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Industrial trusses form one of the major structural systems, Nhichrequire accurate
analysis and design. Their span and corresponding cost plays an important role in
planning the industrial area. The shape and configuration is decided upon the span, pitch,
spacing , various loads and naturally the cost,. In this project an humble attempt is made
to compare various truss configurations with same span, pitch, spacing regarding the cost
aspects.
1) Fan truss
2) Pratt 1 truss
4) Howe truss
5) Pratt truss
All the above types of trusses have been analyzed, designed and typical drawings
are prepared for span ranging from 10 to 30 Mts. which arethe most common spans in
practices. Cost comparison between various configurations of trusses is made graphs are
drawn.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General:
either load bearing or skeleton frame. As the least dimension of the building becomes
larger and thus impossible or uneconomical to span with simple beams or joists, columns
and roof support Such systems extend to the perimeter of bearing walls or walls with
integral load bearing piers. An alternative solution is to span the distance between walls
with trusses. The truss frequently offers the added advantages of permitting a wider
variety of roof shapes and greater unobstructed interior floor area at less cost. In
Industrial buildings, we use trusses for roofing system ,where spans are larger.
When a roof is to be provided for a building which does not have interior
supports, but the exterior walls of which are more than 12 meters apart, some system of
framing would be more economical than simple, beams, such a frame is called a 'truss'.
The basic form of a truss is triangle, formed by three members joined together at their
common ends forming three joints .Such a triangle is clearly rigid Another two members
connected to two of the joints with their far ends connected member of such
joints may be bolted, welded or fastened together with pins but in the present treatments,
members are subjected to axial forces of tension or compression only and are not
subjected to bending.
1.3 Components of truss
Rise : The overall height of the truss measured from the bearing level
to its peak.
TopChord : The top chord is defined as the upper most line of members
extending from one support to the other and that passes through
BottomChord : The bottom chord Is defined as the lower most line or members
There are great many steel truss forms used in building construction However,
(1) Planetruss
Planetruss :
If all the members of the truss lies in one plane,( two dimensional)it is called a
plane truss.
Space truss
In general, the materials used in the construction of truss are timber ,steel,
aluminum, concrete and plastics. Timber is one of the oldest building materials, and it
has high strength at low weight. Steel is most frequently used in truss construction and is
an ideal material for such trusses. Steel trusses may be constructed of cold rolled
sections, angles or tubes and riveted, bolted or welded together or to suitably shaped
gusset plates or connectors. Prestressed steel is used for strengthening of building of very
large span. Fibre reinforced plastic is used in the construction of airplane, helicopter,
To study the change in force with the change in span for a particular truss
configuration.
To utilize general computer program "STAAD-III "for truss analysis and design.
To plot the graphs and prepare tables for the better understanding of cost benefit
When a roof is to be provided for a building which does not have any interior
supports the exterior walls and which are more than 12 m apart, some system of framing
would be more economical than simple beams. Such a frame is called a truss. The
The central post known as king post forms a support for the tie beam.
The inclined members, known as struts, prevent the principal rafters from
The upper ends of the queen posts are kept in position by means of a horizontal
In this truss a straining sill is introduced on the tie beam between the queen posts
The pratt truss has diagonals in tension under normal vertical loading so that the
For pratt roof truss the most economical span to depth ratio is between 4 and 5,
The parallel ( or nearly parallel Le. flat) pratt trusses have on economic span
For the top end of the span range the bay width should be such that the web
For long deep trusses the bay, width become too large and are often subdivided
For longer spans the pitched trusses are used for drainage purposes.
The tension chord is more heavily loaded than the compression chord at mid-span
The most economical span to depth ratio is between 4 to 5 , with a span range of
8 m to 12m.
It can be used for steep slopes but they are usually not too economical.
The most economical span to depth ratio is between 4 and 5 with a span range of
8m to 12 m.
It is more economical as most of the members are in tension while those that are
They can be divided into a large number of panels to suit almost any span or
purlin spacing.
The disadvantage is that the number of panels can be increased only by doubling
· It is a modification of the fink truss that permits greater flexibility in number of panels.
For spans between 15 m and 30 m. the Mansard truss reduces the unusable roof
space.
It has equal length of compression and tension web members, resulting in a net
It may be used when adequate natural lighting is desired from skylights in wide
If a curved roof is acceptable, bow string truss can be used economically for
spans upto 35 m.
When properly designed , this truss has the unusual feature of having very small
4 x ℎ2 + 4 𝑥 𝑖 2
Radius =
8ℎ
I = span length
h = height of truss
It is used for supporting short span structures like churches and other Buildings
Near the center line of this truss the diagonals are reserved for the purpose of
It Is used for long spans and also when more head room is required.
The roof trusses are subjected to normally, dead load ,live load. and wind
10ad.Andin addition to these loads, the roof trusses are also subjected to some special
Dead loads are loads which are constant in magnitude and fixed position
throughout the life time of the structure. Dead load on roof trusses includes the weight of
roof covering, the weight of purlins, the weight of bracing and the self f weight of
trusses.
It includes the weights of asbestos cement corrugated and semi corrugated sheets,
G.I Sheets, tiles, glass and slates. The weights of truss materials are given in KN. per
square meter of plan areas. The unit weights of building materials have been given in IS:
The weight of purlins is assumed as 0.070 to 0.150 KN. per meter of plan area.
3.1.4 Weight of trusses
For the design of roof trusses, the weight of truss is assumed . The weight of truss
varies with the span, and the rise of truss I the spacing of trusses, the type of roof
covering material, the geographical situation of the roof structure. The self weight of
truss is a small part of the total design for the roof truss. The self weight of truss may be
assumed as 0.090 to 0.150 km per square meter of plan area. The self weight of truss can
Live loads are the loads which very in magnitude and/or in positions. Live loads
are also known as imposed or transient loads. Live loads are expressed as uniformly
distributed static 10ads.Theimposed ( live) loads on various types of roofs other than
wind load and snow load. as per IS : 875-1987, for roofs with slopes upto and including
10 degrees, is adopted as 1.5 KN I m2 of plan area where access is provided to roof . The
minimum live load measured on plan shall be 3.75 KN uniformly distributed over any
span. of one meter width of the roof slab and 9.0 KN uniformly distributed over the span
Where the access is not provided , except the maintenance , live load on roofs is
adopted as 0.150 KN/ m2of plan as in the case, the minimum live load measured on plan
shall be 1.9 KN uniformly distributed overly span of one meter width of roof slab and
4.5 KN uniformly distributed over the span in the case of beams. The live load for
sloping roof with slopes greater than 10° is adopted as 0.75 KN per square meter of plan
area. less 0.020 KNlm2for every degree increase In slope over 10° subjected to minimum
The wind load is one of the most important loads that an engineer has to deal
with and is also one that is most difficult to evaluate properly . The magnitude of wind
pressure depends on wind velocity and the shape of the structure . The magnitude of
wind velocity varies with the geographical location of the structure and the height of the
structure.
The basic wind speed, Vb is the wind speed measured in a 50 year return period,.
The basic wind speed is based on peak gust velocity averaged over a short Internal of
time of about 3 seconds and it corresponds to mean heights above ground level In an
open terrain (category) As per IS : 815 (part 3) wind loads - 1987 , six wind zones have
been formed which corresponds to basic speed of 55,50,47,39 and 33 meter per second,
After noting the basic wind speed, it is modified to include the effects of risk,
level, terrain roughness, height size of the structure, and local topography, The design
wind speed, Vz may be mathematically expressed as under. The design wind speed is the
Vz = ( k1 . k2 . k3 ) Vb
Above factors k1 , k2 and k3 have been described in IS :875 ( part 3) -1987 ,Is to
note that the design wind speed upto the height from the mean ground level shall be
considered constant.
The design wind pressure, pz depends upon the basic wind speed, Vb, the height
of structure above ground level, the terrain categories ,the local topography ,the aspect
ratio ( viz.,length and breath of structures),the shape of structure and the solidity ratio or
The design wind pressure at any height above mean ground level shall be obtained from
the above expressions depend on a number of factors and mainly on the atmospheric
4.0 CONNECTIONS
Connection between two adjacent members should be strong enough to sustain various
types of loads as the more common structural failures occur in connection rather than in
members.
Riveted
Bolted
Welded
Rivets are made from mild steel rivet bars by a machine which forms the head
and cuts the rivet of the desired length. The different types of rivet are shown in the
fig.(4.1a)
Power driven shop rivets are the ones driven in fabrication shop under better
controlled. conditions. Therefore, they are stronger than the power driven field rivets or
When a rivet is ready for driving, it should be free from slag, scale and other
adhering matter. All rivets should be driven by hydraulic or pneumatic process. This is
the case when riveting is done by heating. The rivets can be driven cold also with the use
diameter rivets but at the present time cold driving of rivets of diameter. greater than
These are generally the simplest type of connection used when two member are in the
same plane. In this the planes to be connected together overlap each other as shown in
fig.(4lb).
Single riveted lap joints in which a single row of rivets parallel to the edges of
plates is used for the connection. Which is shown in fig. (4.1b).Double riveted lap joint
in which two parallel rows of rivets are used which may be in the form of chain or in the
In the butt joint, the plates to be connected together are kept flush, their central
planes being just opposite to each other. These may be connected through cover plates on
one side only. Butt joint may be of single row of riveting or of chain riveting or zig-zag
riveting fig. (4.1). Transmission of load in a riveted joint occurs either by friction
between the connected plates due to large gapping forces produced by the tension in rivet
or by shearing action on the cross section of the rivet and bearing stress on the rivet and
If a riveted joint carrying one rivet in lap joint such as the one shown in fig (4-3)
is subjected to load 'P' increasing from zero to the stage when the joint fails.
There are following ways in which the joint can fail, as shown in fig. (4 '3).
Shearing of rivets. It
Due to rivet holes in the jointed plates, the original strength of the full section is
reduced. A joint which causes smaller reduction of strength is said to be more efficient.
The efficiency of a joint is the ratio of the actual strength of the connection to the gross
efficiency, therefore, a section should have the least possible number of holes at the
critical section.
So for better efficiency, grouping of rivets should be done. The rivets should be
so grouped that a minimum loss of strength takes place due to rivet holes.
Bolts are made from mild steel or high tensile steel and consists of a Hexagonal
head, a plain part of a shank and a threaded part as shown in fig. (4.4). For connecting
two steel plates together, holes are made in the parts, the parts are brought together, the
bolt is passed through the holes and a nut is threaded on the other end.
Black bolts.
Fitted bolts.
Turned bolts.
Ribbed bolts.
4.2.1 Blackbolts
Black bolts are usually made from mild steel and the surface of the shank is left
unfinished, that is rough as rolled. The bearing of such bolts on the walls of the holes
remains imperfect, hence the allowable stress is kept less than the other types of bolts.
Also the joints remain quite loose resulting in large deflection of the structure due to
movements of the joints. Black bolts are commonly used during erection and for
temporary structures.
Fitted bolts are also usually made from mild steel but the surface of the shank is
finished by turning to a diameter which is larger than the nominal diameter of the bolt by
1.2 mm for bolts M8 to M16 and by 1.3 mm for larger sizes. These bolts will fit the bolt
holes, which are larger by 1.5 mm more readily and provide much better bearing contact
The Ribbed bolt Is a comparatively a recent innovation. It has the head of a rivet
and the thread and nut of a ballet as shown in fig( 4.1a). The shank has longitudinal ribs
which project from its core and result in an over all diameter slightly larger than the
diameter of the hole. When driven into the hole, the ribs are deformed wedging the bolt
tightly and allowing the nut to be tightened. The ribs, by gripping the sides of the fitted
High Strength bolts are the major type of field fastener used in steel structural
building. These bolts are made from high tensile steel and their surface is kept
unfinished, that is, as rolled and rough. Therefore, they remain loose fit in holes like
black bolts, but their action in the joint takes place differently. These bolts are tightened
to a very high tension, reaching their proof load, through calibrated torque wrenches.
Thus a very high compression is created between the connected parts, which is equal to
the proof load. The bolt of the joint is subjected to a shear load, it is primarily resisted by
the frictional force. Therefore the bearing of bolt on the hole surface does not come to
The analysis and design of joints is exactly similar to the riveted joints except that the
allowable stresses in the bolt are different. The pitch and edge distance for bolted joints
bond between them. Many different welding processes may be used to produce bending
through the application of pressure or through fusion. The bond between the metals is
produced by reducing the surface to be joined to a liquid state and than allowing the
liquid to solidify.
The shield Metal arc welding process is the most common type used for structural
welding. In this process, the intense heat required to reduce the metal to a liquid state is
flatweld
horizontal weld
vertical weld
overhead weld
groove weld
fillet weld
plug weld
slot weld
buttweld
lap weld
tee weld
comer weld
edge weld
Flat weld is one which is made right on top, the electrode being downward in a
vertical plane. Horizontal weld is made on a horizontal side, the electrode being in a
Vertical weld is made from bottom upward on a vertical joint. Overhead weld is
made from looking up, the electrode being upward in almost vertical plane. The flat weld
Butt and fillets welds are the ones most commonly used for structural work plug
and slot welds are generally used where it is not possible to provide the required weld
Buttwelds
These are used in joints between two abutting parts lying in approximately in the
same plane. They are classified according to the method of grooving or preparing the
Fillet welds
Lap, tee or corner joints require fillet type welds. Such welds are usually in the
shape of a right angled triangle with equal or unequal legs. Different types of fillet are
The size of the fillet welds Is denoted by the sizes of the sides of the right angle.
The strength of a fillet weld is determined by the throat dimension; therefore. small fillet
welds are the most economical. This is true because the throat dimension is proportional
to the leg size, while the amount of weld metal varies approximately, as the square of the
leg size.
Welds of this type fail through the throat as a result of the combined effect of
shear and tension or compression. For design purpose, it is generally assumed that
If a sufficient length of fillet weld can not be provided in a joint, the connection
can be strengthened by the use of plug or slot welds. Plug and slot welds are made by
filling with weld, metal in a circular or slotted hole cut in one of the two parts to be
jointed, or by forming a fillet weld around the edge of the hole or slot. The strength of
such a weld is equal to mean length of weld times the Following methods are employed
the design of steel framework : throat dimension times the permissible stress.
This is the joint where all the loads are supported by the end reactions in all the
three directions, As shown in the fig. (it-f) In the figure all components of the force are
Method of design
This method applies to structures in which the end connections between members
are such that they will not develop restraint moment and for the purpose of design pin
This method, as compared with the simple design method, permits a reduction in the
provide a degree of direction fixity, and in case of triangulated frames, it permits account
being taken of the rigidity of the connections and the moment of interactions of
members.
This method gives the greatest rigidity and economy in the weight of steel as
compared to the pervious method. The end connections of members of the frame shall
have sufficient rigidity to hold the original angles between such members and the
In the absence of more exact analysis, the effective length of column in firmed
structure may be obtained from the ratio I/L of effective length to unsupported length L
given in fig. (4.1)When relative displacement of the ends is not prevented .In the later
In this method, to determine the forces in the members of a statically determinate truss.
The whole truss is consider as a free body to obtain reaction and then each joint as a free
body to obtain the axial forces at a time. The joints where the number of unknowns are
two or less than two should be solved first. For example the truss ABC shown in fig find
A
Taking moment@ B
R2X L - P X L1 = 0
Ѳ1 Ѳ2 R2 = PL1I L KN
B C
L1 R2 = ( P - R2 ) KN
L
R1 R2
KN KN
Ʃfy = 0
R1 + FAB sin Ѳ1 = 0
Ʃfx = 0
FBC + (- R1 / sin Ѳ1 )= 0
Ʃfy = 0
Ѳ1
B FBC
R2 + FAC sin Ѳ1 = 0
R1
FAC + (- R2 / sin Ѳ1 ) (compression)
Ʃfx = 0
FAC
(-R2 / sin Ѳ2) cos Ѳ2 + FBC = 0
FBC C
R2 KN
5.2 Method of section
In this method the truss is cut in to two parts and equilibrium equations are
formed for either one of the parts of the truss treating it as a free body. The method of
V1 A V2 V3
N1
Ѳ2
L1
Ѳ1 Ѳ1 L2 L3
R1 P1 A P2 P3 R2
section AA cuts the trusses in to the parts . The left part of the truss takes in to
V1 A V1 A V2 V3
LO
L1 L2 L3 L4
H1
A1 A1 P2 P3
R2
TR1