ear), they produce one resultant wave. This
-1
resultant wave is displayed on the CRO screen, or is received by the brain as sound.
-1.5
2.5
-2
Demonstrating 200
the principle
2 0400 600 of800superposition
1000 1200 1400

1.5
first-hand n Perform1 a first-hand investigation, gather, process
investigation
and present information using a CRO or computer to
PFA demonstrate
0.5 the principle of superposition for two waves
P2 travelling0 in the same medium
physics skills For this investigation,
-0.5 the following apparatus will be required:
n a CRO with two inputs (if possible) or data-logging software
11.1 B -1
12.1 A, B, D n two microphones or data-logging sound meter
-1.5
n sound sources, for example, guitar, signal generators
12.2 A, B
-2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
22
 Chapter 2  Sound is a wave

This investigation requires sound from two sources to be displayed separately on a 12.4 B, C
computer or CRO screen. Sound from two sources can be detected by two microphones 13.1 E, F
14.1 D, E, F
connected to separate CRO inputs. Switching between the sources, you can adjust the
14.2 C
vertical scales so that the two sounds are approximately equal on the CRO scale.
(It is also possible to use two audio generators at opposite sides of the room. Place a
microphone between them to pick up the combined sound, which can be shown on the CRO.
Switch the speaker of one audio generator on and off separately to show the component
waves individually.)
After comparing the two sources, change the CRO’s input selector to ‘add’. The display SR
will now show the resultant sound wave similar to the sound being heard by people nearby—
the result of superposition. If the two sound sources have slightly different frequencies, the
resultant wave will alternate between constructive and destructive interference, growing and
shrinking with a third frequency, known as the ‘beat’ frequency. This is equal to the difference
in frequencies of the two component waves. Experienced musicians and piano tuners use Simulation:
superposition
this phenomenon to tune their instruments.

Applications of the principle of superposition

■■ Present graphical information, solve problems and analyse
2.7
information involving superposition of sound waves
The principle of superposition can always be used to solve problems to find the
resultant wave when waves meet. In Figure 2.15, the two waves, A (wavelength
eight squares, amplitude three squares) and B (wavelength 12 squares, amplitude
two squares) are shown separately on the same axes. Sketch the resultant wave by
plotting the points as follows.
1. Draw a graph of each wave on grid paper using the same axes.
2. For each vertical grid line, plot the sum of the displacements from the x axis.
3. Join the dots with a curved line. This is shown as a dashed line.
Figure 2.15 
Superpositioning
waves on a graph
Displacement

Time

A B

A single musical instrument’s soundwave may be the result of many, perhaps

dozens, of contributing sound waves. Resonant frequencies interact with the
fundamental frequency to produce the characteristic, recognisable sound of
the instrument. Human voices are also recognisable due to slight differences in
contributing waves.

23
 the world communicates

SR Practice task
Using grid paper or the grid provided on the SRCD, draw two waves starting on
the origin of the axes as shown in Figure 2.15. Draw one with a wavelength of
six squares and an amplitude of two squares. Draw the other with a wavelength
Grid paper for of 10 squares and an amplitude of three squares. Construct the resultant wave
practice task following the steps given above.

2.8 Acoustics and the principle of superposition

The field of acoustics and acoustic engineering must predict the behaviour of sound
waves inside buildings. Figure 2.16 shows the circular rings placed above the stage
of the Concert Hall in the Sydney Opera House. Shortly after being opened, it was
found that the sound from the
performers was not reaching
the audience as intended. This
was found to be due, in part,
to the way the reflecting sound
waves were interfering with
the sound coming directly from
the performers to the audience.
Careful placement of these rings
changed the pattern of reflections
of the sound, and went a long
way towards solving the problem.
Acoustic engineers are careful
to avoid such mistakes, using
computer simulations of sound
Figure 2.16  waves inside buildings before they
The reflective rings are constructed. The superposition
on the Concert
of sound waves forms the basis for
Hall of the Sydney
Opera House this interesting field.

chapter revision questions

Assume for these questions that the speed of sound is 340 m s–1.

1. Explain why sound cannot travel through a vacuum.

2. Describe the similarities and the differences between (i.e. compare and contrast) a sound
wave travelling through air and a compression wave travelling along a slinky spring.

3. Give two examples where echoes are put to practical use.

4. An echo is heard 3.0 s after a gun is fired. How distant is the cliff that caused this
echo?

24
 Chapter 2  Sound is a wave

Displacement
Time

  5. The concert pitch note A has a frequency of 440 Hz.

(a) What is the wavelength of the sound wave with this frequency?
(b) Using your answer to (a), explain why it is possible that the same sound from two
speakers may seem soft in one place in a hall, yet louder only a metre away.
A B
  6. When two speakers placed near each other produce pure notes with frequencies close
to, but not equal to, each other, the sound oscillates between being louder and softer.
Using the principle of superposition, explain how this might happen.

  7. A violin and a guitar are made to produce the same musical note simultaneously.
Explain why a blindfolded person could correctly identify the musical instruments.

  8. Figure 2.17 shows two sound waves represented as transverse waves. Use the
principle of superposition to find the shape of the resultant wave. (A copy of Figure 2.17
can be found on the SRCD.)

SR
Displacement

Time
Two sound waves
represented as
transverse waves

Figure 2.17  Sound waves presented as transverse waves

  9. Surfers are familiar with the concept of ‘sets’ of waves, when several waves larger SR
than normal appear. In between the sets there is often a period of comparative calm.
Waves at the beach are often caused by more than one source, such as wind hundreds
of kilometres away in the ocean. Each source may produce waves that have slightly
different frequencies. Explain the phenomenon of wave ‘sets’ using information learned Excel spreadsheet:
in this chapter. A ‘Superposition Simulator’ program investigating wave sets in Excel can ‘Superposition
be found on the SRCD. Simulator’

10. How do the pitch and loudness of a sound wave relate to its physical properties?
Displacement

Time

25