Mendel’s Laws

• A scientific law is an evidence-

based description of a natural
phenomenon in a given set of
circumstances.
• Mendel’s three Laws of Heredity
describe what Mendel observed in
patterns of inherited traits.
Three Laws of Heredity

• Law of Dominance
• Law of Segregation
• Law of Independent Assortment
Law of Dominance

• Traits are controlled by two factors

that can be called “dominant” or
“recessive.”
• A “dominant” trait shows if the
offspring inherits at least one
dominant factor from one parent.
• A “recessive” trait shows only if the
offspring inherits two recessive
factors, one from each parent.
 In this cross between two
X purple-flowered pea
plants, one-quarter of the
offspring have white
flowers.

Based just on this

information, which is
dominant: white or purple
flowers? How do you
know?

Hint: “Dominance” is not based on numbers of individuals

with the trait. It is based on the number of copies of the
allele that must be inherited to show the trait.
The offspring of a purple-flowered pea plant and a white-
flowered pea plant all have purple flowers. The purple
trait is dominant. Why?
RR rr
pollen
Parental
pollen generation (P)
cross-fertilize
true-breeding, true-breeding,
purple-flowered white-flowered
plant plant

First-generation
offspring (F1)
Rr
Offspring of the F1 generation (the hybrids) may be purple-
flowered if they inherit at least one factor for purple
flowers, or may be white flowered if they inherit the white
factor from both parents.

First-
Rr Rr
X generation
offspring (F1)

RR Rr Rr rr

Second-
generation
offspring (F2)

3/4 purple 1/4 white

 The purple-flowered trait The white-flowered trait is
is dominant because recessive because an
each an individual who individual must inherit two
inherits at least one copy copies of the white allele
of the purple allele (R) (r) to show the white
shows the purple phenotype.
phenotype.

Genotypes: RR or Rr rr
Phenotype: purple white
 Solving problems involving dominance

Dexter has freckles. So

does his wife, Darla.
Their son, Derek has no Dexter Darla
freckles. Is having freckles freckles
freckles a dominant or a
recessive trait? Derek
no freckles
Law of Segregation

• Each individual has a pair of

factors controlling each trait, one
inherited from each biological
parent.
• During the formation of gametes
(sex cells) these two factors
separate. Only one ends up in
each sex cell.
In modern terms, the homozygous parents in the P
generation can pass one one kind of allele to their
offspring.
homozygous parent gametes
gene

A A A A

Homologous chromosomes
The heterozygous parents of the F1 generation have two
alleles for the gene in question, and can pass one or the
other, but not both, to their offspring.

heterozygous parent gametes

gene

A a A a

Homologous chromosomes
The genotypes can be represented with letters, which
symbolize the alleles: capital for dominant alleles,
small case for recessive.
purple parent

PP P + P

all P sperm and eggs

white parent

pp p + p

all p sperm and eggs

 When the gametes join to produce the F1 generation,
all offspring of homozygous dominant and homozygous
recessive parents are heterozygous.

F1
gametes of parents
offspring
sperm eggs

P + p Pp

or

p + P Pp
gametes from F2
F1 plants (Pp) offspring The heterozygous F1
sperm eggs individuals can put
P + P PP either a dominant OR
a recessive allele in
each of their gametes.
P + p Pp

p + P Pp

p + p pp
A Punnet square is one
Pp
way to predict the self-fertilize
outcome of a cross by
1/2 P eggs 1/2 p
showing all the possible
combinations of all the
possible gametes. 1/2 P

1/4 PP 1/4 Pp

sperm
1/2 p

1/4 pP 1/4 pp
 Solving single-gene (monohybrid) crosses
with Mendelian (dominant-recessive)
inheritance.
Tomato fruit color can be red or yellow.
a. A red tomato plant is crossed with a
yellow tomato plant, and all the offspring
have red tomatoes. Which trait is
dominant?
b. If two of the resulting hybrid red tomato
plants are crossed, what will be the ratio
of phenotypes in the offspring?
Law of Independent Assortment

• When genetic factors segregate in

the gametes, they segregate
independently of one another. A
dominant allele for one trait does
not guarantee inheritance of a
dominant allele for a different
trait.
 All organisms have Trait Dominant form Recessive form
Seed
multiple inheritable shape
smooth wrinkled

traits controlled by Seed

color yellow green

genes. Pod
shape
inflated constricted
Pod
color green yellow

Each trait is inherited Flower

color
independently of the purple white
others. A pea plant may, Flower
location
for example, have yellow at leaf
junctions
at tips of
branches

seeds (dominant) but Plant

white flowers size

tall
(1.8 to
dwarf
(0.2 to 0.4

(recessive). 2 meters) meters)

 S
s pairs of alleles on homologous
chromosomes in diploid cells

Traits carried on Y
y

separate chromosomes
replicate

chromosomes S Y
replicated homologues
pair during metaphase
of meiosis I,
S y
orienting like this
sort s y
or like this
s Y

independently of meiosis I

one another S
S
Y s y S
S
y

y
s

s
Y

Y s y Y
during gamete meiosis II

formation. S S s s S S s s
Y Y y y y y Y Y

independent assortment produces four equally

likely allele combinations during meiosis

Notice that each gamete receives ONE s-bearing and

ONE y-bearing chromosome from the original cell.
 Now consider this in S
s
terms of genotypes: Y
y

Genotype of this chromosomes

replicate
parent (for these Y
replicated homologues
pair during metaphase y
S S
two traits) is SsYy of meiosis I,
orienting like this
or like this
s y s Y
meiosis I
Meiosis puts ONE S- S Y s y S y s Y
bearing and one Y- S Y s y S y s Y

bearing chromosome in meiosis II

each gamete. S S s s S S s s
Y Y y y y y Y Y

Genotypes of the independent assortment produces four equally

likely allele combinations during meiosis
gametes that this
parent can produce SY sy Sy sY
are:
This Punnett square shows SsYy
self-fertilize
a cross between two pea eggs
1/4 SY 1/4 Sy 1/4 sY 1/4 sy
plants which are
heterozygous for two traits. 1/4 SY
1/16 SSYY 1/16 SSYy 1/16SsYY 1/16 SsYy

1/4 Sy

sperm
Again, the Punnett square 1/16 SSyY 1/16 SSyy 1/16 SsyY 1/16 Ssyy

represents all possible 1/4 sY

1/16 sSYY 1/16 sSYy 1/16 ssYY 1/16 ssYy

combinations of the 1/4 sy

1/16 sSyY 1/16 sSyy 1/16 ssyY 1/16 ssyy
gametes that the plants
seed shape seed color phenotypic ratio
can donate to their 3/4 smooth 
(9:3:3:1)
3/4 yellow = 9/16 smooth yellow
offspring. They must put 3/4 smooth  1/4 green = 3/16 smooth green

one copy of a gene for 1/4 wrinkled 

1/4 wrinkled 
3/4 yellow = 3/16 wrinkled green
1/4 green = 1/16 wrinkled yellow
each trait in their gametes.