There are 3 major parts of the respiratory system: the airway, the lungs, and the muscles

of respiration. The airway, which includes the nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, and bronchioles, carries air between the lungs and the body's exterior.
Respiratory System Definition
The respiratory system consists of the set of organs involved in the uptake of oxygen from the
atmosphere and the release of carbon dioxide generated during aerobic respiration. This gas
exchange is also called breathing or external respiration. Organs specialized for breathing usually
contain moist structures with large surface areas to allow the diffusion of gases. They are also
adapted to protect the organism from the invasion of pathogens along those surfaces.
In fish, this gas exchange occurs through gills. Some invertebrates, like cockroaches, have simple
respiratory systems made of interconnecting tubules directly delivering oxygen to tissues. In
humans and other mammals, there is an extensive, highly vascularized organ system specialized
for gas exchange. It begins in the nose, continues into the pharynx and larynx, leads to the trachea
which branches to create bronchi, and bronchioles. This respiratory tree ends in puffy structures
called alveoli that are made of a single layer of squamous cells, surrounded by a network of
capillaries. Gas exchange occurs at alveoli. Since external respiration in many vertebrates involves
lungs, it is also called pulmonary ventilation. Changes to the volume and pressure in lungs are the
primary driving forces for breathing.

Functions of the Respiratory System

While the primary function of the respiratory system is gas exchange, this extensive organ system
also has some other roles. In humans and other mammals, the respiratory system is integral
towards phonation. Structures of the upper respiratory tract, especially the larynx, are involved in
the production of sound, and can modulate pitch, volume and clarity.
The nose plays an important role in respiration, but the olfactory nerves and their associated
structures are also involved in sensing smell. This has functions ranging from digestion (the
cephalic phase of digestion) to hunting, recognition and mating.
The cells of the respiratory tract also protect the body from the invasion of pathogens through the
nasal passages. They have an important role in the immune system since the respiratory tract is
one of the organ systems with intensive and repeated interaction with the environment (the
other is the digestive system). Epithelial cells in the airway can secrete antibodies, defensins and
various enzymes and peptides, as well as small oxidative molecules that hamper pathogenic
colonization. In addition, some of these epithelial cells also secrete mucus to trap larger dust
particles. The respiratory system plays host to a specialized lymphoid tissue that can produce
lymphocytes as a first-line of defense. Coughing and sneezing are other important mechanisms
used to fight infections, removing large quantities of bacteria or viruses trapped in mucus.
The cells of the respiratory tract can help in removing clots in pulmonary blood vessels. They also
activate hormones and either remove or add to the substances circulating in blood. They can
make incoming air warm and moist, in order to protect the delicate cells of the inner respiratory
passages.
Finally, epithelial cells of the lung also produce surfactant that makes the process of inhalation
and exhalation easier. In fact, adequate production of surfactant by fetal lung cells is an important
prerequisite for viability in pre-term births.
Organs of the Respiratory System
In humans and most mammals, there are three parts to the respiratory system. The first is the
series of conducting tubes that carry air from the atmosphere towards the lungs. The second part
consists of the muscles of respiration – the diaphragm and intercostal muscles in the ribs. The
lungs form the third part.
The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that curves upwards towards the lungs. When it
contracts, it becomes flattened and therefore increases the volume of the thoracic cavity.
Similarly, contraction of the external intercostal muscles moves the ribs upwards and outwards.
This increase in volume leads to a drop in pressure within the lungs, allowing air to flow passively
into the airways. Gas exchange occurs at alveoli till these muscles relax, reversing the process.

Thorax zoom
The airways can be divided into the conducting and respiratory zones. The conducting zone begins
at the nose and ends at smaller bronchioles, and these passages carry air towards the inner
recesses of the lungs. The respiratory zone contains the terminal bronchioles and the alveoli – the
sites where gas exchange occurs.
The nose and the mouth form the main external openings and mark the beginning of the
conducting zone of the airway or respiratory tract. The nasal cavity situated behind the nose
contains hair and filters and humidifies air. Most large environmental pollutants are trapped in
the mucus secreted by the cells of the nose and nasal cavity. The mouth is unable to reproduce all
the functions of the nasal cavity and acts as a secondary opening when the nose is either blocked,
or there is an immediate need for large quantities of air. This is why we take large gulps of air
while panting, or sleep with an open mouth when the nose is congested.
Air then passes into the pharynx, which is also involved in swallowing. The epiglottis prevents the
movement of food into the respiratory tract and the misdirection of air towards the esophagus.
When the epiglottis doesn’t function properly, small particles can enter the trachea. These are
removed through coughing. If food is lodged or stuck in the airway, it may need to be quickly
removed through abdominal thrusts, also known as the Heimlich maneuver.
The larynx follows the pharynx and its main function is the production of sound. The flow of air
through this region can influence pitch and volume. Air then enters the trachea, a long tube that is
covered by a series of cartilaginous rings, which help this tubular structure retain its shape during
inhalation and exhalation. The trachea is lined by pseudostratified columnar epithelia with goblet
cells secreting mucins and helping to form mucus.
The trachea splits to form two primary bronchi, called the left and right bronchi. Each of these
leads towards a lung and then undergoes repeated branching to produce secondary, tertiary
bronchi and bronchioles, with successively smaller diameters. When the bronchioles are less than
a millimeter in diameter, they are called terminal bronchioles, whose purpose is to end in
vascularized alveoli. As the bronchi begin to branch, their internal structure changes. Cartilage is
more common in the larger airways, and a single epithelial layer is common in the smallest parts
of the conducting zone and the respiratory zone. Bronchi and bronchioles both contain smooth
muscles that can constrict in times of rest, or dilate during exercise.
Lungs are made of spongy tissue containing many vascular tissues and much of the airway that
appears after the trachea. A pleural membrane allows these paired organs to expand and contract
with minimal friction. The left lung is smaller than the right due to the location of the heart on the
left side of the thoracic cavity.
Diseases of the Respiratory System
Diseases of the respiratory tract can arise due to obstruction to the airway, constriction of the
passages, or the loss of the extensive surface area of alveoli for gas exchange. There could also be
difficulties with the capillaries surrounding these alveoli, either due to clots or due to altered
cardiac function. These illnesses could be chronic conditions or temporary infections. They could
also simply be minor changes to the breathing pattern, as seen with hiccups.
Common Cold
The common cold, appropriately named for its ubiquitous nature is caused by a large number of
different viruses, with rhinoviruses being the most varied and common cause for this complaint. It
is usually an infection of the upper respiratory tract, though it can occasionally spread towards the
ears, or the lower respiratory structures as well. The infection is transmitted through direct
contact with the infected person, especially their nasal discharges. This is particularly difficult to
prevent since a person is infectious before they begin to show symptoms. The viruses usually
establish contact with the cells of the nose, which then produce clear liquid to trap these
microorganisms and expel them from the body. This is followed by sneezing and coughing,
especially if the virus travels deeper into the airway. Thick, yellow or green sputum being coughed
is a sign of these microbes being attacked by the host’s immune system. Antibiotics are useless
against viral infections and the symptoms usually subside after a week.
Tuberculosis
On the other end of the spectrum of infectious diseases of the respiratory tract is tuberculosis, or
TB. It is a bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis and until the advent of
powerful antibiotics, could often lead to death after a painful illness. The infection spreads by the
transmission of live bacteria from the infected person, especially through oral and nasal
discharges. Since the bacterium is hardy and can exist in a desiccated form for many months, the
illness can quickly reach epidemic proportions in regions where population density is high, or
there is a prolonged cold season where people stay indoors and interact closely with one another.
Many healthy children and adults can overcome an infection without obvious symptoms, where
only a blood test can confirm that an infection had occurred.
The disease is named after the hard nodules that form within the lungs, called tubercles. These
tubercles can not only erode respiratory tissue, they can attack the blood vessels as well, leading
to the patient coughing up blood – a dramatic symptom indicative of an advanced stage of the
disease. The advent of HIV and AIDS brought tuberculosis to the forefront, with the original
tubercles of a resolved infection breaking down and releasing bacteria into the blood stream.
Immunocompromised individuals, whether infants, the elderly, or those with immune
deficiencies, become susceptible to the recurrence of this ailment. Treatment usually involves
multiple antibiotics over an extended period of time. Caregivers need to be vaccinated.
Lung Cancer
Lung cancer is the development of a malignant tumor in the lungs, associated with uncontrolled
cell growth within the tissues and the metastasis of these cells to other organs within the body.
Smoking, especially when begun at an earlier age, is the highest risk factor for developing lung
cancer. Passive smoking is often equally dangerous. In recent history, King George VI died of
complications relating to lung cancer, brought on by years of heavy smoking. Though tobacco
smoking accounts for over 80% of lung cancer cases, any chemical substance that repeatedly
irritates the delicate inner linings of the lung can lead to the formation of a tumor. These include
asbestos, chromium, nickel, radon gas, uranium dust, coal dust. The most common organ for the
metastasis of lung cancer is the bone. Therefore, advanced stages of the disease also involve pain
in the bones.