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Current state and future perspectives of sewer networks in urban China

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Front. Environ. Sci. Eng. 2018, 12(3): 2
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-018-1023-1

REVIEW ARTICLE

Current state and future perspectives of sewer networks in

urban China

Dong Huang1, Xiuhong Liu1, Songzhu Jiang2, Hongchen Wang (✉)1, Junyan Wang1, Yuankai Zhang1
1 School of Environment & Resource, Renmin University of China, Beijing 100872, China
2 Chengdu Urban and Rural Construction Commission, Chengdu 610094, China

HIGHLIGHTS GRAPHIC ABSTRACT

• Sewer network construction is insufficient in
China currently.
• The management for sewer network is very
disordered in China.
• Maintenance is far from enough for current sewer
networks in China.
• China’s top priority for sewer networks is to
elevate its overall performance.
• The new technical route is an optimal option for
sewer maintenance in China.

ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received 12 May 2017 ABSTRACT
Revised 11 October 2017
Accepted 5 December 2017 Chinese authorities and the public have largely ignored sewer networks; however, various problems
Available online 6 February 2018 are emerging nationwide with the increase construction of new sewers. The current state of sewer
network construction, administration, and maintenance in China is comprehensively reviewed in this
study. Serving about 444 million people, 511,200 km of sewer lines are located in urban areas. In 2014,
Keywords: $7 billion was invested in sewer network construction. However, both the sewer pervasion rate and the
per capita sewer length were significantly lower than those in developed countries. Sewer
Sewer network administrative agencies in local governments are uncoordinated. Laws, regulations, and standards
China are incomplete, and some practices are unscientific. The future situation of sewer maintenance is
Management extremely grim because sewer corrosion control measures have not been launched. Moreover,
Sewer corrosion inspection and rehabilitation chiefly rely on traditional approaches. In contrast, the overall market
Sewer inspection share of innovative technologies is very low owing to high cost, funds shortage, and technical
Trenchless rehabilitation limitations. Approaches such as liner inversion cured-in-place pipe, pull-in ultraviolet light cured
liners, and spiral wound lining are applied mostly in economically developed regions. According to
status and problem analyses, China’s top priority will be to conduct aggressive maintenance work in
sewer networks in the future. New technical route, corrosion control - periodic visualized inspection -
trenchless rehabilitation, could be the best option for future sewer maintenance in China. Instructions
and opportunities for applying this technical route are discussed in detail in this study. Finally,
additional factors in the development of sewer networks in China are suggested.

© Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2018

1 Introduction public infrastructure. The value of sewer networks in the

United States and Australia is approximately $1 trillion
Sewer networks are important and valuable parts of the and $100 billion, respectively [1–3]. Moreover, sewer
networks are critical for waterlogging control, wastewater
collection, and aquatic environment protection [4–6]. With
✉ Corresponding author the rapid development of the social economy and
E-mail: whc@ruc.edu.cn urbanization in China, increasing numbers of sewers and
2 Front. Environ. Sci. Eng. 2018, 12(3): 2
wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) have been con-
structed with increasing costs. Accordingly, the wastewater
treatment ratio is becoming higher. However, frequent
urban floods during wet weather are still causing huge
economic losses and human casualties [7]. In addition,
treatment efficiency of the WWTPs in China is largely
affected by low influent concentrations [8]. The aquatic
environment, particularly in urban areas, is very poor [9–
11]. All these phenomena are attributed to the numerous
defects in China’s sewer networks.
In general, the current state of sewer networks in urban
China is unsatisfactory. Many problems have progressively
emerged from the aspects of sewer network construction,
administration, and maintenance. Accordingly, to address
these problems, in-depth insight is needed. Sewer networks
in China have always received little attention from the
public and the government. Previous reviews have focused
mainly on the macroscopic drainage system, ideas and
suggestions based on the experience of developed
countries [12–15] and have neglected the specific condi-
tions of sewer networks in China. Studies on the specific
situation of sewer networks in China were very limited.
Therefore, it is imperative to provide a comprehensive
analysis of the current sewer network construction,
administration, and maintenance to determine the future
direction for sewer networks in China.
The main objective of this review is to give a
comprehensive overview of the current state of sewer
network construction, administration, and maintenance by
utilizing the most recent accessible data from relevant
statistical yearbooks, literature, websites, and reports. On
the basis of the status and problem analyses, new technical
route for the maintenance of sewer networks in China is
discussed in detail, and relevant instructions and opportu-
nities for applying this technical route are analyzed.
Finally, additional aspects for the future development of
sewer networks are suggested.
2 Construction status of sewer networks in
China
2.1 Overview
Figure 1(a) [16] demonstrates that the rate of the total
production of wastewater has been increasing at a stable
speed. In 2014, 44.5 billion tons of wastewater were
produced in urban China. Additionally, the number of
WWTPs has been increasing at a surprising rate over the
past decade with increasing amounts of wastewater being
collected and treated [6,17]. The municipal wastewater
treatment rate has increased from 51.95% in 2005 to
90.18% in 2014. Over this decade, although the growth
rate of wastewater treatment capacity and sewer line length
remained at more than 5%, sewer construction has lagged
WWTP construction [14]. By 2014, 511,200 km of public
sewer lines were installed in urban areas, serving
approximately 444 million people. The pipeline lengths
of sanitary sewer, storm sewer, and combined sewer were
192,100 km, 211,200 km, and 107,900 km, respectively
[18]. However, compared with some developed countries,
as shown in Fig. 1(b) [8,19–23], the quantity of sewer
networks in China was almost the same as that in Japan and
Germany, but significantly less than that in the United
States, and the sewer pervasion rate was rather lower.
Further, considering that China had a much larger
population than these countries, it is obvious that the
sewer networks construction is insufficient in China.
2.2 Sewer network geographical distribution
The 31 provinces in mainland China can be divided into
seven geographical areas of North, Northeast, East,
Central, South, Southwest, and Northwest. The sewer
line length, per capita sewer line length, per capita gross
domestic product (GDP), and per capita water consump-
tion for the seven areas are illustrated in Table 1 [16,18,24].
The specific data of storm, sanitary and combined sewer
length in these areas are also provided in the table. Detailed
information for each province is presented in Table 2.
East China has 220,800 km of sewer lines, which is
more than 40% of the national total; Northwest China had
the lowest amount. Generally, more sewer lines are situated
in the eastern region than in the western region.
Socialization and urbanization are more advanced in the
east than in the west, which results in higher per capita
GDP and population density [6]. Thus, a larger demand for
sewer networks in these areas is reasonable.
The per capita sewer line length has a positive
correlation with per capita GDP but little correlation with
per capita water consumption. East China, North China,
and South China, with higher per capita GDPs, have longer
per capita sewer line lengths. The average per capita sewer
length in East China is 1.57 m, ranking first among the
seven regions. Despite the fact that Southwest China has a
rather low GDP level, the per capita sewer line length in
this area is longer than that in other areas. This could be
explained by the low population density in this area.
Owing to inadequate operation and maintenance in
addition to extreme climate, the per capita length in the
north-east is merely 0.76 m, which is the least among the
seven regions. In contrast, even for the administrative areas
with 1.57 m per capita or the Tianjin province with the
highest value, at 2.38 m, the lengths are considerably lower
than those in some developed countries such as Germany,
at 6.13 m [23], or the United States, at 6.78 m [21].
Type of sewer network varies significantly in distribu-
tion in the administrative areas. East China, South-west
China, and North China has only 10%–20% of the total
combined sewers; however, the proportion of storm sewers
 Dong Huang et al. Current state and future perspectives for urban sewer in China 3

Fig. 1 (a) Total length of sewer network, wastewater production and wastewater treatment amount from 2005 to 2014 in urban China;
(b) public sewer length and sewer pervasion rate comparison between China and some developed countries
Note: a) Liao et al. [8]; b) Takashima [19], Sakakibara [20]; c) Sakakibara [20], Sterling et al. [21]; d) UK DEFRA [22]; e) Tang and Zhang [23]

is slightly higher than that of sanitary sewers. This implies
that separate sewer system (SSS) is predominant in these
areas. The situations in South China and Central China are
essentially the same, with the three types of sewer lines
existing in nearly equal proportions. The combined sewer
lines account for 41.5% of the total in North-east China,
and 30% are storm sewers; thus, the combined sewer
system (CSS) is typical in this region.
2.3 Investment geographical distribution
In 2014, 7.1 billion US dollars1) (47.3 billion CNY) was
invested in sewer network construction [18]. During the
Twelfth Five-Year Plan (2011–2015), 64.3 billion US
dollars (427.1 billion CNY) was allocated for infrastruc-
ture construction of municipal wastewater treatment and
wastewater reclamation [25]. As shown in Fig. 2(a), 57.2%
of the total five-year planned investment, or 36.8 billion

1) The average exchange rate of CNY against the US dollar in 2016 was $1 = ¥6.6423, similarly hereinafter.
4 Front. Environ. Sci. Eng. 2018, 12(3): 2

Table 1 Sewer line length; per capita sewer line length; per capita GDP; per capita water consumption; and number of sanitary sewer, storm sewer,
and combined sewer for different areas in China
Region Sewer line Per capita Per capita Per capita water Storm sewer Sanitary sewer Combined sewer length
length sewer line GDP consumption length length (km)
(104 m) length (m) (1000 dollars) (L) (km) (km)
North China 6.90 1.10 8.44 251.53 31152 25703 11657
Northeast China 3.66 0.76 7.84 301.85 10632 10752 15190
East China 22.08 1.57 9.25 369.56 97401 94589 28856
Central China 5.34 0.93 6.08 311.86 19344 16097 18004
South China 6.26 0.98 7.95 449.87 20163 21734 20716
Southwest China 4.80 1.03 5.01 282.63 22185 18138 7687
Northwest China 2.12 0.81 5.87 308.64 10282 5104 5794

Table 2 Sewer line length, per capita sewer line length, per capita GDP, per capita water consumption in different provinces
Length of drainage pipelines Per capita sewer lines length Per capita GDP Per capita water
Name of regions consumption (L)
(km) (m) (thousand dollars)
Beijing 14290 0.77 14.96 268.84
Tianjin 18748 2.38 15.75 283.03
Hebei 15924 0.98 5.98 254.81
Shanxi 7428 0.68 5.25 210.08
Inner Mongolia 12123 1.39 10.63 231.68
Liaoning 16783 0.74 9.76 328.36
Jilin 9870 0.85 7.51 253.37
Heilongjiang 9922 0.72 5.87 298.71
Shanghai 20972 0.86 14.57 358.33
Jiangsu 66256 2.22 12.25 448.99
Zhejiang 35960 1.77 10.93 416.64
Anhui 24580 1.72 5.15 320.92
Fujian 12709 1.12 9.50 377.96
Jiangxi 10814 1.09 5.19 294.14
Shandong 49554 1.63 9.11 313.56
Henan 19348 0.81 5.55 217.98
Hubei 21484 1.14 7.06 392.84
Hunan 12612 0.87 6.03 362.03
Guangdong 50320 0.98 9.50 450.56
Guangxi 8771 0.88 4.95 448.48
Hainan 3522 1.33 5.83 441.65
Chongqing 11081 0.89 7.16 248.66
Sichuan 20606 1.05 5.26 307.17
Guizhou 5577 1.03 3.96 282.58
Yunnan 10136 1.22 4.08 257.02
Tibet 610 0.91 4.38 507.41
Shaanxi 7237 0.82 7.02 288.79
Gansu 5016 0.88 3.96 261.16
Qinghai 1469 0.89 5.94 414.16
Ningxia 1460 0.53 6.26 304.01
Xinjiang 5997 0.83 6.08 347.95
 Dong Huang et al. Current state and future perspectives for urban sewer in China 5

Fig. 2 (a) Investment in infrastructure construction program of municipal wastewater treatment, reclamation, and reuse during the
Twelfth Five-Year Plan; (b) actual investment (2011–2014), planned investment (2011–2015), and per capita GDP in different areas in
China

US dollars (244.3 billion CNY), was planned for sewer
network construction.
By 2014, the fourth year of the plan, the actual
investment status of the seven administrative areas was
clarified, as presented in Fig. 2(b) [18,26–28]. In North,
North-east, and Central China, more than 80% of the
planned investment had been fulfilled during the first four
years. The planned investment in North China was even
exceeded. However, the investment implementation rates
in South-west, South, and North-west China were
significantly lower than those in other areas.
Although a large amount of funds have been devoted
during these years, interregional imbalance still existed in
sewer network construction and investment. Funds for
sewer construction were supported mainly by local
government finances with the addition of certain central
government funds [25,29]. The economic development
was better in the eastern region than in the western region;
accordingly, local governments in these areas were able to
afford such a huge financial expenditure. The governments
in the western region focused more on development of the
social economy. Thus, only limited funds were allocated
6 Front. Environ. Sci. Eng. 2018, 12(3): 2
for sewer network construction in these areas. Although
the Twelfth Five-Year Plan stated that some appropriate
funds should be allocated to local governments, specific
instructions were not provided. Inevitably, the interregio-
nal imbalance in these areas expanded.
3 Administration of sewer networks in
China
3.1 Administrative agencies
Although sewer network planning and construction are
governed mainly by the Ministry of Housing and Urban–
Rural Development (MHURD) at the national level, the
management department varies greatly at the local
government level [30]. Sewer network management may
belong to indigenous enterprises, the Housing Construc-
tion Bureau, the Drainage Management Office, or the
Municipal Engineering Administration Department. For
example, different aspects of sewer networks are under the
responsibility of several governmental departments in
Beijing. The Municipal Planning and Land Resources
Management Commission are responsible for the con-
struction plan. After the plan’s set-up, construction must be
projected and funded by the Municipal Commission of
Development and Reform. Some enterprises then may be
commissioned for sewer building processes, operation, and
maintenance. Moreover, the enterprises are jointly super-
vised by the Municipal Drainage Management Office,
Beijing Water Authority, and Environmental Protection
Bureau. Such complicated management systems lead to
low efficiency operation and poor maintenance of sewer
networks.
3.2 Laws, regulations, and standards
Laws, administrative regulations, national standards, and
industry standards related to network administration in
China are shown in Table 3 and Table S1, Table S2(see
Supplementary material) .
The Environmental Protection Law of the People’s
Republic of China states that all levels of government
Table 3 Laws and administrative regulations for sewer system management in China
Name Implementation date
Law of the People's Republic of China on Prevention and
2008/6/1
Control of Water Pollution
The Environmental Protection Law of the People's
2015/1/1
Republic of China
Regulations on Urban Drainage and Wastewater Treat-
2014/1/1
ment
The Action Plan for Water Pollution Prevention and
2015/4/2
Control
should coordinate wastewater treatment infrastructure with
sewer network construction [31]. Moreover, the aim of the
Law of the People’s Republic of China on Prevention and
Control of Water Pollution is to prevent pollution from
wastewater [32]. It specifies that governments at or above
the county level must invest part of their budgets or raise
funds for sewer network construction and increase the
municipal wastewater collection and treatment capacity.
Regarding the administrative regulations, Regulations on
Urban Drainage and Wastewater Treatment focus mainly
on urban drainage and wastewater treatment management,
thus reducing wastewater pollution and waterlogging [29].
The Action Plan for Water Pollution Prevention and
Control Comprehensive also regulates sewer network
construction [33].
The national standards can be grouped into three
categories: planning and design, construction and
acceptance, and sewer materials (Table S1). The industry
standards cover many aspects such as technical
specifications, sewer materials, and ancillary equipment
(Table S2). Most of these standards have published
recently, particularly those related to materials and
ancillary equipment.
Despite the various laws, regulations, and standards,
some items do not appear to be reasonable or scientific. For
example, the type of sewer network and relevant
parameters should be determined on the basis of local
conditions. SSSs should not be a mandatory requirement
for newly built or old urban areas [25]. In some developed
countries, CSS is still the main type of sewer system [34].
Moreover, SSS construction usually costs three times more
in public investment than CSS construction [14]. Some
planning and design parameters such as interception ratio,
recurrence interval, and extraneous ratio are significantly
lower than those in actual conditions or in some developed
countries [14,35,36]. Additionally, the development pro-
cess for some standards may follow those of some
developed countries without scientific research or valida-
tion. For example, plastic and glass-reinforced plastic
mortar sewers are vigorously promoted in China. How-
ever, ring stiffness is generally the only parameter used for
evaluating the sewer material quality, which will likely
result in structural problems in the future [23].
Publication department
Standing Committee of the National People's Congress
Standing Committee of the National People's Congress
The State Council of China
The State Council of China
 Dong Huang et al. Current state and future perspectives for urban sewer in China
4 Sewer network maintenance in China
4.1 Grim situation for sewer network maintenance
In China, 72% of the sewer networks were installed in the
past 15 years [16]; therefore, the market for sewer
construction is quite immature. Because of the unreason-
able bidding system and highly aggressive competition
among bidding entities, quotations for sewer construction
are usually very low. Thus, the construction quality is
difficult to guarantee. Many problems such as poor sewer
bedding and joints likely occur during non-standard
building processes, which subsequently result in structural
and functional failure [37,38].
In China, the chemical oxidation demand (COD)
concentrations of WWTP influent are normally lower
than 300 mg/L [6,8,39,40], and the biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD5) is usually lower than 150 mg/L, as shown
in Fig. 3 [41]. These levels are both quite low compared
with those of WWTP influent in some developed countries.
Hence, the carbon source in raw wastewater is severely
inadequate for subsequent microorganism growth, which
leads to low removal efficiency for nutrients. Although
some reports have blamed this phenomenon on septic
tanks and the low standard for pollutant discharge into
municipal sewers [8,42], recent sewer inspection cam-
paigns in some cities have shown that the poor conditions
of sewer networks is the primary reason [43–45]. More-
over, several assessment results and reports have indicated
Fig. 3 COD and BOD5 mean concentrations of WWTP influent in some cities in China
7
that illicit connections in sewer networks are ubiquitous in
China [4,46,47]. Even in some developed areas such as
Shanghai and Shenzhen, the infiltration rate is normally
more than 25% [48,49].
Sewer age is another factor. The age of the sewers in
China is considerably lower than that in countries such as
Germany, where the average age is 41 years; the UK,
where at least half are 50 years old; and the United States,
where most were installed after World War II [23,50,51].
Considering the relatively young age combined with the
poor construction quality, low influent concentration in
WWTPs (high infiltration rate), and poor condition, sewer
network maintenance in China is facing an extremely grim
future.
4.2 Sewer corrosion control
Sewer corrosion has long been recognized as one of the
most serious problems affecting sewer infrastructure in
some developed countries [52,53]. Corrosion damage to
sewers lead to premature rehabilitation or replacement,
which is estimated to cost several billion dollars per year
globally [1,54]. Moreover, hydrogen sulfide and other
odorous substances accompanied by sewer corrosion may
pose a health risk to nearby residents.
Currently, the sewer corrosion problem has not received
sufficient attention in China. Unlike that in developed
countries, measures for mitigating corrosion in sewer
networks have not been regulated by official manuals or
8 Front. Environ. Sci. Eng. 2018, 12(3): 2
standards, and very few cases for sewer corrosion and odor
control have been reported in China [55,56]. Extensive
research for sewer corrosion mitigation has been con-
ducted globally during the last decade. The understanding
of sewer (especially concrete sewer) corrosion and its
mechanism has become clearer through recent interna-
tional studies [57–59]. In contrast, relevant research in
China has focused mainly on corrosion problems of oil and
gas pipelines with few studies conducted on chemical
dosing or corrosion-resistant materials for sewer corrosion
mitigation (Fig. S1). Without mature technologies, stan-
dards, and in-depth understanding, and considering the
potential extra cost, the operational units are unlikely to
take proactive steps to control sewer corrosion.
4.3 Sewer network inspection
Currently, most sewer inspection measures rely on artificial
patrol; therefore, the internal conditions of sewer networks
cannot be effectively evaluated. Thus, problems such as
microbial-induced corrosion, cracks, exfiltration, and
infiltration/inflow (I/I) are ignored. Most cities in China
adopt passive measures to address sewer problems. Proper
measures are not taken until related problems are found
such as structural failure, wastewater spills, or sewer
blockage. However, several new technologies for sewer
inspection have been applied in some areas in China.
Three main sewer inspection approaches are currently
used in China: closed-circuit television (CCTV), sonar,
and pipe quick view (QV). In most cases, the CCTV
method is preferred; this technology is the most widely
used method for inspecting and assessing sewer condition
[50,60]. It acquires data of the sewer internal conditions
and provides visual images of cracks, leaks, illicit
connections, and sediment accumulation [60], which
allows the operator to assess precise conditions intuitively.
QV, with its lower cost and higher production rate, is likely
to be adopted in large-scale sewer inspections and
assessments [61].
Nationwide sewer inspection and assessment campaigns
have not been conducted in China thus far; hence, the
overall conditions of sewer networks remain unknown. By
comparison, similar actions have been taken in Germany,
where nearly 80% of the sewer networks have been
inspected using CCTV technology [23]. In the United
States, some projects have been undertaken to evaluate
current inspection technologies for better operation and
maintenance [38]. However, because of relevant manage-
ment problems and a lack of funds, most of the CCTV
equipment in some cities has not been properly utilized in
China [62]. Relevant CCTV inspection campaigns have
been conducted only in a rather small scale [44,46,63]. As
a result, new technologies for sewer inspection have not
been widely adopted in China.
4.4 Sewer network rehabilitation
4.4.1 Overview
Regarding sewer rehabilitation, the excavation method is
still the dominant technology in most of China [15,61,64].
Traditional open-cut excavation rehabilitation is costlier
than trenchless approaches, and causes traffic disruption
and noise problems [15,65,66]. According to relevant
literature, website news information, and technical reports,
trenchless technologies have been applied in dozens of
cities in China (Fig. 4). Detailed information about
trenchless rehabilitation cases is provided in Table S3.
Trenchless methods for sewer rehabilitation were first
introduced in cities such as Guangzhou, Shenzhen, and
Changzhou in recent years. Currently, the Beijing–Tianjin–
Hebei, the Yangtze River Delta, and the Pearl River Delta
regions are the main market for trenchless sewer
rehabilitation.
4.4.2 Trenchless technologies applied for sewer rehabilita-
tion
Mainly eight trenchless technologies are applied in China:
liner inversion cured-in-place pipe (CIPP), pull-in ultra-
violet light cured liner, spiral wound lining, fold-and-
reformed lining, slip lining, pipe bursting, grouting, and
stainless steel foam sleeve. Generally, the liner inversion
CIPP is the most widely applied new technology in China
and has two main advantages. First, the sealing layer
outside the felt tube will be the inner layer when the liner is
inverted, and the cracks and defects on the host sewer will
be filled with uncured resin, locking the liner in place.
Second, different from the pull-in approach, the inversion
method does not involve dragging during the rehabilitation
process. However, the liner will automatically expand with
the addition of steam or hot water, thus lowering the
potential for damage. An increasing number of rehabilita-
tion cases using pull-in ultraviolet light cured liners have
been reported in recent years in China [75–77]. This
technology has many advantages over the traditional
inversion method including (1) a smaller footprint,
(2) shorter curing time, (3) more controllable curing
process, (4) ease in operation, and (5) a high safety factor.
Applications of the remaining approaches are relatively
fewer. Essentially, the four reasons for their less frequent
application are as follows. (1) New trenchless technologies
such as slip lining, trenchless grouting, and pipe bursting
have not been mastered by construction and design units
[61,78]. (2) Underground pipeline networks are very
complicated, and trenchless rehabilitation may affect the
normal operation of other pipelines. For example, the
original pipe fragments may damage nearby electricity and
water distribution pipelines when the pipe bursts [79].
 Dong Huang et al. Current state and future perspectives for urban sewer in China
Fig. 4 Cities with trenchless technologies applied, main market for trenchless rehabilitation, first applied time, and specific technology
in urban China
(3) The remaining technologies are likely to cost more
than the CIPP approaches [80]. (4) Several defect points
may exist in a single segment. Typically, it would be
preferable to reline the entire segment from manhole to
manhole when more than two defect sections are present
[21].
4.4.3 Cost for trenchless technologies
The average cost for trenchless technologies in China is
rather high. Wang and Li [64] reported that the internal cost
of trenchless methods, at $828 (5501 CNY)/m, is higher
than that of the excavation method, at $570 (3786 CNY)/
m; however, considering the social and environmental
impact, the external cost of trenchless approaches, at $997
(6624 CNY) /m, was lower than that of the traditional
excavation method, at $1419 (9425 CNY)/m. In China, the
option for sewer rehabilitation depends mainly on internal
cost; the social and environmental costs are usually
ignored. Moreover, sewer pretreatment and inspection
would make the total cost higher. In some cases, the sewer
needs to be cleaned before approaches such as linear
9
inverse CIPP and pull-in ultraviolet light cured liners are
applied. Sewer sediment removal cost was usually $60
(400 CNY) /m-3. The average cost of CCTV and sonar
inspection is $2.7–3.8 (18–25 CNY) per linear meter, and
that of QV is $1.4 (9 CNY) per linear meter [61]. In many
cases, the relevant materials and equipment mostly employ
imported products, leading to high cost for trenchless
methods [81–84].
In general, trenchless technologies have not been widely
applied in China; in 2009, only 27.92 km of sewer line was
rehabilitated through trenchless method [85]. Although
trenchless approaches for sewer networks have been
applied successfully in some areas with an increasing
trend, the market share in China is still low compared with
that in some western countries. For example, in the United
States, nearly 70% of sewer rehabilitation involves
trenchless technologies [21]. These technologies more
likely have been applied in economically developed
regions in China (Fig. 4). With limited applications of
new technologies and traditional passive measures, the
poor performance and deterioration of sewer networks
would worsen further.
10 Front. Environ. Sci. Eng. 2018, 12(3): 2
5 Future perspectives for sewer networks
in China
5.1 New technical route for sewer networks maintenance in
the future in China
Considering the overall situation in China, the top priority
will be to elevate sewer network performance in the future;
therefore, abundant maintenance is required for the
existing sewer networks. A new technical route, corrosion
control–periodic visualized inspection–trenchless rehabili-
tation, could be the best option for sewer maintenance in
the future. On the basis of sewer management experience
in western countries, this technical route is completely
feasible for China in the future. During the Eleventh and
Twelfth Five-Year Plans, sewer network investment
accounted for nearly 60% of the total investment [25].
Thus, it is necessary to apply effective maintenance to
existing sewer networks.
Maintenance using this new technical route will also
make a positive impact on the operation of downstream
WWTPs. Currently, the effluent concentration in most
WWTPs in China is required to meet the national class 1A
standard (GB 18918-2002), which indicates that the total
phosphorus (TP) and total nitrogen (TN) concentrations of
effluent must be lower than 0.5 mg/L and 15 mg/L,
respectively. Given the low influent concentration, the
huge cost for an extra carbon source could be saved by
elevating the overall performance of sewer networks and
increasing the wastewater influent concentration.
Moreover, the new technical route is more cost-effective
than the traditional route as artificial petrol–excavation
rehabilitation. Sewer corrosion mitigation could reduce the
sewer deterioration speed and extend the service life of the
sewer networks compared with traditional approaches.
Sewer corrosion measures such as chemical addition are
extra expenses. However, considering the potential
rehabilitation and replacement for cracks and structural
collapses caused by continuous corrosion, an enormous
amount of money could be saved given that the
rehabilitation costs are expected to increase as the aging
infrastructure continues to fail [54].
Finally, the new technical route is more environmentally
friendly because odor-related environmental and personal
safety risks as well as traffic and noise problems caused by
the open-cut rehabilitation method will be largely
diminished.
5.2 Instructions for applying new technical route in China
Considering the current state of sewer networks in China,
the new technical route may not be effectively applied in
the short-term. However, China can benefit from the
experiences of developed countries and international
scientific research.
5.2.1 Corrosion control
Chemical dosing is one of the most commonly used
strategies for corrosion control. The basic mechanism is to
either inhibit sulfide generation or eliminate the produced
sulfide [86]. Traditional chemicals such as oxygen, nitrate,
and strong alkali can achieve corrosion mitigation
effectively by providing new electron acceptors and
elevating the pH. However, oxygen and nitrate may lead
to a decrease in the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
through consumption by heterotrophic bacteria [86–88],
which results in higher cost for WWTP operation
considering the current poor influent quality in China.
Further, neither oxygen nor nitrate has a persistent
inhibitory effect on the activity of sulfate reducing bacteria
(SRB) [54,87]. Thus, continuous chemical dosing is
needed, which leads to high supply costs. For the strong
alkali (usually Mg(OH)2, NaOH), this method is not cost
effective when applied in large systems [88].
The addition of iron salts, another option for H2S
control, is simple and cost-effective. Precipitation reactions
occur in the bulk phase, which results in elimination of
sulfide. Moreover, the sulfide production could be
significantly inhibited by Fe3+, which further reduces the
dosing demand [89]. It has been reported that iron-rich
drinking water treatment sludge could be a potential source
for iron salts, which further reduces the cost for iron salts
production [90]. Recently, both laboratory and field trial
results have shown that free nitrous acid (FNA) is a
promising and cost-effective chemical for corrosion
control because it acts a strong biocide for sewer biofilm
inactivation at rather low concentrations of 0.2–0.3 mg
HNO2-N/L [91–93].
Both iron salts and FNA could be optimal options.
However, further optimization for the dosing process is
possible. Currently, the chemicals are usually dosed at a
constant rate without considering the dynamics of sewage
flow and sulfide production. Recently, a more precise and
cost-effective dosing method based on feed-forward
control algorithms with significant cost savings has been
reported, resulting in 15%–45% chemical savings and
better control effects [54]. In general, iron salts and FNA
combined with an optimized control dosing process could
be a potential solution for sewer corrosion control in the
future in China.
5.2.2 Periodic visualized inspection
The CCTV method is likely the best option for periodic
visualized inspection in China in the future because this
technology has been adopted mostly in developed
countries such as the United States, Germany, and the
UK [23,38,50]. However, technical limitations for this
method may impede its application. First, sewer defects
under the surface of the water cannot be detected by using
 Dong Huang et al. Current state and future perspectives for urban sewer in China
this method, which makes the inspection results inaccurate
[60]. Second, it relies on operator panning and tilting to
examine defects in the field, resulting in a lower production
rate of 300–450 m/d [38]. Third, the inspection results by
CCTV may not be effectively identified even if the
operator is experienced and qualified. For example, factors
like poor lighting or shadows can lead to incorrect
judgment. Fourth, adoption of the CCTV method may be
unsuitable for force main inspection. Draining the sewer
may not be appropriate because it could lead to higher cost
and disruption of service.
Thus, more mature technologies need to be introduced to
China. Some technologies such as laser profiling and
electro-scanning could complement the CCTV inspection
results [38,50,60]. Detailed information on sewer wall
thickness, deflection, and sediment accumulation could be
provided by laser profiling, which may help to identify
potential defects inspected by CCTV. Some problems, such
as I/I, faulty joints, and illicit connections are unlikely to be
inspected by CCTV when there is no water flowing
through. In these cases, electro-scanning might play a
critical role in locating these defects [60]. A combination
of these technologies with traditional CCTV will inevi-
tably result in additional cost, which will be offset by the
extra savings from the more effectively planned rehabilita-
tion projects [94]. Camera-based technologies such as
digital scanning serve as alternatives to CCTV in some
cases. Digital scanning has some advantages over CCTV
such as (1) a higher production rate, (2) reliability in
inspecting sewers of different diameters, (3) better image
quality. Finally, for sewer bedding and evaluation of void
conditions, ground penetration radar (GPR) is the most
accessible technology in current usage.
All of the aforementioned technologies could be
potential options for sewer inspection in China in the
future. Thus, the relevant standard needs to be further
complemented; only CCTV, sonar, and QV have been
regulated for the current standard (CJJ/181-2012). Factors
such as sewer type, material, size, flow condition, and cost
need to be considered synergistically during the technol-
ogy selection process.
5.2.3 Trenchless rehabilitation
Trenchless technology is more cost effective and envir-
onmentally friendly than the traditional open-cut method.
During the last five years, an increasing number of cases
applying trenchless methods have been reported (Table
S3). In addition, a standard (CJJ/T 210-2014) for sewer
rehabilitation based on relevant ASTM standards has been
released. All of the evidence given above indicates that
technically, it is completely feasible to promote these
mature technologies in China in the future.
Currently, the top issues for trenchless rehabilitation
promotion are an immature market and shortage of funds.
11
Awareness of utilizing trenchless methods is weak among
sewer operation units, which indicates a lack of engineer-
ing knowledge and skilled technicians in relevant
organizations [78]. Moreover, the number of relevant
enterprises is rather limited; only about 200 contractors for
trenchless technologies are available in China [95]. As
shown in Fig. 5, only 0.66 billion US dollars (4.38 billion
CNY) was invested for sewer rehabilitation, whereas 7.1
billion US dollars (47.3 billion CNY) was used for sewer
construction in 2014. This amount is far less than that
allocated by the United States [18,21,41]. Such a
differential reveals that the Chinese government attaches
more importance to sewer construction than to sewer
rehabilitation.
Fig. 5 Comparison of sewer construction and rehabilitation cost
between China and US
Thus, in the future, personnel training and enterprise
development for sewer trenchless rehabilitation need to be
encouraged by the Chinese government. Synchronously,
related funding support needs to be provided, particularly
in less economically developed regions.
5.3 Opportunities for applying new technical route in China
Although several types of problems exist in sewer
networks, some actions have been successively put
forward to provide some opportunities for the new
technical route application.
The Urban Black-Odor River Treatment Project
(UBRTP) and Sponge City Construction Project (SCCP)
have been released for improving the urban aquatic
environment and addressing storm water issues by the
Chinese government [96–98]. The latest guidebook,
“Urban Black-Odor River Treatment–Technology Guide
for Management of Drainage, Pipes and Manholes,” has
provided further guidance for relevant technologies and
12 Front. Environ. Sci. Eng. 2018, 12(3): 2
standards. This guidebook covers the following topics:
regulation of the management of urban municipal
drainage, sewer networks, and manholes; efforts made to
elevate sewage collection rates; improvement in the
efficiency of wastewater treatment plants; and elimination
of direct discharge of sewage.
Currently in China, increasing efforts have been made to
investigate sewer inspection and trenchless rehabilitation.
The number of relevant patents and reports on these issues
is continually increasing (Fig. S2). With the development
of these technologies, increasing numbers of technicians
and enterprises will participate in this industry. Naturally,
relevant materials and equipment will no longer be
completely dependent on imports, leading to lower cost.
In recent years, some regulations on the cooperation
between government and social capital have been released.
The government has encouraged the use of new financing
modes such as Public–Private–Partnership (PPP), Build–
Operate–Transfer (BOT), and Engineering–Procurement–
Construction (EPC). These financing modes have already
been applied in several public infrastructure construction
programs, as they are feasible strategies for solving
problems of insufficient funds.
5.4 Further aspects for sewer networks in China in the
future
5.4.1 Construction aspect
In the future, additional sewer networks need to be
constructed given the rather low sewer pervasion rate
and rapid urbanization rate in China. Sewer network
construction shall be coordinated with WWTP construc-
tion because currently, WWTPs are usually constructed
prior to or independent of sewer networks. The selection of
the sewer system type needs to be determined according to
local conditions such as climate and geography. CSS could
be a better option than SSS in the north-west area, where
there is little rain throughout the year. Additional funds for
sewer construction need to be supported in less economic-
ally developed areas to eliminate interregional imbalance.
Finally, reasonable regulations or standards also need to be
set to standardize the sewer construction market.
5.4.2 Management aspect
Sewer management systems need to be optimized and
upgraded for more efficient operation and maintenance in
the future. Sewer networks such as sewage collection
systems may be affected by upstream water treatment
plants, which simultaneously affect the operation of
downstream wastewater treatment plants. For example,
sulfate coagulant utilization during water production could
lead to higher sulfate concentrations in sewage. It is
anticipated that severe sewer corrosion might occur
downstream, resulting in significant cost for sewer network
maintenance [53]. It has also been reported that both
sulfide and phosphate removal could be achieved by
changing the addition point of ferric salts from WWTP to
the upstream sewer [99]. All of these studies indicate that
management for sewer networks, WWTPs, and drinking
water treatment systems need to be combined. Further, an
integrated urban water management system should be
established in China in the future. Finally, research on
sewer processes, sewer corrosion, sewer inspection, and
trenchless rehabilitation should be encouraged by govern-
ments with sufficient funding support.
6 Conclusions
By analyzing the construction status, administration,
maintenance, and future perspectives of sewer networks
in China, the following conclusions can be drawn.
1) The sewer capacity in China is insufficient, and
interregional imbalance exists in the current sewer network
construction and investment.
2) The administrative agents for sewer network plan-
ning, construction, operation, maintenance, and super-
vision in local governments differ. Some items in relevant
laws, regulations, and standards are not reasonable, and
some standards are developed without scientific research
or validation.
3) The overall performance of sewer networks in China
is very poor, and the concept of sewer corrosion control is
weakly understood in China. New inspection and tren-
chless technologies for sewer maintenance have not been
widely applied. The average cost for trenchless technol-
ogies is still high.
4) In the future, the top priority for China is to elevate
the overall sewer performance by devoting sufficient
resources for maintenance. The new technical route,
corrosion control–periodic visualized inspection–tren-
chless rehabilitation, can be the optimal method for
sewer maintenance in China in the future.
5) Additional sewer networks need to be constructed in
the future. An integrated management system needs to be
established for more efficient and cost-effective operation
and maintenance. Scientific studies on sewer processes,
corrosion, inspection, and trenchless rehabilitation should
be encouraged by the government with sufficient funding
support.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by the National Special
Project for Science and Technology on Water Pollution Control and
Management (2015ZX07322002).
Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available
in the online version of this article at https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-018-
1023-1 and is accessible for authorized users.
 Dong Huang et al. Current state and future perspectives for urban sewer in China
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