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Bertus F. Jeronimus1,3 and Odilia M. Laceulle2,4 The experience of brief and intense emotions is an
1
Department of Developmental Psychology, integral component of our everyday conduct.
University of Groningen, Groningen, Emotions influence how we make decisions and
The Netherlands navigate our worlds, via bodily changes that pro-
2
Department of Medical and Clinical Psychology, mpt us to action. Frustration is a key negative
Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands emotion that roots in disappointment and can be
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Department of Psychiatry, Interdisciplinary defined as irritable distress in response to limita-
Center Psychopathology and Emotion regulation tion, exclusion, and failure (a state of dissatisfied
(ICPE), University Medical Center Groningen, insecurity). Frustration elicits negative affect to
University of Groningen, Groningen, The signal that interests and interactions must be
Netherlands adjusted, and emotional tension or “arousal” to
4
Department of Developmental Psychology, instigate defensive or aggressive behavioral
Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands responses, such as strive to reduce or eliminate
the blocking agent or circumstances.
Frustration evolved to deal with a particular,
evolutionarily recurrent situation type and is expe-
Synonyms
rienced when people encounter unresolved prob-
lems, such as contextual or psychological barriers
Annoyance; Dissatisfaction; Foiling; Hindrance;
or obstructions, which must be removed to fulfill
Interference; Obstruction; Thwarting; Vexation
personal goals, desires, drives, or needs. Techni-
cally, frustration is elicited when a goal-pursuit is
not fulfilled at the expected time in the behavioral
Definition sequence (an unexpected nonreward). The most
reliable trigger of frustration is an externally
Frustration is a key negative emotion that roots in attributed omission of a rewarding event or item
disappointment (Latin frustrā or “in vain”) and and especially a perceived obstruction by an
can be defined as irritable distress after a wish intentional antagonistic act (Jeronimus et al.
collided with an unyielding reality. 2016). The intensity of frustration is a function
of the reward value of the frustrated approach goal
(reward proximity and motivation), the degree of
interference (partial/total), the number of
# Springer International Publishing AG 2017
V. Zeigler-Hill, T.K. Shackelford (eds.), Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_815-1
2 Frustration
interferences per unit time, and one’s self- explanation to one of their “why” questions.
regulation abilities (Berkowitz 1989). Over childhood new sources of frustration
From a functional perspective, frustrated emerge, including new expectations, and compar-
arousal should facilitate approach tendencies isons with peers, older siblings, and adults.
when the problem is deemed controllable and Adults, finally, who predispose for frustration
the goal perceived as attainable, e.g., inflicting early in life tend to score higher on the “angry-
costs via anger to overcome problems. Con- hostility” facet of the neuroticism personality
versely, when the problem is appraised as uncon- domain, in which frustration clusters with trait
trollable, frustration should facilitate avoidance anger and bitterness (McCrae et al. 2005).
(withdrawal, via fear or anxiety), or low approach Importantly, developmental patterns of frustra-
when the goal is perceived as unattainable tion vary slightly across genders. Male infants are
(downregulation of expected benefits via sad- typically less able to regulate their frustration reac-
ness). After cues trigger the frustration mode, the tivity physiologically via behaviors. And while
way we see the world and feel about the world childhood frustration-proneness is comparable in
changes. The energizing effects of frustration can both genders, boys become somewhat more
thus catalyze a broad range of processes, which inclined to frustration than girls over early adoles-
may be positive, because when we are frustrated cence until age 16, and adult men typically remain
we make greater efforts and strive in other direc- slightly more angry and hostile than women.
tions, which resulted in the creation of the electric
light bulb, Internet, and Facebook, among others.
All people suffer from frustration, because our Causes and Consequences of
needs cannot always be adequately satisfied in Frustration: The Social Environment
all situations, and frustration can help us identify
these needs. The ability to effectively deal with Childhood frustration-intolerance has been asso-
frustration is therefore a very important skill to ciated with a broad range of outcomes, including
develop. psychological, social, and occupational function-
ing, well-being, and somatic and mental health
service use (Caspi et al. 2016). Both stability and
The Development of Frustration change in dispositional frustration emerges from
an interplay between individuals and their (social)
Experiences of frustration have a substantial environment. Easily frustrated infants are typi-
genetic basis (ca. 50%) which can be observed cally perceived to be less attentive, more active,
from very early in life. Generally, frustration and more distressed to novelty than their less
emerges during the first year of life and increases easily frustrated peers and are more likely to
over childhood to peak during early and middle develop an insecure-avoidant attachment style.
adolescence (Buss 2011; Putnam et al. 2001), Children and adolescents who are easily frus-
followed by slow declines with age. Specifically, trated report more stressful social events with
over childhood children usually lack the impulse parents and peers, in part due to the perception
control that is required to hold back from an of more frequent hostile intent, rejection, and dis-
intense immediate response. Moreover, in our approval in others (Laceulle et al. 2015). As such,
first 2 years we typically cannot stand frustration, dispositional frustration can have pervasive social
which may be expressed in tantrums. After our consequences, in term of social relationships and
second year this frustration-tolerance improves, interactions, but also with regard to occupational
also due to better language skills. A 3-year-old and job performances.
may say “I hate you” when frustrated by limits, The social environment can also affect our frus-
whereas many 4-year-olds experience frustration tration tolerance, either in terms of further
when they are unable to make sense of an reinforcing and stabilizing an already existing
Frustration 3
Putnam, S. P., Ellis, S. K., & Rothbart, M. K. (2001). The in research on temperament (pp. 165–182). Berlin:
structure of temperament from infancy through adoles- Pabst Scientist Publicer.
cence. In A. Eliasz & A. Engleneiter (Eds.), Advances