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mineralocorticoids
GLOMERULOSA kidney no yes abundant scarce
(aldosterone)
glucocorticoids
FASCICULATA liver no yes abundant scarce
(cortisol)
gonadocorticoids male
RETICULARIS no yes abundant scarce
(androgens) sex glands
epinephrine, nerve endings,
MEDULLA yes no scarce abundant
norepinephrine tissues
Thyroid gland.
o Has 2 capsules – external one blending in with visceral and pretracheal layers of deep cervical
fascia, and internal one of connective tissue which penetrates gland and divides it incompletely into
lobules.
o Secretory cells are uniquely arranged into follicles, which include the follicular cells surrounding a
reservoir of colloid, which contains thyroglobulin which, following breakdown in thyroid follicular
cells, becomes thyroid hormones T3 and T4.
o Follicles are separated from one another by loose and highly vascular connective tissue.
o Follicular epithelium is simple epithelium, composed of squamous, low cuboidal or columnar cells.
o Production of thyroid hormones depends on storage of prohormone thyroglobulin in colloid that is
stored within follicles.
Production of thyroid hormone requires both exocrine and endocrine phases – exocrine
phases involves active uptake of inorganic iodine from blood, synthesis of thyglobulin, and
incorporation of iodine into tyrosyl residues of thyroglobulin by thyroid peroxidase
(iodination of thyroglobulin occurs within follicle); endocrine phase begins with TSH-
stimulated endocytosis of iodinated thyrogloblin.
Lysosomal enzymes degrade iodothyroglobulin to release T3 and T4 via amino acid channels
in basolateral plasma membrane.
o Cellular structure and function of follicular epithelial cells:
Rest on continuous basement membrane, which separates them from highly vascularized
perivascular spaces.
Bear short microvilli on free, apical surface.
Joined to adjacent follicular cells by junctional complexes and gap junctions.
Extensive RER.
Golgi apparatus, where product is modified and packaged.
3 principal types of inclusions: colloid droplets (phagosomes) pinocytosed from luminal
colloid; primary lysosomes; secondary lysosomes (phagolysosomes).
o Thyroid hormomes are derived from tyrosine – TSH produced by basophils in anterior pituitary
regulates production and secretion.
o T3 and T4 provide negative feedback for secretion of TSH by pituitary and secretion of TRH by
hypothalamus.
o Graves disease – autoimmune disease in which antibodies are produced by plasma cells against
TSH receptors on basal surface of thyroid follicular cells – mimic effect of TSH → thyroid gland
hyperfunctional → goiter + exophthalmos.
o Hypothyrodism – can result from autoimmune disease in which antibodies target thyroid peroxidase
and thyroglobulin → destruction of thyroid follicles.
o Parafollicular (C cells) – derived from neural crest cells.
Usually located in follicular walls, within confines of follicular basement lamia, but are
excluded from contact with follicular lumen by cytoplasmic extensions.
Large cells, lightly stained by ordinary hematoxylin and eosin but heavily stained by lead
hematoxylin.
Produce calcitonin, which antagonizes effects of parathyroid hormones – suppresses release
of calcium from bone by osteoclasts and acts to lower serum calcium by causing calcium
uptake by cells and increased calcium deposition in bone.
Secretion is stimulated by increase in blood levels of calcium.
Parathyroid gland – each posses thin, intrinsic capsule of connective tissue, which separates it from
adjoining thyroid gland; capsule sends trabeculae into parathyroid gland, carrying nerves, vessesl and
lymphatics.
o Cellular structure and function – parenchyma consists of secretory cells arranged in cords, plates and
occasionally follciles, set in loose, highly vascular stroma of reticular connective tissue.
Principal (chief) cells – central pale nucleus; slightly eosinophilic cytoplasm containing
lipofuscin pigment grains and moderate amounts of glycogen; most numerous cells.
Oxyphil cells – larger than principal cells with very eosinophilic cytoplasm.
Appear in gland at about time of puberty and increase in number with age; may
represent transitional chief cells but do not secrete PTH.
o Principal cells produce PTH, which acts in response to low serum calcium levels.
o PTH acts at three target sites: bone (increases bone resorption), kidneys (increases phosphate
exretion and calcium reabsorption), intestine (increases calcium absorption).
Islets of Langerhans – spherical masses of endocrine cells scattered throughout pancreas.
o Separated from rest of pancreatic tissue by reticular fibers.
o Islet composed of cords of cells separate by extensive capillary network.
o Alpha cells – secrete glucagon, which stimulates glycogenolysis in liver by inducing activation of
liver phosphorylase.
o Beta cells – secrete insulin, stain with aldehyde-fuchsin technique.
Also contain glutamate decarboxylase.
Insulin promotes storage of glucose in liver, skeletal muscle, and adipose tissue and promotes
uptake of amino acids by skeletal muscle; increases protein synthesis, accelerates lipid
synthesis, inhibits lypolysis and gluconeogenesis.
o Delta cells – secrete somatostatin; stain with Hellerstrom-Hellman silver technique.
Somatostatin inhibits somatotropin, thyrotropin, corticotrophin by adenohypophysis.
Suppresses islet alpha and beta cells.
o F cells – secrete pancreatic polypeptide; recognized with immunocytochemistry and electron
microscopy.
Pancreatic polypeptide inhibits pancreatic exocrine secretion and causes gall bladder
relaxation and decreased bile secretion.
Diffuse endocrine system – morphological similarities characterize Amine-Precursor Uptake and
Decarboxylation (APUD) cells of thyroid, adrenal medulla, pancreatic islets, lungs, GI.
o APUD cells release amine serotonin and number of peptides such as endorphin, somatostatin, gastin,
secretin, CCK, insulin, glucagon, bombesin.
o Diffuse endocrine cells in lugs are neuroendocrine cells/small granule cells – form aggregates
neuroepithelial bodies.
o Cells in GI – enteroendocrine cells.