Lesson 1.

1 The Origin of the

Universe
Origin and Structure of the Earth

Objective

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to state the different hypotheses explaining the
origin of the universe specifically, the Big Bang Theory, the Steady State Theory, and the
Oscillating Universe Theory.

How did the universe start?

Learn about it!

Big Bang Theory
The most accepted theory about the origin of the universe is the Big Bang Theory.
Georges Lemaître, a Belgian priest, is considered as the first proponent of the Big Bang
Theory. The theory was supported by other scientists such as Edwin Hubble, Arno
Penzias, and Robert Wilson who presented pieces of evidence to support it.

The Big Bang Theory states that the universe started as a “singularity”—an area
predicted to be in the core of a black hole with a very high temperature and density,
which compressed matter with its intense gravitational pressure.

Singularity

The presence of the singularity is still a mystery to many scientists, but they stated that
this singularity constantly expands and cools. The rate of expansion is almost equal to the
rate of cooling; at this moment, there is a build up of intense heat which leads to the
increase in the expansion of the singularity.

The intense heat also leads to the creation of matter and antimatter that are being
destroyed every time they collide with each other. During this moment, the number of
matter dominates over the number of antimatter. This started the dominance of matter, or
atomic particles, in the early universe. These particles undergo nucleosynthesis wherein
they combine to form another atomic particle.

Nucleosynthesis

Nucleosynthesis leads to the formation of chemicals such as hydrogen and helium. These
chemicals then lead to the formation of the stars and the galaxies. The presence of the
stars leads to the formation of larger matter such as planets, comets, and other celestial
bodies. Ever since the Big Bang happened, the universe continuously expands, and the
occurrence of the cosmic background radiation was suggested to be an aftermath of the
explosion that happened 20 billion years ago.

Learn about it!

Steady State Theory

The Steady State Theory proposed by Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred
Hoyle, suggests that the universe has always been there and will always be present. It
also conveys that the universe always looks the same in any time or space but
continuously expands while simultaneously creating matter, maintaining the density of
the universe; hence, the name Steady State.
The Steady State Theory is so simple that it was widely accepted even before the
proposal of the Big Bang Theory. The discovery of the cosmic background radiation
significantly supported the explanations given by the Big Bang Theory, which led many
scientists to reject the Steady State Theory. This theory first explained that the cosmic
background radiation is a result of a supernova. But after a thorough research, it was
proven that it is equal in any direction of the universe and could not only be a result of
many supernovae.

Learn about it!

Oscillating Universe Theory

The Oscillating Universe Theory, also referred to as the Pulsating Theory, discusses
that the universe is expanding and will contract once all the energy after the Big Bang is
used up. This theory, proposed by Richard Tolman, can be described as the combination
of the Big Bang and the Big Crunch.

The Big Crunch occurs when the universe expands and eventually reverses, then
collapses causing a singularity or the formation of another Big Bang. The Oscillating
Universe Theory suggests that once the universe reverses and attains the point of
singularity, another universe will be born. This is referred to as the Big Bounce. Tolman
theorized that the universe may be first in the cycle and could be a result of a previous
Big Bounce event.

Just like in the Steady State Theory, scientists discovered many loopholes in the
Oscillating Universe Theory because it was said that for the universe to collapse, energy
must be present. This theory suggests that the universe will collapse on its own after it
reaches its full expansion, which violates some laws of physics.

Explore
Aside from the theories discussed in this lesson, what other theories can you suggest to
explain the origin of the universe? You may use the internet to search for other theories.

Try it!
Choose one of the theories about the origin of the universe. Create a concept map
illustrating the events that happen in the universe as explained by that theory.

What do you think?

Do you think the universe has a beginning or has it always existed? Explain your answer.
 Key Points
 Big Bang Theory states that the universe started as a singularity that exploded. This
explosion resulted to the formation of all the matter in universe.

 Steady State Theory discusses that the universe has always been there and will always
be present.

 Oscillating Universe Theory discusses that the universe is expanding and will contract
once all the energy after the Big Bang is used up. The collapsing of the universe will then
lead to the formation of a new universe.

Test Quest

1. Which of the following theories suggests that the universe originated from a singularity
that expanded continuously?

 A. Oscillating Universe Theory

 B. Pulsating Theory

 C. Big Bang Theory

 D. Steady State Theory

2. Which of the following describes the Big Crunch according to the Oscillating Universe
Theory?

 A. reversal of the universe’s expansion

 B. continuous expansion of the universe

 C. formation of matter

 D. formation of antimatter
 3. Which of the following theories suggests that the universe will stay the same
throughout time?

 A. Creationism Theory

 B. Steady State Theory

 C. Pulsating Theory

 D. Big Bang Theory

4. Which of the following is true about the Oscillating Universe Theory?

 A. The universe resulted from a series of Big Bang and Big Crunch.

 B. The universe is always present and will not change.

 C. The universe will not change its density.

 D. The universe will not stop expanding.

5. What happens during nucleosynthesis?

 A. Matter and antimatter collide with each other.

 B. Atomic particles combine with other atomic particles.

 C. Dark energy is produced.

 D. Matter and antimatter combine with each other.

6. Which of the following is true about cosmic background radiation?

 A. the aftermath of an explosion caused by Big Bang

 B. the radiation produced by stars

 C. the radiation that caused the destruction of planes

 D. the result of colliding of hydrogen particles with helium

7. Which of the following is not true about the theories of the origin of the universe?
 A. Oscillating Universe Theory combined the Big Bang and the Big Crunch.

 B. Steady State Theory suggests that the universe’s expansion will not end.

 C. Big Bang Theory stated that the universe would not end.

 D. Big Bang theory is the most accepted theory about the origin of the universe.

 8. Which of the following statements are true about the Steady State Theory?

 I. The universe will not change its density.

 II. The universe came from a singularity.

 III. The universe resulted from a series of Big Bang and Big Crunch.

 IV. The universe is always present and will not change.

 A. I only

 B. I and II

 C. II and III

 D. I ad IV

9. Arrange the following events to show the evolution of the universe as proposed by the
Big Bang Theory.

 a. nucleosynthesis

 b. Singularity

 c. formation of planets, comets, and asteroids

 d. formation of atomic particles

 e. formation of stars and galaxies

 f. explosion of the singularity

 A. a,b,d,f,e,c
 B. b,c,d,a,e,f

 C. f,d,c,a,b,e

 D. b,f,d,a,e,c

10. Why is the Big Bang Theory the most accepted theory about the origin of the
universe?

 A. Evidence found is aligned with the explanations of the Big Bang Theory.

 B. Its counterparts failed to explain origin of the universe.

 C. Other theories suggested that the universe has no start and no end.

 D. Big Bang Theory is aligned with the teachings of some religion.

BIG BANG THEORY (Additional
Readings)
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·WEDNESDAY, JUNE 5, 2019

Edwin Hubble Ushers In Modern Cosmology (the study

of the universe as a whole)

Until the 1920's, scientists thought that the universe was in a "steady state". The Steady
State Universe Theory was based on three assumptions, i.e. the universe was:
Uniform - has the same general make-up throughout

Static - not expanding or contracting

Infinite - it extends forever, but there was only one galaxy - The Milky Way

If you look at the night sky, it seems easy to think that this is the way the universe "has"
always looked and "will" always look. However, there was a problem pointed out by
Heinrich Olbers in the 1800's - if the universe were infinitely large and infinitely old,
then the whole sky should have a "glow". That is, at all points of sight there would
eventually be a star. If the universe was "infinitely old" then the light from any star at any
distance would have already reached us no matter how far the distance. So all points in
the heavens should have some light.

However, the sky between stars was "very dark", with no signs of any glow. This became
known as Olbers' Paradox, but no one took the "obvious" solution seriously. In retrospect,
the solution was that "the universe was expanding" and was not "infinitely old".

In 1922 to 1924, Edwin Hubble painstakingly developed a series of nebulae distance

indicators using the 100 inch Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory in
California. At the time Mount Wilson was the world's largest telescope (shown at the left
below). Edwin Hubble, then a thirty-five year old scientist, presented a paper in January,
1925 that proved conclusively that the some of the faint stellar objects were much too
distant to be part of our galaxy and were in fact "galaxies outside the Milky Way".

Hubble Telescope
In 1922, Alexander Friedmann, a Russian cosmologist and mathematician, derived the
Friedmann Equations from Albert Einstein's equations of General Relativity. In 1924
Friedman published a paper indicating that the universe must be either expanding or
contracting, but not static.

In 1927, George Lemaître, a Belgian physicist and Roman Catholic priest, interpreted
Friedman's equations and proposed that the recession of nebulae was due to the
"expansion of the universe". (Back then the word nebulae meant galaxies outside the
Milky Way; today nebulae means large clouds of gas and dust.) However, both Friedman
and Lemaître were mostly dismissed, even by Albert Einstein. But, in 1929 Hubble
discovered a correlation between "nebulae distance and recession velocity" which meant
that indeed "the universe was expanding", a shock to most scientists of that time.

Hubble's discoveries came to be known as Hubble's Law, which is: (a) all objects in deep
space have a red shift (see next section) relative to earth and to each other; and (b) the
velocity of galaxies receding from earth is proportional to their distance from the earth
and other interstellar bodies.

Lemaître had already "theoretically predicted" the universe was expanding, but no one
took his work seriously until Hubble's evidence was deemed un-refutable. Shortly
thereafter, the Cosmological Principle evolved. The Cosmological Principle is that
observers on earth do not occupy an unusual or privileged position within the universe. It
means that the universe looks the same wherever you are in it and the same laws of
physics apply everywhere. Hubble's lifetime of work fundamentally changed the
scientific view of the universe.

Hubble worked toward the end of his life to get the Nobel Prize Committee to accept
astronomy as an area of physics. He died in 1953 of a blood clot in his brain without
succeeding. Shortly after his death, the Nobel Prize Committee began to recognize
astronomy as a valid segment of physics, but the Committee does not award prizes to
people who have passed away. Top

What exactly is a "red shift"?

Redshift Blueshift Redshift Example
In a phenomenon called "doppler shifting:", the wavelength emitted by something
moving away from us is shifted to a lower frequency, and the wavelength of something
moving towards us is shifted to a higher frequency. See the illustration to the left. A good
example of this is the sound of an ambulance siren as it drives by. The pitch of the siren
increases as the ambulance moves towards us, and decreases as it moves away. Although
this example is for sound waves, the same effect occurs for all electromagnetic
wavelengths including light.

The result is that wavelengths emitted by objects moving away from us are shifted
towards the red part of the visible spectrum or red shifted. And the faster they move away
from us, the more they are red shifted. See the picture to the right of a distant star moving
away from us. The right portion is the distant star, the left portion is our sun, Likewise
objects that are moving towards us are shifted towards the blue part of the spectrum and
are blue shifted.

If the universe is "expanding", then any light waves from another galaxy will be stretched
out to longer wavelengths. This is exactly what Hubble observed when he looked at the
distant galaxies. He saw that their light was "red shifted", and therefore the galaxy
clusters were moving away from each other. Top

An Expanding Universe Implies A Tiny Beginning - The

Big Bang Universe Expansion
In 1931 Georges Lemaître further postulated that the expansion of the universe, if
projected back in time, would make the universe smaller and smaller until at some finite
time (now estimated at 13.75 billion years ago) all the mass of the universe would be
concentrated in a single point about the size of a ping pong ball. In 1949, Sir Fred Hoyle,
an English astronomer and mathematician, coined the term The Big Bang in a BBC radio
broadcast regarding the early growth of the universe. It immediately gained popularity
and has since become the standard term for the universe's early growth period.

While believing that the universe was expanding, many scientists at the time could not
accept that the universe began from a single point, known as a singularity in mathematics.
Even Albert Einstein was among the doubters and had originally introduced a
"Cosmological Constant" into his equations so that the universe would continue to be in a
"steady state". He put the cosmic repulsion into his equations to prevent the universe
from collapsing on itself from the gravitational pull of the matter inside it. (This was later
removed by him.) Theories were put forth to explain how the universe could be
unchanging while the galaxies were moving away from each other. These theories
suggested the creation of matter between galaxies over time, so that even though galaxies
grew further apart, new ones developed between them to fill the spaces they left behind.
The resulting universe was in a "steady state" in the same manner that a flowing river is -
the individual water molecules are moving away but the overall river remains the same.
The discovery of the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) in the 1960's convinced
most astronomers that the Big Bang Theory had merit. The "Hubble Expansion" is now
one of three pieces of evidence that support the Big Bang Theory. (The other two are the
Cosmic Microwave Background and Big Bang Nucleosynthesis.) Top

Big Bang Issues And Inflation

Big Bang Chart
There is no "evidence" with respect to the absolute earliest instant of the Big Bang
explosion. The Big Bang Theory can not and does not provide any explanation for the
exact initial conditions; rather it makes a series of assumptions and describes the
evolution of the universe going forward from that point.

While the early Big Bang Theory was based on Einstein's Theory of General Relativity,
almost universally accepted by scientists of the day, there were some technical issues
with the initial version of the Big Bang Theory. The original Big Bang Theory did not
contain "inflation" and some scientists "rightly" poked holes in

Big Bang Inflation

the original theory. (See the Big Bang Theory page for a discussion of these issues.) Most
scientists thought that the Big Bang Theory was correct in principle, but not complete. To
confront the technical issues, the solution was just to "assume" the proper conditions at
the start of the Big Bang process.

The solution to almost all of the Big Bang issues was to add an extremely fast
"exponential" expansion, called "inflation", into the first micro-micro-seconds of the
universe. Inflation caused the universe to grow by a factor of 100 billion trillion trillion in
just a few microseconds. (Note that the universe was not expanding into empty space.
Space-time itself was growing faster than the speed of light. Space-time is not limited by
the speed of light, only objects "within" space-time are.)

While there is no concrete proof of inflation, recent satellites have provided evidence of
its existence and have ruled out some competing theories. Inflation equations, which last
for just a few seconds, were added to the very beginning of the Big Bang Theory in 1981
by Alan Guth, currently a Professor of Physics at MIT (and his alma mater). See the
simplified diagram at the left by Alan Guth himself illustrating inflation. Inflation is now
almost universally accepted as part of the Standard Model of the Universe. Top
Expansion Is Accelerating

Accelerating Expansion

In 1998 pictures from Hubble indicated that not only was the universe expanding, but the
expansion was accelerating. Astronomers from the Supernova Cosmology Project (U. of
California Berkeley Labs) and the High-z Supernova Search Team (Australian National
University and John Hopkins University) were using "land-based" telescopes for
preliminary data and then the Hubble Space Telescope for fine detail. After locating
supernovas using the Keck Telescope in Hawaii (designed by Berkeley) and other
telescopes where time could be scrounged, the teams used the the Hubble Telescope to
study the most distant supernovas as they required much more accurate measurements
than could be obtained from ground telescopes.
Instead of slowing down as everyone had expected, the dimness of the supernovas
showed that they were 10% to 15% farther out than anticipated, indicating that expansion
had accelerated over the ensuing billions of years. Far from decelerating under the
influence of gravity as was commonly thought at the time, the expansion of the universe
was in fact accelerating. In 2011, Saul Perlmutter, team leader of the Supernova
Cosmology Project, along with Adam Riess and Brian Schmidt, team leaders of High-z,
were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery.

For a great description of the the universe, see the Video by NASA's Dr. John Mather,
winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2006 for the confirmation of the CMB.
Lesson 1.2 The Origin of the Solar
System
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·FRIDAY, JUNE 23, 2017

Origin and Structure of the Earth

Objective

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to describe the different hypotheses explaining
the origin of the Solar System, specifically the Nebular Theory, the Encounter Theory,
and the Protoplanet Theory.

The solar system is composed of the Sun, the planets and their satellites, the comets, and
the asteroids. It is believed that the solar system has been formed around 4.6 billion years
ago, and the evidence suggests that the members of the solar system have a fairly uniform
age.

Learn about it!

Nebular Theory

The nebular theory explains that the solar system originated from a nebula – a gas
cloud made up of hydrogen particles. Before the nebula is stable, it is believed that a
nearby supernova resulted in the disruption of a nebula. This disruption created areas of
high density, and as these areas were formed, gravity acted, pulling other materials to it.
The denser the nebula became, the more heat it produced that resulted in the formation of
the Sun.
At first, the Sun looked like a disc (imagine a CD), and as it rotates, most of its mass
fused in the center. As the Sun forms, the remaining particles that were not sucked up by
the Sun formed as rings. These rings of particles rotated and combined to form planets.
As it forms, the denser materials, such as iron and nickel, sank and the less dense
materials, such as gases, floated to the atmosphere of the formed planets.

Terrestrial and Jovian Planets

Terrestrial planets, including Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, were formed because
only the materials with higher densities and melting points were able to form near the
very high temperature of the Sun.
On the other hand, the Jovian planets composed of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune,
are huge planets made up of gases without land surfaces. These planets were formed
farther from the Sun because the temperature away from the Sun was cool enough for
gases to condense, forming these less dense planets.

The origins of the Nebula Theory can be credited to Emmanuel Swedenborg,

Immanuel Kant, and Pierre – Simon Laplace.

Learn about it!

Encounter Theory
The Encounter Theory proposed by Georges Leclerc and Comte de Buffon explains
that the solar system formed as a result of a near collision between a passing star and the
Sun. As the star passes near the Sun, the materials of both the Sun and the star were
drawn out. The interaction from the gravity of the passing star and the Sun led to the
formation of the planets in the solar system.

It is believed that the materials from the Sun are denser. This explains the positions of the
terrestrial planets near the Sun. In contrast, the materials from the passing star are less
dense; thus, explaining the positions of the Jovian planets at a distance from the Sun.

Protoplanet Theory

The Protoplanet Theory is a modified version of the nebular hypothesis. Just like the
nebular theory, protoplanetary theorists Carl von Weizsäcker and Gerard Kuiper
believed that the solar system started from a nebula.
An unidentified instability resulted in the pulling of dust particles toward each other. This
led to the formation of the “planetesimals” – objects made up of dust and rock particles,
which is believed to be the origin of planets. Planetesimals combined with other
planetesimals and formed protoplanets – larger planetesimals. As the protoplanets
formed, like the Sun, they became larger as other materials condensed with them until the
fusion of hydrogen and helium happened. This fusion led to the production of the heat of
the Sun and resulted to the blasting off of the protoplanets made up of gases. The smaller
protoplanets were attracted by the gravity of the larger protoplanets and made them larger
until they became the planets as we know it.
 Try it!

Based on the theories about the origin of the solar system, compare the events that
happened in its formation.

What do you think?

After learning about the theories explaining the origin of the solar system, what theory do
you believe the most? Explain your answer.

Key Points
 The Nebular Theory explained that the Solar System originated from a nebula that was
disrupted by a nearby supernova.

 The Encounter Theory suggests that the Solar System formed as a result of a near
collision between a passing star and the Sun.
 The Protoplanet Theory is a modified version of the nebular hypothesis stating that the
Solar System started from a nebula that was disrupted which led to the formation of
protoplanets.

Test Question

1. Which of the following theories suggests that the solar system formed after a star
passed near the Sun?

 A. Protoplanet Theory

 B. Steady State Theory

 C. Encounter Theory

 D. Nebular Theory

2. Who among the following theorists suggested the Protoplanet Theory?

 A. Pierre–Simon Laplace

 B. Georges Leclerc

 C. Comte de Buffon

 D. Gerard Kuiper

 3. According to the Nebular Theory, which of the following comprises the nebula?

 A. hydrogen particles

 B. iron particles

 C. nickel particles

 D. carbon particles

4. Which of the following is not a member of our solar system?

 A. asteroids

 B. Polaris

 C. Sun

 D. Pluto

 5. Which of the following is true about the Nebular Theory?

 A. The solar system originated from a gas cloud.

 B. The planets are formed from particles of a near star.

 C. The Earth was formed as a result of a comet colliding with the Sun.

 D. The nebula is formed from water particles.

6. As proposed by the Encounter Theory, which of the following events led to the
formation of the solar system?

 A. a near collision between the Sun and a passing star

 B. an explosion of a singularity

 C. nucleosynthesis of hydrogen and helium particles

 D. formation of protoplanets

7. As proposed by the Nebular Theory, which of the following events led to the
disruption of the nebula?

 A. production of solar energy

 B. explosion of an atomic bomb

 C. supernova near the nebula

 D. formation of protoplanets
 8. Arrange the following events to show the formation of the solar system as proposed by
the Protoplanet Theory.

 I. formation of planetesimals

 II. supernova near the nebula

 III. formation of protoplanets

 IV. presence of the nebula1

 A. I, III, II, IV

 B. IV, II, I, III

 C. III, II, I, IV

 D. I, II, III, IV

9. Which of the following statements explains the placement of the Jovian planets in the
outer solar system?

 A. Asteroid Belt blocked the Jovian planets in getting near the Sun.

 B. The temperature away from the Sun was cool enough for gases to condense.

 C. The gravity of the Jupiter kept the other Jovian planets away from the Sun.

 D. There is no explanation available for the formation of the Jovian planets.

10. Which of the following are true about the Encounter Theory?

 I. It stated that the solar system originated from a near collision between a passing star
and the Sun.

 II. Georges Leclerc and Comte de Buffon are some of its proponents.

 III. It is proposed by Gerard Kuiper.

 IV. It proposed that the solar system originated from a cloud of hydrogen particles.
 A. I only

 B. I and II

 C. II and III

 D. All of the above

Lesson 1.3 Earth: The Living
Planet
Origin and Structure of the Earth

Objective

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe the different characteristics of
the earth necessary for the growth and survival of life.

Earth is considered as a home of simple single-celled organisms up to the most complex

life forms including humans. It is undeniable that the planet we live in is a rare planet as
it is the only planet in our solar system that permits life. The different characteristics of
Earth are responsible for the proliferation of life.

Learn about it!

Earth’s Atmosphere
The atmosphere consists of 78.1% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.9% argon, 350 ppm carbon
dioxide, and other components. The table below shows the major components in the
atmosphere and their relative concentrations
The presence of oxygen and carbon dioxide permits life on Earth. Carbon dioxide is used
by photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and algae, to convert the energy from the sun
to usable energy through the process of photosynthesis. The oxygen makes it livable for
living organisms including humans for respiration and for our cells to function.

Earth’s atmosphere also protects us from the sun’s radiation. Thirty percent of the
radiation is reflected away by the atmosphere, clouds, and the earth's surface. Another
25% is absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds, and the remaining 45% is absorbed by
the earth’s surface.

Ozone or O3 is composed of three oxygen atoms. In the stratosphere, O3 is abundant in

the form of the ozone layer. This layer absorbs the ultraviolet wavelengths, and the
absorption of this radiation heats up the air.
Soil and Vegetation

A is the topsoil; B is a regolith; C is a saprolite, a less-weathered regolith; the bottom-

most layer represents the bedrock.

The soil is a mixture of minerals, water, air, organic matter, and organisms. It is a living
medium—a medium for growth of all kinds of vegetation. The soil promotes growth for
plants by providing nutrients, water, and as a substrate for anchorage of roots. In return,
vegetation produces trees and forests cover, ensures the water and nutrient cycle, and
prevents soil and wind erosion. This mutual relationship of the soil and vegetation makes
our planet livable.
Earth’s Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere contains all the water on our planet including ice and vapor. Nearly
three-quarters of the earth’s surface is the sea and the ocean. The ocean houses many
species of marine life and diverse mineral resources. Other forms of water include river,
streams, and lakes. Other than being a water reservoir, these forms of water are all
sources of fish and shellfish that we consume. They also serve as thermostat and heat
reservoir, especially the ocean. They also serve as ways for transportation.

Explore!
Imagine that you have a garden. Get one plant that could fit in a pot but do not put soil
when you transfer it. Put the plant inside a box and leave it for one week. What do you
think will happen to the plant? How would you relate this scenario with the different
characteristics of the Earth?
 Try it!
Research about the characteristics of other planets in the Solar System which make them
unfit for growth and life.

What do you think?

Are the characteristics of the earth interrelated with one another? If yes, how do they
affect each other?

Key Points
 The atmosphere consists of 78.1% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.9% argon, 350 ppm carbon
dioxide, and other components.

 The presence of oxygen and carbon dioxide makes Earth habitable.

 Earth’s atmosphere also protects us from the sun’s radiation.

 The soil is a living medium—a medium for growth of all kinds of vegetation.

 The hydrosphere serves as a water reservoir, a source of fish and shellfish that we
consume, a thermostat and heat reservoir, and a way for transportation.

Test Question

1. Which of the following planets permits growth and life?

 A. Mars
 B. Jupiter

 C. Saturn

 D. Earth

2. Which of the following gases is the most abundant in Earth’s atmosphere?

 A. nitrogen

 B. oxygen

 C. carbon dioxide

 D. hydrogen

3. _____________ is a living medium for growth of all kinds of vegetation.

 A. atmosphere

 B. hydrosphere

 C. soil

 D. oceans

4. Which of the following is true about the role of soil in growth and life on Earth?

 A. The soil provides nutrients, water, and substrate for vegetation.

 B. There is no relationship between the soil and vegetation.

 C. The soil allows growth of different types of plants but not microorganisms.

 D. They do not affect growth and life on Earth.

5. Which of the following is not true about the hydrosphere?

 A. The hydrosphere contains all the water on our planet including ice and vapor.

 B. It serves as thermostat and heat reservoir, especially the ocean.

 C. It is also a way for transportation.

 D. Half of the Earth's surface is composed of the oceans and the seas.

6. Which of the following is not true about the earth's atmosphere?

 A. The earth’s atmosphere protects us from the sun’s radiation.

 B. It contains the ozone layer that absorbs the ultraviolet wavelengths.

 C. Thirty percent of the radiation is reflected away by the atmosphere, clouds, and
surface.

 D. The atmosphere only consists of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, oxygen, and argon.

7. Which of the following is not true about the soil?

 A. It is composed of mixtures of minerals, water, air, organic matter, and organisms.

 B. It is a living medium—a medium for growth of all kinds of vegetation.

 C. It produces trees and forests cover, ensures the water and nutrient cycle, and prevents
soil and wind erosion.

 D. It promotes growth for plants by providing nutrients, water, and as a substrate for
anchorage of roots.

8. How do oxygen and carbon dioxide make the earth habitable?

 A. Carbon dioxide is used by photosynthetic organisms in photosynthesis, and the oxygen

is used by humans and animals for respiration.

 B. Carbon dioxide and oxygen lead to maintenance of heat on Earth.

 C. Carbon dioxide and oxygen is used by photosynthetic organisms and by our cells to
function.

 D. Carbon dioxide and oxygen help prevent the entry of UV radiation.

9. How does Earth’s atmosphere protect us from the Sun's radiation?

 I. Some of the sun's radiation is reflected away and absorbed by the atmosphere, clouds,
and the Earth's surface.

 II. The presence of the ozone layer absorbs the ultraviolet wavelengths, and the
absorption of this radiation heats up the air.

 III. The gases in the atmosphere act as a protective layer that makes the sun's radiation
reflect away from the Earth's surface.

 IV. The atmosphere reflects all the sun's radiation.

 A. I only

 B. II only

 C. II and III

 D. I and II

10. Which of the following characteristics of Earth help in the proliferation of life?

 I. The atmosphere prevents the entry of solar radiation.

 II. The presence of nitrogen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere makes the Earth
habitable.

 III. The soil is a living medium—a medium for growth of all kinds of vegetation.

 IV. Some forms of the hydrosphere serve as ways for transportation.

 A. I and II only

 B. I, II and III

 C. I, III and IV

 D. II, III, IV
 Lesson 1.4 Earth: The Four
Subsystems
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·FRIDAY, JUNE 23, 2017

Origin and Structure of the Earth

Objective

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to explain that the Earth consists of four
subsystems, across whose boundaries matter and energy flow.

 The four subsystems of the Earth are the atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and
biosphere.

What are the characteristics of these four subsystems?

Learn about it!

 The Earth is comprised of four major subsystems. These subsystems are also called the
“spheres of the Earth.” They are atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
 Atmosphere

 The word atmosphere comes from the Greek roots atmos which means gas, and sphaira
which means globe or ball. The atmosphere makes up of all the gases on Earth. It
extends outward about 10 000 km from the surface of the Earth. It is composed of 78.1%
nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.9% argon, 350 ppm carbon dioxide, and other components.

 The atmosphere has different layers – troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,

thermosphere, and exosphere.

 The troposphere extends to about 14.5 km above the Earth's surface. It is the lowest
layer where the weather forms.

 The stratosphere is found 14.5 to 50 km above the Earth's surface. The ozone layer that
protects the Earth from the Sun's harmful UV radiation is found in this layer.
 The mesosphere extends from 50 to 85 km above the Earth's surface. It protects the
Earth from the impact of space debris.

 The thermosphere is found 85 to 600 km above the Earth's surface. It has charged
particles that are affected by the Earth's magnetic field. The particles create the Auroras
or Northern and Southern lights.

 The exosphere is the farthest layer. It extends to about 10 000 km above the Earth's
surface.
 Learn about it!

Geosphere

 Geo is a Greek root which means ground. Geosphere includes all the soil, rocks, and
minerals present in the crust to the core of the Earth. It is divided into three layers namely
crust, mantle, and core.

 The crust is the outermost layer of the geosphere. It is made mostly of silicate materials.
There are two different types of crust, the oceanic and continental crusts. The thin
oceanic crust that lies beneath the oceanic floors is about 5 to 10 km thick. On the other
hand, the thicker continental crust that makes up the continents is about 15 to 70 km
thick.
 The mantle, which lies just below the crust, is made mostly of silicate rocks rich in
magnesium and iron. It is about 2900 km thick. It has increasing temperatures at
increasing depths. For instance, the layer with the lowest temperature is the one right
beneath the crust. This layer, which is soft enough to flow, causes the plates of the crust
to move. On the other hand, the layer with the highest temperature is found in contact
with the heat-producing core.

 The core, which has a radius of 3400 km, is the innermost layer of the Earth. It is made
up of iron and nickel. It is the source of internal heat because it contains radioactive
materials that release energy as they decay into more stable substances.
 Learn about it!

Hydrosphere

 Hydro is a Greek root which means water.

 Hydrosphere is composed of all the water on Earth in any form: water vapor, liquid
water, and ice. It is comprised of 97.5% saltwater and 2.5% freshwater. It includes all
bodies of water such as oceans, lakes, rivers, and marshes. Clouds and rain are also part
of the hydrosphere.

 The water on Earth is constantly moving. It moves through the oceans in currents. Warm
waters in the tropics move toward the poles while cold water from the polar regions move
 toward the tropics. Water also flows into streams and rivers and through the rocks
underground. It can also move from the Earth’s surface to the air by evaporation and then
fall back to Earth as precipitation. It even moves into and out of the bodies of organisms.

Biosphere

 Bio is a Greek root that means life. The biosphere is comprised of all living things. It
includes all microbes, plants, and animals. It extends to the upper areas of the atmosphere
where insects and birds can be found. It also reaches the deep parts of the oceans where
marine organisms can still survive.

 Organisms interact with the other spheres to survive. Many organisms need oxygen and
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to carry out life processes. Water, which comprises
the hydrosphere, is also important to organisms. Finally, the rocks, soil, and minerals
constitute the geosphere also support life.
 Learn about it!
How the Earth’s Subsystems Interact

 Matter and energy move and cycle between the four different subsystems. These cycles
make life on Earth possible. An example of these cycles is the water cycle. Water moves
between the different spheres. It absorbs, releases, and transports energy around the
world in its different forms.

What will happen if matter or energy does not change from one form to another?

 For example, what if water vapor does not fall back to the Earth as rain? Then the bodies
of water will be drained, and no life on Earth will exist.

Tips
 Some of the components in the subsystems overlap. The most common example is the
soil which can be considered as a part of hydrosphere, geosphere, and even biosphere.
Since the soil is a complex material made up of air, soil particles, water, and organisms, it
underscores that a clear division among subsystems cannot be drawn.

Explore

 Imagine that you are part of NASA’s special mission and you are tasked to discuss the
things needed to replicate the Earth’s system in another planet. What are the things
necessary to enable life in that planet?

What do you think?

 What is the importance of studying the interactions among the four subsystems?

Key Points

 The four subsystems of Earth are the atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
 Atmosphere makes up of all the gases in our planet.

 Geosphere includes all the soil, rocks, and minerals present in the crust to the core of the
Earth.

 Hydrosphere is composed of all the water on Earth in any form: water vapor, liquid
water, and ice.

 Biosphere is comprised of all living things and the areas where they are found. It
includes all microbes, plants, and animals.

 Matter and energy move and cycle between the four different subsystems to make life on
Earth possible.

Test Question

1. Which of the following is not included in Earth’s subsystems?

 A. geosphere

 B. atmosphere

 C. photosphere

 D. hydrosphere

2. Hydrosphere includes all the ___________on Earth.

 A. water

 B. landforms

 C. gases

 D. living things

 3. Which of the following is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere?

 A. oxygen

 B. nitrogen

 C. carbon dioxide

 D. argon

4. Which of the following are included in the geosphere?

 I. rock

 II. mineral

 III. nitrogen gas

 IV. water vapor

 A. I and II

 B. II and III

 C. III and IV

 D. II and IV

5. Which of the following is true about the Earth’s subsystems?

 A. Each subsystem works independently and does not depend on other subsystems.

 B. Each subsystem did not change since the formation of the Earth.

 C. Earth’s subsystems interact with each other making life possible on Earth.

 D. Earth’s subsystems are similar to the subsystems of other planets.

6. Which of the following is true about the geosphere?

 A. It is the habitat for some species of plants and animals.

 B. It prevents the penetration of ultraviolet rays from the Sun.

 C. It is the main source of water on Earth.

 D. It provides oxygen needed by animals.

7. What will happen if the atmosphere on Earth is removed?

 A. The Earth will be able to sustain life.

 B. Ultraviolet rays will easily penetrate the Earth.

 C. Solar energy will not reach the Earth’s surface.

 D. The Earth will maintain its current temperature.

8. All of the following is true about the interaction of the biosphere with other
subsystems, except _____________.

 A. Organisms in the biosphere form parts of the geosphere when they decompose into
smaller substances.

 B. Organisms in the biosphere maintain the balance of gases in the atmosphere through
consumption and excretion of gases.

 C. Organisms in the biosphere increase the amount of water in the hydrosphere.

 D. Organisms in the biosphere consume water from the hydrosphere for survival.

9. How does the atmosphere support other subsystems?

 I. It supplies organisms the needed oxygen and carbon dioxide.

 II. It absorbs all the minerals and nutrients from the geosphere.

 III. It serves as a reservoir for water vapor.

 IV. It shapes the Earth’s landforms by its constant movement as the wind.

 A. I and II

 B. I, II and III

 C. II, III and IV

 D. III and IV

10. Which of the following are true about the hydrosphere?

 I. Ice and water vapor suspended in the atmosphere are included in the hydrosphere.

 II. Freshwater is greater than the amount of saltwater on Earth.

 III. The water on Earth is constantly moving.

 IV. Water can move from the Earth’s surface to the air by precipitation and then fall back
to Earth by evaporation.

 A. I only

 B. I and II

 C. I and III

 D. III and IV
 Lesson 1.5 Advancements on the
Solar System
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·FRIDAY, JUNE 23, 2017

Origin and Structure of the Earth

Objective: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain the current
advancements and information on the Solar System.

With the vastness of our solar system, how far does the human race reach?

Learn about it!

Pluto's Status

 In 1930, Clyde Tombaugh discovered Pluto as the ninth planet in the solar system.
However, the discovery of Kuiper Belt (an area after Neptune that contains asteroids,
comets, and other celestial bodies) questioned the status of Pluto as a planet.

 At first, Eris was suggested as the tenth planet in the solar system.

 Its incapability to clear its orbit due to lack of gravity led to classify it as a dwarf planet
together with Pluto. Other dwarf planets are Ceres in the Asteroid Belt and Makemake
and Haumea both in the Kuiper Belt.

 Dwarf planets are celestial bodies that orbit the sun, have enough mass to assume a nearly
round shape, and have not cleared its orbit due to lack of gravity.

Planet X
 However, recent observations by two astronomers, Mike Brown and Konstantin
Batygin, led to the speculation that a ninth planet is present in our solar system. They
discovered six clustered objects in the Kuiper Belt and stated that this clustering is due to
the presence of a planet enough to put them in place. Calculations and observations have
been done to claim that a Planet X exists. However, other astronomers stated that until it
is seen, the claim for the ninth planet in our solar system is still in question.

Learn about it!

Mars Rover Mission

 Since 1970s, NASA has been deploying Mars Exploration Rovers to examine the nearest
planet to Earth, Mars. They examined materials of Mars’ lithosphere and assessed if the
weather condition is viable for the survival of life.

 Its mission was focused on the physical characteristics of the planet. It aimed to collect
data on how the planet formed its rocks and soil and whether or not water has been
responsible for the weathering and erosion of rocks. The rovers examined the rocks and
analyzed that it had sedimentary rocks that can be formed if rocks are soaked for a long
time in the water.

 Based on the data collected, scientists believe that Mars had water in the past, and this
water sustained some microorganisms.

 Since January 2014, rovers started digging for fossilized evidence of ancient life.

Mars One Program

 The Mars One Program aims to land the first humans on Mars and establish a human
colony on that planet by 2027.

 In 2014, the program chose astronauts that will be sent to Mars. Plans of landing rovers
and establishing communication satellites were also formulated. The target is that by the
year 2022, the first crew will start its travel to Mars and will reach it after a year, and by
2035, the colony will have twenty crew and will be able to sustain itself.

Learn about it!

Titan’s Water

 Titan is Saturn’s largest moon. Astronomers studying the Titan’s composition lead to the
discovery that liquid substance is present on the moon in the form of liquid methane.
Below is an image that was taken from the shutter-snapping Cassini spacecraft which
shows the most detailed look at one of the famous lakes on the surface of Titan.

 The discovery of Titan has been a breakthrough since it is the only known celestial body
in our solar system that has liquid substance on it, aside from Earth.

 It was also discovered that the Titan is undergoing chemical processes, the same
processes that the Early Earth have undergone. If the Sun became large enough, it will
receive the same amount of solar energy we are receiving, thus, making the possibility for
life’s survival possible.

Explore!

 Imagine yourself traveling as an astronaut. What are the other things that you want to
discover to contribute to the new advancements about our solar system?
 Try it!

 Research about other new discoveries that made an impact in the history of our solar
system.

What do you think?

 What are the things you are looking forward to be discovered in our universe?

Key Points

 In 1930, Clyde Tombaugh discovered Pluto as the ninth planet in the solar system.

 The discovery of Kuiper Belt (an area after Neptune that contains asteroids, comets, and
other celestial bodies) questioned the status of the Pluto as a planet.

 Since 1970s, NASA has been deploying Mars Exploration Rovers to examine Mars.

 Materials on Mars’ lithosphere were examined and the weather condition was assessed to
gauge whether it is viable for the survival of life.

 The Mars One Program aims to land the first humans on Mars and establish a human
colony on that planet by 2027.

 Studying the Titan’s composition lead to the discovery that liquid substance is present on
the moon in the form of liquid methane.

Test Question

1. Which of the following is a dwarf planet?

 A. Mercury

 B. Earth

 C. Saturn

 D. Pluto

2. Which of the following discoveries led to the questioning of Pluto’s status as a planet?

 A. Eris in Kuiper belt

 B. Makemake as a dwarf planet

 C. Haumea as a dwarf planet

 D. Ceres in asteroid belt

3. As planned by Mars One Program, how long would it take for humans to travel to
Mars from Earth?

 A. two years

 B. four years

 C. eight years

 D. one year

4. Which of the following observations led to the assumption of Mike Brown and
Konstantin Batygin about the ninth planet in our solar system?

 A. the clustering of six objects in the Kuiper Belt

 B. the size of Pluto

 C. the location of Jupiter

 D. the clustering of six objects in the asteroid belt

 5. Which of the following observations led to the assumption of astronomers that Mars
has water in the past?

 A. abundance of igneous rocks

 B. presence of sedimentary rocks

 C. too much methane in its atmosphere

 D. excess hydrogen in its atmosphere

6. Which of the following have the Mars exploration rovers been looking for since
January 2014?

 A. ancient life forms

 B. diamonds

 C. lost spaceships

 D. oxygen

7. Which of the following is one of the goals of Mars One Program?

 A. send robots to Mars

 B. send Earth’s trash to Mars

 C. colonize Mars with humans

 D. create a prison in Mars

8. All of the following sentences are true about Pluto except __________.

 A. It is one of the nine planets in the solar system.

 B. Pluto is now considered a dwarf planet.

 C. Pluto lies in the Kuiper belt.

 D. It is unable to clear its own orbit because of lack of gravity.

 9. All of the following sentences are true about Saturn’s largest moon, Titan, except
_________.

 A. It contains enough water to sustain life.

 B. Titan contains methane in liquid form.

 C. It has tides due to the gravitational pull of Saturn.

 D. It is the only celestial body in our Solar System that has liquid substance.

10. Which of the following are the latest advancements about the solar system?

 I. Pluto’s status as a dwarf planet

 II. presence of a liquid substance in Titan

 III. searching for ancient life evidence in Mars

 IV. existence of man in Mars

 A. I only

 B. I and II

 C. I, II and III

 D. II, III and IV

Lesson 1.6 Contributors in

Understanding the Earth Systems
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·FRIDAY, JUNE 23, 2017

Origin and Structure of the Earth

Objective: In this lesson, you should be able to cite the contributions of

personalities/people to the understanding of the earth systems.
 Earth System Science (ESS) is the study of the Earth as a system. It considers
interactions between the Earth’s “spheres” – atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and
biosphere. It is a relatively new field whose foundations are established long ago by
scientists in other fields.

Who are the scientists who contributed to the understanding of the Earth system?

Learn about it!

Earth System Science

 Earth System Science is an integration of chemistry, physics, biology, and mathematics.

It is the study of the Earth as an integrated system. It seeks to understand the past,
current, and future states of the Earth.

 Many scientists had built the foundations of understanding the Earth systems. They
include James Hutton, Alexander von Humboldt, Vladimir Vernadsky, James Lovelock,
and Lynn Margulis.

James Hutton

James Hutton, the father of modern geology, was a Scottish farmer and naturalist. It was
in farming that he observed how land was shaped by destructive forces of wind and
weather systems.

 He described how the Earth was formed in a repeated cycle of erosion and sedimentation,
with heat from volcanic activity as the driving force.
 He also introduced the concept of uniformitarianism, implying that the geological
forces (such as those that trigger erosion and volcanic activities) in the past are the same
as those in the present, making it possible to determine the Earth's history by studying
rocks.

Learn about it!

Alexander von Humboldt

 Alexander von Humboldt, a 19th-century geographer, helped establish the foundation

for Earth System Science through his observations of nature.

 He, together with his colleagues, traveled to America; collected botanical, zoological, and
geological specimens; recorded the location of the specimens where they were found; and
performed atmospheric and geophysical measurements.

 From his records, he recognized patterns that reveal underlying processes, such as the
transport of heat in ocean currents and the influence of temperature on plants.

Vladimir Vernadsky

 Vladimir Vernadsky, one of the founders of geochemistry, popularized the term

noosphere. In his theory of Earth development, he stated that geosphere was the first
phase of the Earth that was developed.

 The second phase was the biosphere or biological life. The emergence of life on Earth
transformed the geosphere. Then the noosphere, the sphere of human consciousness, is
the third phase. The development of human cognition then transformed the biosphere.
 Today, the study of human impact on the biosphere led to the concept of sustainability,
which is the capacity of the Earth to continue to support human life.

Learn about it!

James Lovelock

 James Lovelock, a British environmentalist, proposed the Gaia hypothesis, which

postulates that the Earth works as a self-regulating system.

 He stated that the living organisms co-evolve with nonliving things in the environment to
form a synergistic, self-regulating system where life is maintained and perpetuated. He
cited as evidence the photosynthetic bacteria during the Precambrian times.

 The bacteria modified the Earth’s atmosphere to become oxygen-enriched. The change in
the atmosphere then supported the evolution of more complex organisms.

Lynn Margulis

 Lynn Margulis, an evolutionary theorist, further developed Lovelock’s Gaia hypothesis.

 Margulis noticed that all kinds of bacteria give off gases and thought that atmospheric
gases were from biological sources.

 She collaborated with Lovelock and published a paper on how life regulates the
temperature and chemical composition of the soil and the atmosphere.

Learn about it!

 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

 The major landmark in the formal development of the Earth System Science was the
formation of the Earth System Science Committee in NASA in 1983. NASA began to
study components of the Earth system, their linkages, dependencies, and fluxes.

 Scientists from NASA conduct the Earth Science Program with a purpose of
understanding the Earth system by using satellites for long-term observations. By
viewing the Earth from space, they have studied how the planet is changing in response
to human influences. For instance, they have shown how the climate is changing due to
the increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide and aerosols from human activities.
These substances trap the Sun’s heat causing an increase in the global temperature.

At present, NASA continues to answer the question “How is the Earth system
changing, and what are the consequences of these changes for life on Earth?”

Try it!

 Choose one of the Earth’s subsystems – atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, or

biosphere. Research on how humans affect that subsystem. What activities of humans
have positive effects on that subsystem? What are the activities that have negative
effects? When the subsystem changes due to the human activities, how does the change
affect humans in return?

What do you think?

 Why is it necessary to understand how the field of Earth System Science developed?

Key Points
 Earth System Science (ESS) is the study of the Earth as a system. It considers
interactions between the Earth’s “spheres” – atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and
biosphere.

 James Hutton, the father of modern geology, proposed uniformitarianism, which

implies that the present geological processes are the same as those in the past.

 Alexander von Humboldt laid the foundations for Earth System Science by his holistic
observations of nature.

 Vladimir Vernadsky, one of the founders of geochemistry, popularized the term

noosphere, which is the sphere of human consciousness.

 James Lovelock and Lynn Margulis collaborated on the Gaia hypothesis, which
postulates that the Earth works as a self-regulating system.

 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) studies components of the

Earth system, their linkages, dependencies, and fluxes.

Test Question

1. Which of the following describe the Earth System Science?

 I. It is a field that was established in the 17th century.

 II. It is the integration of humanities and sciences.

 III. It considers interactions between the Earth’s “spheres.”

 IV. It seeks to understand the past, current, and future states of the Earth.

 A. I and II

 B. II and III

 C. III and IV
 D. I and IV

2. Who is the father of modern geology?

 A. James Hutton

 B. Alexander von Humboldt

 C. Vladimir Vernadsky

 D. James Lovelock

3. Who proposed the Gaia hypothesis?

 A. Aldo Leopold

 B. Alexander von Humboldt

 C. Vladimir Vernadsky

 D. James Lovelock

4. Which of the following modified the Earth’s atmosphere during the Precambrian
times?

 A. bacteria

 B. plants

 C. animals

 D. fungi

5. What is the basic idea of the Gaia hypothesis?

 A. It is impossible to change an Earth system.

 B. The development of human cognition transformed the biosphere.

 C. The Earth works as a self-regulating system.

 D. The emergence of life on Earth transformed the geosphere.

 6. Which of the following describe the concepts of uniformitarianism?

 I. Geological forces in the past are the same as those in the present.

 II. The Earth's history can be determined by studying the rocks.

 III. Life regulates the chemical composition of the soil and the atmosphere.

 IV. The planet is changing in response to human influences.

 A. I only

 B. I and II

 C. I an III

 D. III and IV

7. According to Vladimir Vernadsky, which of the following describes the noosphere?

 I. It is the sphere of human consciousness.

 II. It is the third phase of the Earth’s development.

 III. It is the coevolution of living and nonliving things.

 IV. It is the sphere that comprises all nonliving matter.

 A. I only

 B. II only

 C. I and II

 D. All of the above

8. Which of the following happens when human activities increase the concentration of
carbon dioxide and aerosols in the atmosphere?

 A. The atmospheric temperature increases and the climate changes.

 B. The atmospheric temperature decreases and the climate remain the same.
 C. The atmospheric temperature remains the same and the climate changes.

 D. The atmospheric temperature and the climate remains the same.

9. What did Alexander von Humboldt realize when he studied the botanical samples he
collected?

 A. He found out that the temperature had an influence on plant growth.

 B. He found out that the plants regulate the ocean temperatures.

 C. He discovered that all atmospheric gases come from plants.

 D. He discovered that evolution of life started with plants.

10. How does NASA contribute to the understanding of the Earth system?

 A. They use the satellite images of the Earth show how beautiful the planet is.

 B. They use satellites to observe how the Earth changes in response to human influences.

 C. They use satellites to study the chemical composition of the soil and the atmosphere.

 D. They use satellites to find and observe life on other planets in the universe.
 Lesson 1.7 The Internal Structure
of Earth
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·FRIDAY, JUNE 23, 2017

Origin and Structure of the Earth

Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify and differentiate the
layers of the Earth.

What are the different layers of the Earth?

 The Earth consists of three layers: core, mantle, and crust.

 The solid outer layer is the crust.

 A semi-molten rock called magma lies in the mantle below the crust. Beneath the mantle
is the core.

 The outer core is a liquid mixture of nickel and iron while the inner core is solid.

The Crust

 The crust is a very thin layer that measures between 0 and 60 km. It has two layers and is
composed of two major kinds of rocks.

 The thick continental crust, about 32 km, makes up the land surface of the Earth and is
composed primarily of dense materials such as granite.

 The thin oceanic crust has a depth of 5–10 km and is made up of basalt which is less
dense than granite.

 The crust can be broken down into plates which produce earthquakes when they move
along each other.
 Learn about it!

The Mantle

 The mantle is below the crust. It is the thickest layer of the Earth, spanning almost 2900
km and making up 84% of the Earth’s volume. It contains magma. It is primarily solid
but behaves as a viscous liquid. This behavior is due to temperature differences towards
the lower mantle.

 As the depth becomes near the core, the temperature increases.

 This is known as the geothermal gradient, the increase in temperature with depth. In the
upper mantle, the temperatures range from 600 to 900 °C. In the lower mantle, the
temperature can reach over 4000 °C.

 Convection currents carry heat from the hot inner mantle to the cooler outer mantle. If
the upper part of the mantle cools down, it becomes part of the crust. Also, this process is
responsible for earthquakes and other geological processes.

 The crust and the upper part of the mantle make up the lithosphere, a zone of rigid,
brittle rock.

 · The layer below it is called the asthenosphere. This part of the mantle is solid in a
plastic manner (flows very slowly), allowing the plates to move on top of it.

Learn about it!

The Core
 The core is at the center of the Earth. In this region, the temperature is hotter than the
mantle.

 It is divided into two parts: the outer core and the inner core.

 The liquid outer core is 2300 km thick. It is composed primarily of iron and nickel.

 The temperature here is around 4000–5700 °C.

 Due to its high temperature, the outer core undergoes convection and rotates faster than
the planet.

 The inner core is a solid ball with a radius of 1220 km. Like the outer core, the inner
core is made up of iron and nickel, but in solid form.

 The temperature is quite high at around 7000 °C.

 The difference between the state of matter of the inner and outer core is due to the very
high pressure in the inner core, increasing the melting points of the metals.

 Scientists believed that the inner core rotates opposite to the direction of the flow of the
outer core, creating an effect that influences the Earth’s magnetic field.

Explore!

 If you cut an apple in half, you will see that it is composed of three parts: a thin skin, a
flesh in which the mass is concentrated, and seeds located at the center. Similarly, if you
cut the Earth, you will see layers: a crust on the outside, a mantle of significant weight,
and a core at the center.

Try it!

 Research about how the layers of the Earth are formed.

 What do you think?

 What might happen to the Earth if the inner core melts?

Key Points

 The Earth has three layers: the crust, the mantle, and the core.

 The crust is the solid outer layer of the Earth.

 The types of crust are the oceanic crust and the continental crust.

 The mantle lies below the crust and composed primarily of magma.

 The crust and the upper part of the mantle constitute the lithosphere; the upper part of
the mantle is the asthenosphere.

 The core is the center of the Earth and is composed of the solid inner core and the liquid
outer core.

Test Question

1. This is the hottest and densest layer of the Earth.

 A. outer core

 B. mantle

 C. crust

 D. inner core

2. What material makes up the mantle?

 A. magma
 B. iron

 C. nickel

 D. basalt

3. What causes the mantle to flow?

 A. induction

 B. convection

 C. radiation

 D. intention

4. What are the thickest and thinnest layers of the earth, respectively?

 A. mantle, crust

 B. mantle, outer core

 C. crust, mantle

 D. inner core, mantle

5. Which of the following is the correct order of the layers of the Earth from the center of
the Earth to the outside.

 A. inner core> outer core> mantle> crust

 B. inner core> outer core> crust > mantle

 C. outer core> inner core> crust> mantle

 D. outer core> inner core> mantle> crust

6. Why is the inner core solid, but the outer core liquid, if both regions have very high
temperatures?

 A. The pressure in the outer core is lower than the pressure in the inner core.
 B. The pressure in the outer core is higher than the pressure in the inner core.

 C. The temperature in the outer core is lower than the temperature in the inner core.

 D. The temperature in the outer core is higher than the temperature in the inner core.

7. Which of the following layers generate the Earth's magnetic field?

 I. outer core

 II. inner core

 III. crust

 IV. mantle

 A. I only

 B. I and II

 C. II and III

 D. I and III

8. Which of the following metals are found in the core?

 I. iron

 II. nickel

 III. lead

 IV. magnesium

 A. I only

 B. II only

 C. I and II

 D. All of the above

 9. What is the main difference between the asthenosphere and the lithosphere?

 A. behavior of the rock

 B. temperature of both layers

 C. depth from the surface of the Earth

 D. materials that make both layers

10. Which of the following statements is not true?

 A. The crust and the upper part of the mantle make up the lithosphere, a zone of rigid,
brittle rock.

 B. The outer core is liquid that is composed primarily of iron and nickel.

 C. The crust is the solid outer layer of the Earth that is composed of the continental and
the oceanic crusts.

 D. The crust is the thickest layer making up 84% of the Earth's volume.
Lesson 2.1 Rock-Forming Minerals
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·SUNDAY, JULY 16, 2017

Earth Materials and Processes

Objective: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify common rock-
forming minerals using their physical and chemical properties.

What are the different physical and chemical properties of minerals?

Learn about it!

A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid, with a spe-cific chemical composition

and a definite crystalline structure. Thiscrystalline structure is often exhibited by the
crystal shape itself.

Identification of Minerals

Geologists rely on several simple tests to identify minerals. These tests are based on a
mineral’s physical and chemical properties, which are crystal form, luster, hardness,
cleavage, fracture, streak, color, texture, density, specific gravity, and special properties.
It is usually best to use a combination of tests instead of just one to identify minerals.

Crystal form

Some minerals form such distinct crystal shapes that they are immediately recognizable.
Halite—common table salt—always forms perfect cubes. Quartz crystals, with their
double-pointed ends and six-sided crystals, are also readily recognized. However, as you
learned earlier in this section, perfect crystals are not always formed, so identification
based only on crystal form is rare.

Physical Properties of Minerals

Physical properties are useful when working in the field, where there is usually no access
to complex analytical techniques. Although a particular mineral has different forms, the
fundamental physical properties are still the same. Useful physical properties to identify a
mineral include color, streak, luster, specific gravity, hardness, cleavage, tenacity, and
crystal habit.

Color

One of the most noticeable characteristics of a mineral is its color. Color is sometimes
caused by the presence of trace elements or compounds within a mineral. For example,
quartz occurs in a variety of colors, as shown in Figure 4.10. These different colors are
the result of different trace elements in the quartz samples. Red jasper, purple amethyst,
and orange citrine contain different amounts and forms of iron. Rose quartz contains
manganese or titanium. However, the appearance of milky quartz is caused by the
numerous bubbles of gas and liquid trapped within the crystal. In general, color is one of
the least reliable clues of a mineral’s identity.
Luster is the relative differences in the opacity and transparency of a mineral as light is
reflected on its surface. This describes the 'sparkles' of the mineral surfaces.

The way that a mineral reflects light from its surface is called luster. There are two types
of luster — metallic luster and nonmetallic luster. Silver, gold, copper, and galena have
shiny surfaces that reflect light, like the chrome trim on cars. Thus, they are said to have a
metallic luster. Not all metallic minerals are metals. If their surfaces have shiny
appearances like metals, they are considered to have a metallic luster. Sphalerite, for
example, is a mineral with a metallic luster that is not a metal.

Minerals with nonmetallic lusters, such as calcite, gypsum, sulfur, and quartz, do not
shine like metals. Nonmetallic lusters might be described as dull, pearly, waxy, silky, or
earthy. Differences in luster, shown in Figure 4.6, are caused by differences in the
chemical compositions of minerals. Describing the luster of nonmetallic minerals is a
subjective process. For example, a mineral that appears waxy to one person might not
appear waxy to another. Using luster to identify a mineral should usually be used in
combination with other physical characteristics.
Hardness

One of the most useful and reliable tests for identifying minerals is hardness. Hardness is
a measure of how easily a mineral can be scratched. German geologist Friedrich Mohs
developed a scale by which an unknown mineral’s hardness can be compared to the
known hardness of ten minerals. The minerals in the Mohs scale of mineral hardness
were selected because they are easily recognized and, with the exception of diamond,
readily found in nature.
Talc is one of the softest minerals and can be scratched by a fingernail; therefore, talc
represents 1 on the Mohs scale of hardness. In contrast, diamond is so hard that it can be
used as a sharpener and cutting tool, so diamond represents 10 on the Mohs scale of
hardness. The scale, shown in Table 4.2, is used in the following way: a mineral that can
be scratched by your fingernail has a hardness equal to or less than 2. A mineral that
cannot be scratched by your fingernail and cannot scratch glass has a hardness value
between 5.5 and 2.5. Finally, a mineral that scratches glass has a hardness greater than
5.5. Using other common objects, such as those listed in the table, can help you
determine a more precise hardness and provide you with more information with which to
identify an unknown mineral. Sometimes more than one mineral is present in a sample. If
this is the case, it is a good idea to test more than one area of the sample. This way, you
can be sure that you are testing the hardness of the mineral you are studying. Figure 4.7
shows two minerals that have different hardness values.

Cleavage and fracture

Atomic arrangement also determines how a mineral will break. Minerals break along
planes where atomic bonding is weak. A mineral that splits relatively easily and evenly
along one or more flat planes is said to have cleavage. To identify a mineral according to
its cleavage, geologists count the number of cleaved planes and study the angle or angles
between them. For example, mica has perfect cleavage in one direction. It breaks in
sheets because of weak atomic bonds. Halite, shown in Figure 4.8, has cubic cleavage,
which means that it breaks in three directions along planes of weak atomic attraction.
Quartz, shown in Figure 4.8, breaks unevenly along jagged edges because of its tightly
bonded atoms. Minerals that break with rough or jagged edges are said to have fracture.
Flint, jasper, and chalcedony (kal SEH duh nee) (microcrystalline forms of quartz)
exhibit a unique fracture with arclike patterns resembling clamshells, also shown in
Figure 4.8. This fracture is called conchoidal (kahn KOY duhl) fracture and is diagnostic
in identifying the rocks and minerals that exhibit it.

Streak

A mineral rubbed across an unglazed porcelain plate will sometimes leave a colored
powdered streak on the surface of the plate. Streak is the color of a mineral when it is
broken up and powdered. The streak of a nonmetallic mineral is usually white. Streak is
most useful in identifying metallic minerals. Sometimes, a metallic mineral’s streak does
not match its external color, as shown in Figure 4.9. For example, the mineral hematite
occurs in two different forms, resulting in two distinctly different appearances. Hematite
that forms from weathering and exposure to air and water is a rusty red color and has an
earthy feel. Hematite that forms from crystallization of magma is silver and metallic in
appearance. However, both forms make a reddishbrown streak when tested. The streak
test can be used only on minerals that are softer than a porcelain plate. This is another
reason why streak cannot be used to identify all minerals.
Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of the mineral to the weight of the water with
an equal volume.

Chemical Properties of Minerals

All minerals have a certain arrangement of elements in their crystal structure. They can
be represented by a chemical formula, which presents the proportions of atoms that
constitute them. For example, the mineral quartz has a chemical formula SiO2

Its crystal structure is a continuous framework of silicon-oxygen tetrahedra.

The chemical properties of minerals depend on their chemical formula and crystal
structure.

Its crystal structure is a continuous framework of silicon-oxygen tetrahedra.

The chemical properties of minerals depend on their chemical formula and crystal
structure. Solubility and melting point are chemical properties commonly used to
describe a mineral.

Solubility refers the ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent at a specified

temperature. For example, biotite, a mineral commonly found in igneous rocks, is soluble
in both acid and base solutions. The dissolution releases the loosely-bound potassium
ions in the mineral.

Melting point refers to the temperature at which solid turns into liquid. Minerals
composed of atoms that are tightly bonded within the crystal structure have high melting
points. For example, quartz melts above 1670°C.

In the laboratory, the composition and crystal structure of minerals can be analyzed
through chemical and instrumental analysis.

Crystallographic techniques such as X-ray diffraction are performed to determine the

crystal structure of the mineral.
Special properties

Several special properties of minerals can also be used for identification purposes. Some
of these properties are magnetism, striations, double refraction, effervescence with
hydrochloric acid, and fluorescence, shown in Figure 4.3. For example, Iceland spar is a
form of calcite that exhibits double refraction. The arrangement of atoms in this type of
calcite causes light to be bent in two directions when it passes through the mineral. The
refraction of the single ray of light into two rays creates the appearance of two images.

Texture

Text ure describes how a mineral feels to the touch. This, like luster, is subjective.
Therefore, texture is often used in combination with other tests to identify a mineral. The
texture of a mineral might be described as smooth, rough, ragged, greasy, or soapy. For
example, fluorite, shown in Figure 4.11, has a smooth texture, while the texture of talc,
shown in Figure 4.6, is greasy.
Density and specific gravity

Sometimes, two minerals of the same size have different weights. Differences in weight
are the result of differences in density, which is defined as mass per unit of volume.

If you had a sample of gold and a sample of pyrite of the same size, the gold would have
greater weight because it is more dense. Density reflects the atomic mass and structure of
a mineral. Because density is not dependent on the size or shape of a mineral, it is a
useful identification tool. Often, however, differences in density are too small to be
distinguished by lifting different minerals. Thus, for accurate mineral identification,
density must be measured. The most common measure of density used by geologists is
specific gravity, which is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of an equal
volume of water at 4°C. For example, the specific gravity of pyrite is 5.2. The specific
gravity of pure gold is 19.3.

Common Rock-Forming Minerals

Although about 3000 minerals occur in Earth’s crust, only about 30 of these are common.
Eight to ten of these minerals are referred to as rock-forming minerals because they make
up most of the rocks in Earth’s crust. They are primarily composed of the eight most
common elements in Earth’scrust. This is illustrated in Table 4.1.
 The most common rock-forming minerals are

1. quartz,

2. feldspar,

3. mica,

4. pyroxene,

5. amphibole, and

6. olivine.

All of the following silicate minerals, except for quartz, are mineral groups.

Quartz. It is a glassy-looking hard substance with white streaks. Despite its hardness,
with a Mohs hardness of 7, it is quite brittle. Pure quartz is clear and transparent. Colored
varieties of quartz are due to elemental impurities built into its lattice. The grains of
quartz, in general, are irregular in shape.
Feldspar has a chemical composition of Xal(1-2) Si (3-2) O8 , where X is K, Ca, or Na.
It is quite hard with a Mohs hardness of 6. It is a light-colored material, usually white, but
they can have lighter shades of red or green. It has a glassy luster. In rocks, feldspar
forms rectangular crystals that break along flat faces.

Mica is any group of hydrous potassium aluminum silicate minerals. The most common
examples are clear muscovite and black biotite. Mica is soft, with Mohs hardness ranging
from 2 to 2.5. It is easily identified by its perfect cleavage, reducing it to thin smooth
flakes. Its shine is responsible for the flashes of light in rocks such as granite and slate.

Pyroxene minerals have a general composition of XY (Al, Si)2 O6, where X is Ca or Mg

and Y is either Mg, Fe, or Al.

Augite is the most common of this group. It has a glassy luster with streaks of white,
light green, or light brown. It is generally black in color and has stubby prismatic crystals.
Its key feature is its two cleavages at around 90°.

Amphibole has a dark color with a Mohs hardness ranging from 5 to 6. Hornblende is the
most common amphibole. It has a glassy luster and an opaque characteristic. Its crystals
are very long and very thin.
Olivine is a silicate mineral with a general chemical composition of (Mg, Fe)2 SO4, but
calcium, manganese, and nickel can be substituted for magnesium and iron. It is known
for its distinct olive-green color and commonly used in the gemstone industry as peridot.
It is a glassy looking and transparent substance that is almost as hard as quartz. Its
crystals have a granular shape.

Minerals from magma

Molten material that forms and accumulates below Earth’s surface is called magma.
Magma is less dense than the surrounding solid rock, so it can rise upward into cooler
layers of Earth’s interior. Here, the magma cools and crystallizes. The type and number
of elements present in the magma determine which minerals will form. The rate at which
the magma cools determines the size of the mineral crystals. If the magma cools slowly
within Earth’s heated interior, the atoms have time to arrange themselves into large
crystals. If the magma reaches Earth’s surface, comes in contact with air or water, and
cools quickly, the atoms do not have time to arrange themselves into large crystals. Thus,
small crystals form from rapidly cooling magma, and large crystals form from slowly
cooling magma. The mineral crystals in the granite shown in Figure 4.4 are the result of
cooling magma.
Minerals from solutions

Minerals are often dissolved in water. For example, the salts that are dissolved in ocean
water make it salty. When a liquid becomes full of a dissolved substance and it can
dissolve no more of that substance, the liquid is saturated. If the solution then becomes
overfilled, it is called supersaturated and conditions are right for minerals to form. At this
point, individual atoms bond together and mineral crystals precipitate, which means that
they form into solids from the solution.

Minerals also crystallize when the solution in which they are dissolved evaporates. You
might have experienced this if you have ever gone swimming in the ocean. As the water
evaporated off your skin, the salts were left behind as mineral crystals. Minerals that form
from the evaporation of liquid are called evaporites. The rock salt in Figure 4.4 was
formed from evaporation.

Explore!

Silicates like quartz are among the Earth’s most important natural resources. There would
be no computers, phones, glass, or bricks. All of these rely on silicate minerals as raw
materials. What other minerals are known to have important uses like silicates?

Try it!

Research on the different kinds of minerals found in common products (e.g. lipstick,
glass) that you use every day.

What do you think?

 Is there a possibility for the physical characteristics of rock minerals to change over time?
Explain your answer.

Key Points

 A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid material that has a fixed structure and
a definite chemical composition.

 Minerals can be identified based on their physical and chemical properties.

 Useful physical properties to identify a mineral include color, streak, luster, specific
gravity, hardness, cleavage, tenacity, and crystal habit.

 The chemical properties of minerals depend on their chemical formula and crystal
structure.

 Solubility and melting point are chemical properties commonly used to describe a
mineral.

 The most common rock-forming minerals are quartz, feldspar, mica, pyroxene,
amphibole, and olivine.

 The most reliable way to identify a mineral is by using a combination of several tests.

 A crystal is a solid in which the atoms are arranged in repeating patterns.

 Minerals form from magma or from supersaturated solutions.

Test Question

1. It is a solid, inorganic, naturally occurring substance with a fixed structure and a

definite composition.

 A. rock
 B. magma

 C. salt

 D. mineral

2. It is the ability of a mineral to resist scratches.

 A. luster

 B. hardness

 C. cleavage

 D. crystal habit

3. It describes how the mineral sparkles in light.

 A. luster

 B. hardness

 C. cleavage

 D. crystal habit

4. Why does mica peel into thin sheets?

 A. due to cleavage

 B. due to its chemical composition

 C. due to its luster

 D. due to its color

5. Which of the following belong to mica?

 A. hornblende and augite

 B. muscovite and biotite

 C. amphibole and hornblende

 D. pyroxene and augite

6. Which is an amphibole?

 A. muscovite

 B. pyroxene

 C. biotite

 D. hornblende

7. How would you differentiate amphibole from olivine?

 A. by crystal shape

 B. by luster

 C. by basicity

 D. by specific gravity

8. Which of the following is the easiest way to differentiate mica from quartz?

 A. Measure their specific gravity.

 B. Observe how they look like in the dark.

 C. Look at their overall shape.

 D. Observe how they are broken.

9. Which of the following mineral is almost as hard as quartz?

 A. diamond

 B. feldspar

 C. amphibole

 D. mica
 Sander found an unknown mineral that has not been reported before. He observed the
behavior of the mineral when he tried to cut and crush it.

10. What physical characteristic of the mineral was examined by Sander?

 A. tenacity

 B. hardness

 C. fracture

 D. cleavage

Hank, together with his colleagues, is in search for a mineral that is typically black in
color. Its crystal form is short and thick, with two cleavages that are nearly a right angle.

11. What rock-forming mineral are they looking for?

 A. pyroxene

 B. olivine

 C. amphibole

 D. quartz
Lesson 2.2 Rocks: Its Three Main
Categories and Mineral
Composition
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·SUNDAY, JULY 16, 2017

Earth Materials and Processes

Objective: At the end of the lesson, you will be able to classify rocks into igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic.

How are rocks classified?

Learn about it!

Types of Minerals
MAIN Idea>>>

Minerals are classified based on their chemical properties and characteristics.

Everything on Earth is classified into various categories. Food, animals, and music are all
classified according to certain properties or features. Minerals are no different; they, too,
are classified into groups.

Mineral Groups

You have learned that elements combine in many different ways and proportions. One
result is the thousands of different minerals present on Earth. In order to study these
minerals and understand their properties, geologists have classified them into groups.
Each group has a distinct chemical nature and specific characteristics.

Silicates

Oxygen is the most abundant element in Earth’s crust, followed by silicon. Minerals that
contain silicon and oxygen, and usually one or more other elements, are known as
silicates. Silicates make up approximately 96 percent of the minerals present in Earth’s
crust. The two most common minerals, feldspar and quartz, are silicates. The basic
building block of the silicates is the silica tetrahedron, shown in Figure 4.12. A
tetrahedron (plural, tetrahedra) is a three-dimensional shape that resembles a pyramid.
Recall that the electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom are called valence
electrons. The number of valence electrons determines the type and number of chemical
bonds an atom will form. Because silicon atoms have four valence electrons, silicon has
the ability to bond with four oxygen atoms. As shown in Figure 4.13, silica tetrahedra can
share oxygen atoms. This structure allows tetrahedra to combine in a number of ways,
which accounts for the large diversity of structures and properties of silicate minerals.
Individual tetrahedron ions are strong. They can bond together to form sheets, chains, and
complex three-dimensional structures. The bonds between the atoms help determine
several mineral properties, including a mineral’s cleavage or fracture. For example, mica,
shown in Figure 4.14, is a sheet silicate, also called a phyllosilicate, where positive
potassium or aluminum ions bond the negatively charged sheets of tetrahedra together.
Mica separates easily into sheets because the attraction between the tetrahedra and the
aluminum or potassium ions is weak. Asbestos, also shown in Figure 4.14, consists of
double chains of tetrahedra that are weakly bonded together. This results in the fibrous
nature shown in Figure 4.14.

Carbonates

Oxygen combines easily with many other elements, and thus forms other mineral groups,
such as carbonates. Carbonates are minerals composed of one or more metallic elements
and the carbonate ion CO 3 2- Examples of carbonates are calcite, dolomite, and
rhodochrosite. Carbonates are the primary minerals found in rocks such as limestone and
marble. Some carbonates have distinctive colorations, such as the colorful varieties of
calcite and the pink of rhodochrosite shown in Figure 4.16.
Oxides

Oxides are compounds of oxygen and a metal. Hematite (Fe2O3 ) and magnetite
(Fe3O4). The mineral uraninite (UO2) is valuable because it is the major source of
uranium, which is used to generate nuclear power.

Other groups

Other major mineral groups are sulfides, sulfates, halides, and native elements. Sulfides,
such as pyrite (FeS2) compounds of sulfur and one or more elements. Sulfates, such as
anhydrite (CaSO4), are composed of elements with the sulfate ion SO4 2– Calcite
Rhodochrosite 4 . Halides, such as halite (NaCl), are made up of chloride or fluoride
along with calcium, sodium, or potassium. A native element such as silver (Ag) or copper
(Cu), is made up of one element only.
Economic Minerals

Minerals are virtually everywhere. They are used to make computers, cars, televisions,
desks, roads, buildings, jewelry, beds, paints, sports equipment, and medicines, in
addition to many other things. You can learn about the uses of minerals throughout
history by examining Figure 4.15.
Ores
Many of the items just mentioned are made from ores. A mineral is an ore if it contains a
useful substance that can be mined at a profit. Hematite, for instance, is an ore that
contains the element iron. Consider your classroom. If any items are made of iron, their
original source might have been the mineral hematite. If there are items in the room made
of aluminum, their original source was the ore bauxite. A common use of the metal
titanium, obtained from the mineral ilmenite, is shown in Figure 4.17. Table 4.4
summarizes the mineral groups and their major uses. The classification of a mineral as an
ore can also change if the supply of or demand for that mineral changes. Consider a
mineral that is used to make computers. Engineers might develop a more efficient design
or a less costly alternative material. In either of these cases, the mineral would no longer
be used in computers. Demand for the mineral would drop substantially, and the mineral
would no longer be considered an ore.
Mines

Ores that are located deep within Earth’s crust are removed by underground mining.
Ores that are near Earth’s surface are obtained from large, open-pit mines. When a mine
is excavated, unwanted rock and dirt, known as gangue, are dug up along with the
valuable ore. The overburden must be separated from the ore before the ore can be used.
Removing the overburden can be expensive and, in some cases, harmful to the
environment.. If the cost of removing the overburden becomes higher than the value of
the ore itself, the mineral will no longer be classified as an ore. It would no longer be
economical to mine.
Gems
What makes a ruby more valuable than mica? Rubies are rarer and more visually pleasing
than mica. Rubies are thus considered gems. Gems are valuable minerals that are prized
for their rarity and beauty. They are very hard and scratch resistant. Gems such as rubies,
emeralds, and diamonds are cut, polished, and used for jewelry. Because of their rareness,
rubies and emeralds are more valuable than diamonds. Figure 4.18 shows a rough
diamond and a polished diamond.

In some cases, the presence of trace elements can make one variety of a mineral more
colorful and more prized than other varieties of the same mineral. Amethyst, for instance,
is the gem form of quartz. Amethyst contains traces of iron, which gives the gem a purple
color. The mineral corundum, which is often used as an abrasive, also occurs as rubies
and sapphires. Rubies contain trace amounts of chromium, while sapphires contain trace
amounts of cobalt or titanium.
 Rocks are classified according to how they are formed. From the diagram above, we can
see that:

1. Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling or solidification of magma or lava.

2. Metamorphic rocks are formed by preexisting rocks that are exposed to extreme heat and
pressure in the Earth’s interior, a process called metamorphism.

3. Sedimentary rocks are formed by the compaction and cementation of sediments, a

process called lithification.

Also, we can see that one type of rock can be transformed into another type depending on
the process that it goes through.

Igneous Rocks

What are igneous rocks?

MAIN Idea >>>

Igneous rocks are the rocks that form when molten material cools and crystallizes. At
any given point in time, igneous rocks are forming somewhere on Earth. The location and
the conditions that are present determine the types of igneous rocks that form.

Igneous Rock Formation

If you live near an active volcano, you can literally watch igneous rocks form. A hot,
molten mass of rock can solidify into solid rock overnight. Magma is molten rock below
Earth’s surface. Lava is magma that flows out onto Earth’s surface. Igneous rocks form
when lava or magma cools and minerals crystallize. In the laboratory, most rocks must be
heated to temperatures of 800°C to 1200°C before they melt.
In nature, these temperatures are present in the upper mantle and lower crust. Where does
this heat come from? Scientists theorize that the remaining energy from Earth’s molten
formation and the heat generated from the decay of radioactive elements are the sources
of Earth’s thermal energy.

Composition of magma
The type of igneous rock that forms depends on the composition of the magma. Magma is
often a slushy mix of molten rock, dissolved gases, and mineral crystals. The common
elements present in magma are the same major elements that are in Earth’s crust: oxygen
(O), silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), potassium
(K), and sodium (Na). Of all the compounds present in magma, silica is the most
abundant and has the greatest effect on magma characteristics. As summarized in Table
5.1, magma is classified as basaltic, andesitic, or rhyolitic, based on the amount of silica
it contains. Silica content affects melting temperature and impacts how quickly magma
flows.

Once magma is free of the overlying pressure of the rock layers around it, dissolved gases
are able to escape into the atmosphere. Thus, the chemical composition of lava is slightly
different from the chemical composition of the magma from which it developed. Magma
formation Magma can be formed either by melting of Earth’s crust or by melting within
the mantle.
The four main factors involved in the formation of magma are temperature, pressure,
water content, and the mineral content of the crust or mantle. Temperature generally
increases with depth in Earth’s crust. This temperature increase, known as the geothermal
gradient, is plotted in Figure 5.1. Oil-well drillers and miners, such as those shown in
Figure 5.2, have firsthand experience with the geothermal gradient. Temperatures
encountered when drilling deep oil wells can exceed 200°C.

Pressure also increases with depth. This is a result of the weight of overlying rock.
Laboratory experiments show that as pressure on a rock increases, its melting point also
increases. Thus, a rock that melts at 1100°C at Earth’s surface will melt at 1400°C at a
depth of 100 km.

The third factor that affects the formation of magma is water content. Rocks and minerals
often contain small percentages of water, which changes the melting point of the rocks.
As water content increases, the melting point decreases.
Partial melting

Suppose you froze melted candle wax and water in an ice cube tray. If you took the tray
out of the freezer and left it at room temperature, the ice would melt, but the candle wax
would not. This is because the two substances have different melting points. Rocks melt
in a similar way because the minerals they contain have different melting points. Not all
parts of a rock melt at the same temperature. This explains why magma is often a slushy
mix of crystals and molten rock. The process whereby some minerals melt at relatively
low temperatures while other minerals remain solid is called partial melting. Partial
melting is illustrated in Figure 5.3. As each group of minerals melts, different elements
are added to the magma mixture thereby changing its composition. If temperatures are
not high enough to melt the entire rock, the resulting magma will have a different
composition than that of the original rock. This is one way in which different types of
igneous rocks form.

Classification of Igneous Rocks

MAIN Idea >>>

Classification of igneous rocks is based on mineral composition, crystal size, and texture.
Many statues, floors, buildings, and countertops have something in common. Many of
them are made of the popular rock type granite — one of the most abundant rocks in
Earth’s crust.

Mineral Composition of Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are broadly classified as intrusive or extrusive. When magma cools and
crystallizes below Earth’s surface, intrusive rocks form. If the magma is injected into the
surrounding rock, it is called an igneous intrusion. Crystals of intrusive rocks are
generally large enough to see without magnification. Magma that cools and crystallizes
on Earth’s surface forms extrusive rocks. These are sometimes referred to as lava flows
or flood basalts. The crystals that form in these rocks are small and difficult to see
without magnification. Geologists classify these rocks by their mineral compositions. In
addition, physical properties such as grain size and texture serve as clues for the
identification of various igneous rocks.

Igneous rocks are classified according to their mineral compositions. Basaltic rocks,
such as gabbro, are dark-colored, have lower silica contents, and contain mostly
plagioclase and pyroxene. Granitic rocks, such as granite, are light-colored, have high
silica contents, and contain mostly quartz, potassium feldspar, and plagioclase feldspar.
Rocks that have a composition of minerals that is somewhere in between basaltic and
granitic are called intermediate rocks. They consist mostly of plagioclase feldspar and
hornblende. Diorite is a good example of an intermediate rock. Figure 5.8 shows
examples from these three main compositional groups of igneous rocks. A fourth
category, called ultrabasic, contains the rock peridotite. These rocks contain only iron-
rich minerals such as olivine and pyroxene and are always dark. Figure 5.9 summarizes
igneous rock identification.
Texture

In addition to differences in their mineral compositions, igneous rocks differ in the sizes
of their grains or crystals. Texture refers to the size, shape, and distribution of the crystals
or grains that make up a rock. For example, as shown in Figure 5.10, the texture of
rhyolite can be described as fine-grained, while granite can be described as coarse-
grained. The difference in crystal size can be explained by the fact that one rock is
extrusive and the other is intrusive.

Crystal size and cooling rates

When lava flows on Earth’s surface, it cools quickly and there is not enough time for
large crystals to form. The resulting extrusive igneous rocks, such as basalt, which is
shown in Figure 5.10, have crystals so small that they are difficult to see without
magnification. Sometimes, cooling occurs so quickly that crystals do not form at all. The
result is volcanic glass, such as obsidian, also shown in Figure 5.10. In contrast, when
magma cools slowly beneath Earth’s surface, there is sufficient time for large crystals to
form. Thus, intrusive igneous rocks, such as granite, diorite, and gabbro, can have
crystals larger than 1 cm.
Porphyritic rocks

Look at the textures of the rocks shown in Figure 5.11. The top photo shows a rock with
two different crystal sizes. This rock has a porphyritic (por fuh RIH tihk) texture, which
is characterized by large, well-formed crystals sur- rounded by finer-grained crystals of
the same mineral or different minerals.

What causes minerals to form both large and small crystals in the same rock? Porphyritic
textures indicate a complex cooling history during which a slowly cooling magma
suddenly began cooling rapidly. Imagine a magma body cooling slowly, deep in Earth’s
crust. As it cools, the first crystals to form grow large. If this magma were to be suddenly
moved higher in the crust, or if it erupted onto Earth’s surface, the remaining magma
would cool quickly and form smaller crystals.
 Vesicular rocks

Magma contains dissolved gases that escape when the pressure on the magma lessens. If
the lava is thick enough to prevent the gas bubbles from escaping, holes called vesicles
are left behind. The rock that forms looks spongy. This spongy appearance is called
vesicular texture. Pumice and vesicular basalt are examples shown in Figure 5.11.

(Old Notes)

Igneous rocks are further classified as intrusive or extrusive igneous based on grain size.

 Intrusive rocks, or plutonic rocks, are igneous rocks formed underneath the earth. They
are coarse-grained due to the slow cooling of magma allowing crystal growth.

 Extrusive rocks, or volcanic rocks, are igneous rocks formed on the surface of the earth.
They are cooled lava, which are molten rocks ejected on the surface through volcanic
eruptions. They are fine-grained due to abrupt cooling on the surface.

Igneous rocks can also be classified based on grain size, general composition, and
percentage mineral composition. The diagram below shows the four general
compositions of igneous rocks–light-colored or felsic, intermediate, dark-colored mafic,
and ultramafic.

Learn about it!

Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are classified into clastic or non-clastic.

Clastic sedimentary rocks are made up of sediments from preexisting rocks. When
preexisting rocks are physically weathered and eroded, they form sediments. When these
sediments are transported, deposited, and lithified, they form the clastic sedimentary
rocks. These rocks can be identified based on their grain sizes that can range from 0.002
mm (e.g. clay size) to > 2 mm (coarse gravel).

Non-clastic sedimentary rocks can be biological, chemical, or a combination of both.

Biological sedimentary rocks are lithified accumulation of dead organisms. Examples
include coal (formed from carbon-rich plants) and limestone (formed from the remains of
calcareous organisms). On the other hand, chemical sedimentary rocks are from
chemical precipitation. An example is rock salt formed when dissolved salts precipitate
from a solution. (End of old Notes)

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

MAIN Idea >>>

Sediments produced by weathering and erosion form sedimentary rocks through the
process of lithification. Whenever you are outside, you might see pieces of broken rock,
sand, and soil on the ground. What happens to this material? With one heavy rain, these
pieces of broken rock, sand, and soil could be on their way to becoming part of a
sedimentary rock.

Weathering and Erosion

Wherever rock is exposed at Earth’s surface, it is continuously being broken down by

weathering — a set of physical and chemical processes that breaks rock into smaller
pieces. Sediments are small pieces of rock that are moved and deposited by water, wind,
and gravity. When sediments become glued together, they form sedimentary rocks. The
formation of sedimentary rocks begins when weathering and erosion produce sediments.
Weathering Weathering produces rock and mineral fragments known as sediments.
These sediments range in size from huge boulders to microscopic particles. Chemical
weathering occurs when the minerals in a rock are dissolved or otherwise chemically
changed. What happens to more-resistant minerals during weathering? While the less-
stable minerals are chemically broken down, the more resistant grains are broken off of
the rock as smaller grains. During physical weathering, however, minerals remain
chemically unchanged. Rock fragments break off of the solid rock along fractures or
grain boundaries. The rock in Figure 6.1 has been chemically and physically weathered.

Erosion

The removal and transport of sediment is called erosion. Figure 6.2 shows the four main
agents of erosion: wind, moving water, gravity, and glaciers. Glaciers are large masses of
ice that move across land. Visible signs of erosion are all around you. For example, water
in streams becomes muddy after a storm because eroded silt and clay-sized particles have
been mixed in it. You can observe erosion in action when a gust of wind blows soil
across the infield at a baseball park. The force of the wind removes the soil and carries it
away. After rock fragments and sediments have been weathered out of the rock, they
often are transported to new locations through the process of erosion. Eroded material is
almost always carried downhill. Although wind can sometimes carry fine sand and dust
to higher elevations, particles transported by water are almost always moved downhill.
Eventually, even windblown dust and fine sand are pulled downhill by gravity.
Deposition

When transported sediments are deposited on the ground or sink to the bottom of a body
of water, deposition occurs. The sediment sank to the bottom and was deposited in layers
with the largest grains at the bottom and the smallest grains at the top. Similarly,
sediments in nature are deposited when transport stops. Perhaps the wind stops blowing
or a river enters a quiet lake or an ocean. In each case, the particles being carried will
settle out, forming layers of sediment with the largest grains at the bottom.
Energy of transporting agents

Fast-moving water can transport larger particles better than slowmoving water. As water
slows down, the largest particles settle out first, then the next largest, and so on, so that
different-sized particles are sorted into layers. Such deposits are characteristic of
sediment transported by water and wind. Wind, however, can move only small grains.
For this reason, sand dunes are commonly made of fine, well-sorted sand, as shown in
Figure 6.3. Not all sediment deposits are sorted. Glaciers, for example, move all materials
with equal ease. Large boulders, sand, and mud are all carried along by the ice and
dumped in an unsorted pile as the glacier melts. Landslides create similar deposits when
sediment moves downhill in a jumbled mass.

Lithification

Most sediments are ultimately deposited on Earth in low areas such as valleys and ocean
basins. As more sediment is deposited in an area, the bottom layers are subjected to
increasing pressure and temperature. These conditions cause lithification, the physical
and chemical processes that transform sediments into sedimentary rocks. Lithify comes
from the Greek word lithos, which means stone.

Compaction

Lithification begins with compaction. The weight of overlying sediments forces the
sediment grains closer together, causing the physical changes shown in Figure 6.4.
Layers of mud can contain up to 60 percent water, and these shrink as excess water is
squeezed out. Sand does not compact as much as mud during burial. One reason is that
individual sand grains, usually composed of quartz, do not deform under normal burial
conditions. Grain-to-grain contacts in sand form a supporting framework that helps
maintain open spaces between the grains. Groundwater, oil, and natural gas are
commonly found in these spaces in sedimentary rocks.

Cementation
Compaction is not the only force that binds the grains together. Cementation occurs
when mineral growth glues sediment grains together into solid rock. This occurs when a
new mineral, such as calcite (CaCO3) or iron oxide (Fe2O ), grows between sediment
grains as dissolved minerals precipitate out of groundwater. This process is illustrated in
Figure 6.5.

Sedimentary Features
Just as igneous rocks contain information about the history of their formation,
sedimentary rocks also have features and characteristics that help geologists interpret
how they formed and the history of the area in which they formed.

Bedding

The primary feature of sedimentary rocks is horizontal layering called bedding. This
feature results from the way sediment settles out of water or wind. Individual beds can
range in thickness from a few millimeters to several meters. There are two different types
of bedding, each dependent upon the method of transport. However, the size of the grains
and the material within the bedding depend upon many other factors.

Graded bedding

Bedding in which the particle sizes become progressively heavier and coarser toward the
bottom layers is called graded bedding. Graded bedding is often observed in marine
sedimentary rocks that were deposited by underwater landslides. As the sliding material
slowly came to rest underwater, the largest and heaviest material settled out first and was
followed by progressively finer material. An example of graded bedding is shown in
Figure 6.6.
Cross-bedding

Another characteristic feature of sedimentary rocks is cross-bedding. Cross-bedding,

such as that shown in Figure 6.7, is formed as inclined layers of sediment are deposited
across a horizontal surface. When these deposits become lithified, the cross-beds are
preserved in the rock. This process is illustrated in Figure 6.8. Small-scale cross-bedding
forms on sandy beaches and along sandbars in streams and rivers. Most large-scale
crossbedding is formed by migrating sand dunes.

Ripple marks

When sediment is moved into small ridges by wind or wave action or by a river current,
ripple marks form. The back-and-forth movement of waves forms ripples that are
symmetrical, while a current flowing in one direction, such as in a river or stream,
produces asymmetrical ripples. If a rippled surface is buried gently by more sediment
without being disturbed, it might later be preserved in solid rock. The formation of ripple
marks is illustrated in Figure 6.8.
 Sorting and rounding

Close examination of individual sediment grains reveals that some have jagged edges and
some are rounded. When a rock breaks apart, the pieces are angular in shape. As the
sediment is transported, individual pieces knock into each other. The edges are broken off
and, over time, the pieces become rounded. The amount of rounding is influenced by
how far the sediment has traveled. Additionally, the harder the mineral, the better chance
it has of becoming rounded before it breaks apart and becomes microscopic in size. For
example, the quartz sand on beaches is nearly round while carbonate sand, which is made
up of seashells and calcite, is usually angular. Figure 6.9 shows the comparison between
these types of sand. Evidence of past life Probably the best-known features of
sedimentary rocks are fossils. Fossils are the preserved remains, impressions, or any other
evidence of once-living organisms. When an organism dies, it sometimes is buried before
it decomposes. If its remains are buried without being disturbed, it might be preserved as
a fossil. During lithification, parts of the organism can be replaced by minerals and turned
into rock, such as shells that have been turned into stone. Fossils are of great interest to
Earth scientists because fossils provide evidence of the types of organisms that lived in
the distant past, the environments that existed in the past, and how organisms have
changed over time.

Learn about it!

Metamorphic Rocks (Old Notes)

Metamorphic rocks can be classified as foliated or non-foliated based on texture.

 Foliated metamorphic rocks have layered or banded appearance produced by exposure

to high temperatures and pressures.

o Examples include slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss.

 In contrast, non-foliated metamorphic rocks do not have layered appearance.

o Examples include marble, quartzite, and anthracite.

Foliated and non-foliated metamorphic rocks can be further classified based on their
parent rocks. However, such classification can be difficult because of the rock alteration
during metamorphism.

Types of Sedimentary Rocks

MAIN Idea >>>

Sedimentary rocks are classified by their mode of formation.

If you have ever walked along the beach or along a riverbank, you might have noticed
different sizes of sediments. The grain size of the sediment determines what type of
sedimentary rock it can become.

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

The most common sedimentary rocks, clastic sedimentary rocks, are formed from the
abundant deposits of loose sediments that accumulate on Earth’s surface. The word
clastic comes from the Greek word klastos, meaning broken. These rocks are further
classified according to the sizes of their particles. As you read about each rock type, refer
to Table 6.1 on the next page, which summarizes the classification of sedimentary rocks
based on grain size, mode of formation, and mineral content.

Coarse-grained rocks
Sedimentary rocks consisting of gravelsized rock and mineral fragments are classified as
coarse-grained rocks, samples of which are shown in Figure 6.10. Conglomerates have
rounded, gravel-sized particles. Because of its relatively large mass, gravel is transported
by high-energy flows of water, such as those generated by mountain streams, flooding
rivers, some ocean waves, and glacial meltwater. During transport, gravel becomes
abraded and rounded as the particles scrape against one another. This is why beach and
river gravels are often well rounded. Lithification turns these sediments into
conglomerates. In contrast, breccias are composed of angular, gravel-sized particles. The
angularity indicates that the sediments from which they formed did not have time to
become rounded. This suggests that the particles were transported only a short distance
and deposited close to their source. Refer to Table 6.1 to see how these rocks are named.
Medium-grained rocks

Stream and river channels, beaches, and deserts often contain abundant sand-sized
sediments. Sedimentary rocks that contain sand-sized rock and mineral fragments are
classified as medium-grained clastic rocks. Refer to Table 6.1 for a listing of rocks with
sand-sized particles. Sandstone usually contains several features of interest to scientists.
For example, because ripple marks and cross-bedding indicate the direction of current
flow, geologists use sandstone layers to map ancient stream and river channels. Another
important feature of sandstone is its relatively high porosity. Porosity is the percentage of
open spaces between grains in a rock. Loose sand can have a porosity of up to 40 percent.
Some of these open spaces are maintained during the formation of sand- stone, often
resulting in porosities as high as 30 percent. When pore spaces are connected to one
another, f luids can move through sandstone. This feature makes sandstone layers
valuable as underground reservoirs of oil, natural gas, and groundwater.
Fine-grained rocks

Sedimentary rocks consisting of silt- and clay-sized particles are called fine-grained
rocks. Siltstone and shale are fine-grained clastic rocks. These rocks represent
environments such as swamps and ponds which have still or slow-moving waters. In the
absence of strong currents and wave action, these sediments settle to the bottom where
they accumulate in thin horizontal layers. Shale often breaks along thin layers, as shown
in Figure 6.11. Unlike sandstone, fine-grained sedimentary rock has low porosity and
often forms barriers that hinder the movement of groundwater and oil. Table 6.1 shows
how these rocks are named.

Chemical and Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks

The formation of chemical and biochemical rocks involves the processes of evaporation
and precipitation of minerals. During weathering, minerals can be dissolved and carried
into lakes and oceans. As water evaporates from the lakes and oceans, the dissolved
minerals are left behind. In arid regions, high evaporation rates can increase the
concentration of dissolved minerals in bodies of water. The Great Salt Lake, shown in
Figure 6.12, is an example of a lake that has high concentrations of dissolved minerals.

Chemical sedimentary rocks

When the concentration of dissolved minerals in a body of water reaches saturation,
crystal grains precipitate out of solution and settle to the bottom. As a result, layers of
chemical sedimentary rocks form, which are called evaporites. Evaporites most
commonly form in arid regions and in drainage basins on continents that have low water
flow. Because little freshwater flows into these areas, the concentration of dissolved
minerals remains high. Even as more dissolved minerals are carried into the basins,
evaporation continues to remove freshwater and maintain high mineral concentrations.
Over time, thick layers of evaporite minerals can accumulate on the basin floor, as
illustrated in Figure 6.12.

Biochemical sedimentary rocks

Biochemical sedimentary rocks are formed from the remains of once-living things. The
most abundant of these rocks is limestone, which is composed primarily of calcite. Some
organisms that live in the ocean use the calcium carbonate that is dissolved in seawater to
make their shells. When these organisms die, their shells settle to the bottom of the ocean
and can form thick layers of carbonate sediment. During burial and lithification, calcium
carbonate precipitates out of the water, crystallizes between the grains of carbonate
sediment, and forms limestone. Limestone is common in shallow water environments,
such as those in the Bahamas, where coral reefs thrive in 15 to 20 m of water just
offshore. The skeletal and shell materials that are currently accumulating there will
someday become limestone as well. Many types of limestone contain evidence of their
biological origin in the form of abundant fossils. As shown in Figure 6.13, these fossils
can range from large-shelled organisms to microscopic, unicellular organisms. Not all
limestone contains fossils. Some limestone has a crystalline texture, some consists of tiny
spheres of carbonate sand, and some is composed of fine-grained carbonate mud. These
are listed in Table 6.1. Other organisms use silica to make their shells. These shells form
sediment that is often referred to as siliceous ooze because it is rich in silica. Siliceous
ooze becomes lithified into the sedimentary rock chert, which is also listed in Table 6.1.

Try it!

Collect some rock samples from random places in your area and classify each rock
whether it is igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rock. Further classify them into the
specific type of each classification of rock.

What do you think?

How do rocks undergo weathering?

Key Points
 Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling or solidification of magma or lava.

 Metamorphic rocks are formed by preexisting rocks that are exposed to extreme heat
and pressure in the Earth’s interior, a process called metamorphism.

 Sedimentary rocks are formed by the compaction and cementation of sediments, a

process called lithification.

Test Question

1. Which of the following rocks are formed from preexisting rocks exposed to extreme
heat and pressure in the Earth’s interior?

 A. metamorphic

 B. igneous

 C. sedimentary

 D. plutonic

2. Which of the following rocks are formed by the solidification of lava?

 A. intrusive igneous rock

 B. extrusive metamorphic rock

 C. extrusive igneous rock

 D. intrusive metamorphic rock

3. Which of the following rocks are formed by the lithification of sediments?

 A. metamorphic rocks

 B. extrusive igneous rocks

 C. sedimentary rocks
 D. intrusive igneous rocks

4. Which of the following describes the texture of a volcanic rock?

 A. fine-grained

 B. coarse-grained

 C. medium-grained

 D. foliated

5. What is the dominant mineral in limestone?

 A. calcite

 B. quartz

 C. gypsum

 D. halite

6. Which of the following rocks is a mafic extrusive igneous rock?

 A. basalt

 B. granite

 C. syenite

 D. peridotite

7. Which of the following metamorphic rocks are non-foliated?

 A. slate

 B. gneiss

 C. schist

 D. marble

8. Arrange the following processes that form a sedimentary rock:

 I. a preexisting rock becomes sediments

 II. sediments are compacted

 III. a preexisting rock undergoes weathering and erosion

 IV. sediments are cemented

 A. I, II, IV, III

 B. II, I, III, IV

 C. III, I, II, IV

 D. I, II, III, IV

9. How can an igneous rock become a metamorphic rock?

 A. when it is subjected to high temperature and pressure

 B. when it undergoes weathering and erosion

 C. when it disintegrates into smaller pieces

 D. when it melts and forms magma

10. How can a metamorphic rock transform into an extrusive igneous rock?

 A. when it melts and then cools on the Earth's surface

 B. when it undergoes weathering and erosion

 C. when it melts and then cools inside the Earth's interior

 D. when it disintegrates into smaller pieces

Lesson 2.3 Geologic Processes on

Earth’s Surface
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·TUESDAY, AUGUST 16, 2016
 Earth Materials and Processes

Objectives

At the end of the class discussion, you will be able to:

 describe how rocks undergo different processes of weathering and explain how
the products of weathering are carried away by erosion and deposition.
 The Earth is constantly changing through the years. According to the Continental Drift
Theory proposed by Alfred Wegener, the Earth was once a giant landmass called
Pangaea.

This giant landmass was broken down into several continents because of the movement
beneath the Earth’s surface.

 If continents came from a giant landmass, can you imagine how the mountains,
volcanoes, and soil are formed?

Learn about it!

 Shaping the Earth’s surface involves a geological process called weathering.

 Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks into smaller pieces called
sediments. or,

 Weathering is the process in which materials on or near Earth’s surface break

down and change.
 Different Types of Weathering
 All rocks undergo weathering, and it takes a long period. There are three different
types of rock weathering: mechanical weathering, chemical weathering, and
biological weathering.

 Mechanical weathering is a process wherein rocks are broken down into smaller
pieces without changing its chemical composition due to different temperatures
and water. Rocks in the highway develop cracks and small fractures because of
too much exposure to heat. This activity is an example of mechanical weathering.

 Chemical weathering is a process wherein rock materials are changed into other
substances that have different physical and chemical compositions. Some agents
of chemical weathering include water, strong acids, and oxygen. Water hydrates
and breaks the minerals in the rocks through the process of hydrolysis. Oxygen
combines with metals to produce oxides while acids from vents and volcanoes
increase the speed of weathering process. One example of chemical weathering in
rocks is when rainwater hydrolyzed the feldspar minerals to form clay minerals.

 Biological weathering is a process when living things, such as insects and roots of
the trees, contribute to the disintegration of rock materials. For example, mosses
and fungi that grow on rocks produce weak acids that can destroy or dissolve the
rocks.

 Effect of temperature Temperature plays a role in mechanical weathering. When water

freezes, it expands and increases in volume by 9 percent. You have observed this increase
in volume if you have ever frozen water in an ice cube tray. In many places on Earth’s
surface, water collects in the cracks of rocks and rock layers. If the temperature drops to
the freezing point, water freezes, expands, exerts pressure on the rocks, and can cause the
cracks to widen slightly, as shown in Figure 7.1. When the temperature increases, the ice
melts in the cracks of rocks and rock layers. The freeze-thaw cycles of water in the cracks
of rocks is called frost wedging. Frost wedging is responsible for the formation of
potholes in many roads in the northern United States where winter temperatures vary
frequently between freezing and thawing.

Effect of pressure Another factor involved in mechanical weathering is pressure. Roots

of trees and other plants can exert pressure on rocks when they wedge themselves into the
cracks in rocks. As the roots grow and expand, they exert increasing amounts of pressure
which often causes the rocks to split, as shown in Figure 7.2. On a much larger scale,
pressure also functions within Earth. Bedrock at great depths is under tremendous
pressure from the overlying rock layers. A large mass of rock, such as a batholith, may
originally form under great pressure from the weight of several kilometers of rock above
it. When the overlying rock layers are removed by processes such as erosion or even
mining, the pressure on the bedrock is reduced. The bedrock surface that was buried
expands, and long, curved cracks can form. These cracks, also known as joints, occur
parallel to the surface of the rocks. Reduction of pressure also allows existing cracks in
the bedrock to widen. For example, when several layers of overlying rocks are removed
from a deep mine, the sudden decrease of pressure can cause large pieces of rocks to
explode off the walls of the mine tunnels. Over time, the outer layers of rock can be
stripped away in succession, similar to the way an onion’s layers can be peeled. The
process by which outer rock layers are stripped away is called exfoliation. Exfoliation
often results in dome-shaped formations, such as Moxham Mountain in New York and
Half Dome in Yosemite National Park in California, shown in Figure 7.3.
The composition of a rock determines the effects that chemical weathering will have on
it. Some minerals, such as calcite, which is composed of calcium carbonate, can
decompose completely in acidic water. Limestone and marble are made almost entirely
from calcite, and are therefore greatly affected by chemical weathering. Buildings and
monuments made of these rocks usually show signs of wear as a result of chemical
weathering. The statue in Figure 7.4 is made of sandstone, which also weathers relatively
easily.

Temperature is another significant factor in chemical weathering because it influences

the rate at which chemical interactions occur. Chemical reaction rates increase as
temperature increases. With all other factors being equal, the rate of chemical weathering
reactions doubles with each 10°C increase in temperature.

Effect of water Water is an important agent in chemical weathering because it can

dissolve many kinds of minerals and rocks. Water also plays an active role in many
reactions by serving as a medium in which the reactions can occur. Water can also react
directly with minerals in a chemical reaction. In one common reaction with water, large
molecules of the mineral break down into smaller molecules. This reaction decomposes
and transforms many silicate minerals. For example, potassium feldspar decomposes into
kaolinite, a fine-grained clay mineral common in soils.

Effect of oxygen An important element in chemical weathering is oxygen. The chemical

reaction of oxygen with other substances is called oxidation. Approximately 21 percent
of Earth’s atmosphere is oxygen gas. Iron in rocks and minerals combines with this
atmospheric oxygen to form minerals with the oxidized form of iron. A common mineral
that contains the oxidized form of iron is hematite.

Effect of carbon dioxide Another atmospheric gas that contributes to the chemical
weathering process is carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is a gas that occurs naturally in
the atmosphere as a product of living organisms. When carbon dioxide combines with
water in the atmosphere, it forms a very weak acid called carbonic acid that falls to
Earth’s surface as precipitation. Precipitation includes rain, snow, sleet, and fog. Natural
precipitation has a pH of 5.6. The slight acidity of precipitation causes it to dissolve
certain rocks, such as limestone. Decaying organic matter and respiration produce high
levels of carbon dioxide. When slightly acidic water from precipitation seeps into the
ground and combines with carbon dioxide in the soil, carbonic acid becomes an agent in
the chemical weathering process. Carbonic acid slowly reacts with minerals such as
calcite in limestone and marble to dissolve rocks. After many years, limestone caverns
can form where the carbonic acid flowed through cracks in limestone rocks and reacted
with calcite.

Effect of acid precipitation Another agent of chemical weathering is acid precipitation,

which is caused by sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides that are released into the
atmosphere, in large part by human activities. Sulfur dioxide is primarily the product of
industrial burning of fossil fuels. Motor-vehicle exhausts also contribute to the emissions
of nitrogen oxides. These two gases combine with oxygen and water in the atmosphere,
forming sulfuric and nitric acids, which are strong acids. The acidity of a solution is
described using the pH scale. Acid precipitation is precipitation that has a pH value
below 5.6—the pH of normal rainfall. Because strong acids can be harmful to many
organisms and destructive to humanmade structures, acid precipitation often creates
problems. Many plant and animal populations cannot survive even slight changes in
acidity. Acid precipitation is a serious issue in New York, as shown in Figure 7.5, and in
West Virginia and much of Pennsylvania.
Rate of Weathering

The natural weathering of Earth materials occurs slowly. For example, it can take 2000
years to weather 1 cm of limestone, and most rocks weather at even slower rates. Certain
conditions and interactions can accelerate or slow the weathering process, as
demonstrated in the GeoLab at the end of this chapter.

Effects of climate on weathering Climate is the major influence on the rate of

weathering of Earth materials. Precipitation, temperature, and evaporation are factors that
determine climate. The interaction between temperature and precipitation in a given
climate determines the rate of weathering in a region.

Rates of chemical weathering Chemical weathering is rapid in climates with warm

temperatures, abundant rainfall, and lush vegetation. These climatic conditions produce
soils that are rich in organic matter. Water from heavy rainfalls combines with the carbon
dioxide in soil organic matter and produces high levels of carbonic acid. The resulting
carbonic acid accelerates the weathering process. Chemical weathering has the greatest
effects along the equator, where rainfall is plentiful and the temperature tends to be high,
as shown in Figure 7.6.

Rates of physical weathering Conversely, physical weathering can break down rocks
more rapidly in cool climates. Physical weathering rates are highest in areas where water
in cracks within the rocks undergoes repeated freezing and thawing. Conditions in such
climates do not favor chemical weathering because cool temperatures slow or inhibit
chemical reactions. Little or no chemical weathering occurs in areas that are frigid year-
round.

The different rates of weathering caused by different climatic conditions can be

emphasized by a comparison of Asheville, North Carolina, and Phoenix, Arizona.
Phoenix has dry, warm, conditions; temperatures do not drop below the freezing point of
water, and humidity is low. In Asheville, temperatures frequently drop below freezing
during the winter months, and Asheville has more monthly rainfall and higher levels of
humidity than Phoenix. Because of these differences in their climates, rocks and man-
made structures in Asheville experience higher rates of mechanical and chemical
weathering than those in Phoenix.

Figure 7.7 shows how rates of weathering are dependent on climate. Both Egyptian
obelisks were carved from granite more than one thousand years ago. For more than a
thousand years, they stood in Egypt’s dry climate, showing few effects of weathering. In
1881, Cleopatra’s Needle was transported from Egypt to New York City. In the time that
has passed since then, the acid precipitation and the repeated cycles of freezing and
thawing in New York City accelerated the processes of chemical and physical
weathering. In comparison, the obelisk that remains in Egypt appears unchanged.

Rock type and composition. Not all the rocks in the same climate weather at the same
rate. The effects of climate on the weathering of rock also depends on the rock type and
composition. For example, rocks containing mostly calcite, such as limestone and marble,
are more easily weathered than rocks containing mostly quartz, such as granite and
quartzite.

Surface area The rate of weathering also depends on the surface area that is exposed.
Mechanical weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces. As the pieces get smaller, their
surface area increases, as illustrated in Figure 7.8. When this happens, there is more total
surface area available for chemical weathering. The result is that weathering has more of
an effect on smaller particles, as you learned in the Launch Lab.
Topography The slope of a landscape also determines the rate of weathering. Rocks on
level areas are likely to remain in place over time, whereas the same rocks on slopes tend
to move as a result of gravity. Steep slopes therefore promote erosion and continually
expose less-weathered material.

Learn about it!

Erosion
 Erosion is the transportation of weathered rocks. Agents like running water or
rivers, wind, gravity, groundwater, wave currents, and glaciers contribute to
erosion.

Gravity’s Role Recall that the process of weathering breaks rock and soil into smaller
pieces, but never moves it. The removal of weathered rock and soil from its original
location is a process called erosion. Erosion can remove material through a number of
different agents, including running water, glaciers, wind, ocean currents, and waves.
These agents of erosion can carry rock and soil thousands of kilometers away from their
source. After the materials are transported, they are dropped in another location in a
process known as deposition.

Gravity is associated with many erosional agents because the force of gravity tends to
pull all materials down slope. Without gravity, neither streams nor glaciers would flow.
In the process of erosion, gravity pulls loose rock downslope. Figure 7.9 shows the
effects of gravity on the landscape of Watkins Glen State Park in New York. The effects
of gravity on erosion by running water can often produce dramatic landscapes with steep
valleys.
 Types of Erosion

 Water erosion is a type of erosion where the water carries the sediments to
different parts of the bodies of water such as rivers.

Erosion by Water

Moving water is perhaps the most powerful agent of erosion. Stream erosion can reshape
entire landscapes. Stream erosion is greatest when a large volume of water is moving
rapidly, such as during spring thaws and torrential downpours. Water flowing down steep
slopes has additional erosive potential resulting from gravity, causing it to cut downward
into the slopes, carving steep valleys and carrying away rock and soil. Swiftly flowing
water can also carry more material over long distances. The Mississippi River, for
example, carries an average of 400,000 metric tons of sediment each day from thousands
of kilometers away.
Erosion by water can have destructive results. For example, water flowing downslope can
carry away fertile agricultural soil. Rill erosion develops when running water cuts small
channels into the side of a slope, as shown in Figure 7.10. When a channel becomes deep
and wide, rill erosion evolves into gully erosion, also shown in Figure 7.10. The channels
formed in gully erosion can transport much more water, and consequently more soil, than
rills. Gullies can be more than 3 m deep and can cause major problems in farming and
grazing areas.

Rivers and streams Each year, streams carry billions of metric tons of sediments and
weathered material to coastal areas. Once a river enters the ocean, the current slows
down, which reduces the potential of the stream to carry sediment. As a result, streams
deposit large amounts of sediments in the region where they enter the ocean. The buildup
of sediments over time forms deltas, such as the Colorado River Delta, shown in Figure
7.11. The volume of river flow and the action of tides determines the shapes of deltas,
most of which contain fertile soil. The Colorado River Delta shows the classic fan shape
associated with many deltas.

Wave action Erosion of materials also occurs along the ocean floor and at continental
and island shorelines. The work of ocean currents, waves, and tides carves out cliffs,
arches, and other features along the continents’ edges. In addition, sand particles
accumulate on shorelines and form dunes and beaches. The constant movement of water
and the availability of accumulated weathered material result in a continuous erosional
process, especially along ocean shorelines. Sand along a shoreline is repeatedly picked
up, moved, and deposited by ocean currents. As a result, sandbars form from offshore
sand deposits. If the sandbars continue to be built up with sediments, they can develop
into barrier islands. Many barrier islands, such as the Outer Banks of North Carolina
shown in Figure 7.12, have formed along both the Gulf and Atlantic Coasts of the United
States.

Just as shorelines are built by the process of deposition in some areas, they are reduced
by the process of coastal erosion in other areas. Changing tides and conditions associated
with coastal storms can also have a great impact on coastal erosion. Human development
and population growth along shorelines have led to attempts to control the erosion of
sand. However, efforts to keep the sand on one beachfront disrupt the natural migration
of sand along the shore, depleting sand from another area. You will learn more about
ocean and shoreline features in Chapters 15 and 16.
 Glacial Erosion Although glaciers currently cover less than 10 percent of Earth’s
surface, they have covered over 30 percent of Earth’s surface in the past. Glaciers left
their mark on much of the landscape, and their erosional effects are large-scale and
dramatic. Glaciers scrape and gouge out large sections of Earth’s landscape. Because they
can move as dense, enormous rivers of slowly flowing ice, glaciers have the capacity to
carry huge rocks and piles of debris over great distances and grind the rocks beneath
them into flour-sized particles. Glacial movements scratch and grind surfaces. The
features left in the wake of glacial movements include steep U-shaped valleys and lakes,
such as the one shown in Figure 7.13. The effects of glaciers on the landscape also
include deposition. For example, soils in the northern parts of the United States are
formed from material that was transported and deposited by glaciers. Although the most
recent ice age ended 15,000 years ago, glaciers continue to affect erosional processes on
Earth.

 Wind erosion happens when light materials, such as small rocks and pebbles, are
carried by wind to different places.

 Glacial erosion happens when the ice moves downhill and plucks out chunks of
rocks and causes scraping between the ice and the rock. Plucking and scraping
can lead to the development of other landforms if, for example, the glaciers hit a
mountain and erode it.
 Soil erosion happens when the top soil is removed and leaves the soil infertile.
This is caused by wind or flood in an area.

Deposition
 Deposition is the laying down of sediments to its depositional environment or
final destination. The depositional environment can be continental, coastal, or
marine.

 Continental includes streams, swamps, caves, and deserts.

 Coastal includes lagoons, estuaries, and deltas.

 Marine includes slopes and bottom of the ocean or abyssal zone.

Explore!
Our country is a pathway of typhoons because of our location in the globe. The
government always warns us, especially those who reside near the slopes or low-lying
areas, to evacuate immediately when this happens. Given the different types of erosion
you have learned, particularly soil erosion, what would you suggest that the government
should do to minimize the devastating effects of this erosion?

Try it!
 Take a tour in a nearby river. Observe the different types of rocks that you will see
and take note of their physical characteristics.

 What can you say about those rocks?

 What do you think?
 Why do you think is it necessary for the rocks to undergo the process of
weathering?

Key Points
 Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks into smaller pieces called
sediments.

 Erosion is the removal of weathered rocks downslope from the original place of
weathering.

 Deposition is the laying down of sediments to its depositional environment or

final destination.

Test Questions

1. Which of the following is not a type of weathering?

 A. superficial

 B. biological

 C. chemical

 D. mechanical

2. It is the process of breaking rocks into smaller pieces called sediments.

 A. climate change

 B. crushing
 C. leaching

 D. weathering

3. This type of erosion happens when light materials, such as small rocks and pebbles, are
carried by the wind to different places.

 A. water erosion

 B. wind erosion

 C. glacial erosion

 D. soil erosion

4. Which of the following is NOT the agent of erosion?

 A. wind

 B. water

 C. glaciers

 D. acid

5. What are the disadvantages of soil erosion?

 I. It washes out the topsoil and leaves it infertile.

 II. It cleans the soil.

 III. It carries small rocks to different places.

 IV. It is associated to floods.

 A. I and IV

 B. II and III

 C. II and IV

 D. III and IV
 6. Which of the following is not true about chemical weathering?

 A. Agents of chemical weathering include water, strong acids, and oxygen.

 B. Rock materials are changed into other substances with physical and chemical
compositions.

 C. Agents of chemical weathering include living things such as insects and roots
of the trees.

 D. One example of chemical weathering include feldspar hydrolyzed by

rainwater.

7. Which of the following human activities helps reduce the effect of soil erosion?

 A. crop rotation method

 B. overgrazing of animals

 C. converting forests to farms

 D. kaingin system

8. What is the role of water in chemical weathering of rocks?

 A. It hydrates and breaks the minerals on the rocks.

 B. It washes out the dirt on rocks.

 C. It fertilizes the soil.

 D. It combines with metals in the minerals of rocks to form oxides.

9. Which of the following human activities reduces the quality of the top soil?

 A. kaingin system

 B. crop rotation method

 C. planting more trees

 D. leaving the soil as it is

10. Which of the following is not an example of areas where the sediments are deposited?

 A. abyssal zone

 B. caves

 C. mountains

 D. deltas
 Lesson 2.4 Geologic Processes
Inside the Earth
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·SUNDAY, JULY 16, 2017

Earth Materials and Processes

Objectives: At the end of the discussion, you will be able to:

 describe where the Earth’s internal heat comes from,

 describe how magma is formed (magmatism), and

 describe what happens after the magma is formed (plutonism and volcanism).

The layers of the Earth include the crust, the mantle, and the core. The core is the hottest
layer of the Earth. The heat coming from this layer is responsible for all geological
activities happening on our planet. Volcanoes, mountains, and continents were formed
because of this internal heat.

Why is the core layer hot?

Learn about it!

Internal Heat of the Earth

 The Earth has three main layers: the crust or the outermost layer, the mantle or the middle
layer, and the core or the innermost layer.

 The crust is composed of solid rocks and minerals. It holds all known life forms on
Earth.

 The mantle is made up of mostly solid rocks and minerals but have areas of semi-solid
magma.
 The core is made up of dense metal, specifically, nickel and iron. It is also considered as
the center and the hottest part of the Earth.

Mantle convection is the movement of the mantle as heat is transferred from the core to
the crust. The temperature of the mantle varies depending whether it is near the crust or
near the boundary of the core. The principal contributors to the heat of the core come
from the decay of radioactive elements and from the heat of the molten outer core which
solidifies near the inner core.
Earth’s heat budget drives most of the geological processes on Earth. This measures the
flow of thermal energy coming from the core, passing through the mantle, and up to the
atmosphere, which is mainly due to the mantle convection. This, however, is
counteracted by the solar radiation.
Learn about it!

Magmatism

Magmatism is the activity or the motion of the magma. Rocks that are subjected to high
temperature and pressure melt and become the magma. Magma is a semi-liquid molten
rock mixture that can be found in the lower portion of the crust and the upper part of the
mantle. Depending on the temperature, pressure, and formations in the crust and the
mantle, the magma can be formed in different ways.
Plutonism

On 1788, James Hutton developed the idea about plutonism. He stated that the formation
of intrusive igneous rocks or plutonic rocks came from the solidification of magma
beneath the Earth’s surface. These rocks will reach the Earth’s surface through the
process of uplifting - a force that pulls the crust apart and lets the rocks from the
underground to be brought up.

When the hot molten magma does not solidify, it will be brought up to the Earth’s surface
through uplifting. When the magma reaches the surface, it becomes lava - streams of
molten rocks that cool and solidify to form extrusive igneous rocks.

Volcanism

Magma is being brought up to the surface through a volcano. Volcano is any opening in
the Earth’s crust that allows magma and gases to be released in the upper crust. This
process of bringing up the magma is called volcanism.
 Explore!

Our country, the Philippines, has 37 volcanoes. Among 37 volcanoes, 18 of them are
active and show activity in the past 100 years. Why do you think the Philippines has
plenty of volcanoes?

Try it!

Get an ice cube and put it in a glass. Put a teaspoon of salt to the ice cube and leave for
two hours. What do you notice? What is the connection of this experiment with the
contained heat from the mantle and the core?

What do you think?

If the mantle and the core are extremely hot, why is the heat coming from these layers not
felt on the Earth's surface?

Key Points

 The three layers of the Earth are the crust, the mantle, and the core.

 The principal contributors to the heat of the Earth's core are the decay of radioactive
elements and the heat of the molten outer core near the inner core.

 Mantle convection is the movement of the mantle as heat is transferred from the core to
the crust.

 Earth’s heat budget drives most of the geologic processes on Earth.

 Magma are rocks that melted when subjected to high temperature and pressure.
 Magmatism is the activity or the motion of magma.

 Plutonism is the formation of intrusive igneous rocks through the solidification of

magma beneath the Earth’s surface.

 Volcanism is the phenomenon of an eruption of magma onto the surface of the Earth.

 Volcano is the opening on the Earth’s crust where magma, gases, and hot vapor are being
ejected or released.

 Lava is the cooled and solidified magma upon reaching the Earth’s surface.

Test Question

1. Where does the internal heat of the earth come from?

 A. crust and core

 B. mantle only

 C. crust and mantle

 D. mantle and core

2. It is a semi-liquid mixture of rocks found in the lower portion of the crust and upper
part of the mantle.

 A. lava

 B. magma

 C. minerals

 D. soil

3. Who developed the idea about plutonism?

 A. James Hutton
 B. Alfred Wegener

 C. Charles Darwin

 D. Aristotle

4. It is an opening on the Earth’s crust where magma and gases are being released.

 A. volcano

 B. mountain

 C. continent

 D. lava

5. Which of the following drives most of the geologic processes on Earth?

 A. Earth's heat budget

 B. mantle convection

 C. magmatism

 D. plutonism

6. Which of the following are the primary contributors to the heat of the core?

 I. heat from the decay of radioactive products

 II. heat from the molten inner core

 III. heat from the molten outer core

 IV. heat from the magma in the mantle

 A. I and III

 B. I and II

 C. II and III

 D. I and IV
 7. How does magma reach the Earth’s surface?

 A. uplifting

 B. convection

 C. conduction

 D. earthquake

8. How does volcanic eruption affect the climate?

 I. It heats up the atmosphere.

 II. No effect on the climate.

 III. It will make make the day into night faster.

 IV. Gases and dust absorb radiation from the sun.

 A. I and II

 B. II and III

 C. I and IV

 D. III and IV

9. What is the difference between the magma and the lava?

 A. The magma is found in the crust and the mantle while the lava is found on the Earth's
surface.

 B. The magma and the lava are the same in composition and location.

 C. The magma is brought from the underground to the Earth's surface through uplifting
while lava is already found on the Earth's surface.

 D. The magma has a lower temperature as compared to the lava.

10. What kind of rocks are formed during volcanic eruption?

 A. igneous rocks

 B. metamorphic rocks

 C. sedimentary rocks

 D. volcanic ash
 Lesson 2.5 Metamorphism and Its
Effects in Rock Formation
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·TUESDAY, AUGUST 16, 2016

Earth Materials and Processes

Objectives

At the end of the discussion, you will be able to:

 compare and contrast the formation of the different types of igneous rocks,

 describe the changes in mineral components and texture of rocks due to changes
in pressure and temperature, and

 describe how rocks behave under different types of stress such as compression,
pulling apart, and shearing.

Igneous come from the Latin word ignis which means heat or fire. Igneous rocks are
formed when the magma or lava cools and solidifies. It may happen below (plutonic) or
above (volcanic) the Earth’s surface.

Learn about it!

The types of igneous rocks depend on where they solidified and hardened. Some igneous
rocks solidified before they were ejected and some igneous rocks are formed after they
reach the ground.
 Two Types of Igneous Rocks
 Intrusive igneous rocks are formed when the magma hardens before an eruption
occurs. Different rock materials allow the formation of intrusive igneous rocks.
The most common example is granite.

 Granite is used in floor tiles and monuments.

 Extrusive igneous rocks are formed when the lava cools and solidifies on the
Earth’s surface. The texture of these rocks is finer as compared to the intrusive
igneous rocks. Due to slow cooling of the lava, large crystals are formed on the
rocks. The most common example is basalt.

 Basalt is used for construction purposes such as pavements, railroads, and road
base. ·

Learn about it!

Metamorphism of Rocks
When you expose igneous rocks to intense heat and pressure, they could undergo
metamorphism. Metamorphism is the process of change in the form and structure of
rocks due to intense heat and pressure. It comes from the Greek word metamorphoun
meaning transform or change shape. The rocks that undergo metamorphism are converted
to metamorphic rocks.

Types of Metamorphism
 Contact metamorphism is the process where the country rock adjacent to the
igneous intrusions is altered by the high heat coming from the intrusions.

 Country rocks are rocks surrounding the igneous intrusions.

 Igneous intrusions form when molten magma moves and seeps through fractures
and in between crystals of rocks. The zone of metamorphosis that surrounds the
intrusions is called halo or aureole. Some examples of rocks that undergo contact
metamorphism include marble and emery rock.

 Dynamic metamorphism is the process where rocks along the fault zones are
altered due to high pressure. The rocks that are formed with this type of
metamorphism are called mylonites.

 Mylonites are compact, fine-grained rocks with thin laminations or layers.

 Regional metamorphism is the most common form of metamorphism that occurs

in broad areas. It is caused by high temperature and pressure that resulted from
the thickening of the crust and plate tectonics.

Learn about it!

Types of Stresses in the Earth’s Crust

 Compression causes the rocks to push or to collide with each other. This can make
the rocks come together or make the plates rise. Mountains and hills could be
formed when two plates collide.

 Tension is the opposite of compression. The tension force pulls the rocks away
from each other. This force created continental drifts and mid-ocean ridges. It
 moved the oceanic crust away from each other that resulted in the rising of less
dense rocks coming from the mantle.

 Shear force pushes the crust in different directions. Shearing results in the
breaking of the large parts of the crust into smaller sizes. This force always
happens along the plate boundaries.

 Plate boundaries are the location where the two plates meet. When the two plates
rub each other and move in opposite directions, it creates friction. This friction
leads to the shaking of the Earth’s ground or earthquake.

Explore!
Observe what happens when you ride an airplane. As it takes off and gradually lifts off,
you suddenly feel air-like bubbles are filling your ears. How would you connect this
situation with the different types of stress that the Earth’s crust encounters?

Try it!
Get a polymer modeling clay. Mold the clay into any shape that you want. Put the clay in
a regular oven and bake it for 15 minutes at 275 °F (135 °C). Take it out of the oven and
let it cool for at least an hour. What happened to the clay? Can you mold it again into
other shapes without breaking it?

What do you think?

Can igneous rocks form sedimentary rocks underneath the Earth’s surface?
 Key Points
 Intrusive igneous rocks are formed when the magma hardens before an eruption
occurs.

 Extrusive igneous rocks are formed when lava cools and solidifies on the Earth’s
surface.

 Metamorphism is the process of change in the form and structure of rocks due to
intense heat and pressure.

 Contact metamorphism is the process where the country rock adjacent to the
igneous intrusions is altered by the high heat coming from the intrusions.

 Dynamic metamorphism is the process where rocks along the fault zones are
altered due to high pressure.

 Regional metamorphism is the most common form of metamorphism that occurs

in broad areas.

 Compression is a type of stress that causes the rocks to push or to collide towards
each other.

 Tension is a type of stress that pulls the rocks away from each other.

 Shear force is a type of stress that pushes the crust in different directions.

Test Question
1. What kind of rocks are formed when the lava solidified after reaching the
Earth's surface?
 A. intrusive igneous
 B. extrusive igneous
 C. metamorphic
 D. volcanic
2. _______________ is the process of change in the structure and form of
rocks due to intense heat and pressure.
 A. metamorphism
 B. compression
 C. tension
 D. crystallization
3. _______________ is the most common form of metamorphism that occurs
in broad areas.
 A. regional metamorphism
 B. dynamic metamorphism
 C. contact metamorphism
 D. crystallization
4. Which of the following is not a type of stress in the Earth's crust?
 A. compression
 B. tension
 C. dynamic
 D. shear
5. Which of the following is not true about metamorphism of rocks?
 A. Metamorphism is the process of change in the form and structure of rocks due
to intense heat and pressure.
 B. The rocks that undergo metamorphism are converted to metamorphic rocks.
 C. In contact metamorphism, the country rock adjacent to the igneous intrusions
are altered by the heat coming from the country rock.
 D. Mylonites are compact, fine-grained rocks that undergo dynamic
metamorphism.
6. Which of the following are true about igneous and metamorphic rocks?
 I. Igneous rocks are rocks that formed from magma while metamorphic rocks are
rocks that may come from igneous rocks.
 II. Igneous rocks are either volcanic or plutonic rocks while metamorphic rocks
are rocks that have undergone metamorphism.
 III. Metamorphic rocks may come from igneous rocks and igneous rocks may
come from metamorphic rocks.
 IV. Both rocks may undergo metamorphism on the Earth's surface.
 A. I and II
 B. II and III
 C. III and IV
 D. II and IV
7. Which of the following is not true about contact metamorphism?
 A. In this process, the zone of metamorphism that surrounds the intrusions is
called halo or aureole.
 B. It is the process where the country rock adjacent to the igneous intrusions is
altered by the high heat coming from the intrusions.
 C. Some examples of rocks that undergo contact metamorphism include marble
and emery rock.
 D. Contact metamorphism is the most common form of metamorphism that
occurs in broad areas.
8. When compression occurs in the Earth's crust, what would likely happen?
 A. Mountains and hills could be formed when two plates collide.
 B. Continental drifts and long mountain ranges are formed.
 C. Shaking of the Earth's ground or earthquake would happen.
 D. It would move the oceanic crust away resulting to the rising of less dense rocks
from the mantle.
9. Which of the following are true about the different stresses on the Earth's
crust?
 I. The different types of stresses could create different land forms.
 II. The types of stresses uses force to push and pull the rocks in different
directions.
 III. All types of stress can lead to earthquakes.
 IV. All types of stress happen along the plate boundaries.
 A. I and II
 B. II and IV
 C. II and III
 D. I and IV
10. Which of the following are not true about the different types of
metamorphism?
 I. Contact and dynamic metamorphism involve intense heat to alter rocks.
 II. Regional metamorphism is the process that involves intense heat coming from
country rocks.
 III. Dynamic metamorphism is the process that involves intense heat and
differential pressure to alter rocks along the fault zones.
 IV. Contact metamorphism is the process that involves strong pressure that alters
country rock adjacent to the igneous intrusions.
 A. I and II only
 B. I, II and III
 C. I, III, and IV
 D. II, III and IV
 Lesson 2.6 Plate Tectonics:
Continental Drift Theory and Its
Evidence
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·TUESDAY, AUGUST 16, 2016

Earth Materials and Processes

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 cite evidence that support continent drift and explain how the continents drift.

 The seven major world continents are North America, South America, Europe, Africa,
Asia, Australia, and Antarctica.

Learn about it!

 In 1912 German meteorologist Alfred Wegener proposed that in the beginning, the Earth
has only one giant landmass called Pangaea, which means "all land." He hypothesized
that this giant landmass slowly broke into smaller land pieces that eventually drifted
away from each other which made the seven continents that we now know. This is known
as the Continental drift theory. Alfred Wegener presented the following pieces of
evidence to support his theory:

 The continents fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. This is most evident in the matching
coastlines of South America and Africa.

 Similar animal and plant fossils were found in different continents. The fossils of the
reptile mesosaurus were found along the coastlines of South America and Africa which
 are separated by the Atlantic Ocean. Moreover, the fossil of a fernlike plant glossopteris
was found distributed in all the continents.

Learn about it!

 In the matching coastlines of northwestern Africa and eastern Brazil, South America, the
rocks are of the same type and age.

 Geologic features such as mountain ranges are found along matching coastlines like that
of the Appalachian Mountains and Scandinavia.

 Coal seams are found in Antarctica. Coal is produced from organic matter like dead plants
and animals. In a very cold place like Antarctica, it would be impossible for most
organisms to survive. The presence of coal indicates that the continent was once
inhabited by many organisms. It also gives a clue that Antarctica was once located near
the equator where abundant animal and plant organisms could be found.

 Tillites, which are deposits of rock debris left by glaciers, were found in Africa, South
America, India, and Australia. They were of the same age and type. The presence of
tillites indicates that those places had glaciers in the past, were once located near the
South Pole, and had drifted away from each other.

Learn about it!

 The pieces of evidence supported the continental drift theory; however, the theory was
rejected due to lack of explanation for the force responsible in the continent's movement.

 In 1919, Sir Arthur Holmes, an English geologist, proposed the presence of convection
cells in the Earth’s mantle. When the rocks in the Earth’s interior are heated by
radioactivity, they become less dense, and they rise toward the surface of the Earth.
 When they cool down, they become denser and sink. The continuous process of rising
and sinking of rocks produces convection cells or convection currents. These currents
cause the tectonic plates, which include the crust, to move and drift.

Try it!
Observe how convection current is produced by heating five to ten pieces of monggo
beans in a beaker. How do the beans move?

What do you think?

What do you think happens when plates, which are parts that form the crust, collide,
spread, and slide past each other?

Key Points
 Alfred Wegener’s Continental Drift Theory is supported by the following pieces of
evidence: jigsaw puzzle fitting of the continents, similar fossils and geologic features in
different continents, coal seams in Antarctica, and tillites in the equator.

 According to Sir Arthur Holmes, convection cells in the mantle drive the tectonic plates
to move and the continents to drift away from each other.

Test Question
 1. Who proposed that in the beginning the Earth has only one giant landmass that
slowly broke apart into smaller land pieces?
 A. Sir Arthur Holmes
 B. Harry Hess
 C. Alfred Wegener
 D. Sir Isaac Newton

2. Which of the following is the giant landmass that is present on the Earth in the
beginning?
 A. Gondwanaland
 B. Pangaea
 C. Laurasia
 D. Eurasia

3. Who theorized that the driving force for the continents to move is the
convection cells in the Earth’s interior?
 A. Sir Arthur Holmes
 B. Alfred Wegener
 C. Harry Hess
 D. Sir Isaac Newton
4. In which of the following pairs of continents were the fossils of mesosaurus
found?
 A. South America and Africa
 B. South America and Antarctica
 C. Africa and Australia
 D. Asia and Antarctica

5. Which of the following is a fernlike plant whose fossils were found distributed
in all the continents?
 A. mesosaurus
 B. tillite
 C. coal seam
 D. glossopteris

6. Which of the following best explains why coal seams found in Antarctica
support the Continental drift theory?
 A. Coal seams contain rocks and fossils that provide evidence that Antarctica was
once located near the equator.
 B. Coal seams indicate abundance of animal and plant organisms that are
evidence that Antarctica was once located near the equator.
 C. Coal seams are the remains of a fernlike plant that can only survive in a very
cold place like Antarctica.
 D. Coal seams do not provide support for the Continental drift theory.

7. Which of the following best explains why tillites found in some tropical areas in
the world support the Continental drift theory?
 A. Tillites, which are rock debris left by glaciers, indicate that the continents were
once located in the South Pole.
 B. Tillites, which can be found anywhere in the world, indicate that the continents
were part of one giant landmass.
 C. Tillites, which are rock debris left by a meteorite, indicate the continents
drifted apart when they were hit by a meteorite.
 D. Tillites do not provide support to the Continental drift theory.

8. Which of the following best explains why Alfred Wegener’s Continental drift
theory was rejected despite the pieces of evidence that support it?
 A. It was impossible for the continents to move; they are immovable geologic
features.
 B. There was no way to explain how the continents drifted away from each other.
 C. Other scientists felt that Alfred Wegener’s pieces of evidence were inadequate.
 D. Alfred Wegener was not popular among other scientists.

9. Which of the following best explains how the continents move?

 A. Convection currents in the Earth’s interior move the crust.
 B. The Earth’s crust is attracted by the gravitational force of the Moon.
 C. Convection currents in the Earth’s atmosphere move the crust.
 D. The Earth’s crust is attracted by the gravitation force of the Earth’s interior.

10. Arrange the following processes that produce convection currents.

 a. Rocks on the Earth’s surface cool down.
 b. Heated rocks become less dense and rise to the surface of the Earth.
 c. Cooled rocks become dense and sink back down in the Earth’s interior.
 d. Rocks within the Earth are heated through radioactivity.

 A. a, b, c d
 B. b, d, a, c
 C. d, b, a, c
 D. c, d, b, a
 Lesson 2.7 The Formation of
Faults and Folds
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·TUESDAY, AUGUST 16, 2016

Earth Materials and Processes

Objective

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how the movement of plates leads
to the formation of folds and faults.

 The Earth’s crust is divided into plates, known as tectonic plates, and these plates move
due to the convection currents in the Earth’s interior.

 Below is an illustration that depicts the locations and the movements of the plates. The
arrows indicate the direction of their movements.

Learn about it!

Plate Movements
 The movement of the plates depends on the boundaries between them. These boundaries
can be convergent, divergent, or transform.

 In a convergent boundary, the plates move or collide to each other. When the plates move
away from each other, they are in a divergent boundary. Finally, when plates slide past
each other, they are in a transform boundary.

 Plate movements cause rocks to be deformed due to compressional stress at convergent

boundaries, tensional stress at divergent boundaries, or shear stress at transform
boundaries. Due to these stresses, rocks experience changes in volume and shape. ·
 Learn about it!

 Rock Deformation Compressional stress causes rocks to be squeezed to each other.

 Tensional stress pulls rocks apart and shear stress causes rocks to slide opposite each
other. When subjected to stress, rocks can deform by either breaking (fracture) or
bending (fold).

 Fracture Since the pressure and temperature are low at the Earth’s surface, rocks tend to
break or fracture when subjected to compressional and tensional stresses. This means that
the pressure exerted in the blocks of rocks exceeds the rock's internal strength. Fractures
can either be a fault or a joint.

 A fault is a break in the rock where there is considerable movement on the fracture
surface while a joint is a break where there is no considerable movement.

Types of Fault ·

There are two types of faults. They can either be dip-slip or strike-slip faults.

 Dip-slip Faults Dip-slip faults involve the vertical movement of the blocks of rock. These
movements are described based on the direction of the motion of the hanging wall with
respect to the footwall.

 A hanging wall is the block of rock that rests on the fault plane while a footwall is the one
below the fault plane. Dip-slip faults can either be a normal or a reverse fault. A normal
fault is caused by tensional stress it is characterized by the hanging wall moving
downward with respect to the footwall.

 A reverse fault, wherein the hanging wall moves upward, is formed by compressional
stress.

 Strike-slip Fault Strike-slip fault involves a horizontal movement of blocks of rock and is
caused by shear stress.

Learn about it!

 Fold Deep within the crust, where pressure and temperature are high, rocks are plastic-
like; thus, they do not break but they tend to bend or fold. When rocks in this area are
compressed, they become thicker. When rocks become thinner, they are pulled apart.

Types of Fold

 When blocks of rock are bent upwards, they form anticline structures.

 Synclines are formed when blocks of rock bend downwards. A slightly bent rock from the
parallel undeformed layers forms monoclines.

Explore
Using the resources from the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, find
out if you live in an area where there is a fault.

Try it!
Make slabs out of clay – preferably use different colors to make layers. Apply
compressional, tensional, and shear stress on the slabs of clay. How do the layers move or
look like after applying each type of stress?

Key Points
 Compressional stress is associated with the convergent plate boundary that causes rocks
to be squeezed to each other.

 Tensional stress is associated with the divergent plate boundary that causes rocks to be
pulled apart.
 Shear stress is associated with the transform plate boundary that causes rocks to slide
opposite each other.

 Movement of plates leads to rock deformation such as fracture and fold due to stress.

 A fracture is a break in the rocks and can be classified as a fault or a joint depending on
the amount of movement. A fault can either be a dip-slip or a strike-slip fault.

 A fold is a bend in the rocks and can be classified as anticline, syncline, or monocline.

Test Question
1. Which of the following types of boundaries are colliding plates found?
 A. divergent
 B. convergent
 C. transform
 D. strike-slip
2. What type of boundary is associated with plates that slide past each other?
 A. transform
 B. convergent
 C. divergent
 D. strike-slip
3. What type of stress is present between two plates that move away from each
other?
 A. tensional
 B. compressional
 C. shear
 D. dip-stress
4. In which of the following conditions do blocks of rock break?
 A. when pressure exceeds the rock’s internal strength
 B. when pressure is lesser than the rock’s internal strength
 C. when the atmosphere exceeds the rock’s internal strength
 D. when the rock’s internal strength exceeds the atmosphere
5. Which of the following best describes the type of movement that happens in a
joint?
 A. A fracture where there is considerable movement.
 B. A fold where there is a little or no considerable movement.
 C. A fracture where there is no considerable movement.
 D. A fold where there is considerable movement.
6. Which of the following will form a reverse fault?
 A. tensional stress associated with separating plates
 B. compressional stress associated with separating plates
 C. tensional stress associated with colliding plates
 D. compressional stress associated with colliding plates
7. Which of the following best describe why blocks of rock deeper in the Earth’s
crust deform by folding instead of breaking when subjected to compressional and
tensional stresses?
 I. the temperature and pressure deeper in the Earth’s crust are higher
 II. the temperature and pressure deeper in the Earth’s crust are lower
 III. the rocks deeper in the Earth’s crust are stronger
 IV. the rocks deeper in the Earth’s crust are plastic-like
 A. I and II
 B. II and IV
 C. I and IV
 D. I and III
8. You have learned that your house is built on a hanging wall. After an
earthquake, you noticed that your house moved slightly lower to the ground. In
what type of plate boundary and fault is your house most probably built on?
 A. divergent boundary, normal fault
 B. divergent boundary, reverse fault
 C. convergent boundary, normal fault
 D. convergent boundary, reverse fault
9. During a field trip, you observed that the cross-section of a mountain is U-
shaped. What type of fold is most likely happened to the mountain?
 A. syncline
 B. anticline
 C. monocline
 D. thermocline
10. In your class, you were shown a “before-and-after” picture of a wall of rock.
The wall of rock became folded and thicker in the “after” picture. Which of the
following best describes the condition that made the wall of rock folded and
thicker?
 A. The wall of rock was exposed to high temperature and experienced
compressional stress.
 B. The wall of rock was exposed to high temperature and experienced tensional
stress.
 C. The wall of rock was exposed to low temperature and experienced
compressional stress.
 D. The wall of rock was exposed to low temperature and experienced tensional
stress.
 Lesson 2.8 The Seafloor Spreading
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12, 2016

Earth Materials and Processes

Objective

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to explain how the structure of the ocean basins
evolves as the seafloor spreads.

 Due to convection currents in the Earth’s interior, tectonic plates are in constant motion.

 In the previous lesson, you have learned how plate movements form faults and folds in
the rocks.

How do convection currents in the Earth’s interior make the seafloor spread?

Learn about it!

Seafloor Spreading

 In 1960, the American geophysicist, Harry Hess, explained how the convection currents
in the Earth’s interior make the seafloor spread.

 Convection currents carry heat from the molten materials in the mantle and core
towards the lithosphere. These currents ensure that the materials formed in the
lithosphere are “recycled” back into the mantle.

 In this “recycling” process, which was later named as seafloor spreading, the molten
materials flow out to form mid-oceanic ridges, spread sideways to form seafloor, and
disappear into the ocean trenches.
 When the molten materials rise, they slowly spread sideways. This motion makes the
seafloor above it to be pulled apart, creating a break or an opening called mid-oceanic
ridge, where the molten materials go out.

 New oceanic crust is formed from the outpouring of the molten materials, and as the
process continues, oceanic ridges or underwater mountain ranges are built.

 Oceanic ridges are composed of volcanic rocks.

 As the molten materials continuously flow out from the ridges, the seafloor also keeps on
spreading forming a central valley, or a rift valley, at the summit of the oceanic ridges.
The molten materials push the seafloor away from the ridges and towards the trenches.

 Trenches are depressions on the ocean floor. When the molten materials are brought near
the trenches, they start to cool, become denser and sink back down into the Earth where it
is heated and melted again.

 The spreading of the seafloor continues as a “recycling” process. As new seafloor is

created, it continues the process until it disappears back into the deep ocean trenches.
Records show that the oldest seafloor is relatively younger (about 170 million years old)
than the oldest rocks (about 3 billion years old) found on land. This shows that the
seafloor is constantly recycled.

 As new oceanic crust is formed at the oceanic ridge, it pushes away the older materials.
This means that the nearer the ocean floor to the oceanic ridge, the younger it is
compared to the ones farther from the ridge.

Learn about it!

World Oceanic Ridges
 Oceanic ridges are formed at divergent boundaries, where plates move away from each
other; while trenches are formed at subduction zones where plates collide with each other
or at convergent boundaries.

 The diagram below shows the location of oceanic ridges in the world. The marked areas
depict where new oceanic crusts are formed which would also show where the ocean
floors spread, just like the Atlantic Ocean basin. These areas are located at divergent
boundaries. On the other hand, the areas farther from the marks, located at convergent
boundaries, are subduction zones, like the Pacific Ocean basin, where the trenches are
formed.

Try it!
 Using the resources from the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
(PHIVOLCS), find out on which type of plate boundary the Philippines lie.

 Are there trenches or mid-oceanic ridges present in the Philippine Area of

Responsibility?

What do you think?

 How will you compare the ocean floor of the Philippines located in the western side of
the Pacific Ocean to the ocean floor of the United States of America located in the eastern
side of the Pacific Ocean?

Key Points

 Mid-oceanic ridges are openings in the seafloor where molten materials from the Earth’s
interior come from.

 New oceanic crust is formed at mid-oceanic ridges.

 Oceanic ridges are underwater mountain ranges that form through the accumulation of
molten materials that go out of mid-oceanic ridges.

 Seafloor spreads as new molten materials come out from the Earth’s interior pushing the
ocean floor as they flow out.

 As the seafloor spreads, structure of the ocean basins evolves depending on the plate
boundary that they lie on.

II-8 (Test) The Seafloor Spreading

Earth Materials and Processes

1. Who proposed that seafloor is spreading?

 A. Alfred Wegener

 B. Harry Hess

 C. Sir Arthur Holmes

 D. Sir Isaac Newton

2. What structure is formed at divergent boundaries?

 A. trenches

 B. oceanic crust

 C. volcanoes

 D. oceanic ridges

3. In which of the following ocean basins can trenches be found?

 A. Atlantic Ocean

 B. Indian Ocean
 C. Pacific Ocean

 D. Antarctic Ocean

4. Atlantic Ocean is at a divergent boundary where the seafloor spreads. What do you
think is happening to the Atlantic Basin?

 A. shrinking

 B. folding

 C. not moving

 D. expanding

5. Which of the following is the type of rocks formed along and near an oceanic ridge?

 A. intrusive igneous rocks

 B. clastic sedimentary rocks

 C. foliated metamorphic rocks

 D. extrusive igneous rocks

6. What does the seafloor spreading suggest on the ocean floor age?

 A. The farther the ocean floor from the oceanic ridge, the younger it is.

 B. The farther the ocean floor from the oceanic ridge, the older it is.

 C. The nearer the ocean floor to the mid-oceanic ridge, the older it is.

 D. The ocean floor has a uniform age on either side of the ridge.

7. Arrange the following processes showing how the seafloor spreads.

 a. An opening on the seafloor, called mid-oceanic ridge, is created by the spreading of the
molten materials.
 b. Oceanic ridges are created from the outpouring of the molten material from the mid-
oceanic ridge.

 c. New molten materials push the seafloor towards the trenches where it cools and sinks
back down to Earth.

 d. Molten material from the Earth’s surface rises and spreads sideways.

 A. a, c, b, d

 B. b, c, d, a

 C. d, a, b, c

 D. c, a, d, d

8. On a diving activity that you participated in, you were able to get near an oceanic
ridge. Which of the following best describes the temperature of the water near the
oceanic ridge?

 A. The temperature of the water near it is higher than the rest.

 B. The temperature of the water near it is lower than the rest.

 C. The temperature of the water near it is the same as the rest.

 D. The temperature of the water near it is fluctuating depending on the weather.

9. On a diving activity that you participated in, you noticed a depression in the ocean
floor. What ocean structure is this depression and what process happens here?

 A. The depression is a trench where new oceanic crust is formed.

 B. The depression is a trench where old seafloor sinks back down to the Earth’s interior.

 C. The depression is a mid-oceanic ridge where old seafloor sinks back down to the
Earth’s interior.

 D. The depression is a mid-oceanic ridge where new oceanic crust is formed.

 10. How does Harry Hess’ theory on how the seafloor spreads support Alfred Wegener’s
Continental Drift Theory?

 A. It explains the mechanism on how the continents move.

 B. It explains how tillites were found in tropical areas.

 C. It explains how mesosaurus migrated from South America to Africa.

 D. It explains how coal seams are found in Antarctica.

 Lesson 2.9 Stratification of Rocks
and How It Is Used to Determine
the Age of the Earth
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12, 2016

Earth Materials and Processes

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 describe how layers of rocks (stratified rocks) are formed,

 describe the different methods (relative and absolute dating) to determine the age of
stratified rocks, and

 explain how relative and absolute dating were used to determine the subdivisions of
geologic time.

How can we determine the age of the Earth?

Learn about it!

How Layers of Rocks Are Formed

 Most rocks are sedimentary rocks. They are formed from older rocks that have been
broken down by water or wind. The older rocks become sedimentary particles such as
gravel, sand, and mud.

 These particles can also bury dead plants and animals. As time goes by, the particles
accumulate, and those that are at the bottom of the pile become rocks.
 Gravel becomes conglomerate; sand becomes sandstone; and mud becomes shale or
mudstone. The animals or plants buried with them become fossils. These series of events
form the different layers of rocks.

Methods to Determine the Age of Stratified Rocks

 There are two methods of determining the ages of rocks: relative dating and absolute
dating.

 Relative dating is a method of arranging geological events based on the rock sequence.

 Absolute dating is a method that gives an actual date of the rock or period of an event.

Relative Dating

 Relative dating cannot provide actual numerical dates of rocks. It only tells that one rock
is older than the other but does not tell how old each of the rock is.

 In the early mid-1600’s, a Danish scientist, Nicholas Steno, studied the relative positions
of sedimentary rocks. He discovered that they settle based on their relative weight or size
in a fluid. The largest or heaviest particles settle first, and the smallest or the lightest
particles settle last.

 Any slight changes in the particle size or composition may result in the formation of
layers called beds.

 Layering or bedding is a distinct quality of sedimentary rocks. The layered rocks are also
called strata.
 Learn about it!
Principles of Relative Dating

 The law of superposition states that, in any sequence of layered sedimentary rocks, the top
layer is younger than the bottom layer. It is important in the interpretation of the Earth's
history because it indicates the relative age of the rock layers and fossils.

 The law of original horizontality states that most sediments were originally laid down
horizontally. However, many layered rocks are no longer horizontal. Based on the law of
original horizontality, the rocks that were tilted may be due to later events such as tilting
episodes of mountain building.

Learn about it!

Principles of Relative Dating

 The law of lateral continuity states that rock layers extend laterally or out to the sides.
These layers may cover broad surfaces. Erosion may have worn away some parts of the
rock, but the layers on either side of the eroded areas still match.

 The law of cross-cutting relationship states that fault lines and igneous rocks are younger
features that cut through older features of rocks.

Absolute Dating

 Absolute dating or radiometric dating is a method used to determine the age of rocks by
measuring its radioactive decay. A radioactive isotope in the rock decays into a stable
 daughter isotope. The decay occurs at a predictable rate, so the age of the sample could
be determined.

Examples

 Radiocarbon dating for organic remains could date up to 60 000 years.

 K-Ar dating and U-Pb dating for volcanic rocks could date up to five billion years.

Learn about it!

The Geologic Time Scale

 The geologic time scale shows the geologic time intervals based on the geologic rock
records, which describe the relationships between the events that happened throughout
the Earth’s history. The sequence of events is based on the radiometric dating of igneous
rocks associated with the fossil-bearing sedimentary rocks.

 A geologic time scale is revised as more fossil-bearing sedimentary rocks are dated. It is
calibrated by integrating results from relative and absolute dating. Below is an example
of how geologic time scale is calibrated.

How the Geologic Time Scale is Calibrated

 Raw data composed of strata or layers are reviewed.

 The unique succession of events in the layers is recognized based on the laws of relative
dating leading to a chronological order of events.

 Numerical or absolute age of the events is given using absolute dating or radiometric
methods. Absolute dating provides the age for the ash layers while relative dating
 provides at least six strata with relative ages – first and last occurrences of the fossils and
the volcanic eruption events.

Try it!

 Research on how the age of the trees can be determined. How would you relate this to the
topic?

What do you think?

 What is the importance of determining the age of rocks?

Key Points

 Strata or the different layers of rocks are formed when the sediments at the bottom of the
pile become rocks.

 Relative dating is a method of arranging geological events based on the rock sequence.

 Absolute dating is a method that gives an actual date of the rock or period of an event.

 Geologic time scale shows the geologic time intervals based on the geologic rock records.

 The integration of relative and absolute dating results to a calibrated geological time
scale.

II-9 (Test) Stratification of Rocks and How It Is Used to Determine the Age of the Earth

Earth Materials and Processes

1. It is a method of dating rocks that gives an actual time.

 A. relative dating

 B. geologic time scale

 C. carbon dating

 D. absolute dating

2. It is a method of arranging the geologic events based on rock sequence.

 A. relative dating

 B. absolute dating

 C. geologic time scale

 D. radiometric dating

3. This law states that, in any sequence of layered sedimentary rocks, the top layer is
younger than the bottom layer.

 A. law of lateral continuity

 B. law of superposition

 C. law of original horizontality

 D. law of cross-cutting relationship

4. Which of the following statements about the principles of relative dating are false?

 a. The law of cross-cutting relationship states that rock layers extend laterally or out to
the sides.

 b. The law of lateral continuity states that fault lines and igneous rocks are younger
features that cut through older features of rocks.

 c. The law of superposition states that, in any sequence of layered sedimentary rocks, the
top layer is younger than the bottom layer.

 d. The law of original horizontality states that most sediments were originally laid down
horizontally.

 A. a and b

 B. c and d

 C. a and c

 D. b and d
 5. Which of the following is not an example of absolute dating?

 A. radiocarbon dating

 B. K-Ar dating

 C. U-Pb dating

 D. radioactive dating

6. Which of the following statements is true about relative dating?

 A. It is a method used to determine the age of the rocks by measuring its radioactive
decay.

 B. It is a method used for arranging geologic events based on radioactive decay of rocks.

 C. It is a method used to determine that one rock is older than the other based on rock
sequence.

 D. It is a method used to describe relationships between events that happen throughout

history.

7. Which of the following statements is NOT true about Nicholas Steno's contributions?

 a. He studied about the relative positions of sedimentary rocks.

 b. He discovered that sedimentary rocks settle based on their relative weight or size in a
fluid.

 c. He stated that any changes in the particles would result in the formation of rock layers.

 d. He stated that heavier particles would settle at the bottom while lighter particles would
float.

8. Which of the following is NOT true about the relevance of relative dating to geologic
time scale?

 A. Relative dating would confirm the succession of events in the layers that would
establish the chronological series of events.
 B. Relative dating would provide the age of the ash layers and the occurrences of
volcanic eruption events.

 C. Relative dating would provide strata with relative ages and indicate the occurrences of
fossils.

 D. Relative dating would provide ages based on radiometric dating of igneous rocks.

9. Which of the following are true about the relevance of absolute dating to geologic time
scale?

 a. Absolute dating would give numerical or absolute age of the succession of events in
the layers.

 b. Absolute dating would determine the age of the ash layers and the occurrences of
volcanic eruptions.

 c. Absolute dating would provide ages based on radiometric dating of igneous rocks.

 d. Absolute dating would provide ages of fossil-bearing sedimentary rocks.

 A. a and b

 B. b and c

 C. c and d

 D. a and c

10. Which of the following statements is not true about the geologic time scale?

 A. This scale could be revised as more rocks that can be dated are discovered.

 B. This scale is a result of the integration of relative and absolute dating.

 C. This scale shows the relationships between the events that happened throughout the
Earth’s history.

 D. This scale shows the location of where the rocks were discovered.
 Lesson 3.1 Geological Hazards
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12, 2016

Natural Hazards, Mitigation, and Adaptation

Objective

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the various hazards that may
happen in the event of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides.

 The Philippines is prone to geological events such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and
landslides.

 These natural events bring about different hazards that may cause damage to
infrastructures and endanger human lives.

What are geological hazards?

Are you prepared if they happen?

Learn about it!

 A geological hazard is a condition or event that may cause harm to property and life as a
result of a geological process such as earthquake, volcanic eruption, or landslide.

Earthquake

 An earthquake is the sudden shaking of the ground caused by the release of energy from
accumulated stress along the geologic faults or by volcanic activity. It may cause collapse
of buildings, tsunamis, landslides, and ground-level changes.

Earthquake Hazards

 Earthquake hazards are events associated with an earthquake that may cause adverse
effects on organisms and their environment.

 Ground shaking refers to the vibration of the land surface during an earthquake. The
intensity of the vibration depends on the magnitude of the earthquake and the distance
 from the epicenter. Ground shaking may cause partial or total collapse of buildings and
structures.

 Ground displacement or surface rupture is the horizontal or vertical displacement of

the ground surface along the fault zone. It affects smaller area compared to ground
shaking. However, it severely damages buildings and structures located adjacent to the
faults.

 Liquefaction is the transformation of solid rocks and soil to a liquid‐like state during
ground shaking. When it occurs, large rigid structures may tilt or sink into the liquefied
deposits.

 Tsunami is a set of long, high ocean waves caused by an earthquake or other disturbance
under the sea. It causes flooding and destruction of structures near the shorelines.

 Fire is caused by rupture of gas lines during ground shaking and displacement. It poses
threat of explosions which may cause death and destruction of property.

Example

 On October 15, 2013, a devastating earthquake happened in the province of Bohol. Its
recorded magnitude was 7.2. The ground shaking and displacement caused major damage
of several government buildings, schools, and houses. At least 93 people had been
reported dead after the earthquake.

Learn about it!

Volcanic Eruption

 Volcanic eruption happens when materials such as magma, ash, and gas are released
from a volcano due to a buildup of pressure inside. The effects of an eruption can be on a
local scale affecting the areas near the volcano (e.g. lava flow reaches nearby towns) or
on a global scale (e.g. volcanic ash particles on air change global temperature).
 Volcanic Eruption Hazards

 Volcanic eruption hazards are events associated with a volcanic eruption that may
cause adverse effects on organisms and their environment.

 Lahar is a mixture of volcanic debris and water that flows at the slopes of the volcano. It
destroys infrastructures, buries towns and crops, and fills river channels.

 Pyroclastic fall is a mass of hot, dry pyroclastic material (mixture of ash and dust) and
hot gases. It moves rapidly along the ground surface. It buries towns and causes burns,
injury, and damage upon impact.

 Volcanic gases are vapors released during an eruption. Some of these gases, such as
hydrogen sulfide ([%\mathrm{HS}%]) and sulfur dioxide ([%{\mathrm{SO}}_2%]), are
poisonous. They cause respiratory damage and death.

 Tephra falls are rock fragments and lava blobs ejected by a volcano. They damage
structures, break power lines, kill vegetation, and cause respiratory damage.

Example

 Mount Pinatubo erupted on June 15, 1991. This eruption deposited about 5 km3 of rock
fragments and volcanic ash on the volcano’s slopes. When a heavy rain fell on that day,
the rocks and ashes were washed down into the surrounding lowlands in large, fast-
moving mudflows called lahar. Lahar caused more destruction in the lowlands than the
eruption itself.

Learn about it!

Landslide

 A landslide, also called landslip, occurs when earth materials (rocks, debris, and soil)
move downwards along a slope. It may be caused by earthquakes or heavy rainfall. It can
also be aggravated by human activities such as deforestation, blasting, and construction.
 Landslide Hazards

 Landslide hazards are events associated with a landslide that may cause adverse effects
on organisms and their environment.

 Mud flow is the flow of mud and rock. It may pick up trees, houses, and cars as it moves
down the slope. It may block bridges and tributaries causing flood along its path.

 Earthflow is the downward flow of fine-grained materials, such as clay, fine sand, and
silt. It is slower than mudflow, but it inflicts the same damage.

 Rock fall is the sliding, toppling, or falling of rocks along a slope. It disrupts road traffic
in mountainous regions. When it hits a structure or vehicle, it causes damage depending
on the size of the rock and the force of impact.

Example

 A massive landslide happened on February 17, 2006 in Southern Leyte. The landslide
caused widespread damage and loss of life. It was followed by heavy rainfall and a minor
earthquake. The official death toll was 1126. Learn about it!

 Most geological events cannot be prevented from happening, though they can be
predicted but with little precision. The government, from the national to the local level,
must continuously train people to be prepared for these events and plan strategies to
mitigate or lessen the effects of these hazards.

Explore!

 You are enjoying your summer vacation at the beach. Suddenly, you felt the ground
moving because of an earthquake. What should you do? What are the scenarios that may
happen during and after the earthquake?

Try it!

 Get the map of your barangay or municipality and identify the possible hazards that may
occur in your area in the case of certain geological events.
 How will you prepare for these events?

What do you think?

 Why is it important to know the hazards that can be brought about by geological events?
Tip

 Hazards can be brought by one or more geological events. For example, earthquake and
volcanic eruption can trigger a landslide.

Key Points

 A geological hazard is a condition or event that may cause harm to property and life as a
result of a geological process such as earthquake, volcanic eruption, or landslide.

 An earthquake is the sudden, rapid shaking of the surface of the Earth. It may cause
ground shaking, ground displacement, liquefaction, tsunami, and fire.

 Volcanic eruption happens when materials such as magma, ash, and gas are released
from a volcano due to a buildup of pressure inside. It may bring about lahar, pyroclastic
fall, volcanic gases, and tephra fall.

 A landslide occurs when earth materials (rocks, debris, and soil) move downwards along
a slope. It may bring about mud flow, earthflow, and rock fall.

Test Question

1. What is a geological hazard?

 A. an extreme weather that destroys properties and causes casualties

 B. a possible cause of harm to property and life as a result of a geological process

 C. the magnitude of destruction caused by a geological event

 D. a location prone to geological processes such as earthquake and landslide

2. Which of the following conditions or events give rise to geological hazards?

 A. earthquake

 B. volcanic eruption

 C. tornado

 D. tropical cyclone

3. Which of the following describes a tsunami?

 A. a large ocean wave caused by an earthquake

 B. a massive flood brought by heavy rain

 C. a large ocean wave caused by a high tide

 D. a coastal flood commonly associated with low pressure weather system

4. Which of the following is not an earthquake hazard?

 A. liquefaction

 B. tsunami

 C. fire

 D. pyroclastic flow

5. Which of the following pairs correctly match?

 A. volcanic eruption : ground displacement

 B. earthquake : tsunami

 C. landslide : rock fall

 D. earthquake : lahar
 6. Which of the following are true about a volcanic eruption?

 A. It happens when materials such as lava, rocks, ashes, and gases are released from a
volcano.

 B. It is the sudden shaking of the ground caused by the release of energy from
accumulated stress along the geologic faults.

 C. It may cause damage in the local or global scale.

 D. It occurs when earth materials move downwards along a slope due to a heavy rainfall.

7. What happens during liquefaction?

 A. Solid rocks and soil transform into a liquid-like state.

 B. A mass of hot, dry pyroclastic material moves rapidly along the ground surface.

 C. Rock fragments and lava blobs are ejected by a volcano.

 D. A mixture of debris and water flows at the slopes of a volcano.

8. Refer to the table below. Which is most likely a tsunami?

 A. Hazard A

 B. Hazard B

 C. Hazard C

 D. Hazard D

9. Refer to the table below. What are possible effects of Hazard C?

 A. It may cause flood in low-lying areas.

 B. It can sink buildings and other structures.

 C. It may cause respiratory ailments.

 D. It may cause burn and injury upon impact.

 10. Refer to the table below. Which of the hazards are caused by an earthquake?

 A. Hazard A

 B. Hazard B

 C. Hazard C

 D. Hazard D
 Lesson 3.2 Understanding
Geological Hazard Maps
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 22, 2016

Natural Hazards, Mitigation, and Adaptation

Objective

 At the end of the lesson, you should be able to identify areas prone to hazards brought by
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides using geological hazard maps.

In the previous lesson, you have learned about the different hazards that are caused by
geological events such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides.

How can you determine if a certain location is prone to geological hazards?

Learn about it!

Geological Hazard Map

A geological hazard map is a map indicating the areas that are vulnerable to hazards caused
by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides. It is a tool used by scientists and local
government authorities to anticipate any hazard that a geological event may bring. It also
helps the public be informed and prepared for the geological hazard.

How do you read a geological hazard map?

You must take note of the following elements in studying the geological hazard map:

Map Title

 The map title indicates what type of information is being presented by the map. For
example, the title “tsunami-prone areas” indicates that the map presents the places along
the coastal areas that are prone to tsunami hazards.

Symbols and Legend

 Symbols are the points, lines, shapes, and colors used on the map. For example, a line
may indicate faults or tsunamis while a triangular shape may represent a volcano.

 The legend tells you specifically what these symbols mean.

 Source Make sure that the source of your map is a credible institution.

 Hazard maps are produced by government agencies like PhiVolcS (Philippine Institute of
Volcanology and Seismology), DOST (Department of Science and Technology), and
DENR (Department of Environment and Natural Resources).

 Private research institutes like the Manila Observatory also generate maps. With the use
of the Internet, these maps can be viewed online on their websites.

Learn about it!

Earthquake Hazard Map

(Refer to the picture)

The map below shows the earthquake-prone areas in the Philippines. Based on the
legend, the different locations are colored depending on the number of earthquake hits for
the past 30 years. For example, Baguio City (Benguet), which is found in the northern
part of Luzon, experienced 76-100 earthquakes. Meanwhile, Puerto Princesa City
(Palawan), which is in the Southwest of Luzon, experienced fewer earthquakes (0-11).
The top ten provinces that are most prone to earthquakes are:
1. Surigao Del Sur

2. La Union

3. Benguet

4. Pangasinan

5. Pampanga

6. Tarlac

7. Ifugao

8. Davao Oriental

9. Nueva Vizcaya

10. Nueva Ecija

 Surigao del Sur, along with Davao Oriental, are earthquake-prone because they are
located along the Philippine Trench and because of nearby active fault lines.

 Deep-focus earthquakes that are experienced in La Union and Pangasinan are due to the
Manila Trench, while shallow earthquakes in these areas together with Nueva Vizcaya,
Nueva Ecija, and Benguet are generally due to their location along the Philippine Fault
Zone. Although Ifugao experienced fewer earthquakes in the past, it is still very
vulnerable to future earthquakes.

 In addition, the size of the red dots indicates the magnitudes of the earthquakes that hit
the area for the past 30 years. For example, a large dot in Manila indicates that the
magnitude of the earthquake is 7.3 to 7.6. On the other hand, a tiny dot, as seen in areas
around Palawan, means that the magnitude of earthquake is around 5.5 to 6.2.

Try it!

 Find a map of the Philippines and compare it to the earthquake-prone area map. Then
answer the following questions:
1. Which is more prone to earthquakes, Pampanga or Zamboanga?

2. Which town experienced a greater magnitude earthquake, Panay or Mindoro?

Learn about it!

Tsunami Hazard Map

(Refer to the picture)

The following map shows the places along the coastal areas in the Philippines that are
prone to tsunami hazards. Cyan, magenta, and yellow lines indicate the potential of the
tsunami and the tsunami generators. When the earthquake occurs in the Philippines, then
tsunami is locally generated. On the other hand, an earthquake that occurs outside the
country may be a foreign tsunami generator for the Philippines. Majority of the coastal
areas in Luzon (with the exception of Palawan and northern islands) have a high tsunami
potential with historical tsunami records. Meanwhile, the coastal places in the Visayas
region also show tsunami potential mostly from local generators with a small percent of
foreign generators. Furthermore in the Mindanao region, high tsunami potential is also
evident in the mainland area while the small islands located in the southwest show
tsunami potentials by local generators. Tsunamis that are locally generated are more
dangerous than those that are generated by foreign or distant sources because they may
reach a nearby shore in few minutes. There may not be enough time for tsunami warning
centers to issue a warning. People living near the coast with high risk of locally generated
tsunami must be alert when there is a reported earthquake in their area. They must
observe unusual ocean changes and listen to loud ocean roars. They must evacuate
immediately when they sense these natural tsunami warning signs.

Learn about it!

Map of the Distribution of Volcanoes (Refer to the
picture)

Below is the map showing the distribution of volcanoes all over the Philippines. These
volcanoes are classified as active (red), potentially active (orange), and inactive (gray).
Places where active and potentially active volcanoes are prone to hazards of volcanic
activities or volcanic eruptions
. For example, Mayon Volcano situated in Albay in the Bicol Region, is known not only
for its perfect cone, but also for its volcanic activities. It has 49 recorded eruptions as of
2013. The areas surrounding the volcano are highly affected by volcanic hazards. On the
contrary, Palawan is not vulnerable to volcanic eruption hazards since there are very few
volcanoes near the area and all of them are inactive.

Earthquake-Induced Shallow Landslides Map (Refer to

the picture)

Places that have landslide hazards are presented in the map below. The legend tells you
the levels of the danger of the occurrence of landslide. For example, majority of the
provinces in the Northern Luzon is considered a high-danger zone. These include
mountainous areas like Abra, Benguet, Ifugao, Kalinga, and Mt. Province. On the other
hand, Palawan shows no present risk in landslides.
 Explore!

Your family decided to move to a different place and live there permanently. You know
nothing about the safety of this new place; however, you observed that there is a nearby
volcano. Also, there are coastlines several kilometers from your house. You decided to go
to the local government hall to ask about the area, and they gave you hazard maps. How
can you use these maps to confirm the safety of your new home?

What do you think?

 Why is it important to understand geological hazard maps?

Key Points
 A geological hazard map is a map indicating the areas that are vulnerable to hazards
caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides. It helps the public be informed
and prepared for the geological hazard.

 You must take note of the title, symbols and legend, and source when studying a
geological hazard map.

 Geological hazard maps of the Philippines include maps that present the earthquake-
prone areas, tsunami-prone areas, distribution of volcanoes, and earthquake-induced
shallow landslides.

Test Question

1. What is a geological hazard map?

 A. a map that shows the potential mining areas in different regions of the country

 B. a map that shows the areas prone to hazards brought by geological events

 C. a map that shows the number of geologists based on specific areas

 D. a map that shows the geographic features of an area

2. Which of the following are the points, lines, shapes, and colors used in the map?

 A. symbols

 B. legends

 C. titles

 D. sources

3. Which of the following Philippine agencies and institutes produce geological hazard
maps?

 I. Department of Agriculture

 II. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology

 III. Department of Trade and Industry

 IV. Department of Environment and Natural Resources

 A. I only

 B. II only

 C. I and II

 D. II and IV

Refer to the figure below.

 4. Which of the following is true about the red dots? (Refer to Earthquake-Prone Areas)

 A. The biggest red dot indicates that the area was hit by a strong earthquake.

 B. The smallest red dot indicates that the area was not hit by an earthquake.

 C. The smallest red dot indicates that the area was hit by few earthquakes.

 D. The biggest red dot indicates that the area was not hit by an earthquake.
 Refer to the map below.

5. Which of the following is true about the map of tsunami-prone areas?

 A. The colors indicate the potential of a tsunami hazard.

 B. The colors magenta and yellow present the frequency of tsunami occurrences in the
past.

 C. The Philippines do not have areas that are prone to tsunamis.

 D. The Philippines have areas that experienced tsunamis in the past. Refer to the map
below.
 6. Which of the following are true about Albay and Palawan?

 I. Palawan experiences more volcanic eruptions than Albay.

 II. Albay experiences more volcanic eruptions than Palawan.

 III. Palawan is near many active volcanoes.

 IV. Albay is near active, inactive, and potentially active volcanoes.

 A. I and II

 B. II and IV

 C. II and III
 D. I and III Refer to the map below.

7. Which of the following places are prone to earthquake-induced shallow landslides

map?

 I. Abra II. Kalinga

 III. Ifugao

 IV. Palawan

 A. I and II B. I, II and III C. III and IV D. II and IV

 8. Why are locally generated tsunamis more dangerous than those generated by distant
sources?

 A. They may reach a nearby shore in few minutes, so there may not be enough time for
tsunami warning centers to issue a warning.

 B. They are always stronger than foreign generated tsunamis, so they cause widespread
destruction and damage to infrastructures.

 C. They carry with them strong typhoons that may cause casualties and damages to
houses and buildings.
 D. They cause sudden earthquakes that there is not enough time for earthquake warning
centers to issue an alarm or warning. Refer to the map below.

9. Locate the capital city of the Philippines, Manila. What is the level of landslide hazard
in that area?

 A. high danger zone

 B. low danger zone

 C. no present risk

 D. no data Refer to the map below.

 10. What are the provinces in Visayas that can be directly affected by hazards of volcanic
eruptions such as lahar and pyroclastic flow? (Refer to Distribution of Volcanoes)

 I. Negros Occidental

 II. Bohol

 III. Leyte

 IV. Cebu

 A. I and II

 B. II and III

 C. I and III

 D. II and IV
 Lesson 3.3 Coping with Geological
Hazards
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 22, 2016

Natural Hazards, Mitigation, and Adaptation

Objective

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to give practical ways of coping with
geological hazards caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides.

Recall that a geological hazard is a condition or an event that may cause harm to property
and life as a result of a geological process such as earthquake, volcanic eruption, or
landslide.

What are the practical ways of coping with these hazards?

Learn about it!

What should you do before, during, and after geological hazards brought by earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and landslides?

Earthquake

Despite its rarity, an earthquake is extremely destructive, especially in urban areas.

Ground shaking is the major cause of damage, but secondary effects like ground
displacement, tsunamis, liquefaction, fire, and landslides may occur. Here are the
practical ways you can do before, during, and after an earthquake:

Before an Earthquake

 Develop a disaster plan. Determine the “safe places” in your house. A safe place could be
under a sturdy table or against an interior wall away from windows or tall furniture.

 Practice "drop, cover, and hold on" in the safe place. Drop under a sturdy desk or table,
take cover, and hold on.
 Discuss earthquake with your family and/or housemates. Everyone should know what to
do in case the disaster strikes.

 Discuss earthquake with your family and/or housemates. Everyone should know what to
do in case the disaster strikes.

 Prepare an emergency supply kit. It must include non-perishable food, water, first aid kit,
clothes, a battery-operated radio, flashlights, and extra batteries.

During an Earthquake

 Wherever you are, take cover immediately.

 If you are outdoors, go to an open area away from buildings, trees, streetlights, and power
lines.l the earthquake stops. Stay away from windows, tall furniture, and light fixtures.
Shattered glass and heavy objects may hurt you.

 If you are outdoors, go to an open area away from buildings, trees, streetlights, and lines.

 If you are in a vehicle, pull over to a safe place, avoiding anything that can collapse. Stay
inside the vehicle with your seat belt fastened until the shaking stops.

After an Earthquake

 Check yourself for injuries.

 Help injured or trapped persons if you can.

 Be prepared for aftershocks. Aftershocks are smaller earthquakes that follow the main
earthquake and can cause further damage to weakened buildings.

 Clean up spilled medicines, bleaches, and gasoline immediately.

 Open cabinet doors cautiously. Contents may have been shifted during the shaking.

 Listen to the radio or television for more information from authorities.

 Stay out of damaged buildings.

 If you are in a coastal area, move to a higher ground. The earthquake may trigger
tsunamis.

 If you are in a mountainous area or near unstable slopes, be aware of landslide. Soil and
rocks may be loosened by the earthquake.

Learn about it!

Volcanic eruption

A volcanic eruption is impossible to stop, but it can be managed. Its hazards include
lahar, pyroclastic flow, volcanic gases, and tephra fall. Here are the practical ways that
must be done before, during, and after a volcanic eruption:

Before a Volcanic Eruption

 Prepare an emergency supply kit. It must include non-perishable food, water, first aid kit,
clothes, a battery-operated radio, flashlights, and extra batteries. Also, include masks and
a pair of goggles for each member of the family.

 Make an emergency plan. Each member of the family must know what to do and how to
contact one another when the disaster strikes.

 Learn about your community's risk from hazards of volcanic eruptions.

 For government institutions, set-up an exclusion zone around a volcano for safety and
crowd control. An exclusion zone is a location where specific activities are prohibited.

During a Volcanic Eruption

 Follow the evacuation orders issued by government officials and evacuate immediately to
avoid flying debris, hot gases, volcano blast, and lava flow.

 Be aware of mudflows and lahar. The danger of these hazards increases near tributaries.
They can flow faster than you can walk or run. Look upstream when crossing a bridge
and do not cross it when a mudflow is approaching.
 Use a dust mask or hold a damp cloth over your nose and mouth to prevent inhaling
volcanic gases. Also, cover your skin to protect yourself from ashfall.

 If you are unable to evacuate, remain indoors with doors, windows, and ventilation closed
until the ash settles.

 Listen to the radio for the latest emergency information.

After a Volcanic Eruption

 Stay in the evacuation center until the authorities say that it is safe to go back home.

 Help in cleaning and checking the damages brought by volcanic eruption hazards.

 When cleaning ashes or mudflows at home, use a dust mask to cover your nose and
mouth. Seek advice from the authorities regarding the disposal of volcanic ash in your
community.

Learn about it! Landslide

Landslide hazards include debris flow, rock fall, and mud flow. Here are the practical
ways you can do before, during, and after a landslide:

Before a Landslide

 Have your parents ask for a ground assessment of your property.

 Know the patterns of storm-water drainage near your home. Note where runoff water
converges, and avoid these places during a storm.

 Learn about the emergency response and evacuation plans for your area during a
landslide.

 When you suspect imminent landslide danger, contact the emergency response team of
your community immediately. Evacuate immediately and inform neighbors who might be
at risk.

 Consider relocation if living in an area vulnerable to landslides.

 During a Landslide

 Stay alert and awake. Many landslide fatalities occur when people are sleeping.

 Stay away from the path of any landslide hazards. If you suspect imminent danger,
evacuate immediately.

 If caught in a rock fall and escape is not possible, roll into a ball to protect your head.

After a Landslide

 Stay away from the landslide area.

 Listen to local radio for the latest emergency information.

 Check for injured or trapped persons near the landslide, without entering the area. Direct
the rescuers to their locations.

 Replant the damaged ground as soon as possible to avoid landslides in the future.

Try it!

Make an emergency plan with your family. Then prepare an emergency supply kit. It
must include non-perishable food, water, first aid kit, clothes, a battery-operated radio,
flashlights, and extra batteries. Also, include masks and a pair of goggles for each
member of the family.

Explore!

Imagine being out-of-town for a family outing. After settling in a hotel, you have learned
that a nearby volcano has just erupted. What will you do during and after the volcanic
eruption?

What do you think?

What are other practical ways to cope with geological hazards caused by earthquakes,
volcanic eruption, and landslides?

Key Points
 Many geological hazards cannot be prevented. However, through careful planning and
preparation, damage to property and loss of life can be avoided.

 Everyone in the family must know what to do before, during, and after geological hazards
brought by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides.

Test Question

1. Which of the following refers to a condition that may cause harm to property and life
as a result of a process such as earthquake, volcanic eruption, or landslide?

 A. meteorological hazard

 B. aquatic hazard

 C. geological hazard

 D. hydrological hazard

Everyone in the family must know what to do before, during, and after geological hazards
brought by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides.

3. A emergency kit is a collection of basic items needed in the event of a disaster. Which
of the following is not a recommended item in the kit?

 A. water

 B. canned foods

 C. electric radio

 D. medication

4. During an earthquake, what action should you take if you are driving a car?

 A. Continue driving the car.

 B. Go out of the car and run.

 C. Pull over to an open space.

 D. Stop the car under an overpass.

5. What should you do after a volcanic eruption?

 I. Go back home immediately.

 II. Help in cleaning and checking the damages brought by volcanic eruption hazards.

 III. Listen to the radio or television for more information from authorities.

 IV. Refill the emergency supply kit.

 A. I and II

 B. I, II and III

 C. II and III

 D. II, III and IV

6. Which of the following could help in reducing vulnerability to landslides?

 A. quarrying

 B. reforestation

 C. heavy rainfall

 D. earthquake

You are inside a building during an earthquake.

7. Which of the following should you do?

 A. Run outside, then drop on the ground.

 B. Take cover under a sturdy table.

 C. Move towards the window.

 D. Be prepared for aftershocks.

 8. Which of the following is the best way to do during a landslide?

 A. Get a ground assessment of your property.

 B. Report broken electricity lines.

 C. Move away from the path of the landslide or debris flow.

 D. Replant trees.

9. How can you protect yourself from volcanic ashfall?

 I. Move to a higher ground.

 II. Wear long-sleeved shirts.

 III. Cover your mouth and nose.

 IV. Follow the evacuation plan issued by authorities.

 A. I and II

 B. II and III

 C. III and IV

 D. I and III

10. Which of the following can help in minimizing landslides?

 I. Identify unstable slopes.

 II. Cut more trees along the slope.

 III. Restrict construction of roads and bridges on landslide-prone areas.

 IV. Block the natural drainage of water.

 A. I and II

 B. I and III

 C. III and IV
 D. I and IV
Lesson 3.4 Human Activities That
Trigger Landslides
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15, 2017

Natural Hazards, Mitigation, and Adaptation

Objectives: In this lesson, you should be able to identify human activities that speed up
or trigger landslides and suggest ways to help lessen the occurrence of landslides in your
community.

Recall that a landslide, also called landslip, occurs when earth materials (rocks, debris,
and soil) move downwards along a slope. It may bring about geological hazards including
debris flow, rock fall, and mud flow.

How do human activities speed up or trigger a landslide?

Learn about it!

Landslides may be triggered by natural processes such as heavy rainfall and earthquakes.
They can also be triggered and aggravated by human activities.

Human Activities that Trigger Landslides

 Clearcutting is a method done by logging companies to cut down every
marketable tree from a selected area to harvest timber. Deforestation or removal
of trees that hold water and topsoil may cause landslides.
 Slash-and-burn or kaingin system is a method that cuts down and burns off the
existing vegetation. It is a form of deforestation because the land is converted to
other uses.

 Mining and quarrying operations use explosives in their blasting techniques to

break rocks and gather ore deposits. They cause land areas to slide due to the
vibrations from the blast.

 Construction activities such as building of roads and railways may interfere or

change the natural drainage of water. When there is heavy rainfall or flood, water
may then move to a different path which may saturate slopes and cause
landslides.

Learn about it!

Ways to Lessen the Occurrence of Landslides

 Instead of clearcutting, selective cutting can be adopted by logging companies to

allow old trees to remain. This method cuts down mature or inferior kind of trees
to encourage the growth of the remaining trees in the forest.

 Do alley-cropping instead of slash-and-burn method. Alley-cropping is a method

of simultaneously growing an agricultural crop with a tree crop, retaining soil
fertility.

 Plant more trees with strong root structures that hold the soil together.

 The government must set mining rules based on the evaluation of slope stability
and landslide threat in the mining areas. Mining companies must follow these
 rules. In case of disobedience, temporary or permanent suspension of mining
operations must be implemented.

 Avoid construction on steep slopes. As this is not entirely possible, evaluation of

the area for land development should be performed by engineers and geologists.

 Construct proper drainage away from the slope to control water accumulation
and to avoid slope instability.

 During construction, do not add an unnecessary weight of fill materials to avoid

overloading. Also, check broken or leaking pipes because oversaturation of soil
with water can trigger landslides.

Explore!

Imagine that you are the mayor of a town near a mountain. Ground assessment of the area
has shown that a part of the mountain has nickel. A mining company has asked a permit
to mine the nickel. What will you do? Will you grant the permit? Why or why not?

Try it!

Find a picture of a landslide from the Internet. Write something about the picture by
answering the questions below. Be descriptive.

1. What do you think was the reason why the landslide took place?

2. How did the people in that area contribute to the landslide?

What do you think?

 What can you do to lessen the occurrence of landslides in your own community?

Key Points

 Human activities can increase landslide risks. They include clear-cutting, mining
and quarrying, bad agricultural practices, and construction activities.

 Suggestions to lessen landslides include planting more trees, controlling water in

the slope, practicing good agricultural methods, and avoiding construction on
steep slopes.

Test Question

1. Which of the following is not a human activity that triggers landslides?

 A. clearcutting

 B. heavy rainfall

 C. quarrying

 D. overloading of slope

2. Which of the following refers to the method used by logging companies to cut down
all trees in a selected area?

 A. clearcutting

 B. selective cutting

 C. hauling

 D. grappling
 3. Instead of clearcutting, which of the following method can be used by logging
companies to harvest timber?

 A. selective cutting

 B. hauling

 C. slash-and-burn

 D. grappling

4. How does changing the natural drainage trigger landslides?

 A. It causes vibrations in the soil.

 B. It produces heat that destabilizes the soil.

 C. It saturates the slopes in landslide-vulnerable areas.

 D. It removes vegetation.

5. Categorize the causes of landslides as natural and man-made.

 I. tropical cyclone

 II. earthquake

 III. quarrying

 IV. removal of vegetation

 V. construction of roads and railways

 A. I and II: man-made; III-V: natural

 B. I and II: natural; III-V: man-made

 C. I and III: natural; II, IV and V: man-made

 D. I-V: man-made

6. Which of the following contributes to the occurrence of landslides?

 A. slash-and-burn method

 B. reforestation

 C. planting more trees

 D. construction of proper drainage systems

7. One of the most effective ways to stabilize a slope is to _______________.

 I. remove vegetation

 II. add more water

 III. control water

 IV. add more soil and rocks

 A. I and II

 B. II and III

 C. III and IV

 D. I-IV

8. How does the blasting technique used by mining operations trigger landslides?

 A. Blasting causes thermal expansion in rocks, affecting the stability of hillsides.

 B. Blasting sets fire on the land mines.

 C. Blasting creates hydrostatic pressure that forces the soil to move.

 D. Blasting causes land vibrations that may trigger landslides.

9. Why is planting trees on a slope a good idea to prevent landslides?

 A. Trees serve as a habitat of animals.

 B. Trees hold the soil in place.

 C. Trees cool the climate.

 D. Trees provide a tourist attraction.

10. How are quarrying and slash-and-burn method alike?

 A. They cause tremor under the soil.

 B. They increase the moisture content of the soil.

 C. They remove vegetation.

 D. They produce materials that overload the soil.

Lesson 3.5 Hydrometeorological
Hazards
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15, 2017

Natural Hazards, Mitigation, and Adaptation

Objective: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the various hazards
that may happen in the event of tropical cyclones, monsoons, floods, and ipo-ipo.

The Philippines is located along the typhoon belt in the Pacific. It experiences an average
of 20 typhoons every year. It is highly susceptible to hazards brought by typhoons
including floods, strong winds, storm surges, and landslides.

What are the characteristics of these hazards?

Learn about it!

A hydrometeorological hazard is a condition or an event that may cause harm to

property and life as a result of a hydrometeorological process such as tropical cyclone,
monsoon, flood, and ipo-ipo.

Tropical Cyclone

A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating low-pressure system that forms over tropical
oceans. It is called typhoon in the Philippines. The typhoons entering the Philippine Area
of Responsibility (PAR) are given a local name by the Philippine Atmospheric,
Geophysical, and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA). This agency
monitors and disseminates information about weather disturbances.

Tropical Cyclone Hazards

 Tropical cyclones or typhoons bring about hazards that may cause adverse effects on
organisms and their environment.

 A flood is an overflow of water over a normally dry land. Due to heavy rainfall
brought by a typhoon, the water levels in dams and rivers increase. The water
then overflows to nearby land areas. A flood can damage houses, buildings, and
 bridges. Flash flood, which is a sudden, rapid flooding, may cause drowning and
fatal injuries.

 A strong sustained wind is often brought by a typhoon. It can damage or destroy

vehicles, buildings, bridges, fields, and plantations.

 A landslide is the movement of a mass of rocks, soil, and debris down a slope. It
can be triggered by heavy rainfall.

 A storm surge is an abnormal rise of sea water due to a typhoon. It is created

when water is being pushed toward the shore by the force of the winds moving in
a circular manner. It ravages beaches and coastal areas.

Example
Super Typhoon Yolanda (International name Haiyan) was one of the most powerful
typhoons ever recorded. It caused massive destruction in the Philippines on November 9,
2013. Strong winds, heavy rainfall, and storm surges caused widespread damage to
properties and loss of lives. About 6000 people died and 28 000 were injured because of
the typhoon.

Learn about it!

Monsoon

A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind in the South and Southeast Asia. It brings a
different kind of weather depending on where it comes from. When it blows from the
southwest between May and September, it brings rainy weather. When it blows from the
northeast between October and April, it brings dry weather. In the Philippines, the
southwest monsoon brings about heavy rainfall.

Southwest Monsoon Hazards

 A monsoon may bring about the same hazards caused by a typhoon. It may cause heavy
rainfall, strong wind, landslide, and flood.

 Heavy rainfall and strong wind can damage residential and industrial buildings. It
can also destroy agricultural crops.

 A landslide may happen when the soil becomes saturated with water due to heavy
rainfall. The soil and rocks from the slope can move down and destroy many
properties along the way.

 A flood may occur due to heavy rainfall that saturates the soil and causes an
overflow of water to dry land areas.

Example

On August 1 to 8, 2012, the southwest monsoon (Habagat) caused typhoon-like damage

in Metro Manila and nearby provinces. Heavy rainfall caused the Marikina River to
overflow, triggered a landslide, and caused the collapse of roads and bridges. The floods
and rain left 95 people dead and damaged 8000 houses.

Learn about it!

Ipo-ipo

An ipo-ipo (tornado) is a violently spinning wind on land that appears like a funnel-
shaped cloud. It can destroy large buildings, uproot trees, and hurl vehicles.

Ipo-Ipo Hazard

The strong whirling wind can lift and hurl objects it encounters no matter how heavy the
object is. It causes destruction of houses, buildings, dams, and bridges. The lifted objects
may also cause injuries and death upon impact.
 Try it!

Many typhoons bring strong winds and intense heavy rainfall which cause damages to
properties and loss of lives. Using the internet, research the top 10 strongest typhoons that
hit the Philippines. Then write down the effects of the typhoons to the humans and their
environment.

What do you think?

What should you do before, during, and after the occurrence of a hydrometeorological
hazard?

Key Points

 A hydrometeorological hazard is a condition or event that may cause harm to

property and life as a result of a hydrometeorological process such as tropical
cyclone, monsoon, flood, and ipo-ipo.

 A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating low-pressure system that forms over

tropical oceans. It may bring about strong winds, flood, landslide, and storm
surge.

 A flood is an overflow of water over a normally dry land.

 A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind in the South and Southeast Asia. In the
Philippines, the southwest monsoon may bring about heavy rainfall, landslide,
and flood.

 A tornado or ipo-ipo is a violently spinning wind on land that appears like a

funnel-shaped cloud. The strong whirling wind brought by a tornado can lift and
hurl objects it encounters.
 Test Question

1. _______________hazards are conditions or events that may cause harm to property

and life as a result of atmospheric, hydrological, and oceanographic processes.

Answer:

2. Which of the following are hydrometeorological hazards?

 I. flood

 II. earthquake

 III. landslide

 IV. storm surge

 A. I and II

 B. II and III

 C. III and IV

 D. I, III and IV

3. On the average, how many typhoons does the Philippines experience every year?

 A. 20

 B. 40

 C. 50

 D. 30

4. Which of the following is true about a monsoon?

 A. It is a seasonal prevailing wind in the West and Northwest Asia.

 B. It brings a different kind of weather depending on where it comes from.

 C. It can blow from the southeast or the northwest.

 D. It causes humid weather and drought.

5. What happens during a storm surge?

 A. There is an abnormal rise of sea water due to a storm.

 B. There is a rise in the sea level due to a high tide.

 C. There is a displacement of a large volume of water due to an earthquake.

 D. There is a strong wind that rotates on land.

6. Which of the following choices is not included on the negative effects of typhoons?

 A. death and injuries

 B. increased water supply

 C. storm surge

 D. strong wind

7. Which of the following describes the effect of the southwest monsoon in the
Philippines?

 A. fair and sunny weather

 B. strong winds and intense rain

 C. snowy and cloudy weather

 D. humid air and drought

8. How does an ipo-ipo cause injuries and death?

 A. It lifts and hurls objects that may cause injuries and death upon impact.

 B. It brings a large volume of water that drowns any person along its path.

 C. It saturates the soil and causes an overflow of water to dry land areas.
 D. It moves soils and rocks down the slope causing injuries and death.

Your family is living in a flood-prone area.

9. What should you do when there is a strong typhoon?

 A. Stay inside the house and do not mind the weather forecast.

 B. Go to a nearby water resource and check the water level.

 C. Listen to the advisory coming from PAGASA and evacuate when necessary.

 D. Stay where you are and observe how the water level rises in the area.

10. Which of the following places is the best place to hide when there is a tornado?

 A. highest floor of a building

 B. basement

 C. open ground

 D. under a tree
Lesson 3.6 Understanding
Hydrometeorological Hazard Maps
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15, 2017

Natural Hazards, Mitigation, and Adaptation

Objective: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to identify areas prone to hazards
brought about by tropical cyclones and floods using hydrometeorological hazard maps.

You have already learned the importance of understanding hazard maps. In this lesson,
you will learn about the Philippine hydrometeorological hazard maps. `

What are the areas in the Philippines prone to hazards brought about by tropical
cyclones and floods?

Learn about it!

Hydrometeorological Hazard Map

A hydrometeorological hazard map is a map indicating the areas that are vulnerable to
hazards caused by tropical cyclones, floods, and ipo-ipo. Recall that in studying a hazard
map, you have to note the title, source, legend, and symbols. They guide you in
understanding the information presented by the map.

Risk to Typhoons Map

A tropical cyclone (also called bagyo in the Philippines) is the generic term for any
intense circulating weather system over tropical oceans. When it originates from the
Pacific Ocean, it is called a typhoon. It may bring about hazards such as heavy rainfall,
strong wind, flood, and landslide.

The Philippines is located on the western rim of the Pacific Ocean, an active area for
typhoon formation because of the vast expanse of deep, warm ocean water. Because of its
location, the country experiences an average of 20 typhoons per year, about nine of them
make landfall. Aside from its location, it is also comprised of more than 7000 islands, so
there are plenty of coasts and shorelines that could be directly hit by strong winds and
heavy rainfall.

Because the Philippines is hit by many typhoons in a year, it is important to study which
areas in the country are at high risk. Below is the map of the country along with the
colors indicating the level of risk to typhoons.
The dark blue areas on the map are those that have high risks of being hit by typhoons.
For example, the smaller islands in the northern part, including Batanes, have very high
risk to typhoons. In fact, these islands are hit by typhoons almost all year round. Also,
Albay in the Bicol region has very high risk to typhoons. It is often the first area that is
hit by typhoons that move along a westward path.

On the other hand, those that are colored green have medium risks, and those that are
yellow and tan have low risks to typhoons. For instance, Mindoro (located in Southern
Luzon) has medium risk, Bohol (in the Visayas) has low risk, and Bukidnon (and most of
Mindanao region) has very low risk to typhoons.

Learn about it!

DOST-Project NOAH

Project NOAH is the Philippines' main disaster risk reduction and management program.
It was initially launched by the Department of Science and Technology (DOST). It has
released hazard vulnerability maps to help concerned agencies involved in disaster
prevention and mitigation. Included in their maps are flood susceptibility maps.

Flood Susceptibility Map

Flood is the overflow of a large amount of water beyond its normal confines. It is a
hydrometeorological hazard that can be caused by heavy rainfall brought by a typhoon or
the Southwest monsoon. It causes damage to infrastructure and poses threats to the health
of residents living in the area.

Unlike the typhoon risk map which presents the level of risk of different provinces to
typhoons based on their location to the typhoon route, flood maps are more area-specific.
 A flood map represents past scenarios of flood events in the specific area due to the
overflow of a nearby water resource.

How to Do
 1. Open the website http://noah.dost.gov.ph/#/.

 2. Click on the icon for Flood and choose flood hazards.

 3. Input the following information – Region: NCR; Province: District 2;

Municipal: Marikina; Return Rate: 5 years.

1. Study the map.

Marikina has low-lying areas and is prone to floods. When the water in the Marikina
watershed rises above the channel, overflow ensues, and flooding starts. Among the
barangays, Malanday and Tumana have high levels of flood hazard while Concepcion
Dos has medium hazard level for the past five years.

Source of Map:

A.M.F. Lagmay. (2012). Disseminating near real-time hazards information and flood
maps in the Philippines through Web-GIS. DOST-Project NOAH Open-File Reports,
Vol. 1 (2013), pp. 28-36. ISSN 2362 7409.

Learn about it!

Ipo-Ipo
 Ipo-ipo is the local name for a tornado, a violently rotating column of air in contact with
the ground. It is usually formed during thunderstorms. At present, there is no ipo-ipo
hazard map produced specifically for the Philippines.

Try it!
1. Open the website http://noah.dost.gov.ph/#/.

2. Click on the icon for Flood and choose flood hazards.

3. Input your region, district, and municipality. View the results of flooding for the
last 5, 25, or 100 years.

4. Identify the barangays in your municipality that have high levels of flood hazard.
What is the level of flood hazard in your barangay?

Explore!
You are a volunteer stationed in an area vulnerable to typhoon and flood hazards. How
will you plan for the rescue operations in these extreme weather events with the help of
the hazard maps of that area?

What do you think?

How are hydrometeorological maps helpful in preparing for extreme weather events?
 Key Points
 A hydrometeorological hazard map is a map indicating the areas that are
vulnerable to hazards caused by tropical cyclones, floods, and ipo-ipo.

 In studying a hazard map, you have to note the title, source, legend, and symbols.

 The risk to typhoons map presents the level of risk of different provinces to
typhoons based on their location to the typhoon route.

 A flood map represents past scenarios of flood events in the specific area due to
the overflow of a nearby water resource.

 Project NOAH has released hazard vulnerability maps to help concerned agencies
involved in disaster prevention and mitigation.

Test Question

1. What is a hydrometeorological hazard map?

 A. a map indicating the areas that are vulnerable to hazards caused by

earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides

 B. a map indicating the areas that are vulnerable to hazards caused by tropical
cyclones, floods, and ipo-ipo

 C. a map presenting the number of meteorologists and hydrologists in the

country

 D. a map presenting the locations of weather stations in each region of the

country
 2. What hydrometeorological events are experienced by the Philippines?

 I. blizzard

 II. typhoon

 III. flood

 IV. Hurricane

 A. I and II

 B. II and III

 C. III and IV

 D. I and IV

3. Which of the following is the Philippines' main disaster risk reduction and
management program?

 A. Project NOAH

 B. Project Diwata

 C. DOST

 D. PHIVOLCS

Refer to the map below.

 4. Which of the following provinces has a medium risk to typhoons?

 A. Batanes

 B. Bohol
 C. Bukidnon

 D. Mindoro

5. Which of the following are true about a flood map?

 I. It represents past scenarios of flood events in the specific area.

 II. It presents the number of casualties and amount of damages a flood has
caused over the past five years.

 III. It presents the level of risk of the area to typhoons.

 IV. It presents the areas that were at high risk due to an overflow of a nearby
water resource.

 A. I and II

 B. II and III

 C. I and IV

 D. III and IV

Refer to the map below.

 6. What is the level of typhoon risk in Albay?

 A. very high

 B. high
 C. medium

 D. low

Refer to the map below.

 7. Which island in the Philippines typically experiences typhoon all year round?

 A. Mindoro

 B. Batanes

 C. Bukidnon

 D. Bohol

Refer to the flood map below.

8. Which barangay in Marikina has high flood hazard level for the past five years?

 A. Concepcion

 B. Barangka

 C. Marikina Heights

 D. Malanday

Refer to the map below

 9. Which provinces in the Visayas Region show low risk to typhoons?

 A. Leyte

 B. Ilo-ilo
 C. Samar

 D. Cebu

10. Why is the Philippines prone to typhoon hazards?

 A. because it is located near the equator

 B. because it is located near many active faults

 C. because it is located near warm ocean waters

 D. because it is located along the Pacific Ring of Fire

Lesson 3.7 Coping with
Hydrometeorological Hazards
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 27, 2017

Natural Hazards, Mitigation, and Adaptation

Objective: In this lesson, you should be able to give practical ways of coping with
hydrometeorological hazards caused by tropical cyclones, monsoons, floods, or torandoes
(or ipo-ipo).

Recall that a hydrometeorological hazard is a condition or an event that may cause harm
to property and life as a result of a hydrometeorological process such as tropical cyclone,
monsoon, flood, and tornado (or ipo-ipo).

What should you do before, during, and after a hydrometeorological hazard?

Learn about it!

Tropical Cyclone and Monsoon

 Tropical cyclones and the southwest monsoon may bring heavy rainfall and strong winds.
They may cause massive flooding and landslides. Tropical cyclones can also cause storm
surges along coastal areas.

Here are the practical ways you can do before, during, and after a tropical cyclone or
monsoon:

Before the Tropical Cyclone or Monsoon

 Prepare an emergency supply kit. It must include non-perishable food, water,

first aid kit, clothes, a battery-operated radio, flashlights and extra batteries, and
a whistle.

 Make sure you have an adequate supply of non-perishable food and clean water
at home.

 If you live in a place that is in the path of the cyclone or monsoon, close all doors
and windows.

 Check your drainage system at home. An efficient drainage system will lessen the
chance of flooding and leaks.

 Check to see if there is a need to fix roofs, ceilings, doors, and windows.

 Frequently listen to the weather reports.

 Charge up emergency lights, electronic communication devices such as

cellphones, and power banks. There is a high probability of power outage due to
strong winds and heavy rainfall.

 Identify a safe area for evacuation.

During the Tropical Cyclone or Monsoon

 Closely monitor weather reports for updated information on the tropical cyclone
(storm signal numbers or storm surge advisory) or monsoon.
 If you are in an area being directly hit by the hazard, stay indoors as much as
possible.

 Evacuate when necessary and bring your emergency supply kit.

 In case of a threat of a storm surge, evacuate to a place higher than 500 meters
from the coast.

After the Tropical Cyclone or Monsoon

 If your house was heavily damaged, ask for the advice of authorities regarding its
safety and stability. Do not go inside the house if you are uncertain of its
condition.

 Check gas, water, and electrical lines for any damage.

 Beware of animals such as snakes that may have entered your house.

 Wear protective gears when cleaning up debris.

 Some roads may be closed due to flood. If you come upon a barricade or flooded
road, turn around and use another route.

Learn about it!

Flood

Flooding is the overflowing of water on normally dry land. It has been one of the most
costly disasters in terms of damage to property and loss of life. The most common cause
of death associated with flood is drowning.

Here are the practical ways you can do before, during, and after a flood:

Before the Flood

 Create a family disaster plan. Designate a contact person who can be reached and
discuss where you will meet if family members are separated.

 Closely monitor weather reports for information on the possibility of flooding.

 Identify a safe place for evacuation and alternative routes that are not prone to
flooding.

 If a flash flood warning is issued in your area, evacuate to a safe place

immediately.

 If flood alert is issued in your area, move valuables and furniture to higher levels
and disconnect electrical appliance.

 Prepare and emergency kit and supplies like food and water.

During the Flood

 If you see any signs of flood, turn off the main source of electricity and go to a
higher place such as the second floor or attic.

 Do not wade along flooded areas to keep yourself from having water-borne
diseases.

 In case you need to pass through the flood, wear protective gears such as boots
and raincoats.

 Follow any evacuation orders.

 Watch out for live wires or any electrical outlet submerged in water.

 If you are inside a vehicle and water rises around it, leave it immediately. Climb
to higher ground as quickly as possible.

 If you see someone falls or is trapped in flood water, do not go after the victim.
Throw the victim a floatation device such as tire, large ball, or ice chest. Then ask
help from a trained rescuer.
 After the Flood

 Have an electrician inspect your house wiring and electrical outlets before using
them.

 Clean up your house. Dispose of things that may be used by mosquitoes to breed
like water vase and anything that can hold stagnant water.

 Boil water before drinking because it may have been contaminated.

 Do not go or return to flooded areas until the authorities say that it is safe to do
so.

Learn about it!

Ipo-ipo

Ipo-ipo creates havoc – tearing off roofs, uprooting trees, damaging power lines and
sending flying debris everywhere.

Here are the practical ways you can do before, during, and after an ipo-ipo:

Before an Ipo-ipo

 Know the safe places where you can hide when there is an ipo-ipo. The safest
place is underground. If your house does not have a basement, a small room in
the middle of the house away from the windows is best.

 Pay attention to weather reports about the possible occurrence of an ipo-ipo.

Familiarize yourself with the warning sign. An ipo-ipo is often accompanied by
strong typhoons. Watch out for clouds that begin to rotate in a circular pattern.

 Create a family disaster plan. Designate a contact person who can be reached and
discuss where you will meet if family members are separated.
 Prepare and emergency kit and make sure that there is an ample supply of food
and water.

During an Ipo-ipo

 If you are inside a house, move to a safe place. Get under a steady piece of
furniture, such as a heavy table. Hold onto it and protect your head.

 If you are inside a vehicle, get out and seek a safe shelter.

 If you are outdoors and there is no shelter to hide, lie down in a low area with
your hands over your head and neck. Always watch out for flying debris.

 If you are inside a high-rise building, move to a room on the lowest floor.

After an Ipo-ipo

 Check yourself for injuries.

 Check for injured or trapped persons. Help if you can, but do not move them
unless they are in immediate danger of further injury.

 Wear protective gears when walking and working through the debris.

Explore!

Imagine that you are at the beach. You heard over the television that a tropical cyclone
will directly affect the place you are staying. What would you do?

What do you think?

Hydrometeorological hazards can be triggered by human activities. What human

activities can trigger these hazards?
 Key Points

 It is important to know what to do before, during, and after a

hydrometeorological hazard.

 Create a family disaster plan and educate everyone on what to do during and
after the occurrence of the hazard.

 Be calm when the hazard strikes and carry out the disaster plan.

 Continue practicing safety procedures even after the occurrence of the hazard.

 Emergency numbers of government offices or NGOs which can respond

immediately should be noted and kept handy.

Test Question

1. Which of the following hydrometeorological hazard may bring heavy rainfall and
strong wind?

 I. ipo-ipo

 II. flood

 III. tropical cyclone

 IV. southwest monsoon

 A. I and II

 B. II and III

 C. III and IV

 D. All of the above

2. Which of the following can be used as a floatation device?

 I. tire

 II. ice chest

 III. blanket

 IV. metal bar

 A. I and II

 B. II and III

 C. III and IV

 D. All of the above

3. Heavy rainfall and flood may create pools of standing water. Which of the following
animals may breed on standing water and cause the spread of diseases?

 A. bees

 B. worms

 C. snakes

 D. mosquitoes

4. What should you do before a tropical cyclone?

 A. Watch out for flying debris.

 B. Tune into storm warnings.

 C. Evacuate immediately.

 D. Do a house clean up.

5. Which is the most appropriate action when the water level quickly rises in your house
during a heavy rainfall?

 A. Go to higher ground.
 B. Walk across the flooded area.

 C. Save your belongings.

 D. Check for any structural damage.

6. What is the best way to protect yourself from an ipo-ipo?

 A. If you are in a vehicle, pull over under an overpass.

 B. If you are inside your home, go in the basement.

 C. If you are inside a building, stay close to the window.

 D. If you are outside, try to run to the tornado.

7. What should be included in the family disaster plan?

 I. contact person during the disaster

 II. meeting place after the disaster

 III. contact numbers of all relatives and friends

 IV. list of supplies inside the emergency kit

 A. I and II only

 B. II and III only

 C. I, II and III

 D. I, II and IV

8. What should you do after a tropical cyclone?

 I. Move furniture to higher levels and disconnect all electrical appliances.

 II. If your house was heavily damaged, go inside immediately.

 III. Check gas, water, and electrical lines for any damage.

 IV. Wear protective gears such as gloves when cleaning up debris.

 A. I and II

 B. I and III

 C. III and IV

 D. I and IV

9. Why should you boil the water for drinking after a heavy rainfall or flood?

 A. The water must be warm before drinking it after a storm.

 B. The water is more nutritious to drink when it is boiled.

 C. The water may have been contaminated during flooding.

 D. The water that has been boiled has more microorganisms.

Nita is living in a flood-prone area. During a heavy rainfall, her place is flooded and she
has to evacuate. However, the roads where she has to walk through are also flooded up
to the knee level.

10. Which of the following should Nita do?

 A. Go inside a vehicle and stay there to protect herself.

 B. Swim in the flood water as fast as she can.

 C. Wear protective gears such as raincoats and boots.

 D. Stay in the flood water until it subsides.

Lesson 3.8 Coastal Processes
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 27, 2017

Natural Hazards, Mitigation, and Adaptation

Objective: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe how coastal processes
result in coastal erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion.

What are the different kinds of coastal processes? How do these processes result in
erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion?

Learn about it!

Coastal Processes

The landscapes along coasts constantly change. Coastal processes are naturally-
occurring processes that bring alterations to the coastal zones. They are interactions of
marine, physical, meteorological, geological, and biological events.

Waves
Waves are created by the energy of the wind on the sea. The wind causes water particles
to rotate and produce waves. Large waves are usually formed during storms and
typhoons. The height and energy of the waves vary on wind speed, duration of the wave,
fetch, and water depth. Fetch is an area of a water wave where the wind blows in a
constant direction. The higher speed, longer duration, wide fetch, and deeper wave have
more energy than other types of wave.

Types of Waves

Constructive waves have low energy and have a stronger swash (a wave that
approaches the coast) than backwash (a wave that recedes from the coast). They are
responsible for material depositions.
Destructive waves have a higher height and energy. They are significant forces of
change in the coasts. In destructive waves, the backwash is much stronger than the swash.
Because of this, the coast has a higher tendency of erosion. Strong destructive waves can
carry a great load of sediments that could significantly alter the coastal landscape.

Tides

Tides are temporary fluctuations in sea levels due to gravitational forces between the sun,
the moon, and the earth. They carry less energy to the coasts but occur more often than
 waves. High tides occur when water levels are at their highest while low tides occur
when water levels are at their lowest.

 Low-lying locations get submerged in seawater during high tide leading to

submersion. Repeated exposure of the coasts to submersion can loosen materials
and cause erosion in the long run.

 Learn about it!

Sea Level Rise

 Faster sea level rise has been observed in the recent years. This is due to the
warming of the sea and melting of glaciers. The rise in sea level has become more
permanent. This warming of the sea and melting of glaciers are due to enhanced
greenhouse effect brought about by carbon emissions from various human
activities. Islands and even some countries are in danger of being submerged
underwater if the sea levels continue to increase. Sea level changes threaten low-
lying areas to experience submersion permanently.

Crustal Movement

 Continents and landmasses have been formed and continuously shaped by the
movement of tectonic plates. These plates move because of the accumulated
stress within the Earth's crust releasing energy and forming different landmasses.
Coastal areas can be changed by the movement of these plates.
 Crustal movements can cause erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion along
coasts. Its major effect is erosion followed by submersion as a subsequent effect.
It can also cause low-lying areas and islands adjacent to oceans or seas to sink.
Saltwater may also enter freshwater basins if crustal movements would cause
cracks in the coastlines.

 Storm Surge
 Storm surge occurs when the wind from tropical cyclones cause sea water levels to
be unusually higher than high tide levels. It can go as high as 20 feet or more
above the normal sea level. It is more likely to occur on coasts with gentle slopes
than those with steep slopes.

 Some locations experience submersion during storm surge, which is not

experienced during high tides. Erosion is also more likely to happen because of
the additional actions of waves during storm surge. Inland groundwater sources
experience saltwater intrusion. This happens when the seawater reaches the
coastal areas and gets into groundwater and other freshwater resources.

Explore!
 Mae has been living in a coastal barangay for 30 years. Recently, she noticed that
during high tides, water could reach high altitude as compared five years ago. The
water could go further inland. What happened to the coasts near her barangay
that enabled water to reach further inland?

Try it!
 Create a diagram of the different coastal processes. The diagram must show the
similarities and differences of these processes as well as their effects (coastal
erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion) to coasts.
 What do you think?
 Coastal processes are naturally-occurring events. As humans, we do not have the
capability and technology to prevent these from happening though we can do
some things to respond to these occurrences. How can areas near coasts be
prepared for different coastal processes?

Key Points
 Coastal processes are natural events that affect the features of coasts and nearby
areas.

 The three primary effects of coastal processes are erosion, submersion, and
saltwater intrusion.

 Tides cause an increase or a decrease in sea levels. Locations with increased sea
level (high tide) are exposed to the dangers of submersion. Constant submersion
can also lead to erosion.

 The rise in sea levels causes submersion of low-lying areas.

 Crustal movements cause erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion.

 Storm surge endangers areas near coasts to submersion. Erosion can also occur
because of wave action on storm surges. Saltwater intrusion can also happen if
the seawater reaches wells and reservoirs of freshwater.
 Test Question
1. They are natural occurrences that are primary contributors to the alterations in the
coastal zone.

 A. coastal processes

 B. coastal events

 C. coastal deposition

 D. coastal degradation

2. Which of the following factors interact with each other to form coastal processes?

 I. marine

 II. meteorological

 III. physical

 IV. industrial

 A. I, II and III

 B. I and IV

 C. III and IV

 D. All of the above

3. Which of the following is produced when the wind acts on the sea and causes water
particles to rotate?

 A. storm

 B. waves

 C. typhoon
 D. tornado

4. Which of the following waves will cause the most severe damage to a coastal
landform?

 A. high speed, long-lasting, wide fetch, deep depth wave

 B. high speed, long-lasting, wide fetch, shallow depth wave

 C. high speed, short-living, narrow fetch, shallow depth wave

 D. low speed, long lasting, narrow fetch, shallow depth wave

5. Which of the following best explains why destructive waves are significant causes of
coastal erosion?

 A. The swash is strong while the backwash is weak.

 B. The swash is weak while the backwash is strong.

 C. The swash is weak and the backwash is also weak.

 D. The swash is strong and the backwash is also strong.

6. Which of the following effects would likely occur in areas near coasts during high
tides?

 A. erosion

 B. submersion

 C. saltwater intrusion

 D. typhoons

7. Which of the following effects would be the result of repeated submersion in a coastal
area?

 A. submersion

 B. erosion
 C. saltwater intrusion

 D. typhoons

8. Which of the following best describes an area that experiences continuous surface
erosion?

 A. Some points in the area will be submerged in seawater.

 B. Constructive waves will bring back sediments to the area.

 C. Cliffs will form due to the erosion of the area.

 D. The area will remain intact despite erosion.

9. Which of the following best describes storm surge resulting to saltwater intrusion?

 A. Storm surges increase the amount of sea water in the sea causing it to intrude
groundwater table.

 B. Groundwater enters the sea and goes back to land reservoir causing saltwater
to mix with groundwater.

 C. Freshwater cannot be contaminated by seawater through storm surges.

 D. Water from the sea enters the groundwater table when storm surges occur in
coastal areas.

A strong typhoon is expected to landfall in the Bicol region.

10. Which of the following coastal processes should the province of Bicol prepare for?

 I. storm surges

 II. waves

 III. tides

 IV. crustal movement

 A. I and II
 B. II and III

 C. III and IV

 D. I and IV
 Lesson 3.9 Coping with Coastal
Erosion, Submersion, and
Saltwater Intrusion
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 27, 2017

Natural Hazards, Mitigation, and Adaptation

Objective: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to give practical ways of coping
with coastal erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion.

Coastal processes are unavoidable occurrences driven by nature and amplified by human
action. They cause damage to the shorelines through coastal erosion, submersion, and
saltwater intrusion.

How can the effects of coastal processes be managed?

Learn about it!

The following practices and methods can help coastal areas cope with coastal erosion,
submersion, and saltwater intrusion.

Coastal Protection

 Some structures and methods can help protect the coasts from erosion and
submersion. They are usually constructed along the coasts.
 Seawalls and bulkheads are structures that are built parallel to shores that protect
the coasts from wave actions.
 Groynes and jetties are structures that are built perpendicular to shores to
prevent coastal erosion by promoting beach build-up as they trap sand.
 Breakwaters are offshore structures that protect coasts from parallel waves and in
turn, prevent erosion and submersion.

 Beach nourishment is a method where a large amount of sand is added to the

coasts. This will create a new beach or widen an existing one. However, this
method is costly which deters communities to use it.
 Sandbags are used to counteract waves that hit the shores. They also diminish the
effect of a storm surge that can cause submersion.

Reducing Coastal Erosion

Aside from coastal protection, different ways can be done to reduce the impact of coastal
erosion. Some of them are less expensive than constructing structures along the coasts.

 Development of infrastructures must be constructed in safe distances from the

coasts.
 Beach dewatering involves pumping out water from the shores to prevent erosion.

 Artificial seaweeds can be placed in the water near the coasts to reduce the speed
of current that promote erosion.

 Ban of mining activities near coasts prevents erosion caused by mining.

 Plant cover and vegetation around coasts aid in protecting coasts from erosion.

Learn about it!

Coping with Saltwater Intrusion

The following methods help in dealing with saltwater intrusion.

 Monitoring and assessment ensure effective management of saltwater intrusion

cases.

 Regulations from governing units aid in coping with saltwater intrusion.

Structures must be regulated to have a safe distance from the sea to prevent
 excessive groundwater extraction from the reservoir that contributes to saltwater
intrusion.

 Artificial recharges pump freshwater to the reservoir to prevent saltwater from

intruding through the coasts.

 Barriers can be constructed along coasts to prevent further advancement of

saltwater if already present.

Try it!
You were assigned as the head engineer of a government project to design structures for a
coastal area that suffers from saltwater intrusion, high waves, and storm surges. Plan the
structures and management that you would like to apply for this coastal area. Provide a
sketch and a short explanation for each structure that you plan to build.

Explore!
You are one of the leading researchers in your coastal community. A land developer
wants to build a mall that is 20 feet off the edge of the coast. He presented that his mall
will not be affected by coastal processes because there were no records of any major
damages done in your community. As a researcher, what are the problems that the land
developer might encounter if he would continue to build his mall?

Key Points
 Coastal protection involves methods and structures that prevent coastal erosion
and submersion. Examples of these structures are seawalls, gyrones, and
breakwaters.

 Beach nourishment and installation of small walls made of sandbags are other
methods of coastal protection.
 Reducing coastal erosion involves methods that minimize the erosion already
occurring on the coasts.

 Beach dewatering, construction of buildings in a safe distance from the water, ban
of mining activities, and maintaining plant cover are some examples of ways to
reduce coastal erosion.

 Coping with saltwater intrusion involves three major steps: monitoring and
assessment, regulation, and engineering structures.

Test Question
1. Which of the following methods of coastal protection involves adding of sand and
water mixtures to prevent erosion?

 A. breakwaters

 B. beach nourishment

 C. sandbags

 D. seawalls

2. Which of the following are placed along coasts to lessen the impact of storm surges or
waves in cases of emergencies?

 A. sandbags

 B. artificial seaweeds

 C. breakwaters

 D. seawalls

3. Which of the following are the methods that help in coping with saltwater intrusion?

 I. artificial recharges

 II. monitoring and assessment

 III. regulations

 IV. mining activities

 A. I and II only

 B. I, II and III

 C. II, III and IV

 D. II and IV

4. Which of the following methods prevents saltwater intrusion?

 A. use of artificial seaweed

 B. injection of freshwater to reservoirs

 C. construction of seawalls

 D. pumping out groundwater

5. Which of the following best describes how seawalls protect coasts?

 A. Seawalls promote the creation of waves.

 B. Seawalls weaken the waves to lessen their impact.

 C. Seawalls are not effective against waves.

 D. Seawalls stop waves from hitting the shore.

6. Which of the following structures can initiate sand build-up on coasts?

 A. jetties

 B. breakwater

 C. sandbags

 D. seawalls
 Breakwaters are long offshore structures built from the edge of the coasts to the middle
of the sea.

7. In the diagram, which wave do breakwaters counteract that will help lessen the effects
of erosion?

 A. Wave A

 B. Wave B

 C. Wave C

 D. Wave D

8. Which of the following is best to be included in making legislation that will protect the
coasts?

 A. Infrastructures must be built on a certain distance from the coasts to prevent

erosion and saltwater intrusion.

 B. Infrastructure must not be built near coasts at all. Only rural buildings are
allowed.
 C. Infrastructures must be built along coasts to prevent the occurrence of waves.

 D. Infrastructures must be made of heavy materials to withstand waves and

storm surges.

9. Which of the following is the most practical way of preventing coastal erosion?

 A. building of breakwaters

 B. preservation of vegetation along coasts

 C. construction of a seawall

 D. enforcing sandbags every time there is an incoming wave

10. Which of the following best describes how monitoring and assessment of coasts help
in coping with the effects of coastal processes?

 A. Monitoring and assessment provide adequate equipment for the construction

of physical barriers against waves and storm surges.

 B. Monitoring and assessment provide people with relevant data for them to plan
special ways of coping with erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion.

 C. Monitoring and assessment have no significance with creating ways of coping

with the effects of coastal processes.

 D. Monitoring and assessment provide a visual picture of the aftermath of

different coastal processes in coastal areas.
Lesson 3.10 Mitigation of the
Impacts of Land Development,
Waste Disposal, and Construction
on Coasts
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 27, 2017

Natural Hazards, Mitigation, and Adaptation

Objective: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to cite ways to prevent or
mitigate the impact of land development, waste disposal, and construction on coasts.

The modifications in coasts are not solely caused by coastal processes. Some human
activities contribute to the alteration of coastal landscapes. They can worsen the effects of
coastal processes.

What are some effects of human activities on the coasts? How can the effects of
human activities be prevented from negatively affecting coasts?

Learn about it!

Human activities such as land development, waste disposal, and construction cause
different changes in coastal features. It is vital that impacts of these activities be
prevented or mitigated to help the coasts in withstanding coastal processes.
Coastal Land Development

Coastal land development is due to the demand in space, structures, and facilities that
are used for various human needs. It aggravates the effects of coastal processes. It
increases the incidents of sand mining and sediment run-off that contribute to coastal
erosion. In addition, the increase in establishments leads to higher demand for freshwater
which then contribute to saltwater intrusion.

Several ways must be employed to control the impact of land development on coasts. In
the Philippines, PD 1586 has established the implementation of Philippine
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). EIA allows the determination of the possible
environmental consequences of implementing a project, and it also plans possible
preventive and enhancing methods for mitigation of the determined risks. EIA points out
the dangers before, during, and after development. Meanwhile, environmental risk
assessments (ERAs) are done in an ongoing project and help identify and evaluate the
effects on the ecosystem of any hazards caused by land development. Developments must
also have blueprints that ensure that coasts are preserved, infrastructures are used
efficiently, and the development itself has a beneficial use for the community. Lastly,
controlling activities of development must be employed to ensure the protection of coasts
from strain.

Learn about it!

Waste Disposal

The increase in development and population may lead to increased amounts of waste
disposed of in a coastal area. The wastes are sometimes disposed of in landfills built near
the coasts. The construction of these landfills not only causes land and water pollution to
the coastal area but also amplifies the effects of coastal erosion and results in saltwater
intrusion.

Effective solid waste management planning and implementation must be carried out
by the residents and users of coastal areas. Managing solid wastes at the community level
prevents coastal deterioration. Industrial wastes must also be properly managed and not
released in coastal areas.

Construction

Constructions on coasts are consequences of the increasing land development in the

area. If done haphazardly, these constructed infrastructures can cause more harm to the
coast.
It is crucial that these structures are built at a safe distance from the coasts. This ensures
both the structures’ and coasts’ safety. Structures must also have strong foundations to
withstand the coastal harshness so that they will not deteriorate. It is also suggested that
the buildings be elevated so as not to impact directly the coastal soil and for their
protection against coastal processes. If possible, reinforcing building envelopes should
be considered to protect the infrastructure and land from coastal threats. Building
envelopes are structures that separate interior from exterior, like walls, doors, roofs.

Explore!
Identify a coastal area near your home or school. What are the possible risks to this area
brought about by coastal land development, waste disposal, and construction? What
regulations does your local government implement to protect these areas?

Try it!
You recently finished rural studies and your expertise is coastal management and
protection. A coastal area community has agreed for land development and is seeking
your help to draft rules and regulations for the agreement with the contractor. What
provisions will you include in the agreement? Draft your own terms of agreement for the
land development project that emphasizes coastal protection.

What do you think?

What will be the effect on coastal areas if unregulated land developments, waste disposal
systems, and construction activities continue to happen?
 Key Points
 Coastal land development, waste disposal, and construction are three major human
activities that directly affect coasts.

 Coastal land development is a thriving activity due to increasing demands.

Unfortunately, it contributes to the incidents of soil erosion and saltwater
intrusion.

 Risk assessment, blueprint development, and control of activities can mitigate the
effects of coastal land development.

 Construction of landfills not only pollutes the soil and water but also causes
erosion.

 Effective solid waste management can prevent the effects of waste disposal along
coastal areas.

 Construction of building envelopes and strong foundations for infrastructures, and

conducting works at a safe and acceptable distance from the shoreline are
mitigation procedures for the effects of construction on coastal areas.

Test Question
1. Which of the following human activities have major impacts on coastal changes?

 I. construction

 II. incineration

 III. land development

 IV. waste disposal

 A. I only

 B. II only

 C. I, II and III

 D. I, III and IV

2. Which of the following waste facilities can cause erosion as well as land and water
pollution?

 A. disposal bins

 B. landfills

 C. incinerators

 D. recycling plants

3. Which of the following involves the study of a coastal area to determine possible
environmental risks before starting land development projects?

 A. Environmental Impact Assessment

 B. Developmental Ban

 C. Environmental Risk Assessment

 D. Blueprint Development

4. Which of the following result in coastal erosion during a coastal land development?

 I. sand mining

 II. sediment run-off

 III. demolition

 IV. wave generation

 A. I and II
 B. III and IV

 C. I and IV

 D. II and IV

5. Which of the following is a possible consequence of the increase in demand for

freshwater when a coastal area is developed?

 A. coastal accretion

 B. decrease in businesses

 C. saltwater intrusion

 D. increase in population

6. Which of the following best mitigates the effects of coastal land development?

 A. Abandon an on-going development on the coastal area.

 B. Encourage developers for the coastal land.

 C. Prevent development of coastal areas.

 D. Control the activities that can be done in the area.

7. Which of the following are effective principles of solid waste management on coasts?

 I. abandonment of landfills

 II. proper program implementation

 III. planning

 IV. assessment

 A. I and II

 B. I and III

 C. II, III and IV

 D. I and IV

8. Which of the following best describe the effect of constructions on coasts?

 I. Constructions release chemicals that alter the biological health of coasts.

 II. Constructions do not affect the coasts in general.

 III. Constructions use materials and employ activities that alter the surface of the
coasts.

 IV. Constructions provide sand and rocks that help build up the coastal soil.

 A. I only

 B. I and III

 C. II and IV

 D. II and III

9. Which of the following best explains why construction of infrastructures must be done
at a “safe distance” from the coasts?

 A. It protects the construction from the effects of high tides.

 B. It protects the infrastructure from coastal processes.

 C. It provides the infrastructure with a better view of the coasts.

 D. Construction does not pose dangers to the coasts.

A coastal area was hit by strong waves two years ago. The current mayor of the town
decided to let contractors develop the land right away.

10. Was the mayor’s decision right? Why?

 A. No. The area did not undergo environmental impact assessments before
project implementation. The land development may cause more damage to the
area.
 B. No. An area previously affected by coastal processes must be abandoned.

 C. Yes. Developers will provide the area with better structures and the land will
have a better appearance.

 D. Yes. The coastal area has been safe from waves from two years so it is safe to
let the contractors develop the land immediately.
Lesson 4.1 The Evolving Concept of
Life
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·TUESDAY, OCTOBER 18, 2016

Introduction to Life Science

Objective

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain the evolving concept of life based
on emerging pieces of evidence. Study and analyze the diagram.
What was the first form of life?

Learn about it!

Life is believed to have existed on earth for billions of years now. Scientists do not know
exactly when did life begin on Earth. However, they are able to trace how life developed
and evolved using some pieces of evidence.

The Origin of Life

There are many theories about the origin of life. Some believed that living organisms
were put to Earth by some divine forces. Others say that life did not originate from Earth
but from other planets. But among scientists, the most accepted theory is that life came
from inanimate matter. According to the primordial soup theory proposed by
Alexander Oparin and John Haldane, life started in a primordial soup of organic
molecules. Some form of energy from lightning combined with the chemicals in the
atmosphere to make the building blocks of protein known as the amino acids.

Learn about it!

Early Forms of Life

The first form of life is believed to have appeared some 3.5 billion years ago. The first
evidence of life is found in microfossils.

Microfossils are fossils that contain the remains of tiny plants and animals. They are very
small and can be measured in millimeters, and some could only be identified under a
microscope. Some of the remains of organisms do not have a nucleus so they were called
prokaryotes. They are known to be the earliest forms of life. They have survived the
extreme conditions of the early environment. They started to make their own food by
utilizing the energy from the sun and the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. These are the
photosynthetic organisms. The process of photosynthesis produced more oxygen that
changed the Earth’s early atmosphere. This change in the atmosphere allowed oxygen-
breathing organisms to exist.

The cyanobacteria are the first photosynthetic organisms to form. Their microfossils are
among the easiest to recognize. Their morphology remained the same and they left
chemical fossils in the form of broken products from pigments. The first microfossil that
showed remains of organisms with differences in structure from the simple form of life
was seen in rocks about 1.5 billion years old. They are larger than bacteria and have
internal membranes and thicker wall. These findings marked the beginning of eukaryotic
organisms on Earth.

Learn about it!

How did multicellular organisms evolve?

Multicellular organisms are believed to have evolved from unicellular eukaryotes. Some
single eukaryotic cells, like unicellular algae, formed multicellular aggregates through
association with another cell producing colonies. From colonial aggregates, the
organisms evolved to form multicellular organisms through cell specialization.

Protozoans, sponges, and fungi came to being. The first fossilized animals which were
discovered 580 million years ago were soft-bodied. The continuous process of cell
specialization brought the emergence of complex and diverse plants and animals,
including human beings. Evidence from fossil layers proved that different forms of life
 were present and have evolved through time. According to Charles Darwin, organisms
change over time as a result of adaptation to their environment in order to survive.

Explore!

Your mother bought some meat from the market one day. She placed the meat in a pan
but forgot to place it in the freezer. After some time, maggots were seen crawling from
the meat. What can you say about these outcomes?

Try it!

Place a piece of bread in a plastic container and leave it for three days. Observe what
would happen to the bread. What do you see on the bread? What brought them there?

What do you think?

If multicellular organisms came from unicellular organisms, then are all species related?

Key Points

 The first forms of life are the bacteria found on microfossils.

 Eukaryotic cells evolved from prokaryotic cells.

 Multicellular organisms evolved from eukaryotic cells through cell specialization.

 The evolution of life is brought about by the changes in the environment which
are linked to changes in climate and geology.
 Evidence that life evolved is found in fossil records and molecular biology.

Test Question
1. When did the early forms of life exist?

 A. 1.5 billion years ago

 B. 2.5 billion years ago

 C. 4.5 billion years ago

 D. 3.5 billion years ago

2. Where is the first form of life seen?

 A. microfossils

 B. layers of rocks

 C. oceanic crusts

 D. sediments

3. Which of the following is the first photosynthetic organism to form?

 A. cyanobacteria

 B. algae

 C. fungi

 D. gymnosperm

4. Which is not true about the prokaryotes?

 A. They are simple in structure, small, and unicellular.

 B. They do not have nucleus.

 C. They survive in extreme conditions.

 D. They are not capable of making their own food.

5. Which of the following processes brought changes in the early atmosphere?

 A. earthquake

 B. extreme condition

 C. photosynthesis

 D. volcanic eruption

6. The following are multicellular organisms first evolved from colonial aggregates
except:

 A. fungi

 B. protozoans

 C. sponges

 D. mollusks

7. Which of the following statements is not correct?

 A. Photosynthetic organisms decreased the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere.

 B. Organisms change over time as a result of adaptation for survival.

 C. Multicellular organisms evolved from unicellular eukaryotes.

 D. The earliest forms of life were the prokaryotes.

8. All of the following statements are true about the evolution of multicellular organisms
except:

 A. They are formed from multicellular colonial aggregates through cell

specialization.
 B. They are believed to have evolved from single-celled prokaryotes.

 C. The process of continuous specialization brought more complex organisms.

 D. The single-celled organisms that formed multicellular aggregates were like the
cells of algae.

9. Why do you think the emergence of plants and animals came later than simple living
organisms?

 A. They are too big and take time to form.

 B. They are the least important factor in the environment.

 C. Their cell structures are more complex.

 D. They contain more nucleus compared to lower forms of organisms.

10. Considering the present condition of the environment, do you think living organisms
are still evolving today?

 A. Yes, because humans continuously alter the environment that triggers

evolution among living organisms in order to survive.

 B. No, because the environment remains favourable to living organisms.

 C. Yes, because it is a natural phenomenon which we cannot stop from

happening.

 D. No, because there is no condition outside their bodies that will trigger
evolution.

Lesson 4.2 Classical Experiments

that Lead to the Discovery of First
Life
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·MONDAY, OCTOBER 24, 2016
Introduction to Life Science

Objective

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe classic experiments that model
conditions which may have enabled the first forms of life to evolve.

How did life begin on Earth?

Learn about it!

About 4.6 billion years ago, the Earth began to exist. The existence of life, as believed by
many scientists, started from the moment the Earth’s environment became stable to
support life. Several theories were proposed to explain life’s origin. One of these theories
is the primordial soup theory proposed by Alexander Oparin and John Haldane.
According to this theory, life started in a primordial soup of organic molecules.
Chemicals from the atmosphere and some form of energy from lightning combined to
make amino acids which are the building blocks of protein. Several scientists conducted
different experiments that modeled conditions which may have enabled the first life
forms to evolve. Among these experiments are the Electrical Discharge Experiment,
Thermal Synthesis, and The Protocell Experiment.

Learn about it!

Electrical Discharge Experiment

Stanley Miller and Harold Urey verified the primordial soup theory by simulating the
formation of organic molecules on the early Earth. They confined methane, ammonia,
water, and hydrogen in a closed system and applied continuous electrical sparks to trigger
the formation of the building blocks of life. After a day, they observed a change of color
in the solution. After a week, the solution was tested, and they found out that several
amino acids were produced. The purpose of this experiment was not to try and produce
amino acids, rather, its purpose was to explore the conditions of the early Earth and what
the naturally occurring results would be.

Learn about it!

Thermal Synthesis

Sidney Fox demonstrated in his experiment the origin of life using a specific mixture of
pure, dry amino acids. In his experiment, after heating the mixture, an aqueous solution
was formed and cooled into microscopic globules called protenoid microspheres. The
globules looked like coccoid bacteria and seemed to be budding, which is a form of
reproduction in some microorganisms. He claimed that the protenoid microspheres
constituted protocells – almost true cells, and multiplied through division like true cells.
He believed that these cells were the link between the primordial environment and the
true living cells.

Learn about it!

The Protocell Experiment

Jack Szostak contemplated on how early life forms formed in a primordial chemical
environment. He then thought that the simplest possible living cells or protocells just
required two components to be formed: a nucleic acid genome to transmit the genetic
information and a lipid sac which encapsulated the genome and let itself grow and
 divide. Szostak built lipid sacs made in fatty acids and a replicase – an RNA molecule
that catalyzes its own replication, in the test tube. He found out that lipid sacs with more
RNA grew faster. He suggested that such test tube evolution was possible. The results
suggested that the early forms of life with just a single gene, an RNA gene, could have
undergone a Darwinian evolution.

Try it!

Try to leave a piece of bread on the table for two to three weeks. What do you think will
happen to it? How will you relate this to the experiments about the origin of life?

What do you think?

Which of the three experiments is the most plausible in determining the origin of life?
Why?

Key Points

 One of the theories about the early forms of life is the primordial soup theory
proposed by Alexander Oparin and John Haldane.

 Several scientists conducted different experiments that modeled conditions

which may have enabled the first life forms to evolve; these include Electrical
Discharge Experiment, Thermal Synthesis, and The Protocell Experiment.

 Stanley Miller and Harold Urey verified the primordial soup theory by simulating
the formation of organic molecules on the early Earth.
 Sidney Fox demonstrated in his experiment the origin of life using a specific
mixture of pure, dry amino acids.

 Jack Szostak made protocells from a lipid sac and a replicase – an RNA molecule
that catalyzes its own replication.

Test Question

1. What theory proposes that life began in an ocean as a product of the combination of
chemicals from the atmosphere and some form of energy to produce the building blocks
of life?

 A. panspermia

 B. catastrophism

 C. primordial soup theory

 D. spontaneous generation

2. Who proposed the primordial soup theory?

 I. Alexander Oparin

 II. John Haldane

 III. Stanley Miller

 IV. Jack Szostak

 A. I only

 B. II only

 C. III and IV

 D. I and II
 3. What was the product in Sidney Fox' experiment using a mixture of dry amino acids?

 A. amino acids

 B. protenoid microspheres

 C. nucleid acid genome

 D. lipid sacs

4. Which of the following components did Jack Szostak use to produce protocells?

 I. lipid sacs

 II. nucleic acid genome

 III. RNA

 IV. DNA

 A. I and II

 B. I, II, III

 C. II and IV

 D. III and IV

5. Which of the following describe the protenoid microspheres?

 I. They constituted protocells ‒ almost true cells.

 II. They looked like coccoid bacteria.

 III. They seemed to be undergoing binary fission.

 IV. They multiplied through division.

 A. I and II

 B. II and III

 C. I, II, and IV
 D. II, III, and IV

6. How did Miller and Urey verify the primordial soup theory?

 A. They confined methane, ammonia, water, and hydrogen in a closed system and
applied continuous electrical sparks.

 B. They used a mixture of pure, dry amino acids and subjected the mixture to
heat to form protenoid microspheres.

 C. They used a nucleic acid genome to transmit the genetic information and a
lipid sac to let itself grow and divide.

 D. They simulated the formation of organic molecules on the early Earth using
the energy from lightning to form amino acids.

7. Which of the following is not true about the protocell experiment?

 A. Lipid sacs with more RNA grew faster.

 B. Fatty acids were used to make lipid sacs.

 C. Replicase was used as the genome.

 D. Test tube evolution was not plausible.

8. What did Szostak's experiment prove?

 I. Darwinian evolution may take place in a test tube environment.

 II. The early forms of life with just a single gene could have undergone a
Darwinian evolution.

 III. Protocells may not be formed in a primordial chemical environment.

 IV. RNA will not be able to transmit genetic information because it cannot
replicate on its own.

 A. I only
 B. II only

 C. I and II

 D. III and IV

9. What did the Miller and Urey's experiment prove?

 A. Complex organic molecules can develop spontaneously under primordial

environment.

 B. Life could have evolved on Earth from non-living chemicals.

 C. Protocells were the simplest living organisms to appear on Earth.

 D. RNA can produce new RNA molecules from RNA templates.

10. Do you think scientists still believe that life may arise spontaneously from non-living
chemicals on our planet today?

 A. No, because spontaneous evolution from non-living chemicals is not yet

proven and accepted.

 B. Yes, but only limited.

 C. No, because the conditions of the atmosphere have changed and are no longer
favorable for spontaneous evolution to occur.

 D. Yes, because it is a natural thing.

Lesson 4.3 The Connections and

Interactions Among Living Things
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·THURSDAY, OCTOBER 27, 2016

Introduction to Life Science

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe how unifying themes (e.g.,
structure and function, evolution, and ecosystems) show the connections among living
things and how they interact with each other and with their environment.

How are these units connected to each other?

Learn about it!

Ecology

Ecology is the branch of biology that deals with the study of living organisms and
their relationships with each other and their environment. Let’s take the diagram in
the previous slide as an example.

The diagram depicts that everything is connected and interrelated with one another. They
are different from each other, but they co-exist with one another in one community. The
unifying themes of life give us an idea of how each of these themes contributes to the
connection and interaction of living organisms and their environment.

Biological Systems
A system consists of related parts that interact with each other to form a whole. It has
different parts, but each plays a significant role for the whole to function as one. Without
the help from each other, it cannot fully perform its function.

Levels of Organization

The cells are considered as the basic unit of life. All living organisms are made up of
cells. When cells come together, they form the tissues. A group of tissues that perform
the same functions form the organs. A group of organs that works together form the
different organ systems. An organism consists of many organ systems but functions as
one individual.
Forms and Functions

The function of an organism or a part of an organism greatly depends on its form and
structure. It is related to how it works. An example of this is the webbed foot of a duck
which helps the duck swim and search for their food under water. Others birds have
different structures of feet used for perching and grasping food.

Learn about it!

Reproduction and Inheritance

Reproduction ensures the survival of species. All living organisms reproduce either
through asexual or sexual reproduction. In asexual reproduction, the offspring inherits
the genes from a single parent. However in sexual reproduction, the offspring inherit the
genes from two individual parents. Some examples of animals that undergo asexual
reproduction include earthworms, hydra, planaria, and bacteria.
Animals that undergo sexual reproduction include some reptiles, fishes, insects, and
mammals.
Energy and Life
Living organisms obtain energy from the food they eat. Plants undergo photosynthesis
where they convert the energy from the sun into sugar. Since most of the animals cannot
produce their own energy, they get the energy from the consumption and assimilation of
the biomass of plants and other animals.

Thermal Regulation

The ability of an organism to regulate their internal conditions is called homeostasis.

Humans have to maintain a body temperature of 37 ∘ C. When the temperature outside

our bodies becomes hot, the skin cools down by perspiration, maintaining the normal
body temperature.

Adaptation and Evolution

In a world that is continuously changing, life itself evolves. Evolution is the change in
the physical and heritable traits of organisms over successive generations. Organisms
change over time to acclimate to their environment in order to survive. If they fail to
adapt to the changes, they usually become extinct. The Baiji white dolphin, for example,
became extinct due to diminished food supply and in addition to that, the pollution
caused by human activities. One contemporary example of adaptation is the Aedes
aegypti or the mosquito famous for carrying dengue that caused major outbreaks
nationwide.

Their eggs were able to survive with scarce or no rainwater which is essential to their life
cycle. Evolution takes time, usually decades. However, there are times when change
happens very rapidly. One example is the blue moon butterfly that managed to undergo a
mutation which allows the males to survive an infection of a parasite.
Explore!
Look around you and identify the living organisms that surround you. What makes them
similar to one another? What makes them different?

Try it!
Observe what happens to your body when you enter a very dark and cold theater. How
does your body adapt to the surrounding?
 What do you think?
Which of the unifying themes do you consider the most important of all? Why did you
say so? Key Points

 Ecology is the study of living organisms and their relationships with each other
and their environment.

 An organism’s structure is related to how it works.

 An organism consists of many organ systems but functions as one individual.

 The function of an organism or a part of it depends on its form and structure.

 Reproduction ensures the survival of species.

 Living things obtain energy from the food they eat.

 The ability of an organism to regulate their internal conditions is called

homeostasis.

 Organisms undergo adaptation or evolution in order to survive.

Test Questions

1. What is the process by which the sun's energy is trapped as the source of energy and is
converted into chemical energy?

 A. adaptation

 B. evolution

 C. photosynthesis

 D. homeostasis
 2. Which of the following refers to the process by which changes occur in the
characteristics of species of organisms over time?

 A. evolution

 B. homeostasis

 C. regulation

 D. metabolism

3. Which refers to the maintenance of internal conditions of an organism within a certain

range?

 A. adaptation

 B. evolution

 C. metabolism

 D. homeostasis

4. Which of the following sequences is likely to be observed in an elephant, going from

smallest to largest?

 A. cell, organ, tissue, organism

 B. cell, organ, system, tissue

 C. organism, system, organ, tissue

 D. cell, tissue, system, organism

5. Which of the following does not follow the principle of form follows function?

 A. The thick and heavy bones of birds allow them to stay longer in the air.

 B. The fins of a fish help it to propel itself through the water.

 C. The beaver’s spoon-shaped tail helps them in swimming and is also used as a
defense mechanism.
 D. The biconcave shape of red blood cells provides greater surface area which
allow both red blood cells and oxygen to exchange through the capillaries which
are smaller in diameter than the red blood cells.

6. Which statement is not true about living organisms?

 A. Living things are made up of cells.

 B. Living things adapt and evolve in order to survive.

 C. Living things have different parts that depend on the structure and form for
their functions.

 D. Living things are made of organic elements only.

7. Which of the following is not an example of homeostasis?

 A. Sweating cools the body down when temperature rises.

 B. Energy is captured by plants to convert light energy into chemical energy.

 C. If there is too much glucose in the blood, insulin converts some of it to

glycogen.

 D. The capillaries underneath your skin get constricted to take the blood away
from the surface of the skin to warm the body up.

8. Which is true about the extinction of a species?

 A. It can be caused by a natural phenomenon.

 B. It is caused by humans only.

 C. It is never affected by human activities.

 D. It has a progressive impact on biodiversity.

Some members of a species have a genetic change that causes them to survive in their
environment.
 They have survived to reproduce and pass these genetic changes to their offspring.

9. What best explains this situation?

 A. All living organisms are made up of cells.

 B. Living things evolve through time.

 C. Living things interact with their environment in order to survive.

 D. Different organisms have to maintain different internal conditions.

Over a year, the population of Bengal tigers in India decreased by half of its original
size.

10. Which statement below best explains this change in the Bengal tiger’s population?

 A. presence of rich habitat and sustainability in food sources

 B. poaching due to the increasing demand for traditional Asian medicines

 C. gradual change in climate and other environmental factors

 D. increase in the number of prey in the area

Lesson 5.1 Cell: The Basic Unit of

Life
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·THURSDAY, OCTOBER 27, 2016

Bioenergetics

Objective

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how cells carry out functions
required for life.

Have you ever wondered what the inside of a cell looks like and how its parts
perform functions required for life?
Learn about it!
The Basic Unit of Life

All organisms are made up of cells. The cell is the basic structural unit found in every
living organism that performs several functions throughout life. The zoo animals such as
elephants and snakes, the plants in the garden, and even yourself, are all living things
composed of cells. These cells can only be seen through the use of a microscope.
Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells

There are two types of cells based on the presence or absence of a nucleus. Cells can be
eukaryotic or prokaryotic. Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus which contains the genetic
material or DNA. They also have several membrane-bound organelles such as ribosomes
and mitochondria. They include animal and plant cells. Prokaryotic cells differ in
eukaryotic cells because their DNA is found in a region called the nucleoid rather than a
nucleus. They also lack most membrane-bound organelles present in eukaryotes.
However, prokaryotes have cytoplasm where organelles are suspended, flagella that aids
in motility, cell wall made of peptidogycan, cell membrane that serves as a selective
barrier, and ribosomes that make proteins.
Learn about it!
Eukaryotic Cells

There are two types of eukaryotic cells: animal and plant cells.

Animal Cells

Aside from the nucleus, the typical animal cell also have other membrane-bound
organelles such as mitochondria, lysosomes, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum,
nucleus, microtubules, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes.
 The mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell because this is where most energy
(ATP) is produced.

 The lysosomes break down large molecules into smaller pieces and digest worn
out organelles.
 The Golgi apparatus sorts and packages proteins and lipids produced by the
smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum.

 The cis face receives the materials for processing in transport vesicles.

 The trans face is the discharging end where molecules are released through the
secretory vesicles.

 The endoplasmic reticulum has two types: rough ER and smooth ER.

 Rough endoplasmic reticulum is bounded with ribosomes. It is where most

protein synthesis occurs.
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum has no ribosomes attached. Its function is mainly
for lipid synthesis.

 The nucleus is the largest organelle that serves as the control center of the cell. It
contains the hereditary material known as DNA.

 The microtubules are components of the cytoskeleton and important in a number

of cellular processes.
 The plasma membrane is a semi-permeable membrane that encloses the cell
separating its contents from the surroundings.
 The cytoplasm is a semifluid matrix where organelles are suspended.

 The ribosomes consist of the large and small subunits. Their main role is to
synthesize proteins needed by the cell.
 Plant Cells
Plant and animal cells share the same structures except for the chloroplast, cell wall, and
amyloplast, which are only found in plants. A large vacuole is found in both animal and
plant cells but is a typical and distinct structure in a plant cell.

 The cell wall provides support and protection for the cell. Special openings called
plasmodesmata are used to communicate and transport materials between plant
cells.
 The chloroplasts convert light energy to sugars through photosynthesis.

 The vacuole is responsible for storing food, water, and metabolic and toxic
wastes.

 The amyloplast is responsible for the production and storage of starch and the
conversion of starch back to sugar as needed by the plant for energy.

Learn about it!

How do cells carry out functions required for life?

Cells have different types which are specialized to perform specific functions. For
example, cardiac muscle cells have numerous mitochondrion because they need a lot of
energy. Nerve cells are long for them to be able to transmit signals from the brain to the
rest of the body. Cell membrane of cells in the intestine is extended to have more surface
area to absorb food. Mammalian red blood cells don’t have nucleus to make more room
for hemoglobin, a protein that carries respiratory gases.
Explore!

Cancer cells are basically cells that have gone wrong. Typically, these cells no longer
respond to signals, their growth is uncontrollable, and they even evade apoptosis
(programmed cell death). Since the cells keep on dividing, they eventually form a lump
(tumor) that grows in size.
 How do normal cells become cancer cells?

What do you think?

Human red blood cells lose their nucleus when they mature. What properties of mature
red blood cells can you infer from this information?

Key Points

 The cell is the basic unit of life.

 Prokaryotic cells do not have nucleus. Their genetic material is found in a region
called the nucleoid.

 Eukaryotic cells have nucleus which contains the genetic material. They can be
classified as animal or plant cells.
 Animal cells have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles such as
mitochondria, lysosomes, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, microtubules,
plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes.

 Plant cells have the same structures as animal cells except for chloroplast, cell
wall, and amyloplast which are only found in plants.

 Cells have different types which are specialized to perform specific functions.

Test Question

1. It is the basic unit of life.

 A. tissue

 B. organ system

 C. organ

 D. cell

2. They are organelles found outside a eukaryotic cell and usually involved in movement
of the cell or movement of substances past the cell.

 A. cell walls and plasmodesmata

 B. nucleus and nucleolus

 C. cilia and flagella

 D. cytoplasm and endoplasm

3. Which of the following is the function of smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

 A. the site of lipid and membrane synthesis

 B. aids the movement of the cell

 C. controls all the activities of the cell

 D. involved in protein synthesis

4. Which structure-function pair is mismatched?

 A. rough ER: lipid synthesis

 B. nucleus: control center

 C. mitochondria: powerhouse of the cell

 D. cell wall: protection

You viewed a specimen under a microscope and see cell walls and membrane bound
organelles.

5. Based on your knowledge about cells, what type of cell did you see?

 A. bacterial cells

 B. animal cells

 C. plant cells

 D. cannot be determined

6. Which of the following is a characteristic of bacterial cells?

 A. smaller nucleus

 B. lack a plasma membrane

 C. have a greater variety of organelles

 D. DNA found in nucleoid

7. Which of these best distinguishes a prokaryotic cell from a eukaryotic cell?

 A. Prokaryotic cells do not have a membrane-bound nucleus, but eukaryotic cells

do have.
 B. Prokaryotic cells are much larger than the eukaryotic cells.

 C. Prokaryotic cells have ribosomes, but eukaryotic cells do not have ribosomes.

 D. Prokaryotic cells have a cell wall and chloroplast, but eukaryotic cells never do.

8. Which of the following cells would need a lot of mitochondria?

 A. nerve cells

 B. muscle cells

 C. blood cells

 D. intestine cells

9. Why do mammalian red blood cells lack a nucleus?

 A. to give the cells a red color

 B. to enhance its ability to carry gases

 C. to absorb more nutrients

 D. to efficiently transmit signals

10. Which of the following is specialized to intestine cells to perform its function
efficiently?

 A. extended cell membrane

 B. absence of nucleus

 C. lesser mitochondria

 D. numerous ribosomes
Photosynthesis 1
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·FRIDAY, OCTOBER 12, 2018

(Subtitl text)

In order for plants to grow they need inputs of carbon dioxide, water and energy. The
chemical process by which plants use these resources to manufacture glucose -the
building blocks of plants is called photosynthesis.

In the process, oxygen gas is produced as a by-product. The energy for photosynthesis
originates in the sun and arrives at the earth as sunlight. This light has both a wave and a
particle nature.

The particles of photons are the smallest unit of light. Photons isolates along a path
which is measured as wavelengths. The light emitted from the sun contains photons in a
wide spectrum of wavelengths called the electromagnetic spectrum. Photosynthetic
organisms use only a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum called visible light.
Photosynthetic organisms contain pigments that facilitate the capture of wavelengths of
light in the visible light range.

The color of the pigment comes from the wavelengths of light reflected. Plants appear
green because they reflect yellow and green wavelengths of light. Red and blue
wavelengths of light are absorbed by these pigments and provide the energy that is used
for photosynthesis.

Within photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms also known as photoautotrophs, the chemical

reactions of photosynthesis occurs within plant cells in specialized structures known as
chloroplast. Photosynthesis consists of two sets of reactions: the light dependent
reactions and the Calvin cycle. Within a chloroplast are small disc-like structures called
thylakoids which are surrounded by a fluid-filled space called the stroma.

The reactions that synthesize glucose - the Calvin cycle occur in the stroma. The light-
dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid. It is here that the conversion of energy to
chemical energy is initiated. In most photosynthetic organisms, thylakoids contain pairs
of photosystems called photosystem 1 and photosystem 2 that work in tandem to
produce the energy that will later be used in the stroma to manufacture sugars. The
photosystems of the thylakoid consist of the network of accessory pigment molecules and
chlorophyll. The molecules that absorb the photons of light.

Within the pigment molecules the absorbed light energy excites electrons to a higher
state. Photosystems will channel the excitation energy gathered by the pigment
molecules to a reaction center chlorophyll molecule which will then passed the electrons
to a series of proteins located on the thylakoid membrane. photons of light strike
photosystems I and II simultaneously. We will examine what happens with the photon
striking photosystem II first. The energized electrons are passed from the reaction center
of photosystem II to an electron transport chain. The electrons lost by photosystem II
are replaced by a process called photolysis which involves the oxidation of a water
molecule producing free electrons and oxygen gas.

From this oxygen gas is a byproduct of photosynthesis it is an important input to the

cellular respiration pathways. As electrons pass through the electron transport chain the
energy from the electron is used to pump hydrogen ions from the stroma to the thylakoid
creating a concentration gradient. This gradient powers a protein called ATP synthase
which fast for elates ADP to form ATP the low energy electrons leaving photosystem II
are shuttled to photosystem I.

Within photosystem I, low energy electrons are re-energized and are passed through an
electron transport chain with a are used to reduce the electron carrier NADP+ to NADPH.
On a chloroplast is receiving a steady supply of photons, NADPH and ATP molecules are
rapidly being provided to the metabolic pathways in the stroma. Therefore the ATP and
NADPH form during the light-dependent reactions are used in the stroma to fuel the
Calvin cycle reactions.

The Calvin cycle consists of a series of reactions that reduce carbon dioxide to produce
the carbohydrate glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. The cycle consists of three steps: the first
of which is called carbon fixation. In this step, carbon dioxide is attached to ribulose 15-
bisphosphate resulting in a six-carbon molecule that splits into two 3-carbon molecules.

The second step is a sequence of reactions using electrons from NADPH and some of the
ATP to reduce carbon dioxide. In the final step, ribulose 15-bisphosphate is regenerated.
For every three turns of the cycle five molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate are used
to reform three molecules of ribulose 15-bisphosphate.

The remaining glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is then used to make glucose, fatty acids or
glycerol. It takes two molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to make one molecule of
glucose phosphate, thus the Calvin cycle has to run 6 times to produce one molecule of
glucose. The molecules can remove their phosphate and add fructose to form sucrose.
The molecule plants used to transport carbohydrates throughout their system.

Glucose-phosphate is also the starting molecule for the synthesis of starch and cellulose.
Plants produce sugars to use as storage molecules and structural components for their
own benefit. By utilizing the energy of the sun along with inputs of water and carbon
dioxide, plants act as glucose factories.

Photosynthetic organisms are the primary producers of glucose on the planet. They also
produce oxygen gas as a byproduct and thus serves as the foundation of life providing
food and oxygen for the complex food webs on both land and in the oceans.
Lesson 5: (Photosynthesis 1)
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·SUNDAY, SEPTEMBER 16, 2018

Key Concept 1: Photosynthesis converts light energy to the

chemical energy of food

The Process That Feeds the Biosphere

Life on Earth is solar powered. The chloroplasts in plants and other photosynthetic
organisms capture light energy that has traveled 150 million kilometers from the sun and
convert it to chemical energy that is stored in sugar and other organic molecules. This
conversion process is called photosynthesis. Let’s begin by placing photosynthesis in its
ecological context. Photosynthesis nourishes almost the entire living world directly or
indirectly. An organism acquires the organic compounds it uses for energy and carbon
skeletons by one of two major modes: autotrophic nutrition or heterotrophic nutrition.

Autotrophs are “self-feeders” (auto- means “self,” and trophos means “feeder”); they
sustain themselves without eating anything derived from other living beings. Autotrophs
produce their organic molecules from CO2 and other inorganic raw materials obtained
from the environment. They are the ultimate sources of organic compounds for all
nonautotrophic organisms, and for this reason, biologists refer to autotrophs as the
producers of the biosphere.

Almost all plants are autotrophs; the only nutrients they require are water and minerals
from the soil and carbon dioxide from the air. Specifically, plants are photoautotrophs,
organisms that use light as a source of energy to synthesize organic substances.
Photosynthesis also occurs in algae, certain other unicellular eukaryotes, and some
prokaryotes.
Heterotrophs obtain organic material by the second major mode of nutrition. Unable to
make their own food, they live on compounds produced by other organisms (heteromeans
“other”).

Heterotrophs are the biosphere’s consumers. The most obvious “other-feeding” occurs
when an animal eats plants or other animals. But heterotrophic nutrition may be more
subtle. Some heterotrophs consume the remains of dead organisms by decomposing and
feeding on organic litter such as carcasses, feces, and fallen leaves; these types of
organisms are known as decomposers. Most fungi and many types of prokaryotes get
their nourishment this way. Almost all heterotrophs, including humans, are completely
dependent, either directly or indirectly, on photoautotrophs for food—and also for
oxygen, a by-product of photosynthesis. The Earth’s supply of fossil fuels was formed
from remains of organisms that died hundreds of millions of years ago. In a sense, then,
fossil fuels represent stores of the sun’s energy from the distant past. Because these
resources are being used at a much higher rate than they are replenished, researchers are
exploring methods of capitalizing on the photosynthetic process to provide alternative
fuels.

In this lesson, you'll learn how photosynthesis works. After discussing general principles
of photosynthesis, we’ll consider the two stages of photosynthesis: the light reactions,
which capture solar energy and transform it into chemical energy; and the Calvin cycle,
which uses that chemical energy to make the organic molecules of food. Finally, we will
consider some aspects of photosynthesis from an evolutionary perspective.

The remarkable ability of an organism to harness light energy and use it to drive the
synthesis of organic compounds emerges from structural organization in the cell:
Photosynthetic enzymes and other molecules are grouped together in a biological
membrane, enabling the necessary series of chemical reactions to be carried out
efficiently. The process of photosynthesis most likely originated in a group of bacteria
that had infolded regions of the plasma membrane containing clusters of such molecules.
In existing photosynthetic bacteria, infolded photosynthetic membranes function
similarly to the internal membranes of the chloroplast, a eukaryotic organelle. According
to what has come to be known as the endosymbiont theory, the original chloroplast was a
photosynthetic prokaryote that lived inside an ancestor of eukaryotic cells. (You learned
about this theory in Chapter 6, and it will be described more fully in Chapter 25.)
Chloroplasts are present in a variety of photosynthesizing organisms, but here we focus
on chloroplasts in plants.

Chloroplasts: The Sites of Photosynthesis in Plants

All green parts of a plant, including green stems and unripened fruit, have chloroplasts,
but the leaves are the major sites of photosynthesis in most plants. There are about half a
million chloroplasts in a chunk of leaf with a top surface area of 1 mm2.

Chloroplasts are found mainly in the cells of the mesophyll, the tissue in the interior of
the leaf. Carbon dioxide enters the leaf, and oxygen exits, by way of microscopic pores
called stomata (singular, stoma; from the Greek, meaning “mouth”). Water absorbed by
the roots is delivered to the leaves in veins. Leaves also use veins to export sugar to roots
and other nonphotosynthetic parts of the plant.

A typical mesophyll cell has about 30–40 chloroplasts, each measuring about 2–4 μm by
4–7 μm. A chloroplast has an envelope of two membranes surrounding a dense fluid
called the stroma. Suspended within the stroma is a third membrane system, made up of
sacs called thylakoids, which segregates the stroma from the thylakoid space inside these
sacs. In some places, thylakoid sacs are stacked in columns called grana (singular,
granum).

Chlorophyll, the green pigment that gives leaves their color, resides in the thylakoid
membranes of the chloroplast. (The internal photosynthetic membranes of some
prokaryotes are also called thylakoid membranes. It is the light energy absorbed by
chlorophyll that drives the synthesis of organic molecules in the chloroplast. Now that we
have looked at the sites of photosynthesis in plants, we are ready to look more closely at
the process of photosynthesis.
Tracking Atoms Through Photosynthesis: Scientific
Inquiry

Scientists have tried for centuries to piece together the process by which plants make
food. Although some of the steps are still not completely understood, the overall
photosynthetic equation has been known since the 1800s: In the presence of light, the
green parts of plants produce organic compounds and oxygen from carbon dioxide and
water. Using molecular formulas, we can summarize the complex series of chemical
reactions in photosynthesis with this chemical equation:

We use glucose (C6H12O6) here to simplify the relationship between photosynthesis and
respiration, but the direct product of photosynthesis is actually a three-carbon sugar that
can be used to make glucose. Water appears on both sides of the equation because 12
molecules are consumed and 6 molecules are newly formed during photosynthesis. We
can simplify the equation by indicating only the net consumption of water:

Writing the equation in this form, we can see that the overall chemical change during
photosynthesis is the reverse of the one that occurs during cellular respiration. Both of
these metabolic processes occur in plant cells. However, as you will soon learn,
chloroplasts do not synthesize sugars by simply reversing the steps of respiration. Now
let’s divide the photosynthetic equation by 6 to put it in its simplest possible form:

Here, the brackets indicate that CH2O is not an actual sugar but represents the general
formula for a carbohydrate. In other words, we are imagining the synthesis of a sugar
molecule one carbon at a time. Six repetitions would theoretically produce a glucose
molecule (C6H12O6). Let’s now see how researchers tracked the elements C, H, and O
from the reactants of photosynthesis to the products.

The Splitting of Water One of the first clues to the mechanism of photosynthesis came
from the discovery that the O2 given off by plants is derived from H2O and not from
CO2. The chloroplast splits water into hydrogen and oxygen. Before this discovery, the
prevailing hypothesis was that photosynthesis split carbon dioxide (CO2 S C + O2) and
then added water to the carbon (C + H2O S [CH2O]). This hypothesis predicted that the
O2 released during photosynthesis came from CO2. This idea was challenged in the
1930s by C. B. van Niel, of Stanford University. Van Niel was investigating
photosynthesis in bacteria that make their carbohydrate from CO2 but do not release O2.
He concluded that, at least in these bacteria, CO2 is not split into carbon and oxygen. One
group of bacteria used hydrogen sulfide (H2S) rather than water for photosynthesis,
forming yellow globules of sulfur as a waste product. Here is the chemical equation for
photosynthesis in these sulfur bacteria:

Van Niel reasoned that the bacteria split H2S and used the hydrogen atoms to make
sugar. He then generalized that idea, proposing that all photosynthetic organisms require
a hydrogen source but that the source varies:

Thus, van Niel hypothesized that plants split H2O as a source of electrons from hydrogen
atoms, releasing O2 as a by-product. Nearly 20 years later, scientists confirmed van
Niel’s hypothesis by using oxygen-18 (18O), a heavy isotope, as a tracer to follow the
fate of oxygen atoms during photosynthesis. The experiments showed that the O2 from
plants was labeled with 18O only if water was the source of the tracer (experiment 1). If
the 18O was introduced to the plant in the form of CO2, the label did not turn up in the
released O2 (experiment 2). In the following summary, red denotes labeled atoms of
oxygen (18O):

A significant result of the shuffling of atoms during photosynthesis is the extraction of

hydrogen from water and its incorporation into sugar. The waste product of
photosynthesis, O2, is released to the atmosphere. Figure below shows the fates of all
atoms in photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis as a Redox Process

Let’s briefly compare photosynthesis with cellular respiration. Both processes involve
redox reactions. During cellular respiration, energy is released from sugar when electrons
associated with hydrogen are transported by carriers to oxygen, forming water as a by-
product. The electrons lose potential energy as they “fall” down the electron transport
chain toward electronegative oxygen, and the mitochondrion harnesses that energy to
synthesize ATP. Photosynthesis reverses the direction of electron flow. Water is split,
and electrons are transferred along with hydrogen ions from the water to carbon dioxide,
reducing it to sugar.
Because the electrons increase in potential energy as they move from water to sugar, this
process requires energy—in other words is endergonic. This energy boost that occurs
during photosynthesis is provided by light.

The Two Stages of Photosynthesis: A Preview

The equation for photosynthesis is a deceptively simple summary of a very complex

process. Actually, photosynthesis is not a single process, but two processes, each with
multiple steps. These two stages of photosynthesis are known as the light reactions (the
photo part of photosynthesis) and the Calvin cycle (the synthesis part).

The light reactions are the steps of photosynthesis that convert solar energy to chemical
energy. Water is split, providing a source of electrons and protons (hydrogen ions, H+)
and giving off O2 as a by-product. Light absorbed by chlorophyll drives a transfer of the
electrons and hydrogen ions from water to an acceptor called NADP+ (nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide phosphate), where they are temporarily stored. The electron
acceptor NADP+ is first cousin to NAD+, which functions as an electron carrier in
cellular respiration; the two molecules differ only by the presence of an extra phosphate
group in the NADP+ molecule. The light reactions use solar energy to reduce NADP+ to
NADPH by adding a pair of electrons along with an H+. The light reactions also generate
ATP, using chemiosmosis to power the addition of a phosphate group to ADP, a process
called photophosphorylation. Thus, light energy is initially converted to chemical
energy in the form of two compounds: NADPH and ATP. NADPH, a source of electrons,
acts as “reducing power” that can be passed along to an electron acceptor, reducing it,
while ATP is the versatile energy currency of cells. Notice that the light reactions
produce no sugar; that happens in the second stage of photosynthesis, the Calvin cycle.
The Calvin cycle is named for Melvin Calvin, who, along with his colleagues James
Bassham and Andrew Benson, began to elucidate its steps in the late 1940s. The cycle
begins by incorporating CO2 from the air into organic molecules already present in the
chloroplast. This initial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds is known as
carbon fixation. The Calvin cycle then reduces the fixed carbon to carbohydrate by the
addition of electrons.

The reducing power is provided by NADPH, which acquired its cargo of electrons in the
light reactions. To convert CO2 to carbohydrate, the Calvin cycle also requires chemical
energy in the form of ATP, which is also generated by the light reactions. Thus, it is the
Calvin cycle that makes sugar, but it can do so only with the help of the NADPH and
ATP produced by the light reactions. The metabolic steps of the Calvin cycle are
sometimes referred to as the dark reactions, or lightindependent reactions, because none
of the steps requires light directly. Nevertheless, the Calvin cycle in most plants occurs
during daylight, for only then can the light reactions provide the NADPH and ATP that
the Calvin cycle requires. In essence, the chloroplast uses light energy to make sugar by
coordinating the two stages of photosynthesis. As Figure 10.6 indicates, the thylakoids of
the chloroplast are the sites of the light reactions, while the Calvin cycle occurs in the
stroma. On the outside of the thylakoids, molecules of NADP+ and ADP pick up
 electrons and phosphate, respectively, and NADPH and ATP are then released to the
stroma, where they play crucial roles in the Calvin cycle. The two stages of
photosynthesis are treated in this figure as metabolic modules that take in ingredients and
crank out products. In the next two sections, we’ll look more closely at how the two
stages work, beginning with the light reactions.

Concept Check 5 . 1
1. How do the reactant molecules of photosynthesis reach the chloroplasts in
leaves?

2. How did the use of an oxygen isotope help elucidate the chemistry of
photosynthesis?

3. What IF ? The Calvin cycle requires ATP and NADPH, products of the light
reactions. If a classmate asserted that the light reactions don’t depend on the
Calvin cycle and, with continual light, could just keep on producing ATP and
NADPH, how would you respond?
Lesson 5. (Photosynthesis 2)
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·SUNDAY, SEPTEMBER 16, 2018

Key concept: The light reactions covert solar energy to the

chemical energy of ATP and NADPH

Chloroplasts are chemical factories powered by the sun. Their thylakoids transform light
energy into the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH, which will be used to synthesize
glucose and other molecules that can be used as energy sources. To better understand the
conversion of light to chemical energy, we need to know about some important properties
of light.

The Nature of Sunlight

Light is a form of energy known as electromagnetic energy, also called electromagnetic

radiation. Electromagnetic energy travels in rhythmic waves analogous to those created
by dropping a pebble into a pond. Electromagnetic waves, however, are disturbances of
electric and magnetic fields rather than disturbances of a material medium such as water.
The distance between the crests of electromagnetic waves is called the wavelength.

Wavelengths range from less than a nanometer (for gamma rays) to more than a
kilometer (for radio waves). This entire range of radiation is known as the
electromagnetic spectrum (Figure 10.7). The segment most important to life is the narrow
band from about 380 nm to 750 nm in wavelength. This radiation is known as visible
light because it can be detected as various colors by the human eye. The model of light as
waves explains many of light’s properties, but in certain respects light behaves as though
it consists of discrete particles, called photons.

Photons are not tangible objects, but they act like objects in that each of them has a fixed
quantity of energy. The amount of energy is inversely related to the wavelength of the
light: the shorter the wavelength, the greater the energy of each photon of that light. Thus,
a photon of violet light packs nearly twice as much energy as a photon of red light.
Although the sun radiates the full spectrum of electromagnetic energy, the atmosphere
acts like a selective window, allowing visible light to pass through while screening out a
substantial fraction of other radiation. The part of the spectrum we can see—visible
light—is also the radiation that drives photosynthesis.

Photosynthetic Pigments: The Light Receptors

When light meets matter, it may be reflected, transmitted, or absorbed. Substances that
absorb visible light are known as pigments. Different pigments absorb light of different
wavelengths, and the wavelengths that are absorbed disappear. If a pigment is illuminated
with white light, the color we see is the color most reflected or transmitted by the
pigment. (If a pigment absorbs all wavelengths, it appears black.) We see green when we
look at a leaf because chlorophyll absorbs violet-blue and red light while transmitting and
reflecting green light. The ability of a pigment to absorb various wavelengths of light can
be measured with an instrument called a spectrophotometer. This machine directs
beams of light of different wavelengths through a solution of the pigment and measures
the fraction of the light transmitted at each wavelength. A graph plotting a pigment’s
light absorption versus wavelength is called an absorption spectrum. The absorption
spectra of chloroplast pigments provide clues to the relative effectiveness of different
wavelengths for driving photosynthesis, since light can perform work in chloroplasts only
if it is absorbed. Figure below shows the absorption spectra of three types of pigments in
chloroplasts: chlorophyll a, the key light-capturing pigment that participates directly in
the light reactions; the accessory pigment chlorophyll b; and a separate group of
accessory pigments called carotenoids. The spectrum of chlorophyll a suggests that
violet-blue and red light work best for photosynthesis, since they are absorbed, while
green is the least effective color.
This is confirmed by an action spectrum for photosynthesis (Figure 10.10b), which
profiles the relative effectiveness of different wavelengths of radiation in driving the
process. An action spectrum is prepared by illuminating chloroplasts with light of
different colors and then plotting wavelength against some measure of photosynthetic
rate, such as CO2 consumption or O2 release. The action spectrum for photosynthesis
was first demonstrated by Theodor W. Engelmann, a German botanist, in 1883. Before
equipment for measuring O2 levels had even been invented, Engelmann performed a
clever experiment in which he used bacteria to measure rates of photosynthesis in
filamentous algae.The absorption spectrum of chlorophyll a alone underestimates the
effectiveness of certain wavelengths in driving photosynthesis. This is partly because
accessory pigments with different absorption spectra also present in chloroplasts—
including chlorophyll b and carotenoids—broaden the spectrum of colors that can be used
for photosynthesis.

Other accessory pigments include carotenoids, hydrocarbons that are various shades of
yellow and orange because they absorb violet and blue-green light. Carotenoids may
broaden the spectrum of colors that can drive photosynthesis. However, a more important
function of at least some carotenoids seems to be photoprotection: These compounds
absorb and dissipate excessive light energy that would otherwise damage chlorophyll or
interact with oxygen, forming reactive oxidative molecules that are dangerous to the cell.
Interestingly, carotenoids similar to the photoprotective ones in chloroplasts have a
photoprotective role in the human eye. (Remember being told to eat your carrots for
improved night vision?) These and related molecules are, of course, found naturally in
many vegetables and fruits. They are also often advertised in health food products as
“phytochemicals” (from the Greek phyton, plant), some of which have antioxidant
properties. Plants can synthesize all the antioxidants they require, but humans and other
animals must obtain some of them from their diets.

Excitation of Chlorophyll by Light

What exactly happens when chlorophyll and other pigments absorb light? The colors
corresponding to the absorbed wavelengths disappear from the spectrum of the
transmitted and reflected light, but energy cannot disappear. When a molecule absorbs a
photon of light, one of the molecule’s electrons is elevated to an orbital where it has more
potential energy. When the electron is in its normal orbital, the pigment molecule is said
to be in its ground state. Absorption of a photon boosts an electron to an orbital of higher
energy, and the pigment molecule is then said to be in an excited state. The only photons
absorbed are those whose energy is exactly equal to the energy difference between the
ground state and an excited state, and this energy difference varies from one kind of
molecule to another. Thus, a particular compound absorbs only photons corresponding to
specific wavelengths, which is why each pigment has a unique absorption spectrum.
Once absorption of a photon raises an electron to an excited state, the electron cannot stay
there long. The excited state, like all high-energy states, is unstable. Generally, when
isolated pigment molecules absorb light, their excited electrons drop back down to the
ground-state orbital in a billionth of a second, releasing their excess energy as heat. This
conversion of light energy to heat is what makes the top of an automobile so hot on a
sunny day. (White cars are coolest because their paint reflects all wavelengths of visible
light.) In isolation, some pigments, including chlorophyll, emit light as well as heat after
absorbing photons. As excited electrons fall back to the ground state, photons are given
off, an afterglow called fluorescence. An illuminated solution of chlorophyll isolated
from chloroplasts will fluoresce in the red part of the spectrum and also give off heat.
This is best seen by illuminating with ultraviolet light, which chlorophyll can also absorb.
Viewed under visible light, the fluorescence would be harder to see against the green of
the solution.

A Photosystem: A Reaction-Center Complex Associated

with Light-Harvesting Complexes

Chlorophyll molecules excited by the absorption of light energy produce very different
results in an intact chloroplast than they do in isolation. In their native environment of the
thylakoid membrane, chlorophyll molecules are organized along with other small organic
molecules and proteins into complexes called photosystems.
A photosystem is composed of a reaction-center complex surrounded by several light-
harvesting complexes. The reaction-center complex is an organized association of
proteins holding a special pair of chlorophyll a molecules. Each light-harvesting complex
consists of various pigment molecules (which may include chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b,
and multiple carotenoids) bound to proteins. The number and variety of pigment
molecules enable a photosystem to harvest light over a larger surface area and a larger
portion of the spectrum than could any single pigment molecule alone. Together, these
light-harvesting complexes act as an antenna for the reaction-center complex. When a
pigment molecule absorbs a photon, the energy is transferred from pigment molecule to
pigment molecule within a light-harvesting complex, somewhat like a human “wave” at a
sports arena, until it is passed into the reaction-center complex. The reaction-center
complex also contains a molecule capable of accepting electrons and becoming reduced;
this is called the primary electron acceptor. The pair of chlorophyll a molecules in the
reaction-center complex are special because their molecular environment—their location
and the other molecules with which they are associated—enables them to use the energy
from light not only to boost one of their electrons to a higher energy level, but also to
transfer it to a different molecule—the primary electron acceptor. The solar-powered
transfer of an electron from the reaction-center chlorophyll a pair to the primary electron
acceptor is the first step of the light reactions. As soon as the chlorophyll electron is
excited to a higher energy level, the primary electron acceptor captures it; this is a redox
reaction. In the flask shown in Figure 10.12b, isolated chlorophyll fluoresces because
there is no electron acceptor, so electrons of photoexcited chlorophyll drop right back to
the ground state. In the structured environment of a chloroplast, however, an electron
acceptor is readily available, and the potential energy represented by the excited electron
is not dissipated as light and heat. Thus, each photosystem— a reaction-center complex
surrounded by light-harvesting complexes—functions in the chloroplast as a unit. It
converts light energy to chemical energy, which will ultimately be used for the synthesis
of sugar. The thylakoid membrane is populated by two types of photosystems that
cooperate in the light reactions of photosynthesis. They are called photosystem II (PS II)
and photosystem I (PS I). (They were named in order of their discovery, but photosystem
II functions first in the light reactions.) Each has a characteristic reaction-center
complex—a particular kind of primary electron acceptor next to a special pair of
chlorophyll a molecules associated with specific proteins. The reaction-center chlorophyll
a of photosystem II is known as P680 because this pigment is best at absorbing absorbs
light of wavelength 700 nm (in the far-red part of the spectrum). These two pigments,
P680 and P700, are nearly identical chlorophyll a molecules.
 However, their association with different proteins in the thylakoid membrane affects the
electron distribution in the two pigments and accounts for the slight differences in their
light-absorbing properties. Now let’s see how the two photosystems work together in
using light energy to generate ATP and NADPH, the two main products of the light
reactions. Linear Electron Flow Light drives the synthesis of ATP and NADPH by
energizing the two photosystems embedded in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts.
The key to this energy transformation is a flow of electrons through the photosystems and
other molecular components built into the thylakoid membrane. This is called linear
electron flow, and it occurs during the light reactions of photosynthesis, as shown in
Figure 10.14. The numbered steps in the text correspond to the numbered steps in the
figure.

1. A photon of light strikes one of the pigment molecules in a light-harvesting

complex of PS II, boosting one of its electrons to a higher energy level. As this
electron falls back to its ground state, an electron in a nearby pigment molecule is
 simultaneously raised to an excited state. The process continues, with the energy
being relayed to other pigment molecules until it reaches the P680 pair of
chlorophyll a molecules in the PS II reaction-center complex. It excites an
electron in this pair of chlorophylls to a higher energy state.

2. This electron is transferred from the excited P680 to the primary electron
acceptor. We can refer to the resulting form of P680, missing an electron, as
P680+. 3

3. An enzyme catalyzes the splitting of a water molecule into two electrons, two
hydrogen ions (H+), and an oxygen atom. The electrons are supplied one by one
to the P680+ pair, each electron replacing one transferred to the primary
electron acceptor. (P680+ is the strongest biological oxidizing agent known; its
electron “hole” must be filled. This greatly facilitates the transfer of electrons
from the split water molecule.) The H+ are released into the thylakoid space. The
oxygen atom immediately combines with an oxygen atom generated by the
splitting of another water molecule, forming O2.

4. Each photoexcited electron passes from the primary electron acceptor of PS II to

PS I via an electron transport chain, the components of which are similar to those
of the electron transport chain that functions in cellular respiration. The electron
transport chain between PS II and PS I is made up of the electron carrier
plastoquinone (Pq), a cytochrome complex, and a protein called plastocyanin
(Pc).

5. The exergonic “fall” of electrons to a lower energy level provides energy for the
synthesis of ATP. As electrons pass through the cytochrome complex, H+ are
pumped into the thylakoid space, contributing to the proton gradient that is
subsequently used in chemiosmosis.

6. Meanwhile, light energy has been transferred via lightharvesting complex

pigments to the PS I reaction-center complex, exciting an electron of the P700
pair of chlorophyll a molecules located there. The photoexcited electron is then
 transferred to PS I’s primary electron acceptor, creating an electron “hole” in the
P700—which we now can call P700+. In other words, P700+ can now act as an
electron acceptor, accepting an electron that reaches the bottom of the electron
transport chain from PS II.

7. Photoexcited electrons are passed in a series of redox reactions from the primary
electron acceptor of PS I down a second electron transport chain through the
protein ferredoxin (Fd). (This chain does not create a proton gradient and thus
does not produce ATP.)

8. The enzyme NADP+ reductase catalyzes the transfer of electrons from Fd to

NADP+. Two electrons are required for its reduction to NADPH. This molecule is
at a higher energy level than water, so its electrons are more readily available for
the reactions of the Calvin cycle. This process also removes an H+ from the
stroma.
The energy changes of electrons during their linear flow through the light reactions are
shown in a mechanical analogy in Figure 10.15. Although the scheme shown in Figures
10.14 and 10.15 may seem complicated, do not lose track of the big picture: The light
reactions use solar power to generate ATP and NADPH, which provide chemical energy
and reducing power, respectively, to the carbohydrate-synthesizing reactions of the
Calvin cycle. Cyclic

Electron Flow

In certain cases, photoexcited electrons can take an alternative path called cyclic electron
flow, which uses photosystem I but not photosystem II. You can see in Figure 10.16 that
cyclic flow is a short circuit: The electrons cycle back from ferredoxin (Fd) to the
cytochrome complex and from there continue on to a P700 chlorophyll in the PS I
reaction-center complex. There is no production of NADPH and no release of oxygen
that results from this process. On the other hand, cyclic flow does generate ATP.

Rather than having both PSII and PSI, several of the currently existing groups of
photosynthetic bacteria are known to have a single photosystem related to either PSII or
PSI. For these species, which include the purple sulfur bacteria (see Figure 10.2e) and the
green sulfur bacteria, cyclic electron flow is the one and only means of generating ATP
during the process of photosynthesis.
Evolutionary biologists hypothesize that these bacterial groups are descendants of
ancestral bacteria in which photosynthesis first evolved, in a form similar to cyclic
electron flow. Cyclic electron flow can also occur in photosynthetic species that possess
both photosystems; this includes some prokaryotes, such as the cyanobacteria shown in
Figure 10.2d, as well as the eukaryotic photosynthetic species that have been tested thus
far. Although the process is probably in part an “evolutionary leftover,” research suggests
it plays at least one beneficial role for these organisms.

Mutant plants that are not able to carry out cyclic electron flow are capable of growing
well in low light, but do not grow well where light is intense. This is evidence for the idea
that cyclic electron flow may be photoprotective. Later you’ll learn more about cyclic
electron flow as it relates to a particular adaptation of photosynthesis (C4 plants; see
Concept 10.4). Whether ATP synthesis is driven by linear or cyclic electron flow, the
actual mechanism is the same. Before we move on to consider the Calvin cycle, let’s
review chemiosmosis, the process that uses membranes to couple redox reactions to ATP
production.

A Comparison of Chemiosmosis in Chloroplasts and

Mitochondria

Chloroplasts and mitochondria generate ATP by the same basic mechanism:

chemiosmosis. An electron transport chain pumps protons (H+) across a membrane as
electrons are passed through a series of carriers that are progressively more
electronegative. Thus, electron transport chains transform redox energy to a proton-
motive force, potential energy stored in the form of an H+ gradient across a membrane.

An ATP synthase complex in the same membrane couples the diffusion of hydrogen ions
down their gradient to the phosphorylation of ADP, forming ATP. Some of the electron
carriers, including the iron-containing proteins called cytochromes, are very similar in
chloroplasts and mitochondria. The ATP synthase complexes of the two organelles are
also quite similar. But there are noteworthy differences between photophosphorylation in
chloroplasts and oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria.

In chloroplasts, the high-energy electrons dropped down the transport chain come from
water, while in mitochondria, they are extracted from organic molecules (which are thus
oxidized). Chloroplasts do not need molecules from food to make ATP; their
photosystems capture light energy and use it to drive the electrons from water to the top
of the transport chain. In other words, mitochondria use chemiosmosis to transfer
chemical energy from food molecules to ATP, whereas chloroplasts transform light
energy into chemical energy in ATP. Although the spatial organization of chemiosmosis
differs slightly between chloroplasts and mitochondria, it is easy to see similarities in the
two (Figure 10.17). The inner

membrane of the mitochondrion pumps protons from the mitochondrial matrix out to the
intermembrane space, which then serves as a reservoir of hydrogen ions. The thylakoid
membrane of the chloroplast pumps protons from the stroma into the thylakoid space
(interior of the thylakoid), which functions as the H+ reservoir. If you imagine the cristae
of mitochondria pinching off from the inner membrane, this may help you see how the
thylakoid space and the intermembrane space are comparable spaces in the two
experimental setting are illuminated, the pH in the thylakoid space drops to about 5 (the
H+ concentration increases), and the pH in the stroma increases to about 8 (the H+
concentration decreases). This gradient of three pH units corresponds to a thousandfold
difference in H+ concentration. If the lights are then turned off, the pH gradient is
abolished, but it can quickly be restored by turning the lights back on. Experiments such
as this provided strong evidence in support of the chemiosmotic model.

The currently-accepted model for the organization of the light-reaction “machinery”

within the thylakoid membrane is based on several research studies. Each of the
 molecules and molecular complexes in the figure is present in numerous copies in each
thylakoid. Notice that NADPH, like ATP, is produced on the side of the membrane
facing the stroma, where the Calvin cycle reactions take place. Let’s summarize the light
reactions.

Electron flow pushes electrons from water, where they are at a low state of potential
energy, ultimately to NADPH, where they are stored at a high state of potential energy.
The light-driven electron flow also generates ATP. Thus, the equipment of the thylakoid
membrane converts light energy to chemical energy stored in ATP and NADPH.
(Oxygen is a by-product.) Let’s now see how the Calvin cycle uses the products of the
light reactions to synthesize sugar from CO2.

Concept Check 2.

1. What color of light is least effective in driving photosynthesis? Explain.

2. In the light reactions, what is the initial electron donor? Where do the electrons
finally end up?

3. What IF? In an experiment, isolated chloroplasts placed in an illuminated

solution with the appropriate chemicals can carry out ATP synthesis. Predict
what would happen to the rate of synthesis if a compound is added to the solution
that makes membranes freely permeable to hydrogen ions.
Lesson 5. (Photosynthesis 3)
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·SUNDAY, SEPTEMBER 16, 2018

Key concept: The Calvin cycle uses the chemical energy of

ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 to sugar.

The Calvin cycle is similar to the citric acid cycle in that a starting material is regenerated
after some molecules enter the cycle and others exit the cycle. However, the citric acid
cycle is catabolic, oxidizing acetyl CoA and using the energy to synthesize ATP. In
contrast, the Calvin cycle is anabolic, building carbohydrates from smaller molecules and
consuming energy. Carbon enters the Calvin cycle in the form of CO2 and leaves in the
form of sugar. The cycle spends ATP as an energy source and consumes NADPH as
reducing power for adding high-energy electrons to make the sugar. As we mentioned
previously (in Concept 10.1), the carbohydrate produced directly from the Calvin cycle is
actually not glucose, but a three-carbon sugar; the name of this sugar is glyceraldehyde 3-
phosphate (G3P). For the net synthesis of one molecule of G3P, the cycle must take place
three times, fixing three molecules of CO2—one per turn of the cycle. (Recall that the
term carbon fixation refers to the initial incorporation of CO2 into organic material.) As
we trace the steps of the cycle, it's important to keep in mind that we are following three
molecules of CO2 through the reactions.

Figure 10.19 divides the Calvin cycle into three phases: carbon fixation, reduction, and
regeneration of the CO2 acceptor. Phase 1: Carbon fixation. The Calvin cycle
incorporates each CO2 molecule, one at a time, by attaching it to a five-carbon sugar
named ribulose bisphosphate (abbreviated RuBP). The enzyme that catalyzes this first
step is RuBP carboxylase-oxygenase, or rubisco. (This is the most abundant protein in
chloroplasts and is also thought to be the most abundant protein on Earth.)

The product of the reaction is a six-carbon intermediate that is short-lived because it is so

energetically unstable that it immediately splits in half, forming two molecules of 3-
phosphoglycerate (for each CO2 fixed). Phase 2: Reduction. Each molecule of 3-
phosphoglycerate receives an additional phosphate group from ATP, becoming 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate. Next, a pair of electrons donated from NADPH reduces 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate, which also loses a phosphate group in the process, becoming
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P). Specifically, the electrons from NADPH reduce a
carboyxl group on 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to the aldehyde group of G3P, which stores
more potential energy. G3P is a sugar—the same three-carbon sugar formed in glycolysis
by the splitting of glucose (see Figure 9.9).

Notice in Figure 10.19 that for every three molecules of CO2 that enter the cycle, there
are six molecules of G3P formed. But only one molecule of this three-carbon sugar can
be counted as a net gain of carbohydrate because the rest are required to complete the
cycle. The cycle began with 15 carbons’ worth of carbohydrate in the form of three
molecules of the five-carbon sugar RuBP. Now there are 18 carbons’ worth of
carbohydrate in the form of six molecules of G3P. One molecule exits the cycle to be
used by the plant cell, but the other five molecules must be recycled to regenerate the
three molecules of RuBP.
Phase 3: Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor (RuBP). In a complex series of reactions,
the carbon skeletons of five molecules of G3P are rearranged by the last steps of the
Calvin cycle into three molecules of RuBP. To accomplish this, the cycle spends three
more molecules of ATP. The RuBP is now prepared to receive CO2 again, and the cycle
continues. For the net synthesis of one G3P molecule, the Calvin cycle consumes a total
of nine molecules of ATP and six molecules of NADPH.

The light reactions regenerate the ATP and NADPH. The G3P spun off from the Calvin
cycle becomes the starting material for metabolic pathways that synthesize other organic
compounds, including glucose (formed by combining two molecules of G3P), the
disaccharide sucrose, and other carbohydrates. Neither the light reactions nor the Calvin
cycle alone can make sugar from CO2. Photosynthesis is an emergent property of the
intact chloroplast, which integrates the two stages of photosynthesis.
 Concept Check 3.

1. To synthesize one glucose molecule, the Calvin cycle uses _____________

molecules of CO2, _____________ molecules of ATP , and _____________
molecules of NADPH.

2. How are the large numbers of ATP and NADPH molecules used during the Calvin
cycle consistent with the high value of glucose as an energy source?

3. What IF? E xplain why a poison that inhibits an enzyme of the Calvin cycle will
also inhibit the light reactions.

4. Draw It Redraw the cycle in Figure 10.19 using numerals to indicate the numbers
of carbons instead of gray balls, multiplying at each step to ensure that you have
accounted for all carbons. In what forms do the carbon atoms enter and leave the
cycle?
Lesson 5.2 Photosynthesis
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·SUNDAY, OCTOBER 1, 2017

Chapter 5: Bioenergetics
Objective: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain how photosynthetic
organisms use light energy to combine carbon dioxide and water to form energy-rich
compounds.

Take a look at this pict

ure.

What can you say about this picture?

Learn about it!
The sun is the primary source of energy needed by all organisms to survive. However,
this energy cannot be consumed by most organisms unless converted into other forms of
energy. Think of it this way. When you go to another country, you need to exchange your
money for their currency so that you can use it. Just like in this case. Only plants and
photosynthetic organisms such as algae convert light energy into forms usable by other
organisms.


Photosynthesis is the process where photosynthetic organisms convert light energy to

form sugar. In plants, photosynthesis specifically occurs in the leaves.
The thylakoid membrane contains chlorophyll which is responsible for capturing light
energy. Photosynthesis has two phases: light-dependent reaction and light-independent
reaction.
 Light-Dependent Reaction

 The reaction occurs in the thylakoids. It converts light energy to ATP and
NADPH. It can be summarized into four steps:
 Light absorption and splitting of water. Light strikes the chlorophyll and an
enzyme splits water (H2O) into protons (H+ions), electrons, and oxygen (O2 ).
 Production of ATP. ATP synthase accepts energy from H+ions to produce
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

 Hydrogen pump powered by electron acceptors. Electrons pass through proton

pump and the energy from the electrons pumps H+ions back to the thylakoids.

 Production of NADPH by re-energizing electrons. Light strikes again, the

chlorophyll and electrons get re-energized. The last electron acceptor moves
electrons to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) and H+ions to
produce NADPH.

Learn about it!

Light-Independent Reaction
This is also known as the Calvin cycle. It takes place in the stroma and uses ATP and
NADPH from the light-dependent reaction. It reduces CO2 to form sugar. The reaction is
summarized below.
 Fixation of CO2. Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (Rubisco) catalyzes CO2 to
ribulose 1, 5-bisphosphate (RuBP). A carbon atom sticks to RuBP and results to
unstable 6-C molecule and splits into 3-phosphoglycerate.

 Reduction of 3-phosphoglycerate. The energy from ATP and hydrogens from

NADPH are added to the 3-C molecule to form 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (G3P).

 Regeneration of RuBP from G3P. Most of the G3P are used to generate back the
RuBP and prepares again for CO2 fixation.
Photosynthesis is composed of two reactions. Below is the summary:

Explore!
A group of boys placed a bunch of leaves in a sealed plastic bag and left it under the sun.
After two days, they saw drops of water inside the plastic bag. What does this infer?
 Try it!
Get a plant and cover some of the leaves with aluminum foil. Place it under the sun for
three days. Examine the leaves and compare it to the other leaves after three days. What
do you observe?

What do you think?

How does deforestation affect photosynthesis?

Key Points
 Photosynthesis is the process where plants and other photosynthetic organisms
convert light energy into chemical energy to form sugar.
 Photosynthesis has two phases: light-dependent reaction and Calvin Cycle.

 The light-dependent reaction converts energy to ATP and NADPH. It has four
steps: (1) Light absorption and splitting of water, (2) production of ATP, (3)
hydrogen pump powered by the movement of electron acceptors and, (4)
production of NADPH by re-energizing electrons.

 Calvin cycle uses the ATP and NADPH from the previous reaction. It has three
steps: (1) Fixation of CO2, (2) reduction of 3-phosphoglycerate and, (3)
regeneration of RuBP from G3P.

Lesson 5.2 Test Question

1. In which part of the cell does photosynthesis occur?

 A. cytoplasm

 B. mitochondria

 C. chloroplast

 D. nucleus

2. Where does Calvin cycle take place in the chloroplast?

 A. grana

 B. stroma

 C. stomata

 D. thylakoid

3. Which of the following are the products of light-dependent reaction?

 A. ATP and NADPH

 B. CO2 and H2O

 C. RuBP and O2

 D. ADP and NADPH

4. In which of the following substances does CO2 attach to in the Calvin cycle?

 A. 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde

 B. glucose

 C. 3-phosphoglycerate

 D. RuBP

5. Which of the following is not true about the thylakoid membrane?

 A. It contains the chlorophyll.

 B. It is a membrane-bound compartment inside the chloroplasts.

 C. It is present only in plants.

 D. It is the site of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis.

6. Which of the following events signify the end of the Calvin cycle?

 A. regeneration of RuBP from G3P

 B. photophosphorylation

 C. fixation of CO2

 D. reduction of 3-phosphoglycerate to G3P

7. All of the following are true about the Calvin cycle except __.

 A. It splits the H2O molecules to free O2.

 B. It produces glucose.

 C. It takes place in the stroma within the chloroplast.

 D. It fixes the CO2 to form 3-phosphoglycerate.

8. Where does the released O2 during light-dependent reaction come from?

 A. splitting of CO2

 B. molecules generation of glucose

 C. formation of ATP

 D. splitting of H2O molecules

9. Which of the following factors limit the Calvin cycle in photosynthesis?

 A. CO2, temperature, and light

 B. CO2, light, and water

 C. CO2, pressure, and light

 D. CO2, water, and temperature

Photosynthesis occurs in two phases: the light-dependent reaction and the Calvin cycle.
The Calvin cycle was previously called “dark reactions”.

10. Given this fact, which of the following states where the second phase of
photosynthesis occurs?

 A. in intact plants but only in the light; but in invitro (test tube) it can work in the
dark

 B. in detached plants but only in the light

 C. in intact plants but only when it’s dark

 D. in intact plants both in the light and when it’s dark

Lesson 5.3 The Energy Flow from
Environment to Cells
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·SUNDAY, OCTOBER 1, 2017

Chapter 5: Bioenergetics
Objective: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to trace the energy flow from the
environment to the cells.

Cells of living organisms need constant supply of energy to carry out life processes. The
lions catching their prey, the birds flying through the air, and the dogs wagging their tails
– use energy.

Where do organisms get this energy? How does energy flow from environment to
cells of organisms?

Learn about it!

Energy that organisms use comes from food. Organisms can either make their own food
(autotrophs) or get it by consuming other organisms (heterotrophs). Examples of
autotrophs include plants and photosynthetic organisms such as algae. Examples of
heterotrophs include animals and humans.

Most autotrophs, such as plants, phytoplankton, and algae, capture light energy and take
in carbon dioxide and water from the environment. The reactants (CO2and H2O) are then
converted into glucose. In addition, oxygen is released as a by-product. This process is
known as photosynthesis which occurs in the cell’s chloroplast. Since autotrophs can
make their own food, they are also called producers.
On the other hand, heterotrophs cannot make their own food so they depend on other
organisms for food. Some consume autotrophs (herbivores) while others consume other
heterotrophs (carnivores) or consume both (omnivores). Since they obtain energy from
consuming other organisms, they are also called consumers. The cells of heterotrophs
produce ATP (energy-carrying molecule) by breaking the chemical bonds in glucose and
releasing their stored energy. This process is known as cellular respiration which occurs
in the mitochondria of each cell.

Photosynthesis in autotrophs and cellular respiration in heterotrophs work together to

store and release energy in living organisms. The reactants of one process are the
products of the other. The reactants of photosynthesis – CO2 and H2O produce
C6H12O6 and H2O. These products are then used by heterotrophs in cellular respiration
which releases CO2 and H2O back to the environment.
Learn about it!
Energy Flow from Environment to Cells

As energy moves among living organisms, some of it is lost as heat. Nevertheless, that
energy is not completely lost in the universe. Energy is never created nor destroyed. It is
just converted from one form to another. One good example is when you feel hot after
exercise. The warmth that you feel in your body results from energy transformation that
occurs when you move. As shown in the illustration, loss of energy in the form of heat
and body activities is involved at each step of energy transfer among organisms.

The illustration above shows the overall flow of energy through living organisms. The
solar energy is captured by chlorophyll in the chloroplast of plant cells (producers).
Through photosynthesis, glucose is produced. Animals could then use this glucose from
producers to make their own energy through cellular respiration. This process occurs in
the mitochondria of animal cells. As energy is transferred, some energy is lost in the form
of heat through different activities of the body.
 Explore!
There is 90% energy loss at each trophic level (feeding level). This means that only 10%
of the energy from one level of the food chain makes it to the next. How much energy do
you think is accessible to humans? And how much do we use?

What do you think?

Why is there greater energy loss in warm-blooded organisms than in cold-blooded ones?

Key Points
 Autotrophs can make their own food through a process known as photosynthesis.

 Heterotrophs consume other organisms for food. They harvest energy through the
process known as cellular respiration.

 As energy is transferred between living organisms, some energy is lost in the form
of heat and body activities.

 Only 10% of the energy is obtained when an organism eats the other.

 The solar energy is captured in the chloroplast of producers. Through

photosynthesis, glucose is produced. Animals could then use this glucose from
producers to make their own energy through cellular respiration which occurs in
the mitochondria.
 Lesson 5.3 Test Quest
1. They are organisms that cannot make their own food.

 I. consumers

 II. producers

 III. heterotrophs

 IV. autotrophs

 A. I and II

 B. II and III

 C. I and III

 D. III and IV

2. Which of the following is the immediate source of cell’s energy?

 A. ADP

 B. oxygen

 C. glucose

 D. ATP

3. Which of the following are producers?

 A. plants and phytoplankton

 B. plants and animals

 C. phytoplankton and chlorophyll

 D. consumers and phytoplankton

4. Which of the following food source would give you more energy if consumed?
 A. beef

 B. pork

 C. vegetables

 D. chicken

5. All of the following organisms can make their own food except__

 A. corn

 B. wheat

 C. mouse

 D. algae

6. Why do consumers obtain only 10% of the energy from one level of the food chain to
another upon consumption?

 A. Most of the energy is used in functions required for life.

 B. Primary and secondary consumers compete for food.

 C. Producers are more numerous than consumers.

 D. There are fewer producers than consumers.

7. If there is 100% energy in producers, how much percentage would be left in tertiary
consumers?

 A. 0.1%

 B. 100%

 C. 10%

 D. 1%

8. Which of the following statements is true?

 A. Oxygen is formed during cellular respiration and stored during
photosynthesis.

 B. Photosynthesis releases the energy stored in cellular respiration.

 C. Glucose is used during photosynthesis to make energy.

 D. CO2 and H2O produced by cellular respiration are used in photosynthesis.

9. The newscaster announced to the public that an electric company was able to create
electricity accessible for home use. However, Anna, a biologist, do not believe and said it
was impossible because energy ____.

 A. can be created but not destroyed and transformed from one form to another

 B. can neither be created nor destroyed but only converted from one form to
another

 C. cannot be created, destroyed, or converted from one form to another form

 D. cannot be created but can be destroyed and changed from one form to another

10. Why do you feel warm after a rigorous exercise?

 A. The solar energy is captured by your body when you move.

 B. The heat is absorbed by the body as you move.

 C. The heat is needed by cellular respiration.

 D. The heat is released as a result of energy transformations in your body.

Lesson 5.4 How Organisms Obtain
and Utilize Energy
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·SUNDAY, OCTOBER 1, 2017

Chapter 5: Bioenergetics
Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe how organisms
obtain and utilize energy and recognize that organisms require energy to carry out
functions required for life.

What do you notice about this picture?

Learn about it!

Carbohydrates are one of the most important food sources for animals. If carbohydrates
are stored, then its potential as a source of energy is null. Carbohydrates must be broken
down into sugar and produce ATP that will act as a fuel essential for cell's activities and
processes. The same thing happens when you put a coin in a machine slot, the machine
slot will not accept it unless it is a token because the machine slot was made to read the
token, not the coin.

Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration is a process of energy conversion where carbohydrates are broken
down into glucose and ATP. There are two types of cellular respiration: aerobic
respiration and anaerobic respiration.

Aerobic Respiration

This occurs when glucose is broken down in the presence of oxygen. This is divided into
three stages: glycolysis, Kreb's cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

A. Glycolysis
 It is a process where glucose is broken down into pyruvic acids.

 It takes place in the cytoplasm.

 Two ATP and NADPH are produced.

 This can happen with or without oxygen.

B. Kreb's Cycle

 This happens in the mitochondria.

 Kreb's cycle requires oxygen.

 When a pyruvic acid loses CO2, it produces acetyl-CoA which oxidizes to form
CO2, ATP, and other compounds (NADH and FADH2).
 Learn about it!
C. Oxidative phosphorylation

 Phosphorylation is the process where electrons are combined with another

molecule from the ATP.

 The main goal is to transfer electrons from NADH and FADH2 to produce ATP.

 The final electron acceptor in oxidative phosphorylation is the oxygen. The

oxygen accepts the electrons to produce water within the mitochondrial matrix.

 Two steps are involved: electron transport chain (ETC) and chemiosmosis.

 ETC transports electrons but produces no ATP.

 In chemiosmosis, ATP synthase is driven by protons to produce ATP.

 Anaerobic Respiration

This occurs in the absence of oxygen and glucose is broken down to ATP. There are two
types of anaerobic respiration: alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation.

A. Alcoholic Fermentation

 Glucose is converted to alcohol. This type of fermentation does not occur in

humans. It usually occurs in bacteria and yeast.
 B. Lactic Acid Fermentation

 This occurs in the human body when oxygen in the muscles is used up and the
muscles still require more energy, thus producing lactic acid. This is especially
evident during intense physical exercises or movements.

Explore!
You have a paper in Biology due next week. Since the deadline is still next week, you
procrastinated. At the day of the deadline, you rushed to finish your paper. You wanted to
finish it but it feels like you can't think anymore. Based on the situation, what is the role
of cellular respiration in your body's condition?
 Try it!
Place 12 teaspoon of yeast in a 50 mL Erlenmeyer flask. Add 40 mL of vinegar to the
flask then cover the flask tightly with a balloon. Observe what happens to the balloon.
What does this prove?

What do you think?

Why is cellular respiration important for one to maintain life?

Key Points

 Cellular respiration is a process of energy conversion where carbohydrates are

broken down into glucose and ATP.

 There are two types of cellular respiration: aerobic respiration and anaerobic
respiration.

 Aerobic respiration occurs when glucose is broken down in the presence of

oxygen. This has three stages: glycolysis, Kreb's cycle, and oxidative
phosphorylation.

 Glycolysis is a process by which glucose is broken down into pyruvic acids, ATP,
and NADPH.

 In Kreb's cycle, pyruvic acids produce acetyl-CoA to form CO2 and ATP.

 Anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen and glucose is broken down
to energy.

 Two types of anaerobic respiration: alcoholic and lactic acid fermentation.

 In alcohol fermentation, glucose is converted to alcohol.

 Lactic acid fermentation leads to the production of lactic acid in the human body
when oxygen in the muscles is used up and still requires more energy.

Lesson 5.4 Test Question

1. Where does the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA occur?

 A. cytoplasm

 B. golgi apparatus

 C. nucleus

 D. mitochondrion

2. Which is the actual product of the Kreb’s Cycle?

 A. acetyl-CoA

 B. acetate

 C. NAD

 D. pyruvate

3. Which is the final electron acceptor in the oxidative phosphorylation?

 A. acetyl-CoA

 B. water

 C. oxygen

 D. carbon dioxide

4. All of the following are the products of fermentation except ____.

 A. starch

 B. alcohol

 C. gas

 D. acid

5. Which is the product of glycolysis?

 A. ethanol

 B. lactic acid

 C. NADH

 D. pyruvic acid

6. If there are 24 pyruvic acids after glycolysis, how many glucose molecules were
broken down?

 A. 12

 B. 24

 C. 36

 D. 48

7. If there are 3 glucose molecules, how many ATP will be produced after glycolysis?

 A. 3

 B. 9

 C. 6

 D. 2

8. You eat a fruit high in glucose content. How could a glucose molecule from the fruit
provide energy to a part of your body?
 A. The glucose will react to become ATP.

 B. The energy of the glucose is transferred to other molecules.

 C. The glucose is transported to all parts of the body.

 D. The glucose is digested into simpler molecules containing more energy.

9. Mario lost a lot of weight by eating a low calorie diet. What happened to the mass?

 A. It was transformed into ATP molecules.

 B. It was transformed to energy and used up by the body.

 C. It was broken down to amino acids and eliminated from the body.

 D. It was released as carbon dioxide and water.

10. How many net ATPs will be produced by the breakdown of 42 glucose molecules
after the oxidative phosphorylation?

 A. 1120

 B. 1260

 C. 1512

 D. 1872