CHAPTER VIII

Gender and Education

Gender inequality hurts all members of society, not just girls and women.

-World Bank

Individuals come with particular physical characteristics (skin color, hair type, etc.), but how society interprets and
values those physical attributes are relative. Most societies identify their members into two sexes based on their biological
traits. These ways of identifying sexes are the social givens to which women and men are made to fit into any preconceived
mold on how they are supposed to act, behave, and think. This chapter discusses the basic concepts of gender and how
school and other social institutions play a significant role in gender role socialization. It also discusses the theories of
gender and the concept of feminism as a social movement arising from gender issues in the society. These concepts are
studied in Social Dimensions of Education because many problems in contemporary societies are rooted from supremacy
of men over women. In many ways, domestic violence, sexual abuse, sexual harassment, rape, and other serious problems
are perpetrated because men think that they are tough, strong powerful, dominant, and in control of their relationship
with women.

Defining Sex and Gender

The distinction between the terms “sex” and “gender” is a frequent question raised in an academic discussion.
Distinguishing these two terms is very essential, considering that many people use them incorrectly and interchangeably.
Technically, sex is an inherited biological description, which is based on a person's genital (i.e., penis or vagina). It is a
classification based on human biology (birth designated) and it is one that divides humankind into two types of people.
On the other hand, gender refers to a categorization that societies construct to differentiate females from males. It
consists of personal traits, roles, and positions which the members of the society consider proper for males and females.
Basically, it is a form of sociocultural distinction (being masculine or feminine) and not a biological characteristic between
males and females. The society constructs the social characteristics and traits that define masculinity and femininity, and
they differ from culture to culture. Unlike sex, which is absolute and permanent (unless surgery is undergone), gender is
a fluid variable across cultures and is subject to continuous change. For example, although many Filipinos are brought up
to believe that men are naturally more aggressive and less emotional than women, in some cultures, this pattern is
reversed. Edward Hall (1996) said that in Iran, men are the ones who read poetry, express their emotions freely, and act
on intuition than logic. On the other hand, women are considered to be cold and practical, which is unlikely seen in Filipino
culture.

General Concepts about Gender

1. Gender is learned. Gender is an acquired behavior and not something genetically transmitted. It is primarily
learned through the process of socialization or created through social interaction, Children often learn gender consciously
or unconsciously from people around them, and, later, their gendered activities and behavior become their second nature.
Many feminist theorists believe that an individual is identified at birth as a member of a sex category either male or female,
and from then on, is held to act accordingly. Furthermore, gender is not only learned but formally or informally taught
and enforced. Enforcement can be done through rewards, punishments, giving feedback, modeling, and group pressures
at home, church, or school. For example, a mother, a teacher, or a church leader would call the attention of a girl who sits,
dresses, and acts like a boy. This holds true when a boy does the contrary, too.

2. Gender is collaborative. Gender is a product of numerous interplaying factors (family, media, school, peer, etc.)
that provide gender role socialization. Usually, these agencies work together to reinforce gender stereotypical
expectations and behaviors. For example, the idea that women have to do most of the household chores is not only
developed in the family but also reinforced by media, peers, community, and the like.

3. Gender is not something that individuals have, but something they do. Judith Butler (1999) asserted that gender
is not something that one has or something that one is; rather, it is something that one does. "Doing gender" implies that
gender is a product of social interaction or socialization. Thus, it is reflected in one's daily activities carried out through
routine social interaction. For instance, doing gender is observed on how one walks, talks, dresses, eats, and socializes and
nearly all aspects of everyday life
 4. Gender is asymmetrical. Inequality is built into gender at a very basic level. By attaching people to one or two
categories (male or female), society has already created difference between them. These differences prevent girls and
boys from having valuable human experiences. They limit growth and development, both by denying such experiences
and by creating anxiety in children. They also create social and institutional barriers against the development of interests,
goals, and talents in young people that may be outside the gender role “parameters”.

Definition of Gender Identities and Gender Roles

The development of a sense of gender identity is one of the earliest and most important learning that all
individuals experience in life. Normally, the knowledge of gender identity is unique to individuals and separate from their
parents, family members, and other people. Gender identity is a person's understanding, definition, or experience of his
own gender, regardless of his sex. Put differently, gender identity is the conception individuals have of themselves, which
is internal and personally defined. Examples of gender identity are male/boy/man and female/girl/woman. One’s gender
identity is part of self-concept and is primarily a product of social interaction. Hence, gender identity emerges as
individuals enact gender roles and are reacted to by others as being either male or female.

On the other hand, gender roles are the various cultural expectations that define the ways in which the members
of each sex should behave. Gender roles influence a wide range of human behaviors, including how people speak, dress,
walk, engage in courtship, get angry, play sports, deal with distress, and choose a career (Hughes and Kroehler, 2009).
Simply put, gender role includes knowledge of a large set of rules and expectations for what males and females should
wear, speak, and act, and knowing their place in the overall structure of the society. It is observed in the so-called gender
expression, which is the way a person expresses his gender through gestures, movement, dress, and grooming. Knowledge
of these rules makes them know their role as members of a particular gender group and provides them the ability to deal
with many social situations.

Theories on Gender Development

How individuals develop gender identity can be explained by four theories according to Hughes and Kroehler
(2009). These theories explain in various lenses what makes a male or a female, and why he or she behaves the way he or
she does.

Freudian Theory. Sigmund Freud assumed that biology is destiny, which means that children learn their gender
by simply observing whether they have penis or vagina. He and his followers argued that gender identity and the adoption
of sex-typed behaviors are the result of an Oedipal conflict that emerges between the ages of three and six. During this
period, children discover the genital differences between the sexes. This discovery prompts children to see themselves as
rivals of their same-sex parent for the affection of the parent of the opposite sex. The main point in this theory is the
process of identification, that is, the process by which a person absorbs the behaviors, attitudes, and characteristics
exhibited by his mother or someone very close to the individual. In effect, children unconsciously model the behavior of
their parents and make them the standards for acting and behaving.

Cultural Transmission Theory. This is also known as Social Learning Theory. It contends that the acquisition of
gender identity and behaviors is shaped by parents, teachers, and other adults by reinforcing responses that are deemed
appropriate to the child’s gender role and discouraging inappropriate ones. Children are given cues to their gender roles
in a variety of ways, from how their rooms are decorated to what toys they play and the clothes they wear. This theory
assumes that the individual is passive, and his behavior is influenced or programmed by the immediate environment.

Cognitive Development Theory. Unlike the cultural transmission theory, cognitive development theory asserts
that children actively seek to acquire gender identities and roles. The child is not a passive actor of his own life but an
active participant in choosing and defining his own gender, as well as his own development. Cognitive theorists like
Kohlberg and Ullian explained that children come to label themselves as "boys" or "girls" when they are between 18
months and three years of age, which is called self-socialization. Once they have identified themselves as males or females,
they would adopt behaviors consistent with their newly discovered status. They use a particular image to organize their
behaviors and cultivate their attitudes and actions, associated with being a “boy” or a “girl.”

Self-Construal Theory. Self-construal is essentially synonymous with self-conception or self-definition. The theory
asserts that gender difference is based primarily on relationships and group membership. This is with the view that
maintaining harmonious relationship with others is extremely important. Many social influences promote independent
ways of behaving, feeling, and thinking for men, while rational ways of behaving, feeling, and thinking are more likely
promoted for women. The consequences of these create gender differences, including those of cognition, motivation,
emotion, and social behavior. For example, women are more likely to be sensitive to the emotions of others and they base
their emotions on others.

Sources of Gender Stereotyping in Society

Gender role socialization is the process of directing or influencing individuals to think and behave according to the
norms of society. Such socialization takes place in a variety of ways and occurs in the following settings:

1. Family. The family as the initial social world of the child is the first place where children absorb gender biases,
fears, and prejudices. Thus, the family is where the seed of gender stereotyping, sexism, discrimination, and racism are
planted. In the family, young girls are encouraged to be dependent, obedient, and quiet, while boys are encouraged to be
independent, tough, strong, powerful, and self-willed. Similarly, the first books and stories children are exposed to like
fairy tales and nursery rhymes have the same general plot. For instance, stories given to children reflect that femininity is
associated with beauty, dependence, passivity, self-sacrifice, innocence, powerlessness, and patience, while masculinity
is associated with qualities like being successful, rescuers, independent, action-oriented, strong, handsome, brave, and
romantic. As children see the differential roles of their mothers and fathers, they, too, internalize that husbands are
considered breadwinners and wives are responsible for domestic roles. Girls, likewise, learn from their mothers that they
have to serve their husbands and to be subservient to their husband's decision. This is depicted when children begin to
play bahay-bahayan, wherein the marks of a good wife and a good husband are defined and portrayed. At adolescence,
females are taught to be attractive, or pleasing to men of their dreams (Prince Charming concept) and to be a wife and a
mother. In the choice of career, they are advised to become legal secretaries instead of lawyers, and nurses rather than
doctors. Finally, as mothers assume more involvement on the educational concerns and issues of their school children,
males are able to internalize through unconscious modelling that fathers do not have anything to say about teaching and
caring roles in the family.

2. Mass Media. In media, men play more interesting characters than women. The images of women are oftentimes
confined to being supporters, mistress, or those that cause the downfall of the hero. In advertisements, women are
traditionally shown in domestic roles and men in occupational roles. Advertising similarly regards women as the prize in
the competition of men and perpetuates beauty myth as seen in beauty pageants, depicting that beauty belongs to women
with stunning faces and sexy figure. Information and technology equally convey the message that girls are objects of men
manipulated through bullying violence, sexual harassment, rape, mocking, and taunting. Likewise, pornography and TV
programs reveal the “commodification” of women portraying them in sexy and indecent poses, degrading the dignity of
women, both physically and sexually.

3. School. The school reinforces and continues the stereotyping of roles that is started at home. The existence of
single sex school (exclusive school for boys or for girls), for example, carries the traditional image of masculinity as
reinforced by an authoritarian ethos and patriarchal values. The gender composition of faculty and staff in school is also
a socializing mechanism. Young minds unconsciously learn that the teaching career is for women as they see majority of
their teachers are female. Career tracks are similarly influenced by gender lens. Women go to humanities and social
sciences, and they enter in nurture-giving occupations, such as nursing and social work, whereas, men are for mathematics
and applied sciences like engineering. Moreover, textbooks are gender blind, that is, sexist not only in content, but also in
illustrations and language.

In the Philippines, Luz (2007) noted that gender issue in basic education is favorable for girls than boys. He asserted
that the country is becoming a nation of male underachievers as boys are dropping out of school 2 to 2.5 times more than
girls from Grades 5 onwards. At the end of the high school cycle, there are more girl graduates than boys (53% versus 47%
on average across regions). Senior girls are equally more inclined to go to college than senior boys (58% versus 52%).
Interestingly, Luz revealed that boys are dropping out principally because of lack of interest to schooling and for
work/employment reasons. This explains why at the end of the college cycle, there are as many as 20% more girls in the
graduating class than boys.

4. Workplace. The growing imbalance between males and females in different occupations causes feminization or
“masculinization” of the workplace. Elementary schools, welfare services, and hospitals, for example, are dominated by
females, driven from the assumption that women are primarily responsible and suited for domestic and emotional labor.
On the other hand, military, policing, and transport services are dominated by males as these jobs are assumed to require
strenuous physical activity that women cannot do.

5. Peer Group. Peer groups greatly influence adolescent life. As a matter of fact, teenage boys and girls often learn
the gender rules of society through their respective peer groups. For example, a demonstration of physical dominance
and skills for boys is often valued, while appearance and positive relation with others are emphasized for girls. Boys have
team games of competition, like football or basketball, while girls have games of communication and cooperation. For
instance, a basketball team is composed of women cheerleaders, while men exemplify masculinity and accomplishment.
In the same vein, male athletes learn to compete and achieve, while females learn the importance of appearance and the
management of emotions. It is also stressed that the act of bullying in peer group often reinforces the value of these
characteristics for boys and girls. Therefore, the school becomes an arena in which new kinds of masculinity and femininity
are judged.

6. Religion. The vicious cycle of violence and oppression against women has its religious roots. While the church
teaches salvation or liberation, its patriarchal elements have continued to rationalize the subordination and discrimination
of women. The biblical concept of creation (that Eve came from Adam’s rib for the purpose of accompanying him) is
already giving a hint of women's inferiority. This is coupled with moral guilt as the Bible teaches that a woman caused the
first original sin, who was tempted by the devil to disobey God's command. Moreover, religion is a long-time perpetuator
of gender inequality, for instance, the Catholic Church forbids women become priests. Women normally assist in church
activities, while males (usually the priests) play a major role in the ceremonies.

Gender Equality and Inequality

Gender equality means sameness of men and women in terms of prevailing norms about what a man and a woman
can do, equal access to opportunities, and appreciation of their gender activities. In the context of education, gender
equality means equality of entitlements, opportunities, experiences, and outcomes in education for both men and women.
It implies the elimination of gender inequality and it is founded on the belief that women have the right to be educated in
their full capacities like all men can enjoy. Significantly, a very good legal treaty that safeguards women's rights is the
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), which is often described as the
International Bill of Rights for women. It determines the different forms of discrimination against women or the exclusion,
as well as restrictions made on the female sex. It is believed that perpetuating these forms of discrimination would impair
or nullify the recognition, enjoyment, or exercise of numerous rights and privileges of women. With CEDAW, it is hoped
that women all over the world will experience more freedom, participation, and empowerment in the political, economic,
social, cultural, civil or any other fields, which are dominated by men.

What makes gender a big concern and issue in any society is the existence of inequality between males and
females. To many, gender inequality does not happen by chance. Rather, it is learned and reinforced through social
institutions. To fully understand gender inequality, it is indispensable to know the following concepts:

1. Gender stratification. Gender stratification is the process of separating men and women based on what they
enjoy, acquire, or exercise. Usually, this separation creates unequal distribution of rewards, such as power, status, and
individual freedom between men and women manifesting their role and position in the social hierarchy. As a consequence,
men and women differ in their access to privilege, prestige, and power because of how they are treated. Thus, males are
more favored when answering questions related to resource distribution.

Gender stratification provides men with various powers. Power refers to the individual or group’s ability to
accomplish what they desire through influence or prescription, even if it involves the resistance of others. Power also
affects the ability of people to make the world work on their behalf (Hughes and Kroehler, 2009). From this perspective,
it can be said that division of labor between sexes is a social instrument created by men to ensure for themselves privilege,
prestige, and power in their relationship with women. By limiting the role of women to the home, for instance, men have
been able to deny women those resources they need to succeed in the larger world. Hence, gender inequality exists
because it benefits men, who use the power given to them to ensure their domination.

2. Gender Stereotyping. To understand the concept of gender stereotyping it is essential to first consider the
concept of stereotyping. Stereotype is an opinion based on one’s appearance or membership to a particular group. It is a
generalized belief about the members of a group using some forms of positive and negative categorizations. For example,
the female sex is stereotyped as the weaker sex.

Against this concept, gender stereotyping is then the prejudices, biases, and labels attached to males and females.
For example boys and men are (and should be) tough, aggressive, independent, strong, logical, direct, adventurous,
confident, ambitious, and not particularly emotional. Girls and women are to be sweet loving, fickle-minded, passive,
weak, illogical, indirect, gentle and very emotional, inferior, tempter, and the cause of original sin. Not all males and
females adhere to these stereotypes, however, social institutions reinforce them. Gender stereotyping can stifle an
individual’s growth, especially when these labels become too rigid.

3. Sexism or sex bias. Closely related to stereotyping is sexism or sex bias-the belief in the biological grounding of
social and behavioral differences between men and women. As a matter of fact, many believe that gender stereotyping,
starts from the concept of sexism. Sexism is anchored on the view that the male sex superior to the female sex. Sex
prejudice can happen when pronouns are used hastily, as when masculine pronoun “he” is used as generic term for both
sexes, or when the masculine or feminine pronoun is used exclusively to define roles by sex (e.g., the nurse – she). It is to
be noted that gendered language is interpreted as reflecting pre-existing and maintaining social distinctions. Such is
revealed when using the pronouns “he” and “she” which have outright gender connotation. Anyone who uses, hears, and
reads these pronouns automatically influences how he or she thinks and relates about gender.

Indeed, a significant way to express sexism is through language as it is a powerful tool in establishing the meaning
of human experience. One form of sexism is linguistic sexism which is a way of devaluing the members of one sex, thus
defining his or her place in society as unequal. Similarly, language is said to be a set of symbols that expresses ideas and
allows people to think and communicate with one another. It can also be a source of discrimination for it is the cause of
stereotype, prejudice, and discrimination. For example, addressing a man as “Mr.” reveals nothing about his relationship
to a woman, while addressing a woman as “Miss” or “Mrs.” defines her in terms of her relationship to a man. Husbands
and wives with Ph.D. are commonly addressed as “Dr.” and “Mrs.” which is often articulated in wedding invitations. Such
is an illustration that a woman's identity is subsumed in their relationship with men.

Gendered Experiences in School

The teachers themselves are gender role socializers. They add to gender-role typing and support the stereotypes
learned by students from their home and community. Traditional gender divisions and stereotypes are perpetuated by
the school, particularly in classroom activities manifested through language, teacher's manner, and subject choice. Such
socialization into traditional gender roles can be viewed as a form of gendering students, which may cause miseducation.
Few examples of these types of socialization are cited:

1. School curricula teach that some things are for girls and others are for boys. For example, teachers view the image
of Mathematics as a male subject and Language as a female subject. They see that males can easily learn Math,
inasmuch as females excel in Language.

2. Gendered language and assumptions are used by teachers inside the classroom. In giving sentences, for example,
they would say. “Joy helps mommy cook in the kitchen, and John helps daddy fix the broken fence.” This example
implies that girls are made to cook and boys are to repair broken things.

3. Boys study woodwork, metalwork, and technical drawing, while girls study culinary, sewing, and other domestic-
oriented subjects. Also, teachers and guidance counselors may encourage male students to pursue careers in the
sciences (engineering, architecture, police science, agriculture) but steer equally talented female students into
careers such as teachers, nurses, librarians, dieticians, and the like.

4. Teachers relate differently toward boys and girls. Boys tend to receive more attention than girls. Teachers may
ask boys to carry water, build tents, while girls are asked to write on the board, act as secretary, sweep and clean
the classroom.

5. Education textbooks use sexist language, such as: chairman, forefathers, and mankind. In addition, illustrations
used in elementary books always portray a police officer, soldier, driver, pilot, engineer, and doctor to be of male
sex which are not gender sensitive.

Feminist Theory

The issue on gender has brought the emergence of a theory called Feminism. Feminism is a social movement
which consists of a set of beliefs and actions that centers on assuring equality between men and women. It is founded on
the notion that biology does not chart individual's destiny. Proponents of feminism believe that the structure of society
oppresses humans, women in particular, from achieving their human potential. Men have actively oppressed women in
society, creating inequality. In human history, men's oppression of women has created inequality. The feminist perspective
asserts that gender is basic to all social structures and organizations including the school. In other words, it recognizes
that the experiences of women are different from those of men, unequal or less privileged compared to men, and
oppressed, subordinated, or abused by men (Eshleman, 1997).

The development of feminist theory is a consequence of the universal movement to promote the self-actualization
of women worldwide. It is the movement that criticizes male supremacy, with the ultimate aim of changing it. Its goals
are: (a) to demonstrate the importance of women; (b) to reveal that, historically, women have been subordinate to men;
and (c) to bring about gender equality. Simply put, feminists seek for the equality of women and assert that women should
share equally in society’s opportunities and scarce resources.
Four Types of Feminism

As a growing social movement and as a result of its pluralistic view, feminism has four types, namely: (1) liberal
feminism; (2) socialist feminism; (3) radical feminism; and (4) post-modern feminism.

(1) Liberal or Reform Feminism. Liberal feminism believes that all people are created equal and should not be denied of
equal opportunity on the basis of their gender. It argues that sexism is the primary obstacle to equality, which is seen
in the denial of equal rights and opportunities between men and women. Thus, it focuses on women's right through
the creation of laws and regulations to employment practices. Also, it strives to empower women by changing the
social structures that delimit them. In education, this type of feminism attempts to eliminate sexism practices, like
the misrepresentation of women in textbooks and the differential career counseling for girls and boys. It examines,
in particular, gender bias and stereotyping in curricular materials. This is congruent with its assertion that standard
academic curricula have failed to represent the important contributions of women to history, literature, and other
fields of study.

(2) Socialist Feminism. Socialist feminists emphasize the democratic and egalitarian aspects of socialism. The root of
gender inequality is seen on societal expectations on the role of men and women in the household. Men are expected
to be breadwinners or good providers, while women are expected to manage the household. The patriarchal ideology
present in any society perpetuates the inequalities between men and women as it is evident in the capitalist system.
Because of this, socialist feminists advocate equal opportunities for women in the public sphere, which includes the
field of education. They criticize that schools help maintain the gender-based division of Iabor at work and at home.
This happens because educational systems operate on a competitive/capitalistic basis, which marginalizes some
groups of people, especially the economic lower class and minorities that often silence women.

(3) Radical or Separatist Feminism. Radical feminism emerged to change the system of male dominance. Radical
feminists argue that sexism is the tool men used to oppress women. Also, they believe that patriarch family is a
miniature of the broader oppression, where patriarchal ideology is exercised and maintained. In such case, women's
oppression provides a picture for understanding all other forms of oppression in the society. Due to these
oppressions, radical feminists take to the extreme the argument that women should be able to fully participate in
society. For them, women will only be freed when they completely escape the patriarchal world or the system of male
dominance. This explains why its goal is the eradication of male supremacy by redefining woman-centered beliefs
and systems.

To realize this goal, however, certain mechanisms are proposed by radical feminists like pointing out the
systematic devaluation and oppression of women, which are embedded within all forms of social organization (e.g.
the school, family). It also suggests being critical to the inherent values of patriarchy in society (e.g. men controlling
the norms of acceptable sexual behavior) and speaking out against all social structure because these are created by
men. In media studies and Information Technology (IT), for example, radical feminists analyze the violence in movies,
software, video games, and so forth.

(4) Post-Modern Feminism. Post-modern feminists argue that knowledge is created from a male's standpoint and, thus,
it is completely biased. In essence, it calls into question the privileged position of male theorists. It attempts to criticize
the dominant order as it believes that all theory is socially constructed. The position of this type of feminism rests in
its attempt to speak for all women and unmask all systems of oppression. However, it recognizes individualism, that
is, different female groups must articulate their own unique feminist positions in relation to specific and individual
oppressions, hindrances, and daily experiences. According to Gore (1993), post-modern feminism can realize this goal
by fostering methodologies, such as phenomenology, personal accounts of multiplicity, and contradiction. This is
consistent with the idea of rejecting the "grand narrative" of men, claiming that only rational, abstract thought, and
scientific methodology can lead to valid knowledge. Rather, knowledge must be founded on the subjective realities
of women and must not be forced-fit within the existing theories constructed by men.

Homosexuality and Transgenderism

Human beings have different choices among a broad field of selections of food, cars, houses, music, clothes, books,
movies, hobbies, and so on. This seems to be part of our nature and, customarily, we frown upon those whose preferences
are different. Such attitude extends even to sexual preference of people in the society, which may, in turn, develop into
discrimination.

Sexual preference is described by whom one is sexually attracted to. This usually comes in three types, namely:
heterosexual, homosexual, and bisexual. A large number of society's population composes the heterosexuals, those who
are sexually attracted to members of the opposite sex. Homosexuals are those attracted to members of the same sex and
are classified as gay (men) or lesbian (women). Lastly, bisexuals are those attracted to members of both sexes.
 Related to the issue of sexual preference and gender identity is the issue on transgenderism. Transgender (TG) is
not a medical term but is used to refer to people whose gender identity (sense of self as male or female) or gender
expression differs from that usually associated with their sex at birth. The incongruity between an individual's gender
identity and biological sex manifests through one's non-conformity with society's standards of behavior for men and
women. Moreover some transgenders may experience intense dissatisfaction, which eventually leads to unhappiness and
distress.

Transgenderism may come in different forms. Examples of which include cross-dressers, transsexuals, and other
gender non-conformists whose appearance are perceived to be unusual. Cross dressing means wearing the clothing of the
opposite sex. A cross-dresser may wear make up, long hair, lace blouse, and skirts or dresses. A caution, however, is that
persons who cross dress do not always identify themselves with another sex, although this can sometimes be the case.
On the other hand a transsexual (TS) is a person who lives or wishes to live full-time opposite his sex. Usually, there are
two types of transsexuals. Biological females who aspire to live and be recognized as men are called transsexual men or
female-to-male (FTM) transsexuals. They were born as females but they identify themselves as boys/men. Biological males
who yearn to live and be recognized as women are called transsexual women or male-to-female (MTF) transsexuals. They
were born as male at birth but they identify themselves as girls/women. Transsexuals usually seek medical interventions,
such as surgery and Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT) to make their bodies as congruent as possible with their
preferred gender. The politically correct term used for the process of changing one’s biological sex to conform with one’s
gender identity is called Sex Reassignment Surgery (SRS) and not sex transplant. However, depending on their status,
transsexuals could either be considered a pre-op (pre-operative) or post-op (post-operative). Pre-operative transsexual is
one who is preparing to have SRS while a post-op (post-operative) is someone who has already undergone sex re-
assignment.

Homosexuality and transgenderism are oftentimes used interchangeably, which causes confusion to a lot of
people, even those who are homosexuals and transgender themselves. As a way of distinction, homosexuality is basically
an issue of sexual preference. It is manifested when boys/men who identify themselves as boys/men are sexually and
romantically attracted to other boys/men (same sex). In contrast, transgenderism is a question of gender identity. It is an
issue of those who were born male but identify themselves as girls/women; or those who were born female but identify
themselves as boys/men. In short, homosexuals have gender identity, which is in conformity with their biological sex
(penis or vagina), only that they prefer same sex as their partners. In transgenderism, however, there is a mismatch
between one's biological sex and how they define themselves (male or female), which is internal and personally expressed
through gestures, dressing, and grooming.

Unfortunately, even today, discrimination is experienced by the homosexuals and transgenders of our society. A
good example of discrimination which denigrates people of this kind is called homophobia. Homophobia is an all-
encompassing irrational fear, rejection and/or discrimination of transgenders and homosexual. Homophobic people make
use of language that mocks and demeans homosexuals and transgenders, making them feel sick and appear sinful and
criminal members of society. Sadly, discrimination against them continues to permeate in all aspects of human life.
Majority of lesbians, gays, and transgenders (including their lovers) are subject to scrutiny and prejudice, due to well-
entrenched social bias. For example, these people are denied housing or employment; they lose custody of their biological
or adopted children; or they have difficulty achieving legal recognition of their marriages, solely because they are
homosexuals or transgenders. Worse, they are oftentimes a target of crime, which makes them feel unsafe.

With this perspective, issues on homosexuality and transgenderism must be given enough attention in the study
of Social Dimensions of Education. People of their kind must not be treated as outcasts in society. They must rather be
treated with respect and should not be looked down for what they are, particularly if they are kind, decent persons who
abide by the law do not hurt or trample on the rights of anyone or anything else. Part of being a member of this pluralistic
society is to show a great deal of tolerance to them by respecting, accepting, and appreciating their differences,
particularly their self-expression and preferences. After all, it is not very difficult to understand and believe that all human
beings, as people, have the right to be accepted and treated as human beings.

Theoretical Views on Gender and Education

Interactionist Perspective. Interactionists view gender as a condition to which individuals attach socially devised
meanings. The development of meanings and construction of self is made possible through the kind of socialization given
to the students. In this regard, students’ knowledge about their masculinity and femininity interaction and experience
with society. The school community should be a venue where student interaction and experience can provide them a
positive self-concept and definition. It is the duty of the school to provide options on how women create their sense of
identities and realities. It has to look into the gendered everyday experiences of the classroom. At all times, schools must
focus their programs and decisions along inequalities between male and female students, which are constructed through
interaction within the school community. Significantly, the school interaction must replace the meanings that create
gender inequality to change the social pattern of male dominance.

Functional Perspective. Functionalists like Talcott Parsons and Robert Bales believe that it is functional and
beneficial for society, for families, and for individuals if males and females play specialized roles in society. They contend
that an ideal family is created if men specialize in instrumental tasks, roles particularly associated with having a job and
making money, and women in expressive tasks, roles supporting their husbands, doing household labor, and caring for
children (Hughes & Kroehler, 2009). For social relevance, schools must focus on teaching specialized roles for men and
women to create an ideal family. Functionalists assume that education can be very valuable to respond to concerns about
socializing students to this role of men and women. Many sociologists and educators, who have functional orientation,
believe that schools can perform a great role in promoting or tackling specialized roles for men and women to develop an
ideal family life in the society.

Conflict Perspective. Conflict theorists opine that educational system is not meritocratic as it uses gender lenses
in socializing male and female students. For them, differential school socialization between male and female students by
the teachers and school administrators causes inequality. Rather than addressing gender inequality, the school reinforces
the gender stereotyping practiced at home, mass media, and workplace. They also add that schools are biased against
girls. Girls have higher tendency to be ignored; less likely to be corrected or challenged; counseled into stereotypical
subjects, careers, and segregation by sex into activities. They also lack role models, as well as mentoring, and experience
the problems of harassment and violence. In such case, schools have restricted the development of women, making
education certainly create negative repercussions to women in society.

Critical Perspective. Feminists argue that school must provide equality so that students can raise personal
aspirations and, thus, achieve higher educational outcomes. Textbooks have to be scrutinized to identify sexist language
and biased assumptions. They also unravel the oppressive socio-cultural processes and system of the school that relate to
inequalities of power between the males and females. They try to challenge claims of objectivity that academics cannot
be truly gender blind, and that the power relation of men and women is embedded in the power of language.

One of the key roles of schools in critical perspective is to allow students to gain the necessary social skills to allow
them to actively participate in a transformed and inclusive democratic community. When students can identify the sources
of power, they are able to recognize their own position in relation to power and understand the political nature of what
they learn. In so doing, they can develop their own social actions for change. It is the view of critical perspective that the
goal of schooling is to lessen human suffering as the alleviation of oppression and human suffering is the key aspect of the
purpose of education. Educational systems are to be transformative in terms of developing students to probe on existing
gender relations and notions of masculinity and femininity. School must become a space where students have
opportunities for questioning, debating, seeing new perspectives, forming new identities and relations without feeling
threatened or weak. As Kincheloe (2007) said, “Critical pedagogy seeks to give those who have been excluded from power
(usually the women) the right and ability to have an input into civic life.”