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1.1 EUROPEAN LEGISLATION ON AIR QUALITY .................................................................................................. 1
1.2 REMIT OF THIS STUDY ................................................................................................................................. 2
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1.3 OVERVIEW OF THE ANALYSIS ..................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 STRUCTURE OF THIS REPORT...................................................................................................................... 3
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2.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 6
2.2 SOURCES OF CO AND BENZENE .................................................................................................................. 8
2.3 SCENARIOS............................................................................................................................................... 10
2.4 CONSEQUENCES OF A NEED FOR MORE STRINGENT ACTION ON NO2 AND PM10 THAN FORESEEN BY IVM
(1997) 11
2.5 LIMIT VALUES ASSESSED IN THIS STUDY ................................................................................................... 13
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3.1 CARBON MONOXIDE ................................................................................................................................. 15
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3.1.2.1 Acute Mortality and CO: Touloumi HWDO, 1994 ........................................................................................ 17
3.1.2.2 Schwartz and Morris, 1995: Associations between cardiovascular hospital admissions and PM10 and CO17
3.1.2.3 Other hospital admissions studies, especially Poloniecki HWDO, 1997........................................................ 18
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3.2 BENZENE ................................................................................................................................................. 19
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3.3 ADDITIONAL CONSEQUENCES OF ABATEMENT MEASURES FOR CO AND BENZENE .................................... 23
3.4 ESTIMATING EXPOSURE TO CO AND BENZENE ......................................................................................... 24
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4.1 OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................................................... 32
4.2 TECHNICAL MEASURES ............................................................................................................................ 34
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5.2 DETERMINATION OF AREAS OF EXCESS POLLUTION .................................................................................. 54
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5.2.1.2 Sensitivity to variation in fuel composition .............................................................................................. 56
5.2.1.3 Sensitivity to modelling effect of emissions on urban background pollutant levels.................................. 56
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5.3 ASSESSMENT OF THE COSTS OF MEETING THE DIRECTIVE ......................................................................... 61
5.4 THE BENEFITS ANALYSIS .......................................................................................................................... 61
5.5 COMPARISON OF COSTS AND BENEFITS ..................................................................................................... 65
5.6 EXTRAPOLATION OF RESULTS TO THE PAN-EUROPEAN UNION LEVEL....................................................... 65
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6.1 MAIN RESULTS ......................................................................................................................................... 69
6.2 MONITORING COSTS ................................................................................................................................. 74
6.3 AGGREGATION ......................................................................................................................................... 74
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7.1 MAIN RESULTS ......................................................................................................................................... 76
7.2 MONITORING COSTS ................................................................................................................................. 80
7.3 BENZENE LEVELS AROUND SERVICE STATIONS ......................................................................................... 81
7.4 AGGREGATION ......................................................................................................................................... 82
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