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To cite this article: Rachel E. Janney & Martha E. Snell (2006) Modifying Schoolwork in Inclusive
Classrooms, Theory Into Practice, 45:3, 215-223, DOI: 10.1207/s15430421tip4503_3
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THEORY INTO PRACTICE, 45(3), 215–223
Rachel E. Janney
Martha E. Snell
Modifying Schoolwork
in Inclusive Classrooms
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215
Inclusive Schooling Practices: From Why to How
member of a classroom group. Schnorr (1990) ter teachers in schools where virtually no one
found that first graders perceived a part-time questions the membership of all students with
mainstreamed student with mental retardation as a disabilities. Further, these strategies are consis-
visitor rather than as a class member, because the tent with those promoted by many experts in in-
student did not share the same class assignments, clusive education (Fisher, Sax, & Pumpian, 1999;
activities, and peer networks. Likewise Peck, Giangreco, Cloninger, & Iverson, 1998).
Gallucci, Staub, and Schwartz (1998) reported
that “the children we interviewed consistently ex-
pressed the view that mere physical presence did
not mean a child was a real member of the class. A Model for Making
What was critical was participation” (p. 8). Individualized Adaptations
Others who have studied inclusive classrooms
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have found that classroom teachers and the special Despite the similarities in general and special
education teachers with whom they collaborate education methods, some students with cognitive,
begin their work together with only broad ideas neurological, physical, or social–behavioral dis-
about how they will partition their responsibilities abilities require individualized adaptations to
and what sorts of adaptations students will need enable them to learn skills and knowledge appro-
(Ferguson, Meyer, Jeanchild, Juniper, & Zingo, priate to their age and abilities. The term individu-
1992; Giangreco, Dennis, Cloninger, Edelman, & alized adaptations comprises the accommoda-
Schattman, 1993; Janney & Snell, 1997). Class- tions and modifications that are part of a student’s
room teachers learn to adapt instruction inciden- individualized education plan (IEP). Thus, adapta-
tally, by observing special education teachers tions may include modified curriculum goals,
working with the focus student. Janney and Snell changes made to learning-task requirements, spe-
(1997), in an investigation of the ways collaborat- cialized teaching methods and materials, altered
ing general and special education teachers sought testing procedures or conditions, assistive tech-
to include students with disabilities in elementary nology, and alterations to the physical environ-
classrooms, found that the many modifications ment. Special education students’ accommoda-
made to teachers’ roles, classroom routines, and tions and modifications are stated in general terms
instructional activities were part of an unstated on their IEPs but must be applied on a day-to-day
agreement between the two teachers, but there was basis to specific lessons and activities. These more
no explicit, written plan for the ways instructional particular, applied adaptations are created through
practices would and would not be adapted. a collaborative problem-solving and planning pro-
In contrast to an incidental approach to making cess that occurs at varying intervals for various
adaptations, this article describes a model for students (Snell & Janney, 2005).
planning, using, and evaluating individualized ad- Consistent with the dual social and academic
aptations. The model, which is adapted from goals of inclusive education, we apply two criteria
Janney and Snell (2004), provides a set of decision for judging the appropriateness of adaptations: (a)
rules and procedures for individualizing instruc- they facilitate social and instructional participa-
tion for the range of exceptional students encoun- tion in class activities, and (b) they do so using
tered in inclusive schools. Articulating the steps of means that are only as special as necessary. Stu-
the process and the criteria for choosing one possi- dents’ goals may be somewhat or extremely differ-
ble adaptation over another gives educational ent from state and local curricular standards, but
teams a common language, thus assisting them to the adaptations provided should result in instruc-
reach shared understandings of their joint work tional participation. For instance, rather than
and the tasks required of each team member. Al- merely being kept busy by coloring the worksheet
though the model and planning practices de- used during a lesson on electric circuits, a student
scribed here have not been formally field tested, who does not write but can read some words could
they were originally generated by practicing mas- be provided printed labels to place in appropriate
216
Janney and Snell Modifying Schoolwork in Inclusive Classrooms
places on the worksheet, thus focusing participa- the student to access curriculum content and dem-
tion on lesson content. onstrate learning.
In addition to being instructionally appropri- The traditional curriculum can be adapted in
ate, the most effective adaptations foster as three ways to meet students’ individual needs: by
much independence as possible and are suit- supplementing, simplifying, or altering the curric-
able for the student’s age and culture. An ulum goals. We intentionally refer to a student’s
only-as-special-as-necessary approach to adapta- curriculum goals being adapted in a particular
tions advises altering class routines and instruc- goal area and do not suggest that a student be
tional activities only enough to enable the focus placed into a particular curriculum designation or
student to participate actively in achieving IEP track. However, at a particular point in time, a stu-
goals. Receiving special education need not pre- dent’s IEP goals may primarily reflect one of those
vent students from engaging in ordinary activities three orientations.
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and relationships.
Supplementary curriculum goals and
accommodations. Many students’ IEPs consist
Adaptations That Enhance Social largely of accommodations, along with learning
and Instructional Outcomes goals that supplement the general curriculum stan-
dards. These students include approximately 75%
Making individualized adaptations that achieve of those who qualify for special education, and are
the desired social and instructional goals is facili- most often classified as having specific learning
tated by understanding the variety of ways in disabilities, speech–language impairments, or
which curriculum and methods can be adapted. other health impairments (U.S. Department of Ed-
The particularities of a given classroom and the in- ucation, 2002). Supplementary goals may focus
dividual needs and characteristics of the focus stu- on remediation of basic skill deficits or on devel-
dent may alter the sequence, but we propose using oping compensatory skills such as social,
the following hierarchy of least-to-most-special self-control, study, or organizational skills. For ex-
adaptations as a general decision rule: ample, a middle school student who has a learning
disability in reading and written language might
1. Consider the student’s individualized learn- be enrolled in a typical schedule of courses and
ing goals and IEP accommodations. participate fully in a regular academic curriculum.
2. Individualize the teaching methods. However, the student might have supplementary
3. Individualize the personal support. curriculum goals to improve reading, writing pro-
cesses, and study skills. Such a student might also
require accommodations such as preferential seat-
Individualized Learning Goals ing, extra time and oral testing for written tests, a
laptop computer for taking notes, and word banks
In an inclusive school, the scope of the curricu-
for class activities and tests. For a given lesson,
lum is broadened to include a greater range of pos-
this student might simply need the accommoda-
sible learning results. The existing general educa-
tion of a word bank or perhaps fewer items per
tion core curriculum of basic skills and content
page on a worksheet.
areas must be expanded to accommodate multiple
levels of skills and knowledge and additional goal
areas (e.g., functional skills for use in daily life). Simplified curriculum goals. Other students
The Individuals With Disabilities Education Im- with IEPs—often those with cognitive disabilities
provement Act of 2004 requires that each IEP who have basic literacy skills and can function al-
specify how the student’s disability affects partici- most independently given intermittent support—
pation in the general curriculum, and the accom- participate in the traditional subject areas but with
modations and modifications that are required for simplified goals. That is, their goals are drawn
217
Inclusive Schooling Practices: From Why to How
from a lower grade level, are reduced in number, ties, and some very basic reading and arithmetic
or require less complex types of learning (e.g., a skills. Sample IEP goals might include (a) use
student might memorize facts or apply a concept, augmentative devices and picture symbols to
whereas classmates have goals requiring analysis make choices and to relate recent events; (b) in-
or evaluation). crease independence in school arrival/departure,
A high school student with simplified curricu- classroom jobs, and lunch routines; (c) identify
lum goals might be enrolled in general-level aca- numerals and count objects to 20 in mathematics
demic core courses, a study hall or resource class, activities and functional contexts; (d) identify
and electives that address vocational preparation. name in print; (e) make individualized contribu-
With content reduced and simplified to focus on tions to cooperative group activities, given indi-
carefully chosen basic concepts and useful skills, vidualized adaptations to methods, materials, and
along with testing accommodations and adapted personal assistance.
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reading and writing demands, this student can Although alternate curricular goals emphasize
maintain an academic presence in his or her school functionality, there are many general facts and
and also become prepared for life after school. knowledge, social skills, and recreational activi-
Many states now have alternate grade level assess- ties that may be included on a student’s IEP be-
ments and modified diplomas that can be attained cause they are important to the student and the
by students who require simplified curricular family and facilitate peer group membership and
goals. leading a normalized life.
218
Janney and Snell Modifying Schoolwork in Inclusive Classrooms
the life cycle of a flowering plant in order and ple-choice items vertically rather than horizon-
describe them. tally, providing additional white space between
• Simplified lesson objective: Given a word bank items, and judiciously reducing the test’s readabil-
of selected scientific terms, to arrange the ity level (unless reading is being tested), the class-
stages of the life cycle of a flowering plant in or- room teacher may decide simply to adopt that test
der and write brief (2–3 word) descriptions. format for all students in the class.
• Alternative/functional lesson objective: Given a In addition to adaptations to the instructional in-
word bank and pictures of the stages of the life put, some students will also require adaptations to
cycle of a flowering plant, to match words with the output, or the tasks required of them. Among the
pictures and place them in order. many possible adaptations to the tasks or responses
required of students are (a) completing only the
specified problems on a math worksheet (e.g., the
Individualized Teaching Methods
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219
Inclusive Schooling Practices: From Why to How
struction, it should be only during the activities or ular goals, the amount of material included in the
steps of activities for which it is essential; the aim slot notes also might be reduced. Providing the
should be to establish the student’s participation in student with slot notes is a general adaptation:
the activity, and then fade the assistance as soon as This adaptive strategy is used regularly whenever
possible. As teachers experienced with inclusion students are required to take notes. However, the
advise, set it up and then back off. content of the slot notes requires specific adapta-
tions. The classroom teacher and the special edu-
cator, who has agreed to prepare the slot notes,
Efficient Planning of Adaptations
must share information about the week’s lecture
How can teachers create these individualized content. Although the preparation of specific ad-
adaptations in efficient yet systematic ways? aptations requires planning time, adaptations such
Some teachers get quite good at winging it, but as this can be filed in a course notebook so that
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winging it can be stressful, inefficient, and not re- they can be used again in the future if another stu-
sult in the most effective instruction. One helpful dent requires similar adaptations.
planning strategy is to approach the process in two
phases. The first phase is to create general adapta-
tions, which are patterns or formats for adapting Planning Adaptations
the conventional routines and instructional de- for Individual Students
signs used in the classroom. General adaptations
are the customary ways that goals, methods, mate- The application of this adaptations model en-
rials, and personal support are adapted for a stu- tails a series of steps. What follows is an abbrevi-
dent. It is possible to plan these general adapta- ated version of the steps detailed in Janney and
tions for repeated use over a semester or marking Snell (2004). The steps vary according to students’
period because classrooms operate according to ages, the complexity of their disabilities, and con-
fairly predictable patterns and use a finite set of in- textual variables such as whether the general and
structional practices. Planning for general adapta- special education teachers are experienced collab-
tions requires knowledge of classroom routines, orators. The amount of detail needed on the plan-
instructional formats, and the focus student’s ning tools varies widely, and generally correlates
goals and support needs. However, once designed with the extent to which the student’s curricular
and communicated to the team, many general ad- goals differ from classmates’ goals. Because it is
aptations can be implemented with minimal not possible to describe or illustrate all of these
day-to-day planning. variations here, we will use the example of a high
Then, specific adaptations, which apply to par- school student whose IEP includes simplified cur-
ticular lessons, activities, or units, are developed. ricular goals and supplementary goals in the area
Specific adaptations must match the content or of self-management, as well as accommodations
skills of a given lesson as well as the materials that for test-taking and homework. We provide general
are used. Whereas general adaptations can be descriptions of some of the tools that can be used
planned once a semester, specific adaptations re- to plan and communicate a student’s individual-
quire some degree of short-term planning between ized adaptations. In addition to the versions of
the classroom teacher and special education staff. these tools that appear in Janney and Snell (2004),
For example, in high school social science similar tools may be found in Giangreco et al.
classes, students typically take notes during lec- (1998), and Fisher et al. (1999).
tures. A student who cannot keep up with these
note-taking demands might be provided with slot
Gather and Share Information About
notes, which are an outline of the lecture with
the Students and the Classroom
words and phrases omitted so that the student is re-
quired to pay attention and fill in these blanks dur- The first step in creating individualized adapta-
ing the lecture. If the student has simplified curric- tions involves gathering and sharing information
220
Janney and Snell Modifying Schoolwork in Inclusive Classrooms
that will assist the classroom teacher to know the room’s structure, curriculum, methods, and mate-
student and the special education teacher to know rials. An assessment of classroom activities and
the classroom. Sharing this information enables procedures comprises an inventory of the instruc-
the two teachers, along with other relevant team tional formats and teaching methods used in the
members, to create adaptations that fit both the classroom as well as routines, rules, and other ex-
student’s needs and the classroom’s academic de- pectations. The most helpful way to obtain accu-
mands and social expectations. rate information about the classroom is through a
combination of teacher discussion and direct ob-
servation. The following are some of the aspects
Information about the student. Essential to
of the classroom’s operating procedures with
efficient and effective collaborative teaming is that
which any specialists who support students should
all team members who will be in contact with a
be familiar: (a) the typical small group, large
student have information about his or her intellec-
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221
Inclusive Schooling Practices: From Why to How
in a high school core course might need (a) slot Class membership is a less tangible metric, but can
notes for lectures, (b) partner reading when silent be assessed informally through the use of strate-
reading assignments are made, (c) pairing with gies such as time sampling to estimate the amount
particular classmates for cooperative groups or of time that the focus student is engaged in aca-
peer tutoring, (d) study guides for tests, with the demic instruction and/or social interactions with
sources of information noted, (e) oral reading of peers, or more formally using sociometric tech-
tests, and (f) reduced homework assignments. Of niques (Janney & Snell, 2006). Another poten-
these adaptations, the only ones that would require tially helpful evaluation measure is to keep re-
specific adaptations made on a regular basis are cords of whether adaptations were in fact
the slot notes, study guides, tests, and homework implemented as planned.
assignments. These specific adaptations would be The general education and special education
based on the content (reducing the number of con- collaborative team that serves a student or students
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cepts and terms) and any instructional adaptations also can benefit from evaluating the effectiveness
that must match a particular assignment. The gen- of their team processes and the fulfillment of their
eral adaptations would simply be in place for as individual roles and responsibilities. For instance,
long as they were appropriate for the student. De- classroom teachers should regularly be asked
cisions about a student’s ongoing adaptations questions about the clarity of their role in the stu-
should be recorded and communicated with all dent’s educational programming and the appropri-
adults who work with the student. An individual- ateness of adaptations and any in-class support
ized adaptations plan that lists these general adap- provided by specialists (Janney & Snell, 2004). As
tations and indicates the specific adaptations that for the other steps in this process, we recommend
should be planned weekly or biweekly can typi- explicit problem solving among team members re-
cally be recorded on one or two pages, and needs garding how, when, and by whom these tasks will
to be revised only if problems arise. be accomplished.
For students who have some alternate curricu-
lar goals, an additional step is required: The team
must determine when to address these goals dur- Conclusion
ing the daily schedule. The program planning ma-
trix is a planning tool that aids this process. To The approach to individualized adaptations
construct the matrix, the student’s IEP goals are presented here is intended to help teachers in in-
listed in the left-hand column of a table, and the clusive classrooms to make adaptations to school-
class activity schedule appears in the top row, cre- work that are both effective and created by a pro-
ating a table with cells corresponding to each pos- cess that is feasible in the context of the busy life
sible goal–activity combination. Decisions are of schools. The model and the planning tools here
then made about when the student’s alternate evolve as they are used and adapted by teams of
goals will be taught. Although most simplified ac- teachers in the numerous schools across the coun-
ademic goals can be addressed at the same time as try that are seeking to create learning communities
classmates study those same subject areas, the stu- that serve all students. We strongly recommend
dent should receive instruction in his or her func- adopting uniform planning and communication
tional life skills during naturally occurring times forms for a school, grade level, or department.
across the day. This uniformity helps to establish the expectation
that systematic planning and evaluation of adapta-
tions will occur; it also facilitates students’ transi-
Implement and Evaluate Adaptations
tion from one grade level to the next. Using a logi-
The evaluation of individualized adaptations cal planning process and agreed-on criteria for
refers back to their purposes—student achieve- selecting adaptations promotes greater belonging
ment and class membership. Achievement, of and achievement for students and makes the pro-
course, is measured by progress on IEP goals. cess less time consuming for teachers.
222
Janney and Snell Modifying Schoolwork in Inclusive Classrooms
ing needs of all students within common classes Giangreco, M. F., Dennis, R., Cloninger, C., Edelman,
to be reasonable, some readers are likely to feel S., & Schattman, R. (1993). “I’ve counted Jon”:
slightly (or even acutely) daunted by the task that Transformational experiences of teachers educating
students with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 59,
lies before them. This can be especially true if a
359–372.
school has not established the school-wide struc- Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement
tural and cultural conditions that foster inclusion. Act of 2004, Pub. L. No. 108-446, 118 Stat. 2647
One tactic for maintaining motivation and energy (2004).
to move forward is to seek the affective and in- Janney, R., & Snell, M. E. (1997). How teachers include
strumental support of colleagues and parents students with moderate and severe disabilities in ele-
who share an interest in the goals of inclusive mentary classes: The means and meaning of inclu-
programming. Apprehension also will abate if sion. Journal of the Association for Persons With Se-
readers bear these points in mind: (a) strategies vere Handicaps, 22, 159–169.
that prepare the school environment by nurturing Janney, R., & Snell, M. E. (2004). Teachers’ guides to
inclusive practices: Modifying schoolwork. (2nd
the inclusive values, attitudes, and perceptions
ed.). Baltimore: Brookes.
foster the development of a culture that signifi- Janney, R., & Snell, M. E. (2006). Teachers’ guides to
cantly eases the way for the use of accommodat- inclusive practices: Social relationships and peer
ing teaching practices as well as individualized support (2nd ed). Baltimore: Brookes.
adaptations; (b) the vast majority of students Peck, C. A., Gallucci, C., Staub, D., & Schwartz, I.
with disabilities do not require day-to-day indi- (1998, April). The function of vulnerability in the
vidualized planning of adaptations once general creation of inclusive classroom communities: Risk
adaptations have been agreed-on; and (c) only a and opportunity. Paper presented at the annual meet-
very small proportion of students require individ- ing of The American Educational Research Associa-
ualized support plans and ongoing, weekly or tion, San Diego, CA.
Schnorr, R. F. (1990). “Peter? He comes and goes … ”:
monthly team planning. This is not to say that in-
First graders’ perspectives on a part-time main-
stituting inclusive practices is not challenging. stream student. Journal of the Association for Per-
Learning any new skill or process can make one sons With Severe Handicaps, 15, 231–240.
feel inept or frustrated. Snell, M. E., & Janney, R. (2005). Teachers’ guides to
However, teachers who have implemented the inclusive practices: Collaborative teaming (2nd
practices described in this article repeatedly report ed.). Baltimore: Brookes.
satisfaction with the results and are willing to con- U.S. Department of Education. (2002). Twenty-fourth
annual report to Congress on the implementation of
tinue their efforts because of the beneficial out- the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act.
comes for themselves and their students. Jessup, MD: Author.
223