Assignment Topics With Material: UNIT-1

CELLULAR AND MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS
14. Assignment topics with material
UNIT-1
1. Limitations of Conventional Mobile Telephone Systems
2. First, Second, Third and Fourth Generation Cellular Wireless Systems

3. Concept of Frequency Reuse
Frequency reuse, or, frequency planning, is a technique of reusing frequencies and

Channels within a communication system to improve capacity and spectral efficiency.
Frequency reuse is one of the fundamental concepts on which commercial wireless
systems are based that involve the partitioning of an RF radiating area into cells. The
increased capacity in a commercial wireless network, compared with a network with a
single transmitter, comes from the fact that the same radio frequency can be reused in
a different area for a completely different transmission. Frequency reuse in mobile
cellular systems means that frequencies allocated to his service are reused in a regular
pattern of cells, each covered by one base station. The repeating regular pattern of
cells is called cluster. Since each cell is designed to use radio frequencies only within
its boundaries, the same frequencies can be reused in other cells not far away without
-
4. Trunking and Grade of Service

GOS is a measure of the user's ability to access a trunked system during busiest hours
Purpose of trunking theory is:
To determine the required capacity and allocate the proper number of channels in order to
meet the GOS, where the probability of GOS is determined by likelihood that a call is
blocked; likelihood of a call is experiencing a delay greater than a certain queuing time.
Common terms in Trunking theory:
Set-up Time
Blocked Call
Holding Time
Traffic Intensity
Load
GOS
Request Rate
5. Cell Splitting, Sectoring, Microcell Zone Concept
Antennas are placed at the outer edges of the cell

Any channel may be assigned to any zone by the base station
Mobile is served by the zone with the strongest signal.
Handoff within a cell No channel reassignment Switch the channel to a
different zone site
Reduce interference Low power transmitters are employed
UNIT-2
1. Measurement of Real Time Co-Channel Interference
Co channel Interference: The frequency-re method is useful for increasing the efficiency
of spectrum usage but results in co channel interference because the same frequency
channel is used repeatedly in different co channel cells. Application of the co channel
interference reduction factor q= D/R = 4.6 for a seven-cell reuse pattern (K = 7). In most
mobile radio environments, use of a seven-cell reuse pattern is not sufficient to avoid co
channel interference. Increasing K > 7 would reduce the number of channels per cell, and
that would also reduce spectrum efficiency. Therefore, it might be advisable to retain the
same number of radios as the seven-cell system but to sector the cell radially, as if slicing
a pie.
This technique would reduce co channel interference and use channel sharing and channel
borrowing schemes to increase spectrum efficiency. When customer demand increases,
the channels which are limited in number, have to be repeatedly reused in different areas,
channel interference may be the result, in this situation the received voice quality is
affected by both the grade of coverage and the amount of co channel interference. For
detection of serious channel interference areas in a cellular system, two tests are
suggested.
2. Antenna Parameters
Important Parameters
In order to describe the performance of an antenna, we use various, sometimes Interrelated,

parameters.
Radiation pattern, beam width

Power
Directivity, gain, aperture
Radiation resistance
3. Diversity Techniques
If a fading radio signal is received through only one channel, then in a deep fade,
the signal could be lost, and there is nothing that can be done.
Diversity is a way to protect against deep fades, a choice to combat fading
There are several types of receiver diversity methods
Time Diversity
Frequency Diversity
Multiuser Diversity
Space Diversity
Time Diversity
The code words are transmitted over consecutive symbols (top) and interleaved
(bottom). A deep fade will wipe out the entire codeword in the former case but
only one coded symbol from each codeword in the latter. In the latter case, each
code word can still be recovered from the other three unfaded symbols.
Frequency Diversity
Replicas sent in bands separated by at least the coherence bandwidth uncorrelated channels
As two or more different frequencies experience different fading, at least one will have strong
signal Frequency diversity consumes extra bandwidth.
Sending an information symbol every L symbol times Only one symbol can be
transmitted every delay spread Once one tries to transmit symbols more frequently than
the coherence bandwidth, inter-symbol interference (ISI) occurs.
UNIT-3
1. Signal Reflections in Flat and Hilly Terrain
Cell coverage can be based on signal coverage or on traffic coverage. Signal coverage
can be predicted by coverage prediction models and is usually applied to a start up
system. The task is to cover the whole area with a minimum number of cell sites.
Because 100 percent cell coverage of an area is not possible, the cell sites must be
engineered so that the holes are located in the no traffic locations. The prediction
model is a point topoint model that is discussed in this chapter. We have to examine
the service area as occurring in one of the following environments.
2. Merits of Lee Model

Generate a standard condition
Obtain an area-to-area prediction model
Obtain a mobile point-to-point model using
the area-to-area model as a base
3. Explain the coverage of Omni directional antenna?
High-Gain Antennas: There are standard 6-dB and 9-dB gain Omni-directional
antennas. The antenna patterns for 6-dB gain and 9-dB gain are shown in Fig.3.1 Start-
Up System Configuration: In a start-up system, an Omni cell, in which all the
transmitting antennas are Omni directional, is used. Each transmitting antenna can
transmit signals from N radio transmitters simultaneously using a N-channel combiner or
a broadband linear amplifier. Each cell normally can have three transmitting antennas
which serve 3N voice radio transmitters simultaneously
Each sending signal is amplified by its own channel amplifier in each radio transmitter, or
N channels (radio signals) pass through a broadband linear amplifier and transmit signals
by means of a transmitting antenna.
4. Explain the operation of umbrella pattern antenna?

In certain situations, umbrella-pattern antennas should be used for the cell-site antennas
Vertical-plane patterns of quarter-wavelength stub antenna on infinite ground plane (solid)

and on finite ground planes several wavelengths in diameter (dashed line) and about one
wavelength in diameter (dotted line).
i) Normal Umbrella-Pattern Antenna:

For controlling the energy in a confined area, the umbrella-pattern antenna can be developed
by using a monopole with a top disk (top-loading) as shown in Fig. 6.1. The size of the disk
determines the tilting angle of the pattern. The smaller the disk, the larger the tilting angle of
the umbrella pattern.
ii) Broadband Umbrella-Pattern Antenna:
The parameters of a Disc one antenna (a bio conical antenna in which one of the cones is
exte
the cone, and the opening of the cone can be adjusted to create an umbrella- pattern antenna.
iii) Interference Reduction Antenna:
A design for an antenna configuration that reduces interference in two critical directions (areas) is
shown in Fig. The parasitic (insulation) element is about 1.05 times longer than the active
element.
iv) High-Gain Broadband Umbrella-Pattern Antenna: A high-gain antenna can be

constructed by vertically stacking a number of umbrella-pattern antennas as shown in Fig.
UNIT-4
1. Advantages of sectorized cells

The total number of available channels can be divided into sets (subgroups) depending on
the sectorization of the - -sector system,
-sector system. A seven-
with the total number of channel sets being 21. In certain locations and special situations,
the sector angle can be reduced (narrowed) in order to assign more channels in one sector
without increasing neighboring-channel interference. Sectorization serves the same
purpose as the channel borrowing scheme in delaying cell splitting. In addition, channel
coordination to avoid cochannel interference is much easier in sectorization than in cell
splitting. Given the same number of channels, trunking efficiency decreases in
sectorization.
2. Frequency Management
The function of frequency management is to divide the total number of available channels
into subsets which can be assigned to each cell either in a fixed fashion or dynamically
n create some confusion. Frequency

management refers to designating setup channels and voice channels (done by the FCC),
numbering the channels (done by the FCC), and grouping the voice channels into subsets
(done by each system according to its preference). Channel assignment refers to the
allocation of specific channels to cell sites and mobile units. A fixed channel set
consisting of one more subsets is assigned to a cell site on a long-term basis. During a
call, a particular channel is assigned to a mobile unit on a short- term basis. For a short-
term assignment, one channel assignment per call is handled by the mobile telephone
switching office (MTSO). Ideally channel assignment should be based on causing the
least interference in the system. However, most cellular systems cannot perform this way.
Numbering the channels:

The total number of channels at present (January 1988) is 832. But most mobile units and
systems are still operating on 666 channels. Therefore we describe the 666 channel
numbering first. A channel consists of two frequency channel bandwidths, one in the low
band and one in the high band. Two frequencies in channel 1 are 825.030 MHz (mobile
transmit) 870.030 MHz (cell-site transmit). The two frequencies in channel 666 are
844.98 MHz (mobile transmit) and 898 MHz (cell-site transmit). The 666 channels are
divided into two groups: block A system and block B system. Each market (i.e., each
city) has two systems for a duopoly market policy. Each blockhas 333 channels, as shown
in Fig.1.1.
The 42 set-up channels are assigned as follows.

Channels 313-333 block A
Channels 334-354 block B
The voice channels are assigned as follows.
Channels 1-312 (312 voice channels) block A
Channels 355-666 (312 voice channels) block B
3. Explain in detail access channels and operational
techniques Access channels:
In mobile-originating calls, the mobile unit scans its 21 set-up channels and chooses the
strongest one. Because each set-up channel is associated with one cell, the strongest set-
up channel indicates which cell is to serve the mobile-originating calls. Th. mobile unit
detects the system information transmitted from the cell site. Also, the mobile unit
monitors the Busy/Idle status bits over the desired forward setup channel. When the idle
bits are received, the mobile unit can use the corresponding reverse set-up channel to
initiate a call. Frequently only one system operates in a given city; for instance, block B
When the mobile unit first scans the 21 set-up channels in block A, two conditions can
occur.
1. If no set-up channels of block A are operational, the mobile unit automatically switches
to block B.
2. If a strong set-up signal strength is received but no message can be detected, then the
scanner chooses the second strongest set-up channel. If the message still cannot be detected,
the mobile unit switches to block B and scans to block B set-up channels.
The operational functions are described as follows:
1. Power of a forward set-up channel [or forward control channel (FOCC)]: The power of
the set-up channel can be varied in order to control the number of incoming calls served by
the cell. The number of mobile-originating calls is limited by the number of voice channels in
each cell site, when the traffic is heavy, most voice channels are occupied and the power of
the set-up channel should be reduced in order to reduce the coverage of the cell for the
incoming calls originating from the mobile unit. This will force the mobile units to originate
calls from other cell sites, assuming that all cells are adequately overlapped.
2. The set-up channel received level: The setup channel threshold level is determined in
order to control the reception at the reverse control channel (RECC). If the received
power level is greater than the given set-up threshold level, the call request will be taken.
3. Change power at the mobile unit: When the mobile unit monitors the strongest signal
strength from all Set-up channels and selects that channel to receive the messages, there are
three types of message.
a. Mobile station control message. This message is used for paging and consists of one,
two, or four words -DCC, MIN, SCC and VMAX.
b. System parameter overhead message. This message contains two words, including
DCC, SID, CMAX, or CPA.
c. Control-filler message. This message may be sent with a system parameter overhead
message, CMAC a control mobile attenuation code (seven levels).
4. Direct call retries. When a cell site has no available voice channels, it can send a direct
call retry
Message through the set-up channel. The mobile unit will initiate the call from a
neighboring cell which is on the list of neighboring cells in the direct call-retry message.
Paging channels:
Each cell site has been allocated its own setup channel (control channel). The assigned
forward set-up channel (FOCC) of each cell site is used to page the mobile unit with the
same mobile station control message. Because the same message is transmitted by the
different set-up channels, no simulcast interference occurs in the system. The algorithm
for paging & mobile unit can be performed in different ways. The simplest way is to page
from all the cell sites. This can occupy a large amount of the traffic load. The other way is
to page in an area corresponding to the mobile unit phone number. If there is no answer,
the system tries to page in other areas. The drawback is that response time is sometimes
too long. When the mobile unit responds to the page on the reverse set-up channel, the
cell site which receives the response checks the signal reception level and makes a
decision regarding the voice channel assignment based on least interference in the
selected sector or underlay-overlay region.
4. Write about fixed channel assignment schemes in detail.

Fixed Channel Assignment Schemes:
Adjacent-Channel Assignment:
Adjacent-channel assignment includes neighboring-channel assignment and next-channel
assignment. The near-end far-end (ratio) interference can occur among the neighboring
channels (four channels on each side of the desired channel). Therefore, within a cell we
have to be sure to assign neighboring channels in an omni directional-cell system and in a
directional antenna-cell system properly. In an omni directional-cell system, if one
channel is assigned to the middle cell of seven cells, next channels cannot be assigned in
the same cell. Also, no next channel (preferably including neighboring channels) should
be assigned in the six neighboring sites in the same cell system area (Fig. 7.1a). In a
Directional-antenna-cell system, if one channel is assigned to a face, next channels cannot

be assigned to the same face or to the other two faces in the same cell. Also, next
channels cannot be assigned to the other two faces at the same cell site (Fig. 7.1b).
Sometimes the next channels are assigned in the next sector of the same cell in order to
increase capacity. Then performance can still be in the tolerance range if the design is
proper.
UNIT-5
1. Explain the hand-off mechanism.
Hand-off Mechanism: Hand-off is the process of automatically changing the
frequencies. When the
Mobile unit moves out of the coverage areas of a particular cell site, the reception
becomes weak. At this instant the present cell site requests Hand-off, then system
switches the call to a new frequency channel in a new cell site without interrupting
- -off
processing scheme is an important task for any successful mobile system. This
concept can he applied to one dimensional as well as two dimensional cellular
configurations. By the reception of weak signals from the mobile unit by the cell site,
the Hand-off is required in the following two situations. They are
1. The level for requesting a Hand-off in a noise limited environment is at the cell
boundary say-l00 dBm.
2. In a particular cell site, when the mobile unit is reaching the signal strength holes
(gaps). Figure 4 shows the usage of frequency F1 in two cochannel cells which arc separated
by a distance D.
Now, we have to provide a communication system in the whole area by filling other
frequency channels F2,F3 and F4 between two co-channel cells
2. Explain in detail about hard handoff?

ion. Here the link to the
base station. This means that the mobile is linked to no more than one base station at a
given time. A hard handoff occurs when users experience an interruption during the
handover process caused by frequency shifting. A hard handoff is perceived by
network engineers as event during the call. These are intended to be instantaneous
inorder to minimize the disruption of the call. Hard handoff can be further divided as
intra and inter-cell handoffs.
Intra and inter-cell handoffs: In intra-cell handoff the source and target are one and
the same cell and only the used channel is changed during the handoff. The purpose
of intra-cell handoff is to change a channel, which may be interfered, or fading with a
new clearer or less fading channel. In inter-cell handoff the source and the target are
different cells (even if they are on the same cell site). The purpose of the inter-cell
handoff is to maintain the call as the subscriber is moving out of the area of the source
cell and entering the area of the target cell. Finally, hard handoff is permitted between
members of different soft zones, but not between members of the same soft zone. This
is primarily used in FDMA and TDMA.
3. Explain in detail about soft handoff?
Soft handoff is also called as Mobile Directed Handoff as they are directed by the
mobile telephones. Soft handoff is the ability to select between the instantaneous
received signals from different base stations. Here the channel in the source cell is
retained and used for a while in parallel with the channel in the target cell. In this the
connection to the target is established before the connection to the source is broken,
ake-before-
connections are used in parallel, may be brief or substantial because of this the soft
handoff is perceived by the network engineers as state of the call. Soft handoffs can
be classified as Multiways and softer handoffs.
Multiways and softer handoffs: A soft handoff which involves using

connections to more than two cells is a multiways handoff. When a call is in a
state of soft handoff the signal of the best of all used channels can be utilized
for the call at a given moment or all the signals can be combined to produce a
clear signal, this type is called softer handoff.
In soft handoffs the chance that the call will be terminated abnormally are
lower. Call could only fail if all the channels are interfered or fade at the same
time. But this involves the use of several channels in the network to support
just a single call. This reduces the number of remaining free channels and
thereby reducing the capacity of the network. Soft handoff is permitted
between members of a particular soft zone, but not between members of
different soft zones.
4. How to prioritize handoffs?

Handoff fails for many reasons like, if no channel is available in the candidate cell.
One of the ways to reduce the handoff failure rate is to prioritize handoff. Handoff
algorithms try to minimize the number of handoffs which give poor performance in
heavy traffic situations. In such situations, a significant handoff performance
improvement can be obtained by prioritizing handoff. Two basic methods of handoff
prioritization are guard channels and queuing of hand off.
Guard Channels: Guard channels improve the probability of successful handoffs by

reserving a fixed or dynamically adjustable number of channels exclusively for
handoffs. An adaptive number of guard channels can help reduce this problem.
Queuing of Handoff: Queuing is a way of delaying handoff. The MSC queues the
handoff requests instead of denying access if the candidate BS is busy. The
probability of a successful handoff can be improved by queuing handoff requests at
the cost of increased new call blocking probability and a decrease in the ratio of
carried-to-admitted traffic since new calls are not assigned a channel until all the
handoff requests in the queue are served.
16. Unit wise question bank
UNIT-1
2-MARKS UESTIONS
Q1. What do you mean by frequency reuse?
Ans: Each cellular Base Station is allocated a group of radio channels to be used. These radio
channels can be used by another base station which is at a suitable distance away from it.
Q2. Define Cell Splitting?
Ans: The process of dividing the radio coverage of a cell site within a wireless telephone system into
new cell sites is known as Cell Splitting. Additional capacity within the region can be achieved by
using Cell Splitting.
Q3. Define cell?
Ans: Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels within a small geographic area
called a cell.
Q4. What is Frequency reuse distance?
Ans: The minimum distance which allows the same frequency to be reused will depend on many
factors, such as the number of co-channel cells in the vicinity of the center cell, the type of
geographical terrain contour, the antenna height and the transmitted power at each cell site.
Q5. What is coherence bandwidth?
Ans: Range of frequencies over which the channel can be considered flat (i.e. channel passes all
spectral components with equal gain and linear phase).
3-MARKS QUESTIONS
Q1. What is the difference between 3G and 4G?

Ans: Following are the differences between 3G and 4G: -
3. 3G stands for 3rd generation as it is just that in terms of the evolutionary path of the mobile
phone industry. 4G means 4th generation. This is a set of standard that is being developed as a
future successor of 3G in the very near future.
4. 4G speeds are meant to exceed that of 3G.
5. 3G uses the technique of circuit switching while 4G uses the technique of packet switching.
Q2. Write short note on Frequency Re-use concept
Ans: - Frequency re-use is one of the techniques for improving capacity and spectral efficiency.
Commercial wireless systems are based on Frequency Reuse that involves the partitioning
of an RF radiation area into cell segments.
A frequency that is far enough away from the frequency in the bordering segment is used
by one segment of the cell.
Similar frequency is used at least two cells apart from each other.
This practice enables various cellular providers to have several customers for a given site
license.
Q3. Write short note on Trunking Efficiency.
Ans: Trunking Efficiency: To explore the trunking efficiency degradation inherent in licensing two
or more carriers rather than one, compare the trunking efficiency between one cellular system per
market operating 666 channels and two cellular systems per market each operating 333 channels.
Assume that all frequency channels are evenly divided into seven subareas called cells. In each cell,
the blocking probability of 0.02 is assumed. Also the average calling time is assumed to be 1.76 min.
Q4. What are the methods to improve the capacity in cellular systems?
Ans: Methods for improving capacity in cellular systems

Cell Splitting: subdividing a congested cell into smaller cells.
Sectoring: directional antennas to control the interference and frequency reuse.
Coverage zone: Distributing the coverage of a cell and extends the cell boundary to hard-to-reach
place
Q5. Write short note on microcell zone concept
Ans:
Antennas are placed at the outer edges of the cell

Any channel may be assigned to any zone by the base station
Mobile is served by the zone with the strongest signal.
Handoff within a cell No channel reassignment Switch the channel to a different zone site
Reduce interference Low power transmitters are employed
5-MARKS QUESTIONS
Q1. Distinguish between the permanent splitting and dynamic splitting?
Ans: There are two kinds of cell-splitting techniques:
Permanent splitting: The installation of every new split cell has to be planned ahead of time; the
number of channels, the transmitted power, the assigned frequencies, the choosing of the cell-site
selection, and the traffic load consideration should all be considered. When ready, the actual service
cutover should be set at the lowest traffic point, usually at midnight on a weekend. Hopefully, only a
few calls will be dropped because of this cut-over, assuming that the downtime of the system is within
Dynamic splitting: This scheme is based on using the allocated spectrum efficiency in real time. The
algorithm for dynamically splitting cell sites is a tedious job, as we cannot afford to have one single
cell unused during cell splitting at heavy traffic hours.
Q2. What are the limitations of conventional mobile systems and how are they overcome
by cellular mobile systems?
Ans: Limitations of conventional mobile telephone systems: One of many reasons for developing a
cellular mobile telephone system and deploying it in many cities is the operational limitations of
conventional mobile telephone systems: limited service capability, poor service performance, and
inefficient frequency spectrum utilization.
Limited service capability: A conventional mobile telephone system is usually designed by

selecting one or more channels from a specific frequency allocation for use in autonomous
geographic zones, as shown in Fig.5. The communications coverage area of each zone is
normally planned to be as large as possible, which means that the transmitted power should be
as high as the federal specification allows. The user who starts a call in one zone has to
reinitiate the call when moving into a new zone because the call will be dropped. This is an
undesirable radio telephone system since there is no guarantee that a call can be completed without a
handoff capability. The handoff is a process of automatically changing frequencies as the mobile unit
moves into a different frequency zone so that the conversation can be continued in a new frequency
zone without redialing. Another disadvantage of the conventional system is that the number of active
users is limited to the number of channels assigned to a particular frequency zone.
Poor Service Performance: In the past, a total of 33 channels were all allocated to three
mobile telephone systems: Mobile Telephone Service (MTS), Improved Mobile Telephone
Service (IMTS) MJ systems, and Improved Mobile Telephone Service (IMTS) MK systems.
MTS operates around 40 MHz and MJ operates at 150 MHs; both provide 11 channels; IMTS
MK operates at 450 MHz and provides 12 channels. These 33 channels must cover an area 50
mi in diameter. In 1976, New York City had 6 channels of( MJ serving 320 customers, with
another 2400 customers on a waiting list. New York City also had 6 channels of MK serving
225 customers, with another 1300 customers on a waiting list. The large number of
subscribers created a high blocking probability during busy hours. Although service
performance was undesirable, the demand was still great. A high-capacity system for mobile
telephones was needed.
Inefficient Frequency Spectrum Utilization: In a conventional mobile telephone system,

the frequency utilization measurement Mo, is defined as the maximum number of customers
that could be served by one channel at the busy hour.
Mo = Number of customers/channel
Mo = 53 for MJ
37 for MK
The offered load can then be obtained by
A = Average calling time (minutes) x total customers / 60 min (Erlangs)

Assume average calling time = 1.76 min.
A1 = 1.76 * 53 * 6 / 60 = 9.33 Erlangs (MJ system)
A2 = 1.76 * 37 * 6 / 60 = 6.51 Erlangs (MK system)
If the number of channels is 6 and the offered loads are A1 = 9.33 and A2 = 6.51, then from the
Erlang B model the blocking probabilities, B1 = 50 percent (MJ system) and B2 =30 percent (MK
system), respectively. It is likely that half the initiating calls will be blocked in the MJ system, a very
high blocking probability. As far as frequency spectrum utilization is concerned, the conventional
system does not utilize the spectrum efficiently since each channel can only serve one customer at a
time in a whole area. This is overcome by the new cellular system.
Q3. Explain about basic cellular system.
Ans: Basic Cellular System: A basic cellular system consists of three parts: a mobile unit, a cell site,
and a mobile telephone switching office (MTSO), as Fig.6 shows, with connections to link the three
sub systems.
v) Mobile units: A mobile telephone unit contains a control unit, a transceiver, and an antenna
system.
vi) Cell site: The cell site provides interface between the MTSO and the mobile units. it has a
control unit, radio cabinets, antennas, a power plant, and data terminals.
vii) MTSO: The switching office, the central coordinating element for all cell sites, contains the
cellular processor and cellular switch. It interfaces with telephone company zone offices, controls call
processing, and handles billing activities.
viii) Connections: The radio and high-speed data links connect the three subsystems. Each mobile
unit can only use one channel at a time for its communication link. But the channel is not fixed: it can
be any one in the entire band assigned by the serving area, with each site having multichannel
capabilities that can connect simultaneously to many mobile units.
The MTSO is the heart of the cellular mobile system. Its processor provides central coordination and
cellular administration. The cellular switch, which can be either analog or digital, switches calls to
connect mobile subscribers to other mobile subscribers and to the nationwide telephone network. It
uses voice trunks similar to telephone company interoffice voice trunks. It also contains data links
providing supervision links between the processor and the switch and between the cell sites and the
processor. The radio link carries the voice and signaling between the mobile unit and the cell site. The
high-speed data links cannot be transmitted over the standard telephone trunks and therefore must use
either microwave links or T-carriers (wire lines). Microwave radio links or T-carriers carry both voice
and data between the cell site and the MTSO.
Q4. Explain in detail about cell splitting?
Ans: Split congested cell into smaller cells.
Preserve frequency reuse plan.
Reduce transmission power
Illustration of cell splitting within a 3 km by 3 km square

Q5. Explain about sectoring?
Ans: Decrease the co-channel interference and keep the cell radius R unchanged
Replacing single Omni-directional antenna by several directional antennas
Radiating within a specified sector
Interference Reduction
Multiple choice questions

3. The modulation technique used for mobile communication systems during World War II
was
a. Amplitude modulation
b. Frequency modulation
4. ASK
5. FSK
2) introduced Frequency Modulation for mobile communication systems in 1935.
a. Edwin Armstrong
b. Albert Einstein
c. Galileo Galilei
d. David Bohm
3) The early FM push-to-talk telephone systems were used in
a. Simplex mode
b. half duplex mode
c. full duplex mode
d. None of the above
4) DECT stands for
a. Digital European Cellular Telex

b. Digitized Emergency Cellular Telephone
c. Digital European Cordless Telephone
d. Digital European Cellular Telephone
5)
a. Nippon Telephone and Telegraph (NTT)

b. Bellcore and Motorola
c. AT&T Bell Laboratories
5. Qualcomm
6) Paging systems were based on
a. Simplex systems
b. Half duplex systems
c. Full duplex systems
7) Paging systems could be used to
a. Send numeric messages

b. Send alphanumeric messages
c. Voice message
d. All of the above
8) Garage door opener is a
5. Transmitter
6. Receiver
7. Transceiver
8. None of the above
9) Carrier frequency of a TV remote control is in the range
a. of Infra red
b. < 100 MHz
c. < 1 GHz
d. < 2 GHz
10) Half duplex system for communication has
a. Communication in single direction

b. Communication in single direction at a time
c. Communication in both directions at the same
time d. None of the above
Answer Key
Q.NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ANS b a b c a a d a a c
Fill in the blanks

1. MIN stands for___________________
2. The process of transferring a mobile station from one base station to another is_________
3. Commonly used mode for 3G networks is________
4. The minimum spectrum allocation required for W-CDMA is__________
5. CDMA2000 1xEV provides high speed data access with channel allocation of_______
6. NADC is a 2G standard for _________
7. 2G CDMA standard CDMA one supports up to_________
8. Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) has a frequency reuse factor of______
9. The 2G GSM technology uses a carrier separation of ________
10. 3G W-CDMA is also known as_______
Answer Key
Q.NO ANS
1 Mobile Identification Number
2 Hand off
3 FDD
4 5MHz
5 1.25 MHz
6 TDMA
7 64 users
8 7
9 200 KHz
10 UMTS
UNIT-2
2-MARKS UESTIONS
Q1. What is diversity?
Ans:
Q2. What are the types of diversity?
Ans: There are four types of diversity techniques
4. Space Diversity
5. Polarization Diversity
6. Frequency Diversity
7. Time Diversity.
Q3. What is space diversity?
Ans:
Q4. Define crosstalk?
Ans: Electromagnetic interference received by one or more wires. Crosstalk can cause errors, noise,
or prevent cables from transmitting data. Twisted-pair cable, shielded cable, and keeping cables
further apart help prevent crosstalk. When crosstalk occurs it is difficult to transmit data over a
network or the network card receives lots of lost packets.
Q5. What are the fundamental parameters of antenna?
Ans: In order to describe the performance of an antenna, we use various, sometimes interrelated,
parameters.
5. Radiation pattern, beam width
6. Power
7. Directivity, gain, aperture
8. Radiation resistance
3-MARKS UESTIONS
Q1. Write short note on frequency diversity?
Ans:
Q2. Write short note on time diversity?
Ans:
Q3. Write short note on polarization diversity?
Ans:
Q4. Short notes on directivity of antenna

Ans: (Directivity). The ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from the antenna to the
radiation intensity averaged over all directions.
The average radiation intensity: total power radiated by the antenna divided by 4
Stated more simply, the directivity of a nonisotropic source is equal to the ratio of its radiation
intensity in a given direction over that of an isotropic source.
Q5. What is antenna efficiency?

Ans: The total antenna efficiency e0 is used to take into account losses at the input terminals
and within the structure of the antenna.
5-MARKS UESTIONS
Q1.Write short note on adjacent channel interference
Ans: Adjacent channel interference: interference from adjacent in frequency to the desired signal.
Imperfect receiver filters allow nearby frequencies to leak into the pass band Performance degrades
seriously due to near-far effect.
Adjacent channel interference can be minimized through careful filtering and channel assignment.
Keep the frequency separation between each channel in a given cell as large as possible
A channel separation greater than six is needed to bring the adjacent channel interference to an
acceptable level.
Ensure each mobile transmits the smallest power necessary to maintain a good quality link on the
reverse channel
Long battery life
increase SIR
solve the near-far problem
Q2. Explain the co channel interference reduction?

Ans: Reusing an identical frequency channel in different cells is limited by co channel interference
between cells, and the co channel interference can become a major problem.
Assume that the size of all cells is roughly the same. The cell size is determined by the coverage area
of the signal strength in each cell. As long as the cell size is fixed, co channel interference is
independent of the transmitted power of each cell. It means that the received threshold level at the
mobile unit is adjusted to the size of the cell. Actually, co channel interference is a function of a
parameter q defined as
q = D/R
The parameter q is the co channel interference reduction factor. When the ratio q increases, co
channel interference decreases. Furthermore, the separation D is a function of K, and C/I,
D=f(K,C/I)
Where K, is the number of co channel interfering cells in the first tier and C/I is the received carrier-
to- interference ratio at the desired mobile receiver
In a fully equipped hexagonal-shaped cellular system, there are always six co channel interfering cells
in the first tier, as shown in Fig.5 ; that is, K = 6. The maximum number of K, in the first tier can be
shown as six. Co channel interference can be experienced both at the cell site and at mobile units in
the center cell. If the interference is much greater, then the carrier to-interference ratio C/I at the
mobile units caused by the six interfering sites is (on the average) the same as the C/I received at the
center cell site caused by interfering mobile units in the six cells. According to both the reciprocity
theorem and the statistical summation of radio propagation, the two C/I values can be very close.
Assume that the local noise is much less than the interference level and can be neglected. C/I then can
be expressed as
Q3. Derive the C/I for normal case in an Omni directional antenna
Ans: There are two cases to be considered: (1) the signal and co channel interference received by the
mobile unit and (2) the signal and co channel interference received by the cell site. Both cases are
shown in Fig.6. Nm and Nb are the local noises at the mobile unit and the cell site, respectively.
Usually Nm and Nb are small and can be neglected as compared with the interference level. As long
as the received carrier-to- interference ratios at both the mobile unit and the cell site are the same, the
system is called a balanced system. In a balanced system, we can choose either one of the two cases to
analyze the system requirement; the results from one case are the same for the others. Assume that all
Dk are the same for simplicity, then D = Dk and q = qk,
The value of C/I is based on the required system performance and the specified value of is based on
the terrain environment. With given values of C/I and ^ , the co-channel interference reduction factor
q can be determined. Normal cellular practice is to specify C/I to be 18 dB or higher based on
subjective tests. Since a C/I of 18 dB is measured by the acceptance of voice quality from present
cellular mobile receivers, this acceptance implies that both mobile radio multipath fading and co
channel interference become ineffective at that level. The path-loss slope is equal to about 4 in a
mobile radio environment.
The 90th percentile of the total covered area would each cell; increasing the same amount of
transmitted because q is not a function of transmitted power.
Q4. Explain about the radiation diversity of antenna?

Ans:
Q5. Explain near end far end interference?
In One Cell :
The close-in mobile unit has a strong signal which causes adjacent-channel interference
In this situation, near-end-far-end interference can occur only at the reception point in the cell
site as shown in fig (a)
In Cells of Two Systems:
The frequency channels of both cells of the two systems must be coordinated in the
neighborhood of the two- system frequency bands. The situation can be seen in fig: (b)
Multiple Choice Questions
1) The advantage of using frequency reuse is
a. Increased capacity
b. Limited spectrum is required
c. Same spectrum may be allocated to other network d.
All of the above
2) The strategies acquired for channel assignment are
a. Fixed
b. Dynamic
c. Regular
d. Both a and b
e. Both b and c
3) In a fixed channel assignment strategy
a. Each cell is assigned a predetermined set of frequencies b.

The call is served by unused channels of the cell
c. The call gets blocked if all the channels of the cell are occupied
d. All of the above
4) The interference between the neighboring base stations is avoided by
a. Assigning different group of channels

b. Using transmitters with different power level
c. Using different antennas
d. All of the above
5) Radio capacity may be increased in cellular concept by

a. Increase in radio spectrum

b. increasing the number of base stations & reusing the channels c.
Both a & b
6) The shape of the cellular region for maximum radio coverage is
a. Circular
b. Square
c. Oval
d. Hexagon
7) Hexagon shape is used for radio coverage for a cell because
a. It uses the maximum area for coverage

b. Fewer number of cells are required
c. It approximates circular radiation pattern
d. All of the above
8) Centre excited hexagonal cells use
a. Sectored directional antennas

b. Omni directional antennas
c. Yagiuda antennas
9) Spectrum Efficiency of a cellular network is
a. The traffic carried by whole network

b. The traffic carried per cell divided by the bandwidth of the system and the area of a
cell c. Expressed in Erlang /MHz /km2
d. Both b and c
e. Both a and c
10) In a dynamic channel assignment strategy,
a. Voice channels are not permanently assigned

b. The serving base station requests for a channel from MSC
c. MSC allocates the channel according to the predetermined
algorithm d. All of the above
Answer Key
Q.NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ANS d d d a b d d b d d
Fill in the blanks

1) In TD-SDMA, there is a frame of__ milliseconds and the frame is divided into__ time slots.
2) In a fixed channel assignment strategy, if all the assigned channels are occupied, the
call_____
3) In Dynamic channel assignment, any channel which is being used in one cell can be
reassigned simultaneously to another cell in the system at a reasonable distance _________
4) Ability of a user to access trunked system during busy hour is called__________
5) Traffic intensity is expressed in_________
6) Packet radio refers to_________
7) Pure ALOHA is a__________
8) Coherence time is--------------------proportional to Doppler spread
9) Types of small scale fading, based on Doppler spread are----------------------------___________
10) Flat fading or frequency non selective fading is a type of______________
Answer Key
Q.NO ANS
1 5,7
2 Gets blocked
3 True
4 Grade of service
5 Erlangs
6 Multiple users on single channel
7 Random access protocol
8 directly
9 Fast fading
10 Multipath delay spread small scale fading
UNIT-3
2-MARKS UESTIONS
Q1. What is mobile antenna?
Ans: Mobile antennas are designed to be used for operation while in motion. Their uses
include pedestrian mobile operation while walking, bicycle-mounted antennas for use while
riding, and the most common form, automobile-mounted antennas for use while driving.
Q2. Define cell coverage?
Ans: A cellular network or mobile network is a communication network where the last link is
wireless. The network is distributed over land areas called cells, each served by at least one fixed-
location transceiver, but more normally three cell sites or base transceiver stations.
Q3. Explain the scattering of signals?
Ans: From an obstacle of size equal to or less than the wavelength

GSM signal, about 33 cm in wavelength, scattered by an object of 30 cm or less
Decreases signal strength greatly
Q4. What is diffraction of signals?
Ans: Signal bends as a result of diffraction from the edges of an obstacle of size equal to or
less than the wavelength.
Q5. Define standard deviation?
Ans: Standard deviation is the measure of dispersion of a set of data from its mean. It measures
the absolute variability of a distribution; the higher the dispersion or variability, the greater is the
standard deviation and greater will be the magnitude of the deviation of the value from their
mean.
3-MARKS UESTIONS
1. Design the directional antenna in k=4 cell pattern?

Ans:
2. Write Short note on near end far end interference?
Ans: Because motor vehicles in a given cell are usually moving, some mobile units are close to
the cell site and some are not. The close-in mobile unit has a strong signal that causes adjacent-
channel interference (see Fig. 10.5a). Near-end far-end interference can occur only at the
reception point in the cell site. If a separation of 5B (five channel bandwidths) is needed for two
adjacent channels in a cell in order to avoid the near-end far-end interference, it is then implied
that a minimum separation of 5B is required between each adjacent channel used with one cell
3. How will be signal reflection in flat and hilly

terrain?
Ans:
4. How human made structures effect the cell coverage?

Ans:
Q5. Design of Omni directional antenna in k=7 cell pattern
when an ideal condition of flat terrain is assumed. The worst case is at the location where
the mobile unit would receive the weakest signal from its own cell site but strong
interference from all interfering cell sites.
5-MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Explain the merits of LEE model?

Ans: The area-to-area model usually only provides an accuracy of prediction with a standard
deviation of 8 dB, which means that 68 percent of the actual path-loss data are within the ± 8
dB of the predicted value. The uncertainty range is too large. The point- to-point model
reduces the uncertainty range by including the detailed terrain contour information in the
path-loss predictions.
The differences between the predicted values and the measured ones for the point-to-point
model were determined in many areas. In the following discussion, we compare the
differences shown in the Whippany, N.J., area and the Camden- Philadelphia area. First, we
plot the points with predicted values at the x-axis and the measured values at the y-axis,
shown in Fig. 4. The 450 line is the line of prediction without error. The dots are data from
the Whippany area, and the crosses are data from the Camden-Philadelphia area. Most of
them, except the one at 9 dB, are close to the line of prediction without error. The mean value
of all the data is right on the line of prediction without error. The standard deviation of the
predicted value of 0.8 dB from the measured one.
In other areas, the differences were slightly larger. However, the standard deviation of the
predicted value never exceeds the measured one by more than 3 dB. The standard deviation
range is much reduced as compared with the maximum of 8 dB from area-to-area models.
The point-to-point model is very useful for designing a mobile cellular system with a radius
for each cell of 10 mi or less. Because the data follow the log-normal distribution, 68 percent
of predicted values obtained from a point-to-point prediction model are within 2 to 3 dB. This
point-to-point prediction can be used to provide overall coverage of all cell sites and to avoid
co-channel interference. Moreover, the occurrence of handoff in the cellular system can be
predicted more accurately.
The point-to-point prediction model is a basic tool that is used to generate a signal coverage
map, an interference area map, a handoff occurrence map, or an optimum system design
configuration, to name a few applications.
2. Explain the Effect of Propagation of Mobile signals over water or flat open area?
Ans: Propagation over Water or Flat Open Area: Propagation over water or fiat open area
is becoming a big concern because it is very easy to interfere with other cells if we do not
make the correct arrangements. Interference resulting from propagation over the water can be
are the same, but the conductivities of seawater and fresh water are different. We may
calculate the dielectric constants Ec where Ec = Er -

0.35m. Then Eo (sea water) = 80 - j84 and Ec (fresh water)=80-jO.021.
However, based upon the reflection coefficients formula with a small incident angle both the
reflection coefficients for horizontal polarized waves and vertically polarized waves approach
1. Since the 180* phase change occurs at the ground reflection point, the reflection coefficient
is -1. Now we can establish a scenario, as shown in Fig 10.1 Since the two antennas, one at
the cell site and the other at the mobile unit, are well above sea level, two reflection points are
generated. The one reflected from the ground is close to the mobile unit; the other reflected
from the water is away from the mobile unit. We recall that the only reflected wave we
considered in the land mobile propagation is the one reflection point which is always very
close to the mobile unit. We are now using the formula to find the field strength under the
circumstances of a fixed point-to-point transmission and a land-mobile transmission over
water or flat open land condition.
Between fixed stations: The point-to-point transmission between the fixed stations over the
water or flat open land can be estimated as follows. The received power P, can be expressed
as (see Fig.10.2)
3. Explain the coverage of Omni directional antenna?
Ans: High-Gain Antennas: There are standard 6-dB and 9-dB gain Omni-directional antennas.
The antenna patterns for 6-dB gain and 9-dB gain are shown in Fig.3.1
Start-Up System Configuration: In a start-up system, an Omni cell, in which all the transmitting
antennas are Omni directional, is used. Each transmitting antenna can transmit signals from N
radio transmitters simultaneously using a N-channel combiner or a broadband linear amplifier.
Each cell normally can have three transmitting antennas which serve 3N voice radio transmitters
simultaneously
Each sending signal is amplified by its own channel amplifier in each radio transmitter, or N
channels (radio signals) pass through a broadband linear amplifier and transmit signals by
means of a transmitting antenna.
4. Explain how directional antenna reduces interference?
Ans: When the frequency reuse scheme must be used in AMPS, co-channel interference will
occur. The co channel interference reduction factor q = D/R = 4.6 is based on the assumption that
the terrain is flat. Because actual terrain is seldom flat, we must either increase q or use
directional antennas.
Directional Antennas: -corner reflect -plane reflector can be used in a -
- -sector cell. A typical pattern for a
Directional anten
(c)
5. Explain the operation of umbrella pattern antenna?
Ans: In certain situations, umbrella-pattern antennas should be used for the cell-site antennas
Vertical-plane patterns of quarter-wavelength stub antenna on infinite

ground plane (solid) and on finite ground planes several wavelengths
in diameter (dashed line) and about one wavelength in diameter
(dotted line).
i) Normal Umbrella-Pattern Antenna:
For controlling the energy in a confined area, the umbrella-pattern antenna can be developed by
using a monopole with a top disk (top-loading) as shown in Fig. 6.1. The size of the disk
determines the tilting angle of the pattern. The smaller the disk, the larger the tilting angle of the
umbrella pattern.
ii) Broadband Umbrella-Pattern Antenna:
The parameters of a Disc one antenna (a bio conical antenna in which one of the cones is
e disk, the length of the
cone, and the opening of the cone can be adjusted to create an umbrella- pattern antenna.
iii) Interference Reduction Antenna:
A design for an antenna configuration that reduces interference in two critical directions (areas) is
shown in Fig. The parasitic (insulation) element is about 1.05 times longer than the active
element.
iv)High-Gain Broadband Umbrella-Pattern Antenna: A high-gain antenna can be constructed
by vertically stacking a number of umbrella-pattern antennas as shown in Fig.
1) Advantage of using Dynamic channel assignment is
a. Blocking is reduced
b. Capacity of the system is increased
c. Both a & b
2) Disadvantage of using Dynamic channel assignment is
a. More storage required

b. Calculations and analysis is increased
c. Both a & b
3) In Handoff
a. Process of transferring the call to the new base

station b. Transfers the call
c. New channel allocation is done
d. All of the above
4) Delay in handoffs is caused due to
a. Week signal conditions

b. High traffic conditions
c. Un availability of the channel
d. All of the above
5) Inter system Handoffs are done
a. When mobile station moves in two cellular systems with different MSC
b. When mobile station moves between two cellular systems
c. When mobile station receives more power from other base station than the serving base station
d. All of the above
6) When a fraction of assigned channel is reserved for handoffs, it is
a. Guard channel concept

b. fixed channel assignment
c. Dynamic channel assignment
7) While handoffs, the termination of call may be avoided by
a. Providing Guard channel

b. queuing of handoffs
c. Both a & b
8) Dwell time is the time for
a. A call within the cell

b. Hand off
c. waiting for channel allocation
9) Dwell time depends upon
a. Interference
b. Distance between the subscriber and the base station
c. Propagation of call
d. All of the above
10) In Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO), the handoff takes place when
a. The power received by the mobile station from other base station is more than the serving
base station
b. The channel allocated is not available
c. The mobile station has no signal
d. All of the above
Answer Key
Q.NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ANS c c d d d a c a d a
Fill in the blanks
1) The windowing technique used for speech coding in GSM Codec is_________
2) The received signal at the GSM speech decoder is passed through___________
3) FDMA is the division of__________
4) The small unused bandwidth between the frequency channels to avoid interference is__________
5) Cable television is an example of___________
6) TDMA is a multiple access technique that has different users in__________
7) In TDMA, the user occupies the___________ during transmission
8) GSM is an example of__________ cellular system
9) Global Positioning System uses_______
10)The guard interval is provided in OFDM is to eliminate the need of_____________

Answer Key
Q.NO ANS
1 Hamming window
2 LTP filter
3 Spectrum
4 Guard band
5 FDMA
6 different time slots
7 whole bandwidth
8 TDMA
9 CDMA
10 pulse shaping filter
UNIT-4
2-MARKS QUESTIONS
Q1. Explain the concept of Sectorization of a cell?

Ans: Sectorization is a process to cut down equipment costs in a cellular network. It influences in
traffic load and cell size. Sectorization reduces co-channel interference, when applied to clusters of
cells. The maximum traffic capacity of sectored antennas is more than Omni directional antennas.
Q2. What are the types of channel assignments?

Ans: Channel allocation deals with the allocation of channels to cells in a cellular network.
Fixed Channel Allocation,
Dynamic Channel Allocation and
Hybrid Channel Allocation which is a combination of the first two methods.
Q3. Define fixed channel assignment?
Ans: Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA) systems allocate specific channels to specific cells. This
allocation is static and cannot be changed.
Q4. What is dynamic channel allocation?
Ans: Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA) attempts to alleviate the problem mentioned for FCA
systems when offered traffic is non-uniform.
Q5. What is channel barrowing?
Ans: Channel Borrowing is one of the most straightforward hybrid allocation schemes. Here, channels
are assigned to cells just as in fixed allocation schemes. If a cell needs a channel in excess of the
channels previously assigned to it, that cell may borrow a channel from one of its neighboring cells
given that a channel is available and use of this channel won't violate frequency reuse requirements.
3-MARKS QUESTIONS
Q1. What are the advantages of sectorized cells?
Ans: Advantage of Sectorization:
The total number of available channels can be divided into sets (subgroups) depending on the
- - -
sector system. A seven-
channel sets being 21. In certain locations and special situations, the sector angle can be reduced
(narrowed) in order to assign more channels in one sector without increasing neighboring-channel
interference. Sectorization serves the same purpose as the channel borrowing scheme in delaying cell
splitting. In addition, channel coordination to avoid co channel interference is much easier in
sectorization than in cell splitting. Given the same number of channels, trunking efficiency decreases
in sectorization.
Q2. What is channel allocation?
Ans: A given radio spectrum is to be divided into a set of disjointed channels that can be used
simultaneously while minimizing interference in adjacent channel by allocating channels
appropriately (especially for traffic channels).
Channel allocation schemes can be divided in general into
Fixed Channel Allocation schemes (FCA schemes);

Dynamic Channel Allocation schemes (DCA schemes);
Hybrid Channel Allocation schemes (HCA schemes: combining both FCA
and DCA techniques)
Q3. Explain about Simple Borrowing (CB) Schemes?
Ans:
In CB schemes, cell (acceptor cell) that has used all its nominal channels can borrow free
channels from its neighboring cell (donor cell) to accommodate new calls.
Borrowing can be done from an adjacent cell which has largest number of free channels
(borrowingfrom the richest)
Select the first free channel found for borrowing using a search algorithm (borrow first
available scheme)
Return the borrowed channel when channel becomes free in the cell (basic algorithm with
reassignment)
To be available for borrowing, the channel must not interfere with existing calls, as shown in the next
figure
Q4. What is Overlapped Cells-based Allocation?
Ans:
Cell splitting into number of smaller cells (pico, micro cells), to handle increased traffic.
For fast moving MS, if channels are assigned from micro cell, no of handoffs will increase.
Therefore highly mobile cells are assigned channels from the cell.
MS with low mobility are assigned to micro or pico cells.
Q5. What is channel modeling?
Ans: The follows assumptions are made to obtain an approximate model of system.
All MSs are assumed to be uniformly distributed through the cell.

Each MS moves at a random speed and to an arbitrary random direction.
The arrival rate of originating call is given by O.
The arrival rate of handoff call is given by H.
The call service rate is given by .
CELLULAR AND MOBILE
COMMUNICATIONS
5-MARKS QUESTIONS
Q1. Discuss the concept of frequency management concern to the numbering the channels and
grouping into the subset.
Ans: Frequency Management:
The function of frequency management is to divide the total number of available channels into subsets
which can be assigned to each cell either in a fixed fashion or dynamically (i.e., in response to any
and voice channels (done by the FCC), numbering the channels (done by the FCC), and grouping the
voice channels into subsets (done by each system according to its preference). Channel assignment
refers to the allocation of specific channels to cell sites and mobile units. A fixed channel set
consisting of one more subsets is assigned to a cell site on a long-term basis. During a call, a particular
channel is assigned to a mobile unit on a short- term basis. For a short-term assignment, one channel
assignment per call is handled by the mobile telephone switching office (MTSO). Ideally channel
assignment should be based on causing the least interference in the system. However, most cellular
systems cannot perform this way.
Numbering the channels:
The total number of channels at present (January 1988) is 832. But most mobile units and systems are
still operating on 666 channels. Therefore we describe the 666 channel numbering first. A channel
consists of two frequency channel bandwidths, one in the low band and one in the high band. Two
frequencies in channel 1 are 825.030 MHz (mobile transmit) 870.030 MHz (cell-site transmit). The
two frequencies in channel 666 are 844.98 MHz (mobile transmit) and 898 MHz (cell-site transmit).
The 666 channels are divided into two groups: block A system and block B system. Each market (i.e.,
each city) has two systems for a duopoly market policy. Each blockhas 333 channels, as shown in
Fig.1.1.
The 42 set-up channels are assigned as follows.
Channels 313-333 block A
Channels 334-354 block B

The voice channels are assigned as follows.
Channels 1-312 (312 voice channels) block A
Channels 355-666 (312 voice channels) block B
Q2. Explain in detail access channels and operational techniques.
Ans: Access channels:
In mobile-originating calls, the mobile unit scans its 21 set-up channels and chooses the strongest one.
Because each set-up channel is associated with one cell, the strongest set-up channel indicates which
cell is to serve the mobile-originating calls. Th. mobile unit detects the system information transmitted
from the cell site. Also, the mobile unit monitors the Busy/Idle status bits over the desired forward
setup channel. When the idle bits are received, the mobile unit can use the corresponding reverse set-
up channel to initiate a call. Frequently only one system operates in a given city; for instance, block B
mobile unit first scans the 21 set-up channels in block A, two conditions can occur.
1. If no set-up channels of block A are operational, the mobile unit automatically switches to block B.
2. If a strong set-up signal strength is received but no message can be detected, then the scanner
chooses the second strongest set-up channel. If the message still cannot be detected, the mobile unit
switches to block B and scans to block B set-up channels.
The operational functions are described as follows:
1. Power of a forward set-up channel [or forward control channel (FOCC)]: The power of the set-up
channel can be varied in order to control the number of incoming calls served by the cell. The number
of mobile-originating calls is limited by the number of voice channels in each cell site, when the
traffic is heavy, most voice channels are occupied and the power of the set-up channel should be
reduced in order to reduce the coverage of the cell for the incoming calls originating from the mobile
unit. This will force the mobile units to originate calls from other cell sites, assuming that all cells are
adequately overlapped.
2. The set-up channel received level: The setup channel threshold level is determined in order to
control the reception at the reverse control channel (RECC). If the received power level is greater than
the given set-up threshold level, the call request will be taken.
3. Change power at the mobile unit: When the mobile unit monitors the strongest signal strength from
all Set-up channels and selects that channel to receive the messages, there are three types of message.
a. Mobile station control message. This message is used for paging and consists of one, two, or
four words -DCC, MIN, SCC and VMAX.
b. System parameter overhead message. This message contains two words, including DCC, SID,
CMAX, or CPA.
c. Control-filler message. This message may be sent with a system parameter overhead message,
CMAC a control mobile attenuation code (seven levels).
4. Direct call retries. When a cell site has no available voice channels, it can send a direct call retry
Message through the set-up channel. The mobile unit will initiate, the call from a neighboring cell
which is on the list of neighboring cells in the direct call-retry message.
5. Explain about paging channels.
Paging channels:
Each cell site has been allocated its own setup channel (control channel). The assigned forward set-up
channel (FOCC) of each cell site is used to page the mobile unit with the same mobile station control
message. Because the same message is transmitted by the different set-up channels, no simulcast
interference occurs in the system. The algorithm for paging & mobile unit can be performed in
different ways. The simplest way is to page from all the cell sites. This can occupy a large amount of
the traffic load. The other way is to page in an area corresponding to the mobile unit phone number. If
there is no answer, the system tries to page in other areas. The drawback is that response time is
sometimes too long. When the mobile unit responds to the page on the reverse set-up channel, the cell
site which receives the response checks the signal reception level and makes a decision regarding the
voice channel assignment based on least interference in the selected sector or underlay-overlay region
Q3. Write about fixed channel assignment schemes in detail.
Ans: Fixed Channel Assignment Schemes:
Adjacent-Channel Assignment:
Adjacent-channel assignment includes neighboring-channel assignment and next-channel assignment.

The near-end far-end (ratio) interference can occur among the neighboring channels (four channels
on each side of the desired channel). Therefore, within a cell we have to be sure to assign neighboring
channels in an omnidirectional-cell system and in a directional antenna-cell system properly. In an
omnidirectional-cell system, if one channel is assigned to the middle cell of seven cells, next channels
cannot be assigned in the same cell. Also, no next channel (preferably including neighboring
channels) should be assigned in the six neighboring sites in the same cell system area (Fig. 7.1a). In a
directional-antenna-cell system, if one channel is assigned to a face, next channels cannot be assigned
to the same face or to the other two faces in the same cell. Also, next channels cannot be assigned to
the other two faces at the same cell site (Fig. 7.1b). Sometimes the next channels are assigned in the
next sector of the same cell in order to increase capacity. Then performance can still be in the
tolerance range if the design is proper.
Q4. Compare the Omni cells and sectorized cells.
Ans: Omni cells:
If a K = 7 frequency-reuse pattern is used, the frequency sets assigned in each cell can be followed by
the frequency-management chart. However, terrain is seldom flat; therefore, K = 12 is sometimes
needed for reducing cochannel interference. For K = 12, the channel-reuse distance is D = 6R, or the
cochannel reduction factor q = 6.
Sectorized Cells: There are three basic types.
1. -sector cell is used for both transmitting and receiving sectorization. Each sector has an
assigned a number of frequencies. Changing sectors during a call requires handoffs.
2. -sector cell is used for both transmitting and receiving sectorization. Changing sectors
areas close to cell sites (close-in areas).
3. -sector cell is used for receiving sectorization only. In this case, the transmitting
antenna is omnidirectional. The number of channels in this cell is not sub- divided for each sector.
Therefore, no handoffs are required when changing sectors. This receiving sectorization-only
configuration does not decrease interference or increase the D/R ratio; it only allows for a more
accurate decision regarding handing off the calls to neighboring cells.
Q5. Explain about the Underlay-Overlay Arrangement.
Ans: Underlay-Overlay Arrangement: In actual cellular systems cell grids are seldom uniform because
of varying traffic conditions in different areas and cell-site locations. Overlaid Cells: To permit the
two groups to reuse the channels in two different cell-
small cell is sometimes established at the same cell site as the large cell (see Fig. 10a). The
ifferent cells. They are usually
The use of either an omnidirectional antenna at one site to create two sub ring areas or three
directional antennas to create six subareas is illustrated in Fig. 10b. As seen in Fig.10, a set of
frequencies used in an overlay area will differ from a set of frequencies used in an underlay area in
order to avoid adjacent-channel and cochannel interference. The channels assigned to one combiner
say, 16 channels can be used for overlay, and another combiner can be used for underlay.
Implementation: The antenna of a set-up channel is usually omnidirectional. When an incoming call is
received by the set-up channel and its signal strength is higher than a level L, the underlaid cell is
assigned; otherwise, the overlaid cell is assigned. The handoffs are implemented between the
underlaid and overlaid cells. In order to avoid the unnecessary handoffs, we may choose two levels L1
and L2 and L1 > L2 as shown in Fig. 10(c). When a mobile signal is higher than a level L1 the call is
handed off to the underlaid cell. When a signal is lower than a level L2 the call is handed off to the
overlaid cell. The channels assigned in the underlaid cell have more protection against cochannel
interference.
1) Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO) provides
a. Faster handoffs
b. Suitability for frequent handoffs
c. MSC need not monitor the signal strength
d. All of the above
2) Trunking in a cellular network refers to
a. Termination of a call
b. Spectrum unavailability
c. Accommodating large number of users in limited
spectrum d. All of the above
3) When all of the radio channels are in use in a trunking system
a. The user is blocked

b. The access to the system is denied
c. The queue may be provided
d. All of the above
4) Umbrella cell approach
a. Uses large and small cells

b. Uses different antenna heights
c. Is used for high speed users with large coverage area and low speed users with small coverage
area d. All of the above
5) Interference in cellular systems is caused by
a. Two base stations operating in same frequency band

b. Two calls in progress in nearby mobile stations
c. Leakage of energy signals by non-cellular systems into cellular frequency
band d. All of the above
6) Interference in frequency bands may lead to
a. Cross talk
b. Missed calls
c. Blocked calls
d. All of the above
7) Co-channel reuse ratio depends upon
a. Radius of the cell

b. Distance between the centers of the co channel cells
c. Frequency allocation of nearest cells

d. Both a and b
e. Both b and c
8) Increase in Co- channel reuse ratio indicates
a. Better transmission quality

b. Larger capacity
c. Low co-channel interference
d. Both a and c
e. Both a and b
9) The techniques used to improve the capacity of cellular systems are
a. Splitting
b. Sectoring
c. Coverage zone approach
d. All of the above
10) Distributed antenna systems are used at
a. Transmitters of mobile systems

b. Transmitters of base stations
c. Inputs and outputs of repeaters
d. Receivers of mobile stations
Q.NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ANS D c D d d d d d d c
Fill in the blanks
1) Speech Coders are categorized on the basis of ________________
2) Waveform coders and Vocoders are the types of_________________
3) PCM, DPCM, DM, ADPCM are the types of______________
4) Speech coding technique that is independent of the source is_________________
5) The type of frequency domain coding that divides the speech signal into sub
bands is___________
6) The speech coding technique that is dependent on the prior knowledge of the signal is________
7) The steps involved in Channel vocoders for speech transmission are______________
8) Vocal tract cepstral coefficients and excitation coefficients are separated by_____________
9) In voice excited vocoders, PCM transmission helps in transmission of---------------------

__________________
10) The speech sequence in GSM Codec consists of__________________
Answer Key
Q.NO ANS
1 Signal compression techniques
2 Speech coders
3 Waveform coders
4 Waveform coders
5 Sub-band coding
6 Vocoders
7 Envelope detection, sampling, encoding,
multiplexing
8 Linear filters
9 Low frequency bands of speech
10 Pre emphasis, segmentation, windowing, filtering
UNIT-5
2-MARKS QUESTIONS
Q1. What do you mean by Handoff?

Ans: When a mobile moves into a different cell while a conversation is in progress, the Mobile
Switching Centre automatically transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the new Base Station.
Q2.What are the Types of handoff?
Ans: Basically there are two types of Handoff
Hard Handoff
Soft Handoff
Q3. What is hard handoff?
-cell handoffs
Q4. What is soft handoff?

-before-
softer handoffs
Q5.What is the Design Considerations for handoff?
Ans: The main goal while designing handoff is to reduce major changes to existing networks esp.
at lower levels. This will ensure that existing networks will continue to function as before without
requiring current users to change to the new approach
3-MARKS QUESTIONS
Q1. How to initiate handoff?
Ans: A hard handoff occurs when the old connection is broken before a new connection is activated.
The performance evaluation of a hard handoff is based on various initiation criteria It is assumed that
the signal is averaged over time, so that rapid fluctuations due to the multipath nature of the radio
environment can be eliminated. Numerous studies have been done to determine the shape as well as
the length of the averaging window and the older measurements may be unreliable. Figure 1.2 shows
a MS moving from one BS (BS1) to another (BS2). The mean signal strength of BS1 decreases as the
MS moves away from it. Similarly, the mean signal strength of BS2 increases as the MS approaches
it.
Q2. What is mobile assisted handoff?
Ans: In a mobile-assisted handoff process, the MS makes measurements and the network makes
the decision. In the circuit-switched GSM (global system mobile), the BS controller (BSC)
is in charge of the radio interface management. This mainly means allocation and release
of radio channels and handoff management. The handoff time between handoff decision
and Execution in such a circuit-switched GSM is approximately 1 second.
Q3. Reasons for a Handoff to be conducted?
Ans:
To avoid call termination: call drops

When the capacity for connecting new calls of a given cell is used up.
Interference in the channels.
When the user behaviors change.
Speed and mobility.
Q4. What are different cell structure?
Ans: Macro cell

Micro cells
Q5. What is inter system handoff?
Ans: Inter System Handoff. If during ongoing call mobile unit moves from one cellular system to a
different cellular system which is controlled by different MTSO, a handoff procedure which is used to
avoid dropping of call is referred as Inter System Handoff. An MTSO engages in this handoff system.
5-MARKS QUESTIONS
Q1. Explain the hand-off mechanism.
Ans: Hand-off Mechanism: Hand-off is the process of automatically changing the frequencies. When
the
Mobile unit moves out of the coverage areas of a particular cell site, the reception becomes weak. At
this instant the present cell site requests Hand-off, then system switches the call to a new frequency
- -off processing scheme is an important task for any successful mobile

system. This concept can he applied to one dimensional as well as two dimensional cellular
configurations. By the reception of weak signals from the mobile unit by the cell site, the Hand-off is
required in the following two situations. They are
1. The level for requesting a Hand-off in a noise limited environment is at the cell boundary say-l00
dBm.
2. In a particular cell site, when the mobile unit is reaching the signal strength holes (gaps). Figure 4
shows the usage of frequency F1 in two co channel cells which arc separated by a distance D.
Now, we have to provide a communication system in the whole area by filling other frequency
channels
F2,F3 and F4 between two co-channel cells.
Q2. Explain in detail about hard handoff?
the mobile is linked to no more than one base station at a given time. A hard handoff occurs when
users experience an interruption during the handover process caused by frequency shifting. A hard
handoff is perceived by network engineers as event during the call. These are intended to be
instantaneous in order to minimize the disruption of the call. Hard handoff can be further divided as
intra and inter-cell handoffs.
Intra and inter-cell handoffs: In intra-cell handoff the source and target are one and the same
cell and only the used channel is changed during the handoff. The purpose of intra-cell handoff is to
change a channel, which may be interfered, or fading with a new clearer or less fading channel. In
inter-cell handoff the source and the target are different cells (even if they are on the same cell site).
The purpose of the inter-cell handoff is to maintain the call as the subscriber is moving out of the area
of the source cell and entering the area of the target cell. Finally, hard handoff is permitted between
members of different soft zones, but not between members of the same soft zone. This is primarily
used in FDMA and TDMA.
Q3. Explain in detail about soft handoff?
Ans: Soft handoff is also called as Mobile Directed Handoff as they are directed by the mobile
telephones. Soft handoff is the ability to select between the instantaneous received signals from
different base stations. Here the channel in the source cell is retained and used for a while in parallel
with the channel in the target cell. In this the connection to the target is established before the
-before-
which the two connections are used in parallel, may be brief or substantial because of this the soft
handoff is perceived by the network engineers as state of the call. Soft handoffs can be classified as
Multiways and softer handoffs.
Multiways and softer handoffs: A soft handoff which involves using connections to more
than two cells is a multiways handoff. When a call is in a state of soft handoff the signal of
the best of all used channels can be utilized for the call at a given moment or all the signals
can be combined to produce a clear signal, this type is called softer handoff.
In soft handoffs the chance that the call will be terminated abnormally are lower. Call could only
fail if all the channels are interfered or fade at the same time. But this involves the use of several
channels in the network to support just a single call. This reduces the number of remaining free
channels and thereby reducing the capacity of the network. Soft handoff is permitted between
members of a particular soft zone, but not between members of different soft zones.
Q4. How to prioritize handoffs?
Ans: Handoff fails for many reasons like, if no channel is available in the candidate cell. One of the
ways to reduce the handoff failure rate is to prioritize handoff. Handoff algorithms try to minimize the
number of handoffs which give poor performance in heavy traffic situations. In such situations, a
significant handoff performance improvement can be obtained by prioritizing handoff. Two basic
methods of handoff prioritization are guard channels and queuing of hand off.
Guard Channels: Guard channels improve the probability of successful handoffs by reserving
a fixed or dynamically adjustable number of channels exclusively for handoffs. An adaptive number
of guard channels can help reduce this problem.
Queuing of Handoff: Queuing is a way of delaying handoff. The MSC queues the handoff
requests instead of denying access if the candidate BS is busy. The probability of a successful handoff
can be improved by queuing handoff requests at the cost of increased new call blocking probability
and a decrease in the ratio of carried-to-admitted traffic since new calls are not assigned a channel
until all the handoff requests in the queue are served.
Q5. What are the advantages of soft and hard handoff?
Ans:
1. The hard handover is that at any moment in time one call uses only one channel. The hard
handover event is indeed very short and usually is not perceptible by the user. In the old analog
systems it could be heard as a click or a very short beep, in digital systems it is unnoticeable.
2. Hard handoff is t
channels in parallel, which makes it cheaper and simpler.
Advantages of soft handoff
1. The soft handovers is that the connection to the source cell is broken only when a reliable
connection to the target cell has been established and therefore the chances that the call will be
terminated abnormally due to a failed handovers are lower.
2. Simultaneously channels in multiple cells are maintained and the call could only fail if all of the
channels are interfered or fade at the same time. Fading and interference in different channels are
unrelated and therefore the probability of them taking place at one the same moment in all channels is
very low. Thus the reliability of the connection becomes higher when the call is in a soft handover.
This advantage comes at the cost of more complex hardware in the phone, which must be capable of
processing several channels in parallel.
3. Soft handovers is use of several channels in the network to support just a single call. This
reduces the number of remaining free channels and thus reduces the capacity of the network. By
adjusting the duration of soft handovers and the size of the areas, in which they occur, the network
engineers can balance the benefit of extra call reliability against the price of reduced capacity.
1) Antenna down tilting refers to
a. Focusing radio energy towards ground

b. decreasing the strength of antenna
c. decreasing the S/N ratio at the antenna input
d. All of the above
2) Diffraction, at high frequencies, depends upon
1. Geometry of the object

2. Polarization of the incident wave
3. Amplitude of the incident wave
4. Frequency of the incident wave
a. 1 and 2 are correct

b. 1, 2 and 3 are correct
c. 2 and 3 are correct
d. All are correct
3) The rainbow pattern seen on a CD is an example of
a. Reflection
b. Refraction
c. Diffraction
4) Fresnel Reflection Coefficient is a factor of
1. Polarization of the wave

2. Properties of the material at which reflection occurs
3. Angle of incidence of wave

b. 1 and 3 are correct
c. All the three are correct
d. 2 and 3 are correct
5) When a wave falls on a perfect conductor
a. Wave is partially reflected and partially transmitted

b. All incident energy is reflected back without loss of energy
c. Part of energy gets absorbed
d. Both a and c
6) Brewster angle is the angle at which
a. No reflection occurs at the first medium

b. Reflection coefficient is zero
c. The wave gets refracted in the direction of source
d. Both a and b
e. Both a and c
7) Fading is caused due to
1. Multi path propagation

2. Obstacles
3. Frequency variations at the source
4. Variation in amplitude and phase at receiver

b. 1, 2 and 4 are correct
d. All are correct
8) Coherence time refers to
a. Time required to attain a call with the busy base station

b. Time required for synchronization between the transmitter and the receiver
c. Minimum time for change in magnitude and phase of the channel d. None
of the above
9) Fading due to shadowing is
a. Fading due to large obstructions

b. Large coherence time of the channel as compared to the delay constraints
c. Small coherence time of the channel as compared to the delay constraints
d. Both a andb
e. Both a and c
10) Deep fade is
1. Strong destructive interference

2. Drop in signal to noise ratio
3. Temporary failure of message transfer

b. 1 and 3 are correct
d. All are correct
Answer Key
Q.NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ANS a b c c b d b c d d
Fill in the blanks
1) PN sequence at the decoder acts as a locally generated carrier at the receiver and decodes
the signal using_______
2) In spread spectrum technique, the multiple users are assigned with same spectrum and different
3) Direct sequence spread spectrum demodulation uses_____________
4) Probability of outage refers to________________-
5) The digital modulation technique used in frequency selective channels is
6) Linear equalizer is also known as_________________
7) Computational complexity of an algorithm refers to the number of___________ for one

iteration of algorithm
8) Diversity employs the decision making at_____________
9) Multiple versions of signals are transmitted at different time instants in____________
10) Search window of a RAKE receiver is____________________
Answer Key
Q.NO ANS
1 Correlator
2 PN code
3 DPSK
4 Number of bit errors during transmission
5 BPSK
6 Transversal filter
7 operations
8 Receiver
9 time diversity
10 Range of the time delays
17. Beyond syllabus topics with material

i) 5G Communications:
While 5G isn't expected until 2020, an increasing number of companies are investing now to prepare
for the new mobile wireless standard. We explore 5G, how it works and its impact on future wireless
systems. (See also: A timeline of UK 5G development).
5G simply stands for fifth generation and refers to the next and newest mobile wireless standard based
on the IEEE 802.11ac standard of broadband technology, although a formal standard for 5G is yet to
be set.
According to the Next Generation Mobile Network's 5G white paper, 5G connections must be based
on 'user experience, system performance, enhanced services, business models and management &
operations'.
And according to the Groupe Speciale Mobile Association (GSMA) to qualify for a 5G a connection
should meet most of these eight criteria:
1. One to 10Gbps connections to end points in the field
2. One millisecond end-to-end round trip delay
3. 1000x bandwidth per unit area
4. 10 to 100x number of connected devices
5. (Perception of) 99.999 percent availability
6. (Perception of) 100 percent coverage
7. 90 percent reduction in network energy usage
8. Up to ten-year battery life for low power, machine-type devices
Previous generations like 3G were a breakthrough in communications. 3G receives a signal from the
nearest phone tower and is used for phone calls, messaging and data.
4G works the same as 3G but with a faster internet connection and a lower latency (the time between
cause and effect).
4G claims to be around five times faster than existing 3G services and theoretically, it can provide
download speeds of up to 100Mbps.
Hubert Da Costa, Vice President, EMEA at Cradle point said: "5G Wi-Fi connections are set to be
about three times faster than 4G, starting with 450Mbps in single-stream, 900 Mbps (dual- stream)
and 1.3G bps (three-stream). So, whilst we are already starting to see a huge growth in IoT and smart
devices, 5G's speed and capacity will enable an even more rapid arrival of this connected future."
Evolution of 1G to 5G
Advantages of 5G
Like all the previous generations, 5G will be significantly faster than its predecessor 4G.
This should allow for higher productivity across all capable devices with a
theoretical download speed of 10,000 Mbps.
"Current 4G mobile standards have the potential to provide 100s of Mbps. 5G offers to take
that into multi-
slew of innovative services and applications that truly need the type of connectivity that only
5G can offer," says Paul Gainham, senior director, SP Marketing EMEA at Juniper Networks.
Plus, with greater bandwidth comes faster download speeds and the ability to run more
complex mobile internet apps.
Disadvantages of 5G
However, 5G will cost more to implement and while the newest mobile phones will
probably have it integrated, other handsets could be deemed out of date.
A reliable, wireless internet connection can depend on the number of devices connected to
one channel. With the addition of 5G to the wireless spectrum, this could put us at risk of
overcrowding the frequency range.
The problems with 4G and even 3G aren't exactly filling us with the hope of an immediate
super fast connection.
For a long time (and still even now) certain handsets and areas of the UK don't support or can
access 4G connections, so the rollout for 5G is likely to be very patchy.
The future of 5G
As 5G is still in development, it is not yet open for use by anyone. However, lots of
companies have started creating 5G products and field testing them.
Notable advancements in 5G technologies have come from Nokia, Qualcomm, Samsung,
Ericsson and BT, with growing numbers of companies forming 5G partnerships and pledging
money to continue to research into 5G and its application.
Qualcomm and Samsung have focused their 5G efforts on hardware, with Qualcomm creating
a 5G modem and Samsung producing a 5G enabled home router.
Both Nokia and Ericcson have created 5G platforms aimed at mobile carriers rather than
consumers. Ericsson created the first 5G platform earlier this year that claims to provide the
first 5G radio system. Ericsson began 5G testing in 2015.
Comparison of 1G to 5G technology
ii) GSM (Global system for mobile communication)
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. It is a digital cellular technology
used for transmitting mobile voice and data services.
The concept of GSM emerged from a cell-based mobile radio system at Bell Laboratories in
the early 1970s.
GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to create a common
European mobile telephone standard.
GSM is the most widely accepted standard in telecommunications and it is implemented
globally.
GSM is a circuit-switched system that divides each 200 kHz channel into eight 25 kHz time-
slots. GSM operates on the mobile communication bands 900 MHz and 1800 MHz in most
parts of the world. In the US, GSM operates in the bands 850 MHz and 1900 MHz.
GSM owns a market share of more than 70 percent of the world's digital cellular subscribers.
GSM makes use of narrowband Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) technique for
transmitting signals.
GSM was developed using digital technology. It has an ability to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps
of data rates.
Presently GSM supports more than one billion mobile subscribers in more than 210 countries
throughout the world.
GSM provides basic to advanced voice and data services including roaming service. Roaming
is the ability to use your GSM phone number in another GSM network.
Listed below are the features of GSM that account for its popularity and wide acceptance.
Improved spectrum efficiency
International roaming
Low-cost mobile sets and base stations (BSs)
High-quality speech
Compatibility with Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and other telephone company
services
Support for new services
A GSM network comprises of many functional units. These functions and interfaces are explained in
this chapter. The GSM network can be broadly divided into:
The Mobile Station (MS)
The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)
Given below is a simple pictorial view of the GSM architecture.
The additional components of the GSM architecture comprise of databases and messaging systems
functions:
Home Location Register (HLR)
Visitor Location Register (VLR)
Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
Authentication Center (AuC)
SMS Serving Center (SMS SC)
Gateway MSC (GMSC)
Chargeback Center (CBC)
Transcoder and Adaptation Unit (TRAU)
The following diagram shows the GSM network along with the added elements:
The MS and the BSS communicate across the Um interface. It is also known as the air interface or
the radio link. The BSS communicates with the Network Service Switching (NSS) center across
the A interface.
GSM network areas
In a GSM network, the following areas are defined:
Cell : Cell is the basic service area; one BTS covers one cell. Each cell is given a Cell Global
Identity (CGI), a number that uniquely identifies the cell.
Location Area : A group of cells form a Location Area (LA). This is the area that is paged
when a subscriber gets an incoming call. Each LA is assigned a Location Area Identity (LAI).
Each LA is served by one or more BSCs.
MSC/VLR Service Area : The area covered by one MSC is called the MSC/VLR service
area.
PLMN : The area covered by one network operator is called the Public Land Mobile Network
(PLMN). A PLMN can contain one or more MSCs.

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CELLULAR AND MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS

14. Assignment topics with material

1. Limitations of Conventional Mobile Telephone Systems

2. First, Second, Third and Fourth Generation Cellular Wireless Systems

3. Concept of Frequency Reuse

Frequency reuse, or, frequency planning, is a technique of reusing frequencies and

4. Trunking and Grade of Service

5. Cell Splitting, Sectoring, Microcell Zone Concept

Antennas are placed at the outer edges of the cell

In order to describe the performance of an antenna, we use various, sometimes Interrelated,

Radiation pattern, beam width

2. Merits of Lee Model

3. Explain the coverage of Omni directional antenna?

4. Explain the operation of umbrella pattern antenna?

Vertical-plane patterns of quarter-wavelength stub antenna on infinite ground plane (solid)

i) Normal Umbrella-Pattern Antenna:

iii) Interference Reduction Antenna:

iv) High-Gain Broadband Umbrella-Pattern Antenna: A high-gain antenna can be

1. Advantages of sectorized cells

n create some confusion. Frequency

Numbering the channels:

The 42 set-up channels are assigned as follows.

4. Write about fixed channel assignment schemes in detail.

Directional-antenna-cell system, if one channel is assigned to a face, next channels cannot

2. Explain in detail about hard handoff?

Multiways and softer handoffs: A soft handoff which involves using

4. How to prioritize handoffs?

Guard Channels: Guard channels improve the probability of successful handoffs by

16. Unit wise question bank

Q1. What do you mean by frequency reuse?

Q2. Define Cell Splitting?

Q3. Define cell?

Q4. What is Frequency reuse distance?

Q5. What is coherence bandwidth?

Q1. What is the difference between 3G and 4G?

Ans: Methods for improving capacity in cellular systems

Antennas are placed at the outer edges of the cell

Q1. Distinguish between the permanent splitting and dynamic splitting?

Ans: There are two kinds of cell-splitting techniques:

Limited service capability: A conventional mobile telephone system is usually designed by

Inefficient Frequency Spectrum Utilization: In a conventional mobile telephone system,

The offered load can then be obtained by

A = Average calling time (minutes) x total customers / 60 min (Erlangs)

A1 = 1.76 * 53 * 6 / 60 = 9.33 Erlangs (MJ system)

A2 = 1.76 * 37 * 6 / 60 = 6.51 Erlangs (MK system)

Q4. Explain in detail about cell splitting?

Ans: Split congested cell into smaller cells.

Preserve frequency reuse plan.

Reduce transmission power

Illustration of cell splitting within a 3 km by 3 km square

Q5. Explain about sectoring?

Replacing single Omni-directional antenna by several directional antennas

Radiating within a specified sector

Multiple choice questions

2) introduced Frequency Modulation for mobile communication systems in 1935.

3) The early FM push-to-talk telephone systems were used in

4) DECT stands for

a. Digital European Cellular Telex

a. Nippon Telephone and Telegraph (NTT)

6) Paging systems were based on

7) Paging systems could be used to

a. Send numeric messages