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Research Design

Research Design
 refers to a scheme or plan of action for meeting the objectives
 a blueprint for conducting a study that maximizes control over factors that could
interfere with the validity of the findings.
 the researcher’s plan – how the study will be conducted, – type of data that will be
collected, and – the means to be used to obtain these data, (which are determined after
variables are identified and quantified.)

Purpose
 to provide a plan in answering research question.
 Each design has its own applicability depending on the problems and objectives of the
study.
 to minimize possible errors and maximize the reliability and validity of data.

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY


 Reliability refers to the consistency, stability, or dependability of the data. A research
method should yield the same results, even if conducted twice or more
 Validity refers to data that are not only reliable but also true and accurate. It refers to
which extent an instrument is able to actually measure what it is supposed to measure.

Threats to Validity
 History. Refers to the events that may occur during the time frame of the study which
are not actually part of the study. They produce effects that influence the results of the
study, either increasing or decreasing the expected results.
 Selection. Occurs when respondents of the study are chosen not only individually but as
a group.
 Testing refers to the pre-test given that results in an improved performance in the post-
test. To avoid this threat, a pre-test may not be needed for administration. However, if a
pre-test is given, another measure is recommended to use an as an alternate form of
instrument.
 Instrumentation. It refers to unreliability in measuring instruments that may result to an
invalid measurement of performance. The change in instrument used between the pre-
test and post-test may result in an effect not caused by a treatment introduced
 Maturation. This factor refers to the physiologic and psychologic changes that may
happen to the respondents of the study over a period of time. If the time frame of a
training program is quite long and rigid, the participants may experience some
psychological discomfort due to boredom, tiredness, hunger and the like.
 Mortality. It refers to loss of participants during the post-test stage or even during the
implementation of the time frame of the study when the same group of individuals is
studied over a long period of time. By the time a follow-up study is conducted on the
same group, some members may have dropped out or may refuse to cooperate further
in the study.

Characteristics of a Research Design

1. The setting in which the research occurs (laboratory or field)


2. Timing of data collection (Prospective or Longitudinal studies; Retrospective, ex post facto or
historical studies; Cross-sectional studies)
3. The subjects to be included in the research (sample size or number of subjects, method used
to collect the data and researcher’s plan for communicating the findings)

Types of Basic Research Design


 Descriptive Design (Non-Experimental)
 Experimental Design
 Qualitative Method

Descriptive Design
 most common method used in researches.
 used when the purpose of the study is to inquire about the prevailing conditions of
events, objects or people.
 the method describes “what is” in relation to the variables under consideration.

Characteristics
 it ascertains prevailing conditions of facts in a group or case study
 it gives either a quantitative or qualitative, or both, description of the general
characteristics of the group or case under study.
 what caused the prevailing conditions is not emphasized
 the study of conditions at different periods of time may be made and the change that
took place between the periods may be evaluated for any value it gives.
 comparison of the characteristics of two groups may be made to determine their
similarities and differences.
 the variables involved in the study are not usually controlled.
 studies on prevailing conditions may or can be repeated for purposes of comparison and
verification.

Types of Descriptive Design


 Exploratory Descriptive Design. This provides an in-depth exploration of a single process,
variables, or concept. The word “exploratory” indicates that not much is known means
that a survey of the literature failed to reveal any significant research in the area.
 Descriptive Survey Design. Used when you intend to gather a relatively limited data
from a relatively large number of subjects. This is used to measure existing phenomenon
without inquiring into why it exists.
 Correlational Design. Studies the relationship of two or more variables. It has a
conceptual base and is looking for cause and effect relationships in the results but
cannot specify the direction of the relationship at the beginning of the study.
 Comparative Design. Examines and describes differences in variables in two or more
groups that occur naturally in the setting. Specifies cause and effect at the beginning of
a study and is based on a theoretical framework.
 Case study. Extensive exploration of a single unit of study, such as: – Persons – family
groups – communities or institutions – very small number of subjects who are examined
intensively
 Feasibility Study – study tries to determine the viability of an undertaking or a business
venture like establishing an institution or constructing an infrastructure.

Experimental Design
 central characteristic: – manipulating the independent variable and measuring the
effect on the dependent variable.
 The classical experimental designs consist of the experimental group and the control
group.
 Experimental Group – independent variable that can be manipulated – while in the
control group, the dependent variable is measured when no alteration has been made
on the independent variable.
 Control Group – The dependent variable is measured in the experimental group the
same way, and at the same time, as in the control group.

Types of Experimental
Pre-Experimental
 One-Shot Case Study - involves one group that is exposed to a treatment (x) and then
post- tested (o). None of the threats to validity that are relevant is controlled.
 One Group Pre-Test Post-Test Design – involves one group that is pre-tested (o),
exposed to a treatment (x), and post-tested (o). – Although it controls several sources of
validity not controlled by one-shot case study, a number of additional factors are
relevant to this are not controlled.

True-Experimental
 Pre-Test Post-Test Control Group Design- involves at least two groups, both of which are
formed by random assignment; both groups are administered a pre-test of the
dependent variable, one group receives a new or unusual treatment and both groups
are post-tested.
 Post-Test Only Control Group Design – same as the pre-test post-test control group
design except that there is no pre-test; – subjects are randomly assigned to groups, –
exposed to the independent variable and – post-tested.
 Solomon Four-Group Design – It involves random assignment of subjects to one of the
four groups. – Two groups are post-tested and the other two are not; – one of the pre-
tested groups and one of the unpre-tested groups receive the experimental treatment.
 Complete Randomized Design (CRD). A design in which a group of test plants or animals
is studied only once but subsequent treatment is applied to determine the cause of
change. There is no control in this design but the subjects will undergo randomization
procedures.
 Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD). This experimental design uses a group of
test plants and animals as subjects of the study. These are studied once but subsequent
treatments applied are replicated to determine the cause of change. There is control in
this design and the subjects will undergo randomization process.

Quasi-Experimental
 Non-Equivalent Control Group Design - like the pre-test post-test control group design; -
does not involve random assignment. - The lack of random assignment adds a source of
invalidity not associated with the pre-test post-test control group design
 Time Series Analysis - it is an elaboration of the one-group pre-test pos-test design in
which one group is: - repeatedly pre-tested, - exposed to a treatment, and - Repeatedly
post-tested.
 Counter-Balance Design - all groups receive all treatments but in a different order. The
only restriction is that the number of groups equals the number of controlled.

Qualitative Design- is a research method used extensively by scientists and researchers studying
human behavior, opinions, themes and motivations.
 Historical Method – this method is past oriented – objective is to interpret events in the
light of the present situation.
 Ethnographic Method – defined as the environment or setting where the behavior
occurs (Hutchinson, 1906); – as the larger domain of which a given phenomenon is a
part (Wards, 1900); – as immediately relevant aspects of a situation (Miles and
Huberman, 1904); – as lack of experience that incorporates thoughts, acts, and the past
(Kuhms and Martorana, 1902); and – as a frame of reference that directly influences
current decision-making about specific issues (Weshmer and Carp, 1909).
 Phenomenological Method - described as an approach in sociology that is based on
human character as the subject matter of the discipline. - It is also described as an
interpretative, intuitive, and dialectic approach.
 Grounded Theory- takes place when you discover a new theory to underlie your study
at the time of data collection and analysis.
 Narrative/Content and Discourse Analysis- requires an analysis or examination of the
substance or content of the mode of communication used by person, group,
organization, or any institutions in communicating.

Quantitative Research Design

Experimental Research Designs


True Experimental Design- random/causal
 Pretest –posttest control design
 Posttest only control group design
 Solomon Four Group Design
Quasi-experimental Designs
 Non equivalent controlled group design
 Time Series
Pre-experimental/ Single subject
 One-shot case study
 One group pretest-posttest
Factorial Design

Correlational Research Design


 Explanatory
 Prediction
 Meta-analysis

Non-Experimental
Descriptive- describe the image or characteristics of the population
Survey- generalize result of big number of participants
Correlative- relationship of two quantities
Ex Post Facto- explanation about the past activities
Comparative- differences and similarities
Developmental-

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