ITEM # 1: TRAFFIC SURVEYS AND FORECASTS

TRAFFIC SURVEYS AND TRAFFIC FORECAST MODELS ARE IMPORTANT TOOLS

IN TRANSPORT SYSTEM PLANNING.

THE SURVEYS PROVIDE EXTENSIVE OBSERVATION DATA USED TO PRODUCE

BASIC KEY FIGURES FOR THE MOVEMENT OF PEOPLE AND GOODS. THE KEY
FIGURES INCLUDE, FOR EXAMPLE, TOTAL NUMBERS OF JOURNEYS AND GOODS
DELIVERIES AS WELL AS THE MODAL SHARES OF THE DIFFERENT MODES OF
TRANSPORT IN THE REGION.

THE DATA IS ALSO USED FOR TRAFFIC FORECAST MODELS. THE MODELS ARE
NEEDED TO ASSESS THE IMPACTS OF LAND USE AND TRANSPORT SYSTEM
DEVELOPMENT ON TRAFFIC, FOR EXAMPLE, TO PREDICT CHANGES IN TRAFFIC
VOLUMES AND THEIR IMPACTS IN DIFFERENT POINTS OF THE TRANSPORT
NETWORK.

THE 2007-2008 TRAFFIC SURVEY ON PASSENGER TRANSPORT IS UPDATED IN

THE 14 HELSINKI REGION MUNICIPALITIES, AND REPRESENTATIVE DATA IS
COLLECTED ON GOODS TRANSPORT. THE MOST GEOGRAPHICALLY CENTRAL
PARTS OF THE TRAFFIC FORECAST MODELS ARE UPDATED ON THE BASIS OF
THE NEW DATA.

THE SERIES OF SURVEYS CONSISTS OF THE FOLLOWING SUB-STUDIES:

 TRAFFIC SURVEY: THE SURVEY STUDIES RESIDENTS’ TRAVEL PATTERNS

 HLJ BAROMETER: THE SURVEY SEEKS RESIDENTS’ VIEWS ON THE TRANSPORT
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT GOALS AND MEASURES
 DELIVERY TRAFFIC SURVEY: THE STUDY EXAMINES DELIVERY TRAFFIC
CHARACTERISTICS AND THE PERFORMANCE OF THE TRANSPORT SYSTEM
FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF DELIVERY TRAFFIC
 LOGISTICS AREA STUDY: THE STUDY SEEKS TO ESTABLISH FREIGHT TRAFFIC
VOLUMES, COMPOSITION AND DISTRIBUTION IN THE KEY LOGISTICS AREAS
AND PORTS IN THE REGION.

QUICK LOOK

TRAFFIC DATA ON ALL TRAFFIC VOLUME MAPS IS REPRESENTED AS

ANNUAL AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC (AADT), A THEORETICAL ESTIMATE
OF THE TOTAL NUMBER OF VEHICLES USING A SPECIFIC SEGMENT OF
ROADWAY (IN BOTH DIRECTIONS) ON ANY GIVEN DAY OF THE
YEAR. THIS ESTIMATE REPRESENTS THE TOTAL NUMBER OF CARS PER
YEAR DIVIDED BY 365 AND IS DEVELOPED USING FACTORS THAT
ADJUST FOR SEASON, DAY OF THE WEEK, AND VEHICLE TYPE.

1
AADT ESTIMATES ARE SUBJECT TO MANY SOURCES OF
VARIABILITY. THEREFORE, IT IS SUGGESTED THAT HISTORICAL AADT’S
BE REFERENCED IN ADDITION TO THE MOST CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
INFORMATION. CONSTRUCTION EFFECTS ARE UNAVOIDABLE WHEN
COLLECTING TRAFFIC DATA. IF POSSIBLE, TRAFFIC COUNTS ARE
SCHEDULED BEFORE A PROJECT STARTS OR AFTER IT IS
COMPLETED. IT IS IMPORTANT TO REMEMBER THAT CONSTRUCTION
AFFECTS TRAFFIC PATTERNS ON THE ENTIRE ROAD NETWORK;
ANOTHER REASON WHY IT IS VALUABLE TO REFERENCE HISTORICAL
TRAFFIC VOLUMES.

2
ITEM # 2: BONDED AND UNBONDED CONCRETE OVERLAYS

BONDED CONCRETE OVERLAY (BCO) CONSISTS OF A 2-IN. TO 8-IN. THICK

CONCRETE LAYER PLACED ON TOP OF THE EXISTING CONCRETE PAVEMENT
WITH OPERATIONS CONDUCTED TO ENSURE FULL BOND BETWEEN NEW AND
OLD CONCRETE LAYERS. A BCO WITH A MINIMUM THICKNESS OF 4 IN. IS ONE
OF THE MOST COST-EFFECTIVE WAYS OF ENHANCING STRUCTURAL
CAPACITY OF UNDER-DESIGNED PAVEMENTS BY REDUCING DEFLECTIONS
AND EXTENDING SERVICE LIFE. A BCO WITH A THICKNESS OF LESS THAN 4
IN. IS TYPICALLY USED TO RESTORE PAVEMENT SURFACE
CHARACTERISTICS, SUCH AS RIDE AND FRICTION.

THE DEPARTMENT MAINTAINS MANY MILES OF THIN PCC PAVEMENT THAT

HAVE EXCEEDED THEIR DESIGN TRAFFIC PROJECTION AND ARE STILL IN
REASONABLY GOOD CONDITION. THE USE OF BCO IS BASED ON THE
FUNDAMENTAL DESIGN ASSUMPTION THAT THE OLD AND NEW CONCRETE
LAYERS BEHAVE AS A MONOLITHIC LAYER. PROVIDING FULL BOND IS OF THE
UTMOST IMPORTANCE. DURING CONSTRUCTION, SPECIFIC STEPS ARE
TAKEN TO ENHANCE AND ENSURE THE FULL BOND BETWEEN OLD AND NEW
CONCRETE AS DISCUSSED IN CHAPTER 10.

BONDED CONCRETE OVERLAYS OVER JOINTED CONCRETE PAVEMENTS ARE

DIFFICULT TO CONSTRUCT BECAUSE ALL JOINTS MUST BE MATCHED. CRCP-
BONDED CONCRETE OVERLAYS HAVE BEEN CONSTRUCTED AND HAVE
PERFORMED SUCCESSFULLY IN SEVERAL DISTRICTS BUT HAVE NOT BEEN
USED WIDELY THROUGHOUT THE STATE. DISTRICTS CONSIDERING A
BONDED CONCRETE OVERLAY CAN CONTACT CST-M&P, RIGID PAVEMENT &
CONCRETE MATERIALS BRANCH, FOR ASSISTANCE.

UNBONDED CONCRETE OVERLAY CONSISTS OF A CONCRETE LAYER (5 IN. OR

GREATER) ON TOP OF AN EXISTING CONCRETE WITH A HMA INTERLAYER TO
SEPARATE NEW OVERLAY AND EXISTING CONCRETE. AN UNBONDED
OVERLAY IS A FEASIBLE REHABILITATION ALTERNATIVE FOR PCC PAVEMENT
FOR PRACTICALLY ALL CONDITIONS. THESE TYPES OF REHABILITATION
METHODS ARE MOST COST-EFFECTIVE WHEN THE EXISTING PAVEMENT IS
BADLY DETERIORATED BECAUSE A REDUCED AMOUNT OF REPAIRS WERE
MADE TO THE EXISTING PAVEMENT PRIOR TO CONSTRUCTING THE
UNBONDED CONCRETE OVERLAY.

3
UNBONDED CRCP CONCRETE OVERLAYS MAY BE USED OVER CRCP, JOINTED
CONCRETE PAVEMENT (CPCD), OR JOINTED REINFORCED CONCRETE
PAVEMENT (JRCP). UNBONDED CRCP OVERLAY USES THE SAME DESIGN
PROCEDURE AS NEW CRCP PAVEMENTS. THIS USE OF UNBONDED CRCP
OVERLAY CAN BE CREDITED FOR CONTRIBUTING TO THE STRUCTURAL
CAPACITY OF THE EXISTING CONCRETE PAVEMENT AND RESULTS IN A
THINNER CONCRETE PAVEMENT DESIGN THAN REQUIRED FOR CRCP
CONSTRUCTED ON A NEW LOCATION.

ITEM # 3: PAVEMET DESIGN PROCESS

TXDOT SPENDS MORE THAN 50% OF THE ANNUAL CONSTRUCTION AND

MAINTENANCE BUDGET ON PAVEMENTS. BECAUSE OF FUNDING
LIMITATIONS, ONLY A PORTION OF PAVEMENT-RELATED NEEDS CAN BE
ADDRESSED. USE THE APPROVED PAVEMENT DESIGN METHODS SPECIFIED
IN SECTION 6, APPROVED PAVEMENT DESIGN METHODS. IN GENERAL, THESE
METHODS ARE CLASSIFIED AS EITHER:

 AN ANALYTICAL PROCESS WITH ACCURATE DESIGN INPUTS OR

4
 PAST PROVEN PRACTICES (EXPERIENCE-BASED) THAT MAY NOT MEET
CONVENTIONAL ANALYTICAL DESIGN STANDARDS, BUT HAVE A PROVEN
PERFORMANCE TRACK RECORD.

THE OBJECTIVES OF THE PAVEMENT DESIGN PROCESS ARE TO GUIDE THE

DISTRICT PAVEMENT ENGINEER (DPE) TO SELECT A PAVEMENT TYPE, AND
DESIGN THE PAVEMENT WITH AN APPROVED METHOD USING ALL THE
INFORMATION NEEDED TO PROVIDE A STRUCTURE THAT IS CAPABLE OF
CARRYING TRAFFIC LOADS WITH MINIMUM PHYSICAL DETERIORATION,
MAXIMUM SAFETY, AND MAXIMUM RIDE COMFORT. DOCUMENT THE
PAVEMENT DESIGN PROCESS IN A REPORT FORMAT AS DISCUSSED IN
SECTION 9, PAVEMENT DESIGN REPORTS.

1.2 PRELIMINARY PAVEMENT DESIGN

A PRELIMINARY PAVEMENT DESIGN NEEDS TO BE PERFORMED DURING THE

EARLY PHASE OF PROJECT DEVELOPMENT. THIS STEP ENSURES THAT A
VIABLE DESIGN IS GENERATED, BALANCING RISK WHILE ENSURING
ADEQUATE FUNDING RATHER THAN ALLOWING THE PROJECT COST TO
DICTATE THE PAVEMENT DESIGN. PRELIMINARY DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
ARE THEN DISCUSSED AT A DISTRICT LEVEL PAVEMENT DESIGN CONCEPT
CONFERENCE.

1.3 PAVEMENT DESIGN CONCEPT CONFERENCE

PAVEMENT DESIGN CONCEPT CONFERENCES ARE USED TO REFINE INITIAL

CONSIDERATIONS AND ALLOW DEVELOPMENT OF AN APPROVED DESIGN
AND DESIGN REPORT. THE PAVEMENT DESIGN CONCEPT CONFERENCE CAN
BE HELD IN CONJUNCTION WITH OTHER EARLY STAGE PROJECT PLANNING
MEETINGS THAT INCLUDE PARTICIPATION OF KEY DISTRICT PERSONNEL.

1.4 PAVEMENT DESIGN STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURE

EACH DISTRICT SHALL MAINTAIN AND UPDATE A PAVEMENT DESIGN

STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURE (SOP). THE SOP WILL FORMALIZE
DISTRICT COMMUNICATION CHANNELS IN THE PAVEMENT DESIGN PROCESS
AND DOCUMENT TYPICAL DESIGN AND REHABILITATION STRATEGIES BASED
ON MATERIAL AVAILABILITY, TRAFFIC LEVELS, ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONS, AND AN APPROPRIATE LEVEL OF RISK MANAGEMENT. THE SOP

5
WILL ALSO ESTABLISH THE FINAL AUTHORITY FOR PAVEMENT DESIGN WITHIN
THE DISTRICT.

6
ITEM # 4: TRAFFIC VOLUME

TRAFFIC VOLUME IS AN IMPORTANT BASIS FOR DETERMINING WHAT

IMPROVEMENTS, IF ANY, ARE REQUIRED ON A HIGHWAY OR STREET
FACILITY. TRAFFIC VOLUMES MAY BE EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF AVERAGE
DAILY TRAFFIC OR DESIGN HOURLY VOLUMES. THESE VOLUMES MAY BE
USED TO CALCULATE THE SERVICE FLOW RATE, WHICH IS TYPICALLY USED
FOR EVALUATIONS OF GEOMETRIC DESIGN ALTERNATIVES.

AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC. AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC (ADT) REPRESENTS THE

TOTAL TRAFFIC FOR A YEAR DIVIDED BY 365, OR THE AVERAGE TRAFFIC
VOLUME PER DAY. DUE TO SEASONAL, WEEKLY, DAILY, OR HOURLY
VARIATIONS, ADT IS GENERALLY UNDESIRABLE AS A BASIS FOR DESIGN,
PARTICULARLY FOR HIGH-VOLUME FACILITIES. ADT SHOULD ONLY BE USED
AS A DESIGN BASIS FOR LOW AND MODERATE VOLUME FACILITIES, WHERE
MORE THAN TWO LANES UNQUESTIONABLY ARE NOT JUSTIFIED.

DESIGN HOURLY VOLUME. THE DESIGN HOURLY VOLUME (DHV) IS USUALLY

THE 30TH HIGHEST HOURLY VOLUME FOR THE DESIGN YEAR, COMMONLY 20
YEARS FROM THE TIME OF CONSTRUCTION COMPLETION. FOR SITUATIONS
INVOLVING HIGH SEASONAL FLUCTUATIONS IN ADT, SOME ADJUSTMENT OF
DHV MAY BE APPROPRIATE.

FOR TWO-LANE RURAL HIGHWAYS, THE DHV IS THE TOTAL TRAFFIC IN BOTH
DIRECTIONS OF TRAVEL. ON HIGHWAYS WITH MORE THAN TWO LANES (OR
ON TWO-LANE ROADS WHERE IMPORTANT INTERSECTIONS ARE
ENCOUNTERED OR WHERE ADDITIONAL LANES ARE TO BE PROVIDED LATER),
KNOWLEDGE OF THE DIRECTIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF TRAFFIC DURING THE
DESIGN HOUR (DDHV) IS ESSENTIAL FOR DESIGN. DHV AND DDHV MAY BE
DETERMINED BY THE APPLICATION OF CONVERSION FACTORS TO ADT.

COMPUTATION OF DHV AND DDHV. THE PERCENT OF ADT OCCURRING IN THE

DESIGN HOUR (K) MAY BE USED TO CONVERT ADT TO DHV AS FOLLOWS:

DHV = (ADT)(K)

THE PERCENTAGE OF THE DESIGN HOURLY VOLUME THAT IS IN THE

PREDOMINANT DIRECTION OF TRAVEL (D) AND K ARE BOTH CONSIDERED IN
CONVERTING ADT TO DDHV AS SHOWN IN THE FOLLOWING EQUATION:

DDHV = (ADT)(K)(D)

7
DIRECTIONAL DISTRIBUTION (D). TRAFFIC TENDS TO BE MORE EQUALLY
DIVIDED BY DIRECTION NEAR THE CENTER OF AN URBAN AREA OR ON LOOP
FACILITIES. FOR OTHER FACILITIES, D FACTORS OF 60 TO 70 PERCENT
FREQUENTLY OCCUR.

K FACTORS. K IS THE PERCENTAGE OF ADT REPRESENTING THE 30TH

HIGHEST HOURLY VOLUME IN THE DESIGN YEAR. FOR TYPICAL MAIN RURAL
HIGHWAYS, K-FACTORS GENERALLY RANGE FROM 12 TO 18 PERCENT. FOR
URBAN FACILITIES, K FACTORS ARE TYPICALLY SOMEWHAT LOWER,
RANGING FROM 8 TO 12 PERCENT.

PROJECTED TRAFFIC VOLUMES. PROJECTED TRAFFIC VOLUMES ARE

PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORTATION PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING (TPP)
DIVISION UPON REQUEST AND SERVE AS A BASIS FOR DESIGN OF PROPOSED
IMPROVEMENTS. FOR HIGH-VOLUME FACILITIES, A TABULATION SHOWING
TRAFFIC CONVERTED TO DHV OR DDHV WILL BE PROVIDED BY TPP IF
SPECIFICALLY REQUESTED. GENERALLY, HOWEVER, PROJECTED TRAFFIC
VOLUME IS EXPRESSED AS ADT WITH K AND D FACTORS PROVIDED.

NOTE: IF THE DIRECTIONAL ADT IS KNOWN FOR ONLY ONE DIRECTION, TOTAL
ADT MAY BE COMPUTED BY MULTIPLYING THE DIRECTIONAL ADT BY
TWO FOR MOST CASES.

SERVICE FLOW RATE. A FACILITY SHOULD BE DESIGNED TO PROVIDE

SUFFICIENT CAPACITY TO ACCOMMODATE THE DESIGN TRAFFIC VOLUMES
(ADT, DHV, DDHV). THE NECESSARY CAPACITY OF A ROADWAY IS INITIALLY
BASED ON A SET OF “IDEAL CONDITIONS.” THESE CONDITIONS ARE THEN
ADJUSTED FOR THE “ACTUAL CONDITIONS” THAT ARE PREDICTED TO EXIST
ON THE ROADWAY SECTION. THIS ADJUSTED CAPACITY IS TERMED SERVICE
FLOW RATE (SF) AND IS DEFINED AS A MEASURE OF THE MAXIMUM FLOW
RATE UNDER PREVAILING CONDITIONS. ADJUSTING FOR PREVAILING
CONDITIONS INVOLVES ADJUSTING FOR VARIATIONS IN THE FOLLOWING
FACTORS:

 LANE WIDTH
 LATERAL CLEARANCES
 FREE-FLOW SPEED
 TERRAIN
 DISTRIBUTION OF VEHICLE TYPE.

8
 SERVICE FLOW RATE IS THE TRAFFIC PARAMETER MOST COMMONLY
USED IN CAPACITY AND LEVEL-OF-SERVICE (LOS) EVALUATIONS.
KNOWLEDGE OF HIGHWAY CAPACITY AND LOS IS ESSENTIAL TO
PROPERLY FIT A PLANNED HIGHWAY OR STREET TO THE REQUIREMENTS
OF TRAFFIC DEMAND. BOTH CAPACITY AND LOS SHOULD BE EVALUATED
IN THE FOLLOWING ANALYSES:

 SELECTION OF GEOMETRIC DESIGN FOR AN INTERSECTION

 DETERMINING THE APPROPRIATE TYPE OF FACILITY AND NUMBER OF
LANES WARRANTED
 PERFORMING RAMP MERGE/DIVERGE ANALYSIS
 PERFORMING WEAVING ANALYSIS AND SUBSEQUENT DETERMINATION OF
WEAVING SECTION LENGTHS

ALL ROADWAY DESIGN SHOULD REFLECT PROPER CONSIDERATION OF

CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE PROCEDURES AS DETAILED IN THE
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD’S HIGHWAY CAPACITY MANUAL.

TRAFFIC SPEED

TRAFFIC SPEED IS INFLUENCED BY VOLUME, CAPACITY, DESIGN, WEATHER,

TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES, POSTED SPEED LIMIT, AND INDIVIDUAL DRIVER
PREFERENCE. FOR DESIGN PURPOSES, THE FOLLOWING DEFINITIONS
APPLY:

 LOW-SPEED IS 45 MPH [70 KM/H] AND BELOW

 HIGH-SPEED IS 50 MPH [80 KM/H] AND ABOVE

SEVERAL TABLES AND FIGURES FOR HIGH-SPEED CONDITIONS WILL SHOW

VALUES FOR 45 MPH [70 KM/H] TO PROVIDE INFORMATION FOR TRANSITIONAL
ROADWAY SECTIONS.

DESIGN SPEED. DESIGN SPEED IS A SELECTED SPEED USED TO DETERMINE

THE VARIOUS GEOMETRIC DESIGN FEATURES OF THE ROADWAY. IT IS
IMPORTANT TO DESIGN FACILITIES WITH ALL ELEMENTS IN BALANCE,
CONSISTENT WITH AN APPROPRIATE DESIGN SPEED. DESIGN ELEMENTS
SUCH AS SIGHT DISTANCE, VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT, LANE
AND SHOULDER WIDTHS, ROADSIDE CLEARANCES, SUPERELEVATION, ETC.,
ARE INFLUENCED BY DESIGN SPEED.

9
SELECTION OF DESIGN SPEED FOR A GIVEN FUNCTIONALLY CLASSIFIED
ROADWAY IS INFLUENCED PRIMARILY BY THE CHARACTER OF TERRAIN,
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS, EXTENT OF ROADSIDE DEVELOPMENT (I.E.,
URBAN OR RURAL), AND HIGHWAY TYPE. FOR EXAMPLE, THE DESIGN SPEED
CHOSEN WOULD USUALLY BE LESS FOR ROUGH TERRAIN, OR FOR AN URBAN
FACILITY WITH FREQUENT POINTS OF ACCESS, AS OPPOSED TO A RURAL
HIGHWAY ON LEVEL TERRAIN. CHOICE SHOULD BE INFLUENCED BY THE
EXPECTATIONS OF DRIVERS, WHICH ARE CLOSELY RELATED TO TRAFFIC
VOLUME CONDITIONS, POTENTIAL TRAFFIC CONFLICTS, AND TOPOGRAPHIC
FEATURES.

APPROPRIATE DESIGN SPEED VALUES FOR THE VARIOUS HIGHWAY CLASSES

ARE PRESENTED IN SUBSEQUENT SECTIONS. WHENEVER MOUNTAINOUS
CONDITIONS ARE ENCOUNTERED, REFER TO AASHTO’S A POLICY ON
GEOMETRIC DESIGN FOR HIGHWAYS AND STREETS.

POSTED SPEED. POSTED SPEED REFERS TO THE MAXIMUM SPEED LIMIT

POSTED ON A SECTION OF HIGHWAY. TXDOT’S PROCEDURE FOR
ESTABLISHING SPEED ZONES STATES THAT THE POSTED SPEED SHOULD BE
BASED PRIMARILY UPON THE 85TH PERCENTILE SPEED WHEN ADEQUATE
SPEED SAMPLES CAN BE SECURED. SPEED ZONING GUIDELINES PERMIT
CONSIDERATION OF OTHER FACTORS SUCH AS ROADSIDE DEVELOPMENT,
ROAD AND SHOULDER SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS, PUBLIC INPUT, AND
PEDESTRIAN AND BICYCLE ACTIVITY.

10
ITEM # 5: APPLICATION OF DESIGN GUIDELINES

THE CRITERIA CONTAINED IN THIS ROADWAY DESIGN MANUAL (MANUAL) ARE

APPLICABLE TO ALL CLASSES OF HIGHWAYS FROM FREEWAYS TO TWO-LANE
ROADS. THIS MANUAL REPRESENTS A SYNTHESIS OF CURRENT
INFORMATION AND DESIGN PRACTICES RELATED TO HIGHWAY DESIGN.

SINCE NO DOCUMENT CAN BE EXPECTED TO COVER EVERY HIGHWAY

DESIGN SITUATION, THE GUIDELINES MAY REQUIRE MODIFICATION FOR
LOCAL CONDITIONS. IT IS IMPORTANT THAT SIGNIFICANT DEVIATIONS FROM
THE MANUAL BE DOCUMENTED AND BE BASED ON AN OBJECTIVE
ENGINEERING ANALYSIS.

IT SHOULD BE NOTED THAT ROADWAY DESIGN CRITERIA AND TECHNOLOGY

IS A RAPIDLY CHANGING FIELD OF STUDY. THE FACT THAT NEW DESIGN
VALUES ARE PRESENTED OR UPDATED HEREIN DOES NOT IMPLY THAT
EXISTING HIGHWAY CONDITIONS ARE LESS SAFE. ALSO, CONTINUALLY
ENHANCED DESIGN PRACTICES DO NOT MANDATE THE NEED FOR
IMPROVEMENT PROJECTS. WITH A SIGNIFICANT TRANSPORTATION
INFRASTRUCTURE IN PLACE, THE INTENTION IS TO USE THE MOST CURRENT
DESIGN TECHNIQUES ON PROJECTS SCHEDULED FOR FUTURE
CONSTRUCTION. THE MANUAL IS INTENDED TO RESULT IN PROJECTS, WHICH
PROVIDE USER SAFETY AND OPERATIONAL EFFICIENCY WHILE TAKING INTO
ACCOUNT ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY. VARIOUS ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
CAN BE MITIGATED OR ELIMINATED BY THE USE OF APPROPRIATE DESIGN
PRACTICES. TO THE EXTENT PRACTICAL, THE SELECTION OF COST
EFFECTIVE DESIGN CRITERIA CAN ALLOW THE FINISHED PROJECT TO BE
MORE CONSISTENT WITH SURROUNDING TERRAIN AND/OR SETTINGS.

ROADWAY DESIGN MANUAL FORMAT

THE MANUAL IS FORMATTED TO FOLLOW THE TRADITIONAL RESURFACING,

RESTORATION, REHABILITATION, AND RECONSTRUCTION (THE FOUR R’S) OF
HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION. THE INDIVIDUAL SECTIONS ARE BRIEFLY
DESCRIBED IN THE FOLLOWING PARAGRAPHS.

CHAPTER 2 PRESENTS BASIC DESIGN CRITERIA. PORTIONS OF THIS SECTION

WILL HAVE APPLICATION TO ALL PROJECTS TO VARYING DEGREES. THE
CHAPTER DISCUSSES TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS, SIGHT DISTANCE,
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENT, AND CROSS SECTIONAL

11
ELEMENTS. THE DIMENSIONS GIVEN IN THIS CHAPTER WILL BE REFERENCED
FOR MOST OF THE ROADWAY CLASSIFICATIONS.

CHAPTER 3 DESCRIBES NEW LOCATION AND RECONSTRUCTION (4R)

PROJECT DESIGN CRITERIA. THESE PROJECTS USUALLY REPRESENT THE
HIGHEST TYPE DESIGN SINCE THESE ARE EITHER NEW ROADWAYS OR
ALMOST TOTALLY RECONSTRUCTED ROADWAY SECTIONS. THIS CHAPTER
OF THE MANUAL IS BROKEN INTO ROADWAY CLASSIFICATIONS SUCH AS
URBAN STREETS, SUBURBAN ROADWAYS, TWO-LANE HIGHWAYS, MULTILANE
RURAL HIGHWAYS, AND FREEWAYS.

CHAPTER 4 DESCRIBES NON-FREEWAY REHABILITATION (3R) PROJECT

DESIGN CRITERIA. REHABILITATION PROJECTS ARE INTENDED TO PRESERVE
AND EXTEND THE SERVICE LIFE OF THE EXISTING ROADWAY AND TO
ENHANCE SAFETY. THE CHAPTER PRESENTS CRITERIA FOR IMPROVEMENTS
AND ENHANCEMENTS WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF ACCEPTABLE
REHABILITATION PROJECT DESIGN.

CHAPTER 5 DESCRIBES NONFREEWAY RESTORATION (2R) PROJECT DESIGN

CRITERIA. RESTORATION PROJECTS ARE INTENDED TO RESTORE THE
PAVEMENT STRUCTURE, RIDING QUALITY, OR OTHER NECESSARY
COMPONENTS TO THEIR EXISTING CROSS SECTION CONFIGURATION. THE
CHAPTER MAKES A SPECIAL NOTE THAT THE ADDITION OF THROUGH TRAVEL
LANES IS NOT PERMITTED UNDER A RESTORATION PROJECT.

CHAPTER 6 DESCRIBES SPECIAL FACILITY DESIGN CRITERIA. SPECIAL

FACILITIES MAY INCLUDE OFF-SYSTEM BRIDGE PROJECTS, HISTORICAL
ROADWAYS OR STRUCTURES, PARK ROADS, AND BICYCLE FACILITIES. FOR
THESE PROJECTS, THE ROADWAY MAY HAVE PRESERVATION OR ECONOMIC
CONSIDERATIONS WHICH HAVE EQUAL WEIGHT WITH THE USER ACCESS AND
MOBILITY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ROADWAY, BRIDGE, OR OTHER
FACILITY.

CHAPTER 7 DESCRIBES MISCELLANEOUS DESIGN ELEMENTS. THESE

ELEMENTS MAY NOT BE A PART OF ALL HIGHWAY PROJECTS. GUIDANCE IS
GIVEN CONCERNING LONGITUDINAL BARRIERS, ATTENUATORS, FENCING,
PARKING, EMERGENCY MEDIAN OPENINGS, AND MINIMUM TURNING
DESIGNS. THESE INDIVIDUAL DESIGN ELEMENTS CAN BE SELECTED AS
NEEDED AND INCORPORATED INTO APPROPRIATE PROJECT DESIGNS.
APPENDIX A DESCRIBES THE COMPONENTS OF GUARDRAIL INSTALLATIONS

12
AND THE METHODOLOGY FOR DETERMINING APPROPRIATE LENGTHS OF
NEED.

APPENDIX B DESCRIBES THE TREATMENT OF PAVEMENT DROP-OFFS IN

WORK ZONES.

ITEM # 6: NON-FREEWAY REHABILITATION (3R) DESIGN CRITERIA

THE BASIC PURPOSES OF RESURFACING, RESTORATION OR

REHABILITATION (3R) CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS ARE TO PRESERVE AND
EXTEND THE SERVICE LIFE OF EXISTING HIGHWAYS AND STREETS AND
TO ENHANCE SAFETY. BECAUSE OF LIMITED RESOURCES, INDIVIDUAL
REHABILITATION PROJECTS MAY HAVE TO BE LIMITED IN SCOPE IN AN
EFFORT TO PRESERVE THE MOBILITY FUNCTION OF THE ENTIRE
HIGHWAY SYSTEM. THE SCOPE OF 3R PROJECTS VARIES FROM THIN
OVERLAYS AND MINOR SAFETY UPGRADING TO MORE COMPLETE
REHABILITATION.

13
3R PROJECTS ARE THOSE WHICH ADDRESS PAVEMENT NEEDS AND/OR
DEFICIENCIES AND WHICH SUBSTANTIALLY FOLLOW THE EXISTING
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENT. THEY DIFFER FROM
RECONSTRUCTION PROJECTS IN THAT RECONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
SUBSTANTIALLY DEVIATE FROM THE EXISTING HORIZONTAL AND/OR
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT AND/OR ADD CAPACITY.

DESIGN GUIDELINES

DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR 3R PROJECTS HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED TO

ALLOW GREATER DESIGN FLEXIBILITY. AT THE DISTRICT’S OPTION,
DESIGN VALUES ABOVE THOSE PRESENTED IN THIS CHAPTER MAY BE
USED.

THESE GUIDELINES OFFER SUFFICIENT FLEXIBILITY TO ENSURE COST

EFFECTIVE DESIGN AND FURTHER COMPLIANCE WITH THE PROGRAM
GOALS OF PRESERVING AND EXTENDING THE SERVICE LIFE AND
ENHANCING SAFETY. WHILE SAFETY MAY NOT BE THE PRIMARY REASON
FOR INITIATING A 3R PROJECT, HIGHWAY SAFETY IS AN ESSENTIAL
ELEMENT OF ALL PROJECTS. THESE 3R PROJECTS ARE TO BE
DEVELOPED IN A MANNER WHICH IDENTIFIES AND INCORPORATES
APPROPRIATE SAFETY ENHANCEMENTS.

14
ITEM # 7: LANE

IN THE CONTEXT OF TRAFFIC CONTROL, A LANE IS PART OF A ROADWAY

(CARRIAGEWAY) THAT IS DESIGNATED FOR USE BY A SINGLE LINE OF
VEHICLES, TO CONTROL AND GUIDE DRIVERS AND REDUCE TRAFFIC
CONFLICTS.[1] MOST PUBLIC ROADS (HIGHWAYS) HAVE AT LEAST TWO LANES,
ONE FOR TRAFFIC IN EACH DIRECTION, SEPARATED BY LANE MARKINGS. ON
MULTILANE ROADWAYS AND BUSIER TWO-LANE ROADS, LANES ARE
DESIGNATED WITH ROAD SURFACE MARKINGS. MAJOR HIGHWAYS OFTEN
HAVE TWO MULTI-LANE ROADWAYS SEPARATED BY A MEDIAN.
SOME ROADS AND BRIDGES THAT CARRY VERY LOW VOLUMES OF TRAFFIC
ARE LESS THAN 15 FEET (4.6 M) WIDE, AND ARE ONLY A SINGLE LANE WIDE.
VEHICLES TRAVELLING IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS MUST SLOW OR STOP TO
PASS EACH OTHER. IN RURAL AREAS, THESE ARE OFTEN CALLED COUNTRY
LANES. IN URBAN AREAS, ALLEYS ARE OFTEN ONLY ONE LANE WIDE. URBAN
AND SUBURBAN ONE LANE ROADS ARE OFTEN DESIGNATED FOR ONE-WAY
TRAFFIC.

ITEM # 8: LANE WIDTH

WHILE IN GENERAL, WIDER LANES ARE ASSOCIATED WITH A REDUCTION IN

CRASHES,[7] IN URBAN SETTINGS BOTH NARROW (LESS THAN 2.8 M) AND WIDE
(OVER 3.1~3.2 M) LANES INCREASE CRASH RISKS. WIDER LANES (OVER
3.3~3.4M) ARE ASSOCIATED WITH 33% HIGHER IMPACT SPEEDS, AS WELL AS
HIGHER CRASH RATES. CARRYING CAPACITY IS ALSO MAXIMAL AT A WIDTH OF
3 TO 3.1 METRES (9.8 TO 10.2 FT), BOTH FOR MOTOR TRAFFIC AND FOR

15
BICYCLES. PEDESTRIAN VOLUME DECLINES AS LANES WIDEN, AND
INTERSECTIONS WITH NARROWER LANES PROVIDE THE HIGHEST CAPACITY
FOR BICYCLES. AS LANE WIDTH DECREASES, TRAFFIC SPEED DIMINISHES.
ADVOCATES FOR SAFETY OF PEOPLE WALKING AND PEOPLE ON BIKES, AND
MANY NEW URBANISTS DISAGREE WITH TRADITIONAL THINKING IN TRAFFIC
ENGINEERING, SAYING THAT SAFETY AND CAPACITY ARE NOT ADVERSELY
IMPACTED BY REDUCING LANES WIDTHS TO AS LITTLE AS 10 FEET (3.0 M).
MOREOVER, WIDER TRAVEL LANES ALSO INCREASE EXPOSURE AND
CROSSING DISTANCE FOR PEDESTRIANS AT INTERSECTIONS AND MIDBLOCK
CROSSINGS.
THE MAXIMUM TRUCK WIDTH HAD BEEN 96 INCHES (2.438 M) IN THE CODE OF
FEDERAL REGULATIONS OF 1956 WHICH MATCHES WITH THE WIDTH OF EIGHT-
FOOT FOR SHIPPING CONTAINERS. THIS HAD BEEN INCREASED TO 102 INCHES
(2.591 M) IN 1976 WHICH EXPLICITLY STATES TO BE READ AS THE SLIGHTLY
LARGER METRIC 2.6 METRES (102.36 IN) WIDTH RESPECTING INTERNATIONAL
HARMONIZATION.[12] THE SAME APPLIES TO STANDARDS IN EUROPE WHICH
HAD INCREASED THE ALLOWABLE SIZE OF ROAD VEHICLES WITH A CURRENT
MAXIMUM OF 2.55 METRES (100.39 IN) FOR MOST TRUCKS AND ALLOWING 2.6
METRES (102.36 IN) FOR REFRIGERATOR TRUCKS. THE MINIMUM EXTRA SPACE
HAD BEEN 0.20 METRES (7.87 IN) AND IT IS CURRENTLY ASSUMED TO BE AT
LEAST 0.25 METRES (9.84 IN) ON EACH SIDE. FOR ROADS WITH A LOWER
AMOUNT OF TRAFFIC IT IS ALLOWED TO BUILD THE SECOND OR THIRD LANE IN
THE SAME DIRECTION TO AN ASSUMED LOWER WIDTH FOR CARS LIKE 1.75
METRES (68.90 IN), HOWEVER THIS IS NOT RECOMMENDED AS A DESIGN
PRINCIPLE FOR NEW ROADS AS CHANGES IN THE AMOUNT OF TRAFFIC COULD
MAKE FOR UNNECESSARILY INCREASED RISKS IN THE FUTURE.

16
ITEM # 9: LANE MARKINGS

PAINTED LANE MARKINGS VARY WIDELY FROM COUNTRY TO COUNTRY. IN THE

UNITED STATES, CANADA, MEXICO, HONDURAS, PUERTO RICO, VIRGIN ISLANDS
AND NORWAY, YELLOW LINES SEPARATE TRAFFIC GOING OPPOSITE
DIRECTIONS AND WHITE SEPARATES LANES OF TRAFFIC TRAVELING THE SAME
DIRECTION, BUT SUCH IS NOT THE CASE IN MANY EUROPEAN COUNTRIES.
LANE MARKINGS ARE MOSTLY LINES PAINTED ON THE ROAD BY A ROAD
MARKING MACHINE, WHICH CAN ADJUST THE MARKING WIDTHS ACCORDING TO
THE LANE TYPE.
TRAFFIC REPORTS IN CALIFORNIA OFTEN REFER TO ACCIDENTS BEING "IN THE
NUMBER X LANE." THE CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
(CALTRANS) ASSIGNS THE NUMBERS FROM LEFT TO RIGHT.] THE FAR LEFT
PASSING LANE IS THE NUMBER 1 LANE. THE NUMBER OF THE SLOW
LANE (CLOSEST TO FREEWAY ONRAMPS/OFFRAMPS) DEPENDS ON THE TOTAL
NUMBER OF LANES, AND COULD BE ANYWHERE FROM 2 TO 8.
WHITE LINES PAINTED ON THE PAVEMENT INDICATE TRAFFIC TRAVELING IN
YOUR DIRECTION.

BROKEN WHITE LINE: YOU MAY CHANGE LANES IF IT IS SAFE TO DO SO.

SOLID WHITE LINE: REQUIRES YOU TO STAY WITHIN THE LANE AND ALSO
MARKS THE SHOULDER OF THE ROADWAY.

YELLOW LINES MARK THE CENTER OF A TWO-WAY ROAD USED FOR TWO-WAY
TRAFFIC. YOU MAY PASS ON A TWO-WAY ROAD IF THE YELLOW CENTERLINE IS
BROKEN. WHEN A SOLID AND A BROKEN YELLOW LINE ARE TOGETHER, YOU
MUST NOT PASS IF YOU ARE DRIVING NEXT TO THE SOLID LINE. TWO SOLID
YELLOW LINES MEAN NO PASSING. NEVER DRIVE TO THE LEFT OF THESE LINES.

17
ITEM # 10: LEVEL OF SERVICE

THE FOLLOWING SECTION PERTAINS TO ONLY NORTH AMERICAN HIGHWAY

LOS STANDARDS AS IN THE HIGHWAY CAPACITY MANUAL (HCM)
AND AASHTO GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS AND STREETS ("GREEN
BOOK"), USING LETTERS A THROUGH F, WITH A BEING THE BEST AND F BEING
THE WORST, SIMILAR TO ACADEMIC GRADING.
A: FREE FLOW. TRAFFIC FLOWS AT OR ABOVE THE POSTED SPEED LIMIT AND
MOTORISTS HAVE COMPLETE MOBILITY BETWEEN LANES. THE AVERAGE
SPACING BETWEEN VEHICLES IS ABOUT 550 FT (167 M) OR 27 CAR LENGTHS.
MOTORISTS HAVE A HIGH LEVEL OF PHYSICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL
COMFORT. THE EFFECTS OF INCIDENTS OR POINT BREAKDOWNS ARE EASILY
ABSORBED. LOS A GENERALLY OCCURS LATE AT NIGHT IN URBAN AREAS AND
FREQUENTLY IN RURAL AREAS.
B: REASONABLY FREE FLOW. LOS A SPEEDS ARE MAINTAINED,
MANEUVERABILITY WITHIN THE TRAFFIC STREAM IS SLIGHTLY RESTRICTED.
THE LOWEST AVERAGE VEHICLE SPACING IS ABOUT 330 FT (100 M) OR 16 CAR
LENGTHS. MOTORISTS STILL HAVE A HIGH LEVEL OF PHYSICAL AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL COMFORT.
C: STABLE FLOW, AT OR NEAR FREE FLOW. ABILITY TO MANEUVER THROUGH
LANES IS NOTICEABLY RESTRICTED AND LANE CHANGES REQUIRE MORE
DRIVER AWARENESS. MINIMUM VEHICLE SPACING IS ABOUT 220 FT (67 M) OR
11 CAR LENGTHS. MOST EXPERIENCED DRIVERS ARE COMFORTABLE, ROADS
REMAIN SAFELY BELOW BUT EFFICIENTLY CLOSE TO CAPACITY, AND POSTED
SPEED IS MAINTAINED. MINOR INCIDENTS MAY STILL HAVE NO EFFECT BUT
LOCALIZED SERVICE WILL HAVE NOTICEABLE EFFECTS AND TRAFFIC DELAYS
WILL FORM BEHIND THE INCIDENT. THIS IS THE TARGET LOS FOR SOME URBAN
AND MOST RURAL HIGHWAYS.
D: APPROACHING UNSTABLE FLOW. SPEEDS SLIGHTLY DECREASE AS TRAFFIC
VOLUME SLIGHTLY INCREASE. FREEDOM TO MANEUVER WITHIN THE TRAFFIC
STREAM IS MUCH MORE LIMITED AND DRIVER COMFORT LEVELS DECREASE.
VEHICLES ARE SPACED ABOUT 160 FT(50M) OR 8 CAR LENGTHS. MINOR
INCIDENTS ARE EXPECTED TO CREATE DELAYS. EXAMPLES ARE A BUSY
SHOPPING CORRIDOR IN THE MIDDLE OF A WEEKDAY, OR A FUNCTIONAL
URBAN HIGHWAY DURING COMMUTING HOURS. IT IS A COMMON GOAL FOR
URBAN STREETS DURING PEAK HOURS, AS ATTAINING LOS C WOULD REQUIRE
PROHIBITIVE COST AND SOCIETAL IMPACT IN BYPASS ROADS AND LANE
ADDITIONS.
E: UNSTABLE FLOW, OPERATING AT CAPACITY. FLOW BECOMES IRREGULAR
AND SPEED VARIES RAPIDLY BECAUSE THERE ARE VIRTUALLY NO USABLE
GAPS TO MANEUVER IN THE TRAFFIC STREAM AND SPEEDS RARELY REACH
THE POSTED LIMIT. VEHICLE SPACING IS ABOUT 6 CAR LENGTHS, BUT SPEEDS
ARE STILL AT OR ABOVE 50 MI/H (80 KM/H). ANY DISRUPTION TO TRAFFIC FLOW,

18
SUCH AS MERGING RAMP TRAFFIC OR LANE CHANGES, WILL CREATE A SHOCK
WAVE AFFECTING TRAFFIC UPSTREAM. ANY INCIDENT WILL CREATE SERIOUS
DELAYS. DRIVERS' LEVEL OF COMFORT BECOME POOR.[1] THIS IS A COMMON
STANDARD IN LARGER URBAN AREAS, WHERE SOME ROADWAY CONGESTION
IS INEVITABLE.
F: FORCED OR BREAKDOWN FLOW. EVERY VEHICLE MOVES IN LOCKSTEP WITH
THE VEHICLE IN FRONT OF IT, WITH FREQUENT SLOWING REQUIRED. TRAVEL
TIME CANNOT BE PREDICTED, WITH GENERALLY MORE DEMAND THAN
CAPACITY. A ROAD IN A CONSTANT TRAFFIC JAM IS AT THIS LOS, BECAUSE LOS
IS AN AVERAGE OR TYPICAL SERVICE RATHER THAN A CONSTANT STATE. FOR
EXAMPLE, A HIGHWAY MIGHT BE AT LOS D FOR THE AM PEAK HOUR, BUT HAVE
TRAFFIC CONSISTENT WITH LOS C SOME DAYS, LOS E OR F OTHERS, AND COME
TO A HALT ONCE EVERY FEW WEEKS.

ITEM # 11: HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE

WE MANAGE THE STREETS AHEAD PROJECT TO IMPROVE AND MAINTAIN OUR

ROADS, PAVEMENTS, BRIDGES, STREET LIGHTS AND OTHER ITEMS IN AND
AROUND OUR STREETS.
WE ENSURE THAT ALL NEW ROADS THAT ARE TO BE ADOPTED AND
MAINTAINED AS PUBLIC HIGHWAYS ARE CONSTRUCTED. THIS IS IN
ACCORDANCE WITH THE APPROVED PLANS AND TO THE CORRECT STANDARD
AND WE MAINTAIN ACCURATE RECORDS OF ROADS AND PROPERTY
ADDRESSES.
WE HAVE SIX TEAMS WORKING ON HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE:
ADDRESS MANAGEMENT, MAINTAINING ACCURATE RECORDS OF ROADS AND
PROPERTY ADDRESSES

19
DEVELOPMENT AND ADOPTIONS, SUPPORTING THE PLANNING PROCESS AND
ADOPT HIGHWAYS
HIGHWAY RECORDS, MAINTAIN ACCURATE RECORDS OF SHEFFIELD’S
HIGHWAYS
NEW WORKS TEAM, ARRANGE FOR AMEY TO CARRY OUT CHANGES TO THE
HIGHWAY NETWORK
OPERATIONAL PROCESSES, MANAGE SERVICE ACTIVITIES UNDER THE
STREETS AHEAD PROJECT
TECHNICAL, ENSURE WORK IS DESIGNED AND CARRIED OUT CORRECTLY
LAGAN OPERATIONS & MAINTENANCE LIMITED HAS BEEN SUCCESSFULLY
DELIVERING THE OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF ROADS FOR THE LAST SIX
YEARS. WE CURRENTLY OPERATE THE FERMOY AND LIMERICK PROJECTS ON
BEHALF OF THE CONCESSIONARIES IN A TERM CONTRACT ARRANGEMENT. WE
ALSO ASSIST LOCAL AUTHORITIES WITH THE MANAGEMENT OF THEIR ROADS.
TYPICAL RESPONSIBILITIES INCLUDE:
ROUTINE DAILY INSPECTIONS AND REPORTING OF THE ROAD AND ASSOCIATED
STRUCTURES, DRAINAGE AND FURNITURE
REPAIRS IDENTIFIED IN ROUTINE DAILY INSPECTIONS – BOTH TEMPORARY AND
PERMANENT
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT – DRAINAGE, GULLY EMPTYING AND
SWEEPING, SLUDGE REMOVAL, PONDS MAINTENANCE, ROADKILL REMOVAL
AND DISPOSAL OF DEBRIS AND OTHER OBJECTS
LANDSCAPE MANAGEMENT – GRASS/SHRUB/TREE CUTTING, MANAGEMENT
AND WEED CONTROL
24 HOUR INCIDENT RESPONSE – ROAD INCIDENTS, INCIDENT REACTION
MANAGEMENT, LIAISON WITH EMERGENCY SERVICES, CLEARANCE OF
RESULTANT DEBRIS, TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT REPAIRS AND VEHICLE
REMOVAL
ELECTRICAL APPARATUS – LIGHTING/SIGNAGE, CLEANING AND LAMP
CHANGES, CLEANING AND MONITORING OF EMERGENCY ROADSIDE
TELEPHONES AND OTHER COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS.
FURNITURE AND SIGNAGE – CLEANING AND REPAIRS, BARRIER REPAIRS, ROAD
MARKINGS AND STUD REPAIRS
WINTER MAINTENANCE – MONITORING OF WEATHER CONDITIONS AND
TREATMENT DECISIONS IE. INTERPRETING WEATHER DATA FROM WEATHER

20
STATIONS, FORECASTS, ACTUAL CONDITIONS AND SOFTWARE, SALT
SPREADING TREATMENTS AND SNOW CLEARANCE.

ITEM # 12: SURFACE COURSE CONSTRUCTION

THE WEARING COURSE IS THE UPPER LAYER IN ROADWAY, AIRFIELD, AND

DOCKYARD CONSTRUCTION. THE TERM 'SURFACE COURSE' IS SOMETIMES
USED, HOWEVER THIS TERM IS SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT AS IT CAN BE USED TO
DESCRIBE VERY THIN SURFACE LAYERS SUCH AS CHIP SEAL. IN RIGID
PAVEMENTS THE UPPER LAYER IS A PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE SLAB.
IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS, THE UPPER LAYER CONSISTS OF ASPHALT
CONCRETE, THAT IS A CONSTRUCTION AGGREGATE WITH
A BITUMINOUS BINDER. THE WEARING COURSE IS TYPICALLY PLACED ON THE
BINDER COURSE WHICH IS THEN LAID ON THE BASE COURSE, WHICH IS
NORMALLY PLACED ON THE SUBBASE, WHICH RESTS ON THE SUBGRADE.
THERE ARE VARIOUS DIFFERENT TYPES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT WEARING
COURSE, SUITABLE FOR DIFFERENT SITUATIONS. STONE MASTIC ASPHALT IS A

21
TYPE OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT WEARING COURSE WHICH IS TYPICALLY USED
FOR HEAVILY TRAFFICKED ROADS

ITEM # 13: SIGHT DISTANCE

STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE IS ONE OF SEVERAL TYPES OF SIGHT
DISTANCE USED IN ROAD DESIGN. IT IS A NEAR WORST-CASE DISTANCE A
VEHICLE DRIVER NEEDS TO BE ABLE TO SEE IN ORDER HAVE ROOM TO STOP
BEFORE COLLIDING WITH SOMETHING IN THE ROADWAY, SUCH AS A
PEDESTRIAN IN A CROSSWALK, A STOPPED VEHICLE, OR ROAD DEBRIS.
INSUFFICIENT SIGHT DISTANCE CAN ADVERSELY AFFECT THE SAFETY OR
OPERATIONS OF A ROADWAY OR INTERSECTION.
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE IS THE DISTANCE TRAVELED DURING THE TWO
PHASES OF STOPPING A VEHICLE: PERCEPTION-REACTION TIME (PRT), AND
MANEUVER TIME (MT).[1] PERCEPTION-REACTION TIME IS THE TIME IT TAKES
FOR A ROAD USER TO REALIZE THAT A REACTION IS NEEDED DUE TO A ROAD
CONDITION, DECIDE WHAT MANEUVER IS APPROPRIATE (IN THIS CASE,
STOPPING THE VEHICLE), AND START THE MANEUVER (TAKING THE FOOT OFF
THE ACCELERATOR AND DEPRESSING THE BRAKE PEDAL). MANEUVER TIME IS
THE TIME IT TAKES TO COMPLETE THE MANEUVER (DECELERATING AND
COMING TO A STOP). THE DISTANCE DRIVEN DURING PERCEPTION-REACTION
TIME AND MANEUVER TIME IS THE SIGHT DISTANCE NEEDED.

22
THE DESIGN STANDARDS OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY
AND TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS (AASHTO) ALLOW 1.5 SECONDS FOR
PERCEPTION TIME AND 1.0 SECOND FOR REACTION TIME.[2][3]
THE VALUES OF STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE USED IN DESIGN REPRESENT A
NEAR WORST-CASE SITUATION. FOR DESIGN, A CONSERVATIVE DISTANCE IS
NEEDED TO ALLOW A VEHICLE TRAVELING AT DESIGN SPEED TO STOP BEFORE
REACHING A STATIONARY OBJECT IN ITS PATH. A GENEROUS AMOUNT OF TIME
IS GIVEN FOR THE PERCEPTION-REACTION PROCESS, AND A FAIRLY LOW RATE
OF DECELERATION IS USED. THE DESIGN SIGHT DISTANCE ALLOWS A BELOW-
AVERAGE DRIVER TO STOP IN TIME TO AVOID A COLLISION IN MOST CASES.
DRIVER PERCEPTION/REACTION DISTANCE IS CALCULATED BY:
DPRT = 0.278 VT (METRIC)
DPRT = 1.47 VT (US CUSTOMARY)
WHERE:
DPRT = DRIVER PERCEPTION-REACTION DISTANCE, M (FT)
V = DESIGN SPEED, KM/H (MPH)
T = BRAKE REACTION TIME, IN SECONDS
BASED ON THE RESULTS OF MANY STUDIES, 2.5 SECONDS HAS
BEEN CHOSEN FOR A PERCEPTION-REACTION TIME. THIS TIME
WILL ACCOMMODATE APPROXIMATELY 90 PERCENT OF ALL
DRIVERS WHEN CONFRONTED WITH SIMPLE TO MODERATELY
COMPLEX HIGHWAY SITUATIONS. GREATER REACTION TIME
SHOULD BE ALLOWED IN SITUATIONS THAT ARE MORE
COMPLEX.
BRAKING DISTANCE IS CALCULATED BY:
DMT = 0.039 V2⁄A (METRIC)
DMT> = 1.075 V2⁄A (US CUSTOMARY)
WHERE:
DMT = BRAKING DISTANCE, M (FT)
V = DESIGN SPEED, KM/H (MPH)
A = DECELERATION RATE, M/S2 (FT/S2)
ACTUAL BRAKING DISTANCES ARE AFFECTED
BY THE VEHICLE TYPE AND CONDITION,
THE INCLINE OF THE ROAD, THE
AVAILABLE TRACTION, AND NUMEROUS
OTHER FACTORS.
A DECELERATION RATE OF 3.4 M/S2 (11.2 FT/S2)
IS USED TO DETERMINE STOPPING SIGHT
DISTANCE.[4] APPROXIMATELY 90 PERCENT OF
ALL DRIVERS DECELERATE AT RATES

23
 GREATER THAN THAT. THESE VALUES ARE
WITHIN MOST DRIVERS' ABILITY TO STAY
WITHIN HIS OR HER LANE AND MAINTAIN
STEERING CONTROL. ALSO, MOST WET
PAVEMENT SURFACES AND MOST VEHICLE
BRAKING SYSTEMS ARE CAPABLE OF
PROVIDING ENOUGH BRAKING FORCE TO
EXCEED THIS DECELERATION RATE.
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE (SSD) IS THE SUM
OF REACTION DISTANCE AND BRAKING
DISTANCE
SSD = DPRT + DMT
SSD = 0.278 VT + 0.039 V2⁄A (METRIC)
SSD = 1.47 VT + 1.075 V2⁄A (US CUSTOMARY)

ITEM # 14: ALIGNMENT

THE GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROADS IS THE BRANCH OF HIGHWAY

ENGINEERING CONCERNED WITH THE POSITIONING OF THE PHYSICAL
ELEMENTS OF THE ROADWAY ACCORDING TO STANDARDS AND CONSTRAINTS.
THE BASIC OBJECTIVES IN GEOMETRIC DESIGN ARE TO OPTIMIZE EFFICIENCY
AND SAFETY WHILE MINIMIZING COST AND ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE.
GEOMETRIC DESIGN ALSO AFFECTS AN EMERGING FIFTH OBJECTIVE CALLED

24
"LIVABILITY," WHICH IS DEFINED AS DESIGNING ROADS TO FOSTER BROADER
COMMUNITY GOALS, INCLUDING PROVIDING ACCESS TO EMPLOYMENT,
SCHOOLS, BUSINESSES AND RESIDENCES, ACCOMMODATE A RANGE OF
TRAVEL MODES SUCH AS WALKING, BICYCLING, TRANSIT, AND AUTOMOBILES,
AND MINIMIZING FUEL USE, EMISSIONS AND ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE.[1]
GEOMETRIC ROADWAY DESIGN CAN BE BROKEN INTO THREE MAIN PARTS:
ALIGNMENT, PROFILE, AND CROSS-SECTION. COMBINED, THEY PROVIDE A
THREE-DIMENSIONAL LAYOUT FOR A ROADWAY.
THE ALIGNMENT IS THE ROUTE OF THE ROAD, DEFINED AS A SERIES OF
HORIZONTAL TANGENTS AND CURVES.
THE PROFILE IS THE VERTICAL ASPECT OF THE ROAD, INCLUDING CREST AND
SAG CURVES, AND THE STRAIGHT GRADE LINES CONNECTING THEM.
THE CROSS SECTION SHOWS THE POSITION AND NUMBER OF VEHICLE AND
BICYCLE LANES AND SIDEWALKS, ALONG WITH THEIR CROSS SLOPE
OR BANKING. CROSS SECTIONS ALSO SHOW DRAINAGE FEATURES, PAVEMENT
STRUCTURE AND OTHER ITEMS OUTSIDE THE CATEGORY OF GEOMETRIC
DESIGN.

25
ITEM # 15: ROADSIDE DESIGN, GUIDE RAIL, AND APPURTENANCES

THE PURPOSE OF THIS CHAPTER IS TO PROVIDE THE DESIGNER WITH

GUIDANCE ON MEASURES TO REDUCE THE NUMBER AND/OR SEVERITY OF
ACCIDENTS WHEN VEHICLES LEAVE THE TRAVELED WAY. THE CONCEPT OF A
FORGIVING ROADSIDE ENVIRONMENT WAS DEVELOPED IN THE 1960S. A KEY
ELEMENT OF THE CONCEPT WAS THE CREATION OF "CLEAR ZONES" WITHIN
WHICH A DRIVER MIGHT RECOVER CONTROL AND RETURN TO THE ROADWAY
OR AT LEAST ACHIEVE SIGNIFICANT DECELERATION BEFORE STRIKING A FIXED
OBJECT. WHERE FIXED OBSTACLES COULD NOT BE REMOVED FROM THE
CLEAR ZONE OR MODIFIED WITH BREAKAWAY FEATURES, CONSIDERATION
WOULD BE GIVEN TO SHIELDING THEM TO REDUCE THE SEVERITY OF VEHICLE
IMPACTS.

26
ITEM # 16: SUBBASE COURSE CONSTRUCTION
IN HIGHWAY ENGINEERING, SUBBASE IS THE LAYER
OF AGGREGATE MATERIAL LAID ON THE SUBGRADE, ON WHICH THE BASE
COURSE LAYER IS LOCATED. IT MAY BE OMITTED WHEN THERE WILL BE ONLY
FOOT TRAFFIC ON THE PAVEMENT, BUT IT IS NECESSARY FOR SURFACES USED
BY VEHICLES.
SUBBASE IS OFTEN THE MAIN LOAD-BEARING LAYER OF THE PAVEMENT. ITS
ROLE IS TO SPREAD THE LOAD EVENLY OVER THE SUBGRADE. THE MATERIALS
USED MAY BE EITHER UNBOUND GRANULAR, OR CEMENT-BOUND. THE
QUALITY OF SUBBASE IS VERY IMPORTANT FOR THE USEFUL LIFE OF THE ROAD
AND CAN OUTLIVE THE LIFE OF THE SURFACE, WHICH CAN BE SCRAPPED OFF
AND AFTER CHECKING THAT THE SUBBASE IS STILL IN GOOD CONDITION, A
NEW LAYER CAN BE APPLIED[1]
UNBOUND GRANULAR MATERIALS ARE USUALLY CRUSHED STONE,
CRUSHED SLAG OR CONCRETE, OR SLATE.
CEMENT-BOUND MATERIALS COME IN MULTIPLE TYPES. MASS CONCRETE IS
USED WHERE EXCEPTIONAL LOADS ARE EXPECTED, WITH THICKNESS
USUALLY 100 TO 150 MILLIMETRES (4 TO 6 IN), AND OPTIONAL REINFORCEMENT
WITH STEEL MESH OR POLYMER FIBERS. OTHER CEMENT BOUND
MATERIALS (CBM), WITH LESS STRENGTH BUT ALSO LOWER COST, ARE USED.
THEY ARE RATED BY STRENGTH, FROM THE WEAKEST CBM 1 (ALSO FORMERLY
KNOWN AS SOIL CEMENT) THROUGH CBM 2 TO CBM 3, 4, AND 5, WHICH ARE
MORE SIMILAR TO CONCRETE AND ARE CALLED "LEAN MIX".
THE THICKNESS OF SUBBASE CAN RANGE FROM 75 TO 100 MM (3 TO 4 IN) FOR
GARDEN PATHS THROUGH 100 TO 150 MM (4 TO 6 IN) FOR DRIVEWAYS AND
PUBLIC FOOTPATHS, TO 150 TO 225 MM (6 TO 9 IN) FOR HEAVY USED ROADS,
AND MORE FOR HIGHWAYS.
LOW QUALITY SUBBASE MATERIAL, INCLUDING LARGE PIECES OF ROCK AND
CONCRETE, WHICH WAS HARDLY ACCEPTABLE HERETOFORE, CAN NOW BE RE-
USED WHEN CRUSHED IN-SITU WITH CONVENTIONAL MILLING MACHINES TO
OBTAIN A HOMOGENOUS GRAIN SIZE. IT MAY THEN BE TREATED NORMALLY
WITH HYDRAULIC BINDERS, AUGMENTED BY SPECIFIC POLYMER
FORMULATIONS. THE GERMAN ROAD TECHNOLOGY
PROVIDER ADINOTEC PROPOSES THIS PROCESS, WHICH IS ADAPTABLE TO
ALMOST ANY SUBBASE MATERIAL AND CAN NET MAJOR COST SAVINGS
WITHOUT CHANGES AS TO QUALITY AND LOAD BEARING CAPACITY.

27
ITEM # 17: VALUE PRICING

THE TRANSPORTATION DEPARTMENT CONCLUDED A REVIEW OF VALUE

PRICING CONCEPTS FOR THE DALLAS-FORT WORTH REGION. VALUE PRICING
IS A WAY OF HARNESSING THE POWER OF THE MARKET AND REDUCING WASTE
ASSOCIATED WITH CONGESTION BY USING FEES OR TOLLS THAT VARY BASED
ON THE LEVEL OF CONGESTION. THE REGIONAL STUDY ESTABLISHES
CRITERIA, POLICIES, AND PROCEDURES TO IDENTIFY POTENTIAL CANDIDATES
FOR SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM VALUE PRICING PROJECTS, AND STUDIES
THE APPLICABILITY OF VALUE PRICING CONCEPTS IN EXISTING AND FUTURE
CORRIDORS.
VALUE-BASED PRICE (ALSO VALUE OPTIMIZED PRICING) IS A PRICING
STRATEGY WHICH SETS PRICES PRIMARILY, BUT NOT EXCLUSIVELY,
ACCORDING TO THE PERCEIVED OR ESTIMATED VALUE OF A PRODUCT OR
SERVICE TO THE CUSTOMER RATHER THAN ACCORDING TO THE COST OF THE
PRODUCT OR HISTORICAL PRICES.[1][2] WHERE IT IS SUCCESSFULLY USED, IT
WILL IMPROVE PROFITABILITY THROUGH GENERATING HIGHER PRICES
WITHOUT IMPACTING GREATLY ON SALES VOLUMES.
THE APPROACH IS MOST SUCCESSFUL WHEN PRODUCTS ARE SOLD BASED ON
EMOTIONS (FASHION), IN NICHE MARKETS, IN SHORTAGES (E.G. DRINKS AT
OPEN AIR FESTIVAL ON A HOT SUMMER DAY) OR
FOR COMPLEMENTARY PRODUCTS (E.G. PRINTER CARTRIDGES, HEADSETS

28
FOR CELL PHONES). GOODS WHICH ARE VERY INTENSELY TRADED (E.G. OIL
AND OTHER COMMODITIES) ARE OFTEN SOLD USING COST-PLUS PRICING.
GOODS WHICH ARE SOLD TO HIGHLY SOPHISTICATED CUSTOMERS IN LARGE
MARKETS (E.G. AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY) HAVE ALSO IN THE PAST BEEN SOLD
USING COST-PLUS PRICING, BUT THANKS TO MODERN PRICING SOFTWARE
AND PRICING SYSTEMS AND THE ABILITY TO CAPTURE AND ANALYZE MARKET
DATA, MORE AND MORE MARKETS ARE MIGRATING TOWARDS MARKET- OR
VALUE-BASED PRICING.
VALUE-BASED PRICING IN ITS LITERAL SENSE IMPLIES BASING PRICING ON THE
PRODUCT BENEFITS PERCEIVED BY THE CUSTOMER INSTEAD OF ON THE
EXACT COST OF DEVELOPING THE PRODUCT. FOR EXAMPLE, A PAINTING MAY
BE PRICED AS MUCH MORE THAN THE PRICE OF CANVAS AND PAINTS: THE
PRICE IN FACT DEPENDS A LOT ON WHO THE PAINTER IS. PAINTING PRICES
ALSO REFLECT FACTORS SUCH AS AGE, CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE, AND, MOST
IMPORTANTLY, HOW MUCH BENEFIT THE BUYER IS DERIVING. OWNING AN
ORIGINAL DALÍ OR PICASSO PAINTING ELEVATES THE SELF-ESTEEM OF THE
BUYER AND HENCE ELEVATES THE PERCEIVED BENEFITS OF OWNERSHIP.
PRICE SHOULD BE CONTROLLED WITHIN THE VALUE OF THE BENEFITS THAT
ONE BUSINESS PROVIDES FOR ITS CUSTOMER, WHILE AT THE SAME TIME
CONSIDERING THE PRICE THAT THEIR COMPETITORS' CHARGE.[3] THUS,
PRICES ARE TO BE SET ACCORDING TO THE VALUE THAT THE BUSINESS
PROVIDES FOR ITS CUSTOMER. TO MAXIMIZE THE PROFITABILITY OF THE
PRODUCTS SOLD BY THE BUSINESS, THE BUSINESS HAS TO MEASURE THE
BENEFIT OF THE PRODUCT THAT THEY PROVIDE TO THEIR CUSTOMERS,
SURVEY THE CRITERIA FOR THE CUSTOMERS' BUYING DECISION (SPEED OF
DELIVERY, CONVENIENCE OR RELIABILITY, ETC.) AND ALSO IDENTIFY THE
VALUE OF THE BENEFITS PROVIDED TO THE CUSTOMER.
COST-PLUS PRICING[COST-PLUS PRICING IS AN APPROACH WHICH USES THE
TOTAL COST OF PRODUCING THE PRODUCT OR SERVICE AND ADDING SOME
AMOUNT TO ALLOW THE BUSINESS NEEDS TO MAKE A PROFIT.[1] FOR EXAMPLE,
IN A RETAIL STORE, A PERSON BUYS SOMETHING FOR $5, AND HE/SHE SELLS
IT FOR $10 TO CUSTOMER, THIS IS CALLED COST-BASED PRICING. HOWEVER,
THE WILLINGNESS FOR THE CUSTOMER TO PAY IS LIMITED BY THE BENEFITS
THEY CAN RECEIVE: "BENEFITS ARE NET BENEFITS, WHERE ANY COST THAT
THE CUSTOMER FIRM INCURS IN OBTAINING THE SOUGHT BENEFITS, APART
FROM PURCHASE PRICE, ARE INCLUDED" (ANDERSON AND WYNSTRA,
2010,31).[4] THUS, THE CUSTOMER-PERCEIVED VALUE IS DIFFERENT BETWEEN
THE NET BENEFIT THEY RECEIVED AND THE PRICE THE CUSTOMER PAID, THE
SUPPLIER WILL NOT MAKE ANY PROFIT IF THE PRODUCTS ARE SOLD BELOW
THE COST.
VALUE-BASED PRICING
VALUE-BASED PRICING IS DEFINED BASED ON THE VALUE THAT A PRODUCT OR
SERVICE CAN DELIVER TO A PREDEFINED SEGMENT OF CUSTOMERS WHICH

29
ARE THE MAIN FACTOR FOR SETTING PRICES (HINTERHUBER, 2008, 42),[5] AS
VALUE-BASED PRICING DEPENDS ON THE STRENGTH OF BENEFITS THAT A
COMPANY CAN PROVE AND OFFER TO THEIR CUSTOMERS. THUS, VALUE IS THE
MOST IMPORTANT DRIVING FORCE IN EVERY BUSINESS DECISION AS VALUE
FOCUSES ON THE PRICE THE POTENTIAL CUSTOMERS ARE WILLING TO PAY
BASED ON THE BENEFIT OFFERED BY THE BUSINESS.[1][6] FOR EXAMPLE, THE
COST FOR FIXING A PIPE AT A CUSTOMER'S HOME FOR A PLUMBER IS $17.50
WITH THE COST OF TRAVEL, MATERIAL COST AND AN HOUR'S LABOUR.
HOWEVER, THE PLUMBER MAY DECIDE TO CHARGE A TOTAL OF $50 TO BENEFIT
FROM THIS BUSINESS.[1][6] THUS, THE CUSTOMER MIGHT NOT BE HAPPY ABOUT
THE OVERCHARGED PRICE GIVEN BY THE PLUMBER, AT THE SAME TIME THERE
ARE POSSIBILITY THAT THE PLUMBER WILL LOSE THEIR CUSTOMER, SO IT IS
IMPORTANT TO MEASURE THE VALUE OF A PRODUCT BEFORE SETTING THE
PRICE TOO HIGH. ON THE OTHER HAND, IF THE COMPANY HAS A CLEAR-
DEFINED BENEFIT THAT GIVES YOU AN ADVANTAGE OVER THE COMPETITOR,
THE COMPANY IS ABLE TO CHARGE ACCORDING TO THE VALUE THAT IS
OFFERED TO THE CUSTOMERS. THUS, THIS IS A VERY PROFITABLE APPROACH
AS IT CAN BREAK OFF POTENTIAL CUSTOMERS WHO ARE DRIVEN ONLY BY
PRICE AND ALSO ATTRACT NEW CUSTOMERS FROM COMPETITORS. EXAMPLE,
STARBUCKS RAISED PRICES TO MAXIMIZE PROFITS FROM PRICE INSENSITIVE
CUSTOMERS WHO DEPEND ON THEIR GOURMET COFFEE WHILE LOSING
CUSTOMERS WHO WANTED CHEAPER PRICES TO MCDONALDS.[7]
COMPARISON WITH COST-BASED PRICING
A FEW FACTORS THAT AFFECTS THE WILLINGNESS OF THE CUSTOMER TO PAY
A CERTAIN PRICES, FOR EXAMPLE, THE DIFFERENCE OF NEEDS BETWEEN
COUNTRIES, INDIVIDUAL CUSTOMERS NEEDS AND WANTS, AND THE USUAL
CUSTOMER FACING DIFFERENT OCCASIONS (ACTUAL AND PRESENT NEEDS),
HENCE A PLAN TO SUIT ALL TIME VALUE-BASED PRICING IS IMPOSSIBLE.
HOWEVER, BY FOCUSING AT AN EXTREME WAY MIGHT LEAVE CUSTOMER WITH
A FEELING OF EXPLOITED, LEAVING NEGATIVE RESULTS TOWARDS THE
COMPANY. HOWEVER, IN LONG TERM, PRICES BASED ON VALUE-BASED
PRICING ARE ALWAYS HIGHER OR EQUAL TO THE PRICES TAKEN FROM COST-
BASED PRICING, BUT IN ANOTHER WORDS, IF THE PRICES ARE LOWER,
CUSTOMER MIGHT THINK THAT THE ACTUAL VALUE PERCEIVED BY THE
CUSTOMER IS LOWER THAN THE COST OF PRODUCING THE GOOD PLUS A
PROFIT MARGIN, COMPANIES WILL NOT BE INTERESTED TO PRODUCE AND
SELL THE PRODUCT AT THAT PRICE IN LONG TERM. DESPITE BEING DIFFICULT
IN IMPLEMENTATION OF BOTH PRICING TECHNIQUES ON COMPANIES, THERE
SHOULD BE CONSIDERATION OF VALUES ON PRODUCTS AND MARKET
POSITIONING BROUGHT OUT TO THE CUSTOMERS ON EARLY STAGE
OF PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT.

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ITEM # 18: PEDESTRIAN & GREENWAY MASTER PLANNING

THE PURPOSE OF THE COMPREHENSIVE BICYCLE, PEDESTRIAN, AND

GREENWAY MASTER PLAN IS TO EVALUATE, ASSESS, AND MAKE
RECOMMENDATIONS REGARDING BICYCLE, PEDESTRIAN, AND GREENWAY
NEEDS FOR THE TOWN. THE GOAL OF THIS PLAN IS TO PUT IN PLACE A CLEAR,
LOGICAL, AND PRECISE GUIDELINE THAT CAN BE USED FOR FUTURE
DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH OF THE TOWN’S BICYCLE, PEDESTRIAN, AND
GREENWAY SYSTEM.

THIS PLAN IS DESIGNED TO PROVIDE GUIDANCE AND A FRAMEWORK TO

IMPLEMENT THE COMMUNITY’S DESIRE TO CREATE A BIKEABLE, WALKABLE,
AND ENVIRONMENTALLY AWARE AND ACTIVE TOWN. THIS PLAN IS AN ELEMENT
OF THE TOWN’S COMPREHENSIVE PLAN ADOPTED IN APRIL OF 2008. THE
GOALS AND STRATEGIES RECOMMENDED IN THAT PLANNING PROCESS
RELATIVE TO THE BICYCLE, PEDESTRIAN, AND GREENWAYS SYSTEM ARE
ECHOED IN THIS PLAN. THEY REFLECT THE DESIRES OF MONTREAT RESIDENTS
AND COMMUNITY LEADERS TO “IMPROVE MOBILITY THROUGH A SAFE,
EFFICIENT, AND WELL-CONNECTED MULTI-MODAL TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
DESIGNED TO BE SENSITIVE TO THE SURROUNDING LAND USES” AS WELL AS
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TO “PROTECT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSETS, BOTH FOR THEIR ECOLOGICAL
FUNCTIONS AND AS KEY ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY CHARACTER AND
LIVABILITY.” THIS PLAN BUILDS UPON PREVIOUS RECOMMENDATIONS AND
IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES FOUND IN THE MONTREAT COMPREHENSIVE
PLAN OF 2008, THE COMPREHENSIVE PLAN ALTERNATIVES OF 2003 AND THE
MONTREAT TOMORROW COMMITTEE REPORTS OF 1984 AND 1996. THIS PLAN
NOT ONLY BUILDS UPON PREVIOUS RECOMMENDATIONS AND
IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES BUT ALSO IMPROVES THE PLANS BY REFINING
RECOMMENDED STRATEGIES AND UTILIZING CURRENT BEST PRACTICES AS
WELL AS THE MOST RECENT DESIGN GUIDELINES TO MORE EFFECTIVELY
IMPLEMENT THE SYSTEM. THIS PLAN ALSO RECOGNIZES THAT EACH MULTI-
MODAL FACILITY AND TYPES OF USERS ARE DIFFERENT. VARIOUS PLANNING
APPROACHES AND STRATEGIES WILL BE REQUIRED TO ADDRESS THESE
DIFFERENCES AND NEEDS. THE TOWN, HOWEVER, ALSO SEES THE VALUE IN
PLANNING FOR AN INTERCONNECTED SYSTEM. AN ALL-INCLUSIVE PLAN CAN
HELP IDENTIFY GAPS IN SERVICE THAT HINDER CONNECTIVITY AND HELP
PRESENT A COMPLETE VISION AND ACTION PLAN FOR IMPROVING BICYCLING,
WALKING, AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH THEY INTERWEAVE.

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ITEM # 19: ROAD TRAFFIC SAFETY PLANNING

SOME MEMBER STATES HAVE SEVERAL ROAD SAFETY PLANNING DOCUMENTS,

AS STAND-ALONE OR LINKED TOGETHER. THERE MIGHT BE A SEPARATE ROAD
SAFETY STRATEGY OUTLINING THE VISION AND STRATEGIC TARGETS
TOGETHER WITH AN ELABORATE PROBLEM ANALYSIS. THERE MIGHT BE A
ROAD SAFETY ACTION PLAN LISTING THE CONCRETE ACTIONS TO BE CARRIED
OUT, FORMING A SORT OF WORK PROGRAMME. THERE MIGHT ALSO BE A
SEPARATE NATIONAL ENFORCEMENT PLAN FOR ROAD SAFETY. SOME MEMBER
STATES HAVE ONE OR SEVERAL COMPLEMENTARY PLANS FOR ADDRESSING
THE SAFETY OF CERTAIN ROAD USER GROUPS, ROAD TYPES OR ROAD SAFETY
PROBLEMS, FOR EXAMPLE A SEPARATE MOTORCYCLE SAFETY PLAN. SOME
MEMBER STATES HAVE OPTED NOT TO HAVE A TRADITIONAL ROAD SAFETY
PLAN AT ALL, MANAGING INSTEAD BY OBJECTIVES AND PERFORMANCE
INDICATORS. IF SEVERAL DOCUMENTS ARE USED, PREPARING THEM IN A
COORDINATED WAY HELPS TO AVOID DUPLICATIONS AND TO ENSURE THAT
ACTORS WORK TOWARDS THE SAME MAIN OBJECTIVES. PREPARING THE ROAD
SAFETY PLANS IN A JOINT EFFORT SHOULD ALSO ENSURE EFFECTIVE USE OF
OFTEN SCARCE RESOURCES.

CONSTRUCTION PLANNING IS A FUNDAMENTAL AND CHALLENGING

ACTIVITY IN THE MANAGEMENT AND EXECUTION OF CONSTRUCTION
PROJECTS. IT INVOLVES THE CHOICE OF TECHNOLOGY, THE DEFINITION
OF WORK TASKS, THE ESTIMATION OF THE REQUIRED RESOURCES AND
DURATIONS FOR INDIVIDUAL TASKS, AND THE IDENTIFICATION OF ANY
INTERACTIONS AMONG THE DIFFERENT WORK TASKS. A GOOD
CONSTRUCTION PLAN IS THE BASIS FOR DEVELOPING THE BUDGET AND
THE SCHEDULE FOR WORK. DEVELOPING THE CONSTRUCTION PLAN IS A
CRITICAL TASK IN THE MANAGEMENT OF CONSTRUCTION, EVEN IF THE
PLAN IS NOT WRITTEN OR OTHERWISE FORMALLY RECORDED. IN ADDITION
TO THESE TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF CONSTRUCTION PLANNING, IT MAY
ALSO BE NECESSARY TO MAKE ORGANIZATIONAL DECISIONS ABOUT THE
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PROJECT PARTICIPANTS AND EVEN WHICH
ORGANIZATIONS TO INCLUDE IN A PROJECT. FOR EXAMPLE, THE EXTENT
TO WHICH SUB-CONTRACTORS WILL BE USED ON A PROJECT IS OFTEN
DETERMINED DURING CONSTRUCTION PLANNING.

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ITEM # 20: METROPOLITAN TRANSPORTATION PLANNING

THE METROPOLITAN TRANSPORTATION PLAN IS A COMPREHENSIVE,

MULTIMODAL “BLUEPRINT” FOR TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS AND SERVICES
AIMED AT MEETING THE MOBILITY NEEDS OF THE DALLAS-FORT WORTH
METROPOLITAN AREA THROUGH THE NEXT 20+ YEARS. PLANS, PROJECTS,
PROGRAMS, AND POLICIES ARE PROPOSED AS TRANSPORTATION
RECOMMENDATIONS THAT REFLECT SOLUTIONS TO IMPROVE THE OVERALL
QUALITY OF LIFE FOR RESIDENTS IN THE DALLAS-FORT WORTH AREA.

EACH METROPOLITAN PLANNING ORGANIZATION (MPO) MUST PREPARE A

METROPOLITAN TRANSPORTATION PLAN (MTP), IN ACCORDANCE WITH 49 USC
5303(I), TO ACCOMPLISH THE OBJECTIVES OUTLINED BY THE MPO, THE STATE,
AND THE PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION PROVIDERS WITH RESPECT TO THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE METROPOLITAN AREA’S TRANSPORTATION NETWORK.
THIS PLAN MUST IDENTIFY HOW THE METROPOLITAN AREA WILL MANAGE AND
OPERATE A MULTI-MODAL TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM (INCLUDING TRANSIT,

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HIGHWAY, BICYCLE, PEDESTRIAN, AND ACCESSIBLE TRANSPORTATION) TO
MEET THE REGION’S ECONOMIC, TRANSPORTATION, DEVELOPMENT AND
SUSTAINABILITY GOALS – AMONG OTHERS – FOR A 20+-YEAR PLANNING
HORIZON, WHILE REMAINING FISCALLY CONSTRAINED.

35