JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 108, NO. E12, 8062, doi:10.

1029/2003JE002121, 2003

Athena Mars rover science investigation

Steven W. Squyres,1 Raymond E. Arvidson,2 Eric T. Baumgartner,3 James F. Bell III,4
Philip R. Christensen,5 Stephen Gorevan,6 Kenneth E. Herkenhoff,7 Göstar Klingelhöfer,8
Morten Bo Madsen,9 Richard V. Morris,10 Rudolf Rieder,11 and Raul A. Romero3
Received 16 May 2003; revised 12 September 2003; accepted 16 September 2003; published 26 December 2003.

[1] Each Mars Exploration Rover carries an integrated suite of scientific instruments and
tools called the Athena science payload. The primary objective of the Athena science
investigation is to explore two sites on the Martian surface where water may once have
been present, and to assess past environmental conditions at those sites and their suitability
for life. The remote sensing portion of the payload uses a mast called the Pancam Mast
Assembly (PMA) that provides pointing for two instruments: the Panoramic Camera
(Pancam), and the Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer (Mini-TES). Pancam
provides high-resolution, color, stereo imaging, while Mini-TES provides spectral cubes at
mid-infrared wavelengths. For in-situ study, a five degree-of-freedom arm called the
Instrument Deployment Device (IDD) carries four more tools: a Microscopic Imager (MI)
for close-up imaging, an Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer (APXS) for elemental
chemistry, a Mössbauer Spectrometer (MB) for the mineralogy of Fe-bearing materials,
and a Rock Abrasion Tool (RAT) for removing dusty and weathered surfaces and exposing
fresh rock underneath. The payload also includes magnets that allow the instruments to
study the composition of magnetic Martian materials. All of the Athena instruments have
undergone extensive calibration, both individually and using a set of geologic reference
materials that are being measured with all the instruments. Using a MER-like rover and
payload in a number of field settings, we have devised operations processes that will
enable us to use the MER rovers to formulate and test scientific hypotheses concerning
past environmental conditions and habitability at the landing sites. INDEX TERMS: 6225
Planetology: Solar System Objects: Mars; 6297 Planetology: Solar System Objects: Instruments and
techniques; 5494 Planetology: Solid Surface Planets: Instruments and techniques; KEYWORDS: Mars, Rover,
payload
Citation: Squyres, S. W., et al., Athena Mars rover science investigation, J. Geophys. Res., 108(E12), 8062,
doi:10.1029/2003JE002121, 2003.

1. Introduction environmental conditions at those sites and their suitability

for life. Each MER rover functions as a remotely operated
[2] The main objective of the Mars Exploration Rover robotic field geologist, reading the record that is contained
mission is to explore two sites on the Martian surface where in the rocks and soils at its landing site. Like a human field
water may once have been present, and to assess past geologist, each rover is equipped with the capabilities and
tools that it needs to carry out its tasks. The suite of
1
Center for Radiophysics and Space Research, Cornell University, scientific instruments and tools carried by each rover is
Ithaca, New York, USA. called the Athena Science Payload.
2
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Washington University, [3] The Athena payload was first developed in 1995 for
St. Louis, Missouri, USA. a Mars rover mission that was proposed to NASA’s
3
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California, USA.
4
Department of Astronomy, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, Discovery Program. It was subsequently selected by
USA. NASA as the science payload for a rover mission planned
5
Department of Geological Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, for launch in 2001. While NASA’s Mars exploration
Arizona, USA. program has gone through some significant changes since
6
Honeybee Robotics, New York, New York, USA.
7
United States Geological Survey, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA.
that time, the fundamental scientific objectives and struc-
8
Institut für Anorganische Chemie und Analytische Chemie, Johannes ture of the Athena payload have remained unchanged.
Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany. When NASA selected the Mars Exploration Rover mission
9
Ørsted Laboratory, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark. for flight in 2000, they chose to send two copies of the
10
NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, USA. Athena payload, each on a large and capable roving
11
Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz, Germany.
vehicle, to two sites on the Martian surface.
Copyright 2003 by the American Geophysical Union. [4] This paper provides an overview of the MER mis-
0148-0227/03/2003JE002121 sion’s Athena science investigation. A central aspect of the

ROV 3-1
ROV 3-2 SQUYRES ET AL.: ATHENA MARS ROVER SCIENCE INVESTIGATION
payload is the way in which its various parts have been
designed to work together synergistically, so that the scien-
tific value of the whole exceeds that of the sum of the parts.
The focus of this paper is on the overall scientific objectives
of the investigation, and on the ways in which the payload
will be used as an ensemble to meet those objectives. The
individual elements of the payload are described in detail in
a set of companion papers [Bell et al., 2003; Christensen et
al., 2003a; Gorevan et al., 2003; Herkenhoff et al., 2003;
Klingelhöfer et al., 2003; Madsen et al., 2003; Rieder et al.,
2003].
2. Primary Science Objectives
[5] The science objectives of the Mars Exploration Pro-
gram are focused on understanding the current and past
habitability of the red planet on a global scale. This focus is
not simply one of conducting direct life detection experi-
ments either in situ or with returned samples. Rather, the
intent is to develop a deep intellectual understanding of the
spatial and temporal patterns and interactions associated
with global-scale geologic and climatic processes that have
operated on and within Mars, including how these processes
have modulated geochemical cycles of biological impor-
tance [Greeley et al., 2001]. Understanding the nature,
extent, and timing of interactions between surface and
subsurface water and crustal materials is of paramount
importance because water is central to the development,
evolution, and vigor of life.
[6] Our understanding of the evolution of Mars and its
hydrologic cycle is incomplete and can best be cast as a
suite of multiple working hypotheses that are undergoing
rapid revision as new Mars Global Surveyor and Mars
Odyssey orbiter data are becoming available for analyses
[Albee et al., 2001; Saunders et al., 2003]. One view that
has had an extensive following in the science community is
that the climate was once warm enough to support liquid
water on the surface. The rapid introduction of greenhouse
gases, such as carbon dioxide, into the atmosphere during
periods of enhanced volcanism or during giant impact
events would have provided the enhanced warming of the
lower atmosphere needed to keep surface temperatures
above the triple point temperature for water for some period
of time [e.g., Phillips et al., 2001]. Removal of these gases
by geochemical reactions with surface materials and/or by
stripping by solar wind would have led to global cooling
and collapse of the warm, wet environments [Jakosky and
Jones, 1997]. Valley networks may have formed during this
early warm, wet climate. The northern lowlands may have
been the site of a ‘‘northern ocean’’ into which a massive
amount of sediment eroded from the uplands was deposited,
forming the plains that now dominate the landscape [Head
et al., 1999]. In addition there may have been many inter-
crater lakes and associated sediment deposition in the
cratered uplands [Malin and Edgett, 2000].
[7] An alternate view is that Mars may never have been
warm and wet. At best it may have been cold and wet at the
surface in the past [e.g., Squyres and Kasting, 1994]. Any
water bodies would have been ice covered and precipitation
may have been dominated by snow. As this cold, wet
climate decayed by removal of greenhouse gases the system
became even colder and evolved to current conditions in
which shallow ice deposits are only stable at higher latitudes
[Feldman et al., 2002]. In fact, this view of Mars is
consistent with mounting evidence from analyses of reflec-
tance and emission spectra that indicate that the surface is
covered with mafic volcanic materials, without extensive
exposures of carbonates, clays, or other minerals that would
have formed during wet, warm surface conditions. In
particular, pyroxenes and feldspars, together with volcanic
glasses and palagonitic material, seem to be ubiquitous on
the surface [e.g., Bell, 1999; Bandfield, 2002; Bandfield et
al., 2003]. In addition, olivine has been mapped in several
locations using both TES and Odyssey THEMIS data
[Christensen et al., 2003b]. Although it has been argued
that TES data for the northern plains of Mars are consistent
with the presence of weathered basalts [Wyatt and
McSween, 2002], the lack of clay signatures in visible and
infrared reflectance data for these regions argues against the
presence of large exposures of weathering products. A cold,
wet Mars could have inhibited extensive surface weathering
while still allowing ice-covered lakes, seas, and riverine
systems to produce the lacustrine and glacio-fluvial land-
forms and features evident today.
[8] In either of the scenarios discussed above, enhanced
heat flow due to impacts or magmatic activity in regions
with groundwater or subsurface ice deposits would have
generated hydrothermal systems, particularly early in Mar-
tian history when the frequency of impacts was higher and
magmatic activity occurred at enhanced rates relative to the
present [e.g., Clifford, 1993]. These warm water systems
would have been corrosive and altered host rocks, forming
assemblages of alteration minerals such as silica deposits,
sulfates, and oxides whose nature and extent would have
been dependent on local conditions. Surface exposures of
these deposits would be limited to locations where the
circulating fluids reached the surface and to regions where
subsurface waters altered host rocks and the materials were
then exposed by erosion.
[9] The Mars Exploration Rovers will explore two key
sites and acquire key data sets to allow development and
testing of the types of hypotheses presented in the previous
paragraphs, with an emphasis on understanding the nature
and extent of interaction of water and crustal materials. For
example, the Meridiani Planum landing site is hypothesized
to expose hematite in association with basalt, produced
either in an oxygenated lacustrine environment that pre-
vailed during an earlier warmer, wetter period, or via
anhydrous or hydrothermal alteration of volcaniclastic
deposits [Christensen et al., 2001; Arvidson et al., 2003a;
Golombek et al., 2003]. The Gusev Crater floor site may
expose sedimentary rocks of lacustrine origin produced
when water or ice-covered water was abundant at the
surface, or as volcanic units from the Apollinaris Patera
volcano located to the north [Cabrol et al., 2003; Golombek
et al., 2003]. Even if the surface deposits within Gusev
Crater are mostly of volcanic origin, there may evidence in
the rock record for the nature and extent of alteration via
circulating groundwater and hydrothermal fluids.
[10] During the operational lifetimes of the two rovers on
Mars, Pancam and Mini-TES observation will be used to
map the morphology and mineralogy at a number of
locations at each site. Analyses of the data will focus on
evidence for the nature and origin of the materials investi-
 SQUYRES ET AL.: ATHENA MARS ROVER SCIENCE INVESTIGATION ROV 3-3

Figure 1. The Athena Science Payload. The remote sensing package is supported by the Pancam Mast
Assembly (PMA), which provides pointing capability for the Panoramic Camera (Pancam) and the
Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer (Mini-TES). The in situ package is supported by the
Instrument Deployment Device (IDD), which is a five degree-of-freedom manipulator for placement of
the Microscopic Imager (MI), the Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer (APXS), the Mössbauer
Spectrometer (MB), and the Rock Abrasion Tool (RAT). A Magnetic Properties Experiment is enabled by
magnets mounted near the base of the PMA and elsewhere on the rover.

gated, including aqueous phases that would provide infor-
mation on ambient conditions that pertained during em-
placement and/or modification of the units. Key rock and
soil targets will be selected on the basis of Pancam and
Mini-TES data, and will be approached for close-up imag-
ing and acquisition of Mössbauer and Alpha Particle X-Ray
Spectra. Natural rock surfaces will be examined with
Athena instrumentation and then re-examined after remov-
ing any surface coatings using the Rock Abrasion Tool.
Particular emphasis will be placed on using the rover’s
mobility to reach exposed bedrock, although our ability to
do so may be limited by rover range (expected to be
hundreds of meters over the course of the mission) and by
the availability of bedrock outcrops at our landing sites. If
bedrock is absent, the geologic inferences that we can draw
will have to take into account the appropriate uncertainties
concerning the provenance of the materials investigated. All
of the data will be used to test and refine hypotheses
concerning the geologic and climatic evolution of the sites
and the role of water in producing and modifying crustal
materials. Further, results will be used to better understand
the global evolution of Mars and its habitability, particularly
the role of water and its effects on geochemical cycles of
possible biological importance.
3. Payload Description
[11] The Athena payload (Figure 1) is a suite of scientific
instruments and tools for geologic exploration of the Mar-
tian surface. In order to address the primary science objec-
tives discussed above, the payload is designed to:
(1) provide color stereo imaging and remotely sensed
mineralogical information for Martian surface materials,
(2) determine the elemental and mineralogical composition
of Martian surface materials, including soils, rock surfaces,
and rock interiors, (3) determine the fine-scale textural
properties of these materials. Two identical copies of the
Athena payload are carried by each of the two Mars
Exploration Rovers.
[12] The major components of the Athena payload are
(1) for remote sensing, Panoramic Camera (Pancam), a
high-resolution stereo color panoramic imager; Miniature
Thermal Emission Spectrometer (Mini-TES), a mid-infrared
spectrometer for remote investigation of mineralogy of
rocks and soils, Pancam Mast Assembly (PMA), an artic-
ulated mast supporting both Pancam and Mini-TES; and
(2) for in situ sensing, Microscopic Imager (MI), for close-
up imaging of rock and soil surfaces; Alpha Particle X-Ray
Spectrometer (APXS), for in-situ elemental analysis; Möss-
bauer Spectrometer (MB), for in-situ determination of the
mineralogy of Fe-bearing rocks and soils; Rock Abrasion
Tool (RAT), for removing weathered rock surfaces and
exposing fresh material for characterization; Instrument
Deployment Device (IDD), a robotic manipulator for posi-
tioning the above four in-situ payload elements.
[13] The payload also includes a Magnetic Properties
Experiment that can separate magnetic soil particles from
non-magnetic ones, enabling the composition of the mag-
netic materials to be studied by the instruments.
[14] In addition to these scientific instruments, the rover
also carries six engineering cameras [Maki et al., 2003]:
Navigation Cameras (Navcams), two wide-angle monochro-
matic cameras, also mounted on the PMA and Hazard
Avoidance Cameras (Hazcams), four fisheye monochro-
ROV 3-4 SQUYRES ET AL.: ATHENA MARS ROVER SCIENCE INVESTIGATION
matic stereo cameras, mounted in two stereo pairs on the
rover body, viewing forward and backward. While not
formally part of the science payload, these engineering
cameras also play important roles in science operations.
3.1. Remote Sensing Payload Elements
3.1.1. Pancam
[15] A primary objective of color, stereo, panoramic
imaging is to provide high spatial resolution information
on the morphology of the landing sites, on the lithology,
texture, distribution, and shape of nearby rocks, and on local
geologic features that may be present. This information is
critical for understanding what geologic processes have
affected the sites, particularly when merged with composi-
tional data from other instruments on the payload. Pancam
imaging will also be the primary tool used for establishing
the nature of stratigraphy, cross-cutting, and other geologic
relationships.
[16] Multispectral panoramic imaging will provide infor-
mation on the mineralogy of materials to supplement and
complement data obtained by other instruments. Spectra of
Mars in the 0.4– 1.1 mm range covered by Pancam are
dominated by iron oxides and oxyhydroxides with varying
degrees of crystallinity. These oxides are presumably mostly
weathering products. Multispectral imaging will help deter-
mine the oxidation state of iron, identify the secondary iron
minerals and their crystallinity, and identify primary mafic
minerals. Pancam filters have been chosen to detect absorp-
tions from hydrated minerals and other secondary minerals
like Fe-bearing carbonates and sulfates. Multispectral im-
aging also will help determine if there are weathering rinds
on rocks, and if so, how they compare compositionally with
the regolith and, by inference, how weathering processes
have changed with time.
[17] Pancam uses 1024  2048-pixel CCD detectors. The
CCDs are operated in frame transfer mode, with one 1024 
1024-pixel region constituting the active imaging area and
the another adjacent 1024  1024 region serving as a frame
transfer buffer. The frame transfer buffer has an opaque
cover that prevents >99% of light at all wavelengths from
400 to 1100 nm from being detected by this region of the
CCD. The pixel pitch is 12 mm in both directions. The
arrays are capable of exposure times from 0 msec to 335 s in
5.12 msec steps. Under expected operating conditions, the
arrays have at least 150,000 electrons of full-well depth, and
a read noise of less than 50 electrons. Dark current is low
and varies with temperature; it is negligible at 55C and is
<100 electrons/s at 0C. Analog-to-digital converters pro-
vide a digital output with 12-bit encoding, and signal-to-
noise ratio (SNR) > 200 at all signal levels above 50% of
full scale. The detector response has a linearity >99% for
signals between 10% to 90% of full well.
[18] Each array is combined with optics and a small filter
wheel to form one ‘‘eye’’ of a multispectral, stereoscopic
imaging system. The optics for both cameras consist of
identical 3-element symmetrical lenses with an effective
focal length of 43 mm and a focal ratio of f/20, yielding an
instantaneous field of view (IFOV) of 0.28 mrad/pixel and a
square FOV of 16.1  16.1 per eye. The optics and filters
are protected from direct exposure to the Martian environ-
ment by a sapphire window at the front of the optics barrel.
The optical design allows Pancam to maintain optimal
focus from infinity to within about 1.5 meters of the
cameras.
[19] Each filter wheel has eight positions, allowing mul-
tispectral sky imaging and surface mineralogic studies in the
400– 1100 nm wavelength region. The left wheel contains
one ‘‘clear’’ (empty) position. The remaining filter wheel
positions are filled with narrowband interference filters that
are circular with a 10 mm diameter clear aperture. One filter
on each eye has an ND5.0 coating to allow direct imaging
of the Sun at two wavelengths.
[20] Radiometric calibration of Pancam has been per-
formed with an absolute accuracy of 7% or better and a
relative precision (pixel-to-pixel) of 1% or better. Calibra-
tion at Mars will be achieved using a combination of
preflight calibration data and inflight images of a Pancam
calibration target carried by each rover [Bell et al., 2003].
[21] The two Pancam eyes are mounted on a mast on the
rover deck. The mast is referred to as the Pancam Mast
Assembly (PMA, see section 3.1.3), and also includes
several key components used by Mini-TES. The cameras
are located on a ‘‘camera bar’’ with a boresight 180 from the
Mini-TES boresight. The rover navigation cameras (Nav-
cams, see Maki et al. [2003]) are also located on this same
camera bar, and point in the same direction as Pancam. The
boresight of the Pancam cameras is approximately 1.52 m
above the Martian surface with the PMA in the deployed
position. The cameras are moved together from +90 to
97 in elevation using a geared brush motor on the camera
bar. The entire PMA head, including the cameras, can be
rotated 370 in azimuth by a geared brush motor assembly.
[22] The two Pancam eyes are separated by 30 cm
horizontally and have a 1 toe-in. The separation and toe-
in provide an adequate convergence distance for scientifi-
cally useful stereo topographic and ranging solutions to be
obtained from the near-field (5– 10 m) to approximately
100 m from the rover.
[23] Pancam will be commanded by and will return
digital data directly to the rover computer. The computer
provides the capability to perform a limited set of image
processing tasks on Pancam data prior to transmission.
These tasks include (1) electronic shutter effect (frame
transfer) correction, (2) bad pixel replacement, (3) rudimen-
tary correction of flat field artifacts, (4) automatic exposure
control capability to maximize the SNR of downlinked data
while preventing data saturation, (5) relative scaling of
exposure times through different filters using a stored
onboard table, (6) image downsampling and subframing,
and (7) image compression using bit scaling and/or the
high-performance JPL-developed compression algorithms
ICER (wavelet-based) or LOCO.
3.1.2. Mini-TES
[24] The primary objective of Mini-TES is to obtain
mineralogical information for rocks and soils surrounding
each rover. These data provide fundamental scientific
information about Mars and, like Pancam images, will be
used to select materials to be investigated in more detail by
the APXS, the Mössbauer Spectrometer, and the Micro-
scopic Imager.
[25] Mini-TES acquires spectra in the 5– 29 mm range,
which for rocks and soils are dominated by molecular
vibrations. The vibrational energies (wavelengths) are con-
trolled by the anion compositions, coordination numbers,
 SQUYRES ET AL.: ATHENA MARS ROVER SCIENCE INVESTIGATION
and bond lengths. Mini-TES measurements therefore pro-
vide a direct means of identifying crystal structure, and
hence mineralogy, of geologic materials including silicates,
carbonates, sulfates, phosphates, oxides, and hydroxides. In
silicates, for example, the vibrational motions associated
with the Si-O stretching modes occur between 8 and 12 mm.
The Si-O absorption band decreases from 11 to 9 mm in a
uniform succession for minerals with chain, sheet, and
framework structure, and so provides a means of discrim-
inating minerals with these structures. Additional bands
occur throughout the 12– 25 mm region associated with a
variety of Si, O and Al stretching and bending motions.
Carbonates have strong absorption features associated with
CO3 internal vibrations in the 6 – 8 mm region that are easily
distinguished from silicate bands. Hydroxide-bearing min-
erals like clays have spectral features due to fundamental
bending modes of OH attached to various metal ions. Salts
like phosphates, sulfates, nitrites, and chlorides all have
characteristic bands. Feldspar and pyroxene compositions
can be determined within their respective solid solution.
And, compared to past IR observations of Mars, the power
of Mini-TES to discriminate among minerals should be
aided substantially by the ability to resolve individual rocks
and the negligible path length of atmospheric gas between
the instrument and most targets.
[26] Mini-TES is a Michelson interferometer that pro-
vides a spectral resolution of 10 cm 1 over the wavelength
range from 5 – 29 mm (2000– 345 cm 1). The instrument is
mounted inside the rover, and views the terrain around the
rover by using the PMA as a periscope. A scan mirror
assembly atop the PMA reflects radiation down through the
PMA and into the telescope and interferometer. The scan
mirror assembly allows Mini-TES to provide spectral image
cubes over a 360 range in azimuth and from 50 to +30
in elevation. The scan mirror assembly also provides views
of internal and external full-aperture calibration targets. The
elevation mirror can be slewed to a stowed position in
which a cover blocks the Mini-TES aperture in the PMA,
protecting the optics from dust accumulation.
[27] Mini-TES has two spatial resolution modes. A sole-
noid-activated field stop can be removed from the optical
path to provide an IFOV of 20 mrad, or inserted to provide
an IFOV of 8 mrad. During data acquisition, the PMA’s
elevation mirror and azimuth actuator are sequenced to
generate a raster image of the scene. The scan mirror
assembly can also be commanded to allow Mini-TES to
view the internal and external calibration targets regularly in
order to maintain instrument calibration during an image
acquisition.
[28] The Mini-TES telescope at the base of the PMA uses
a reflecting Cassegrain configuration with a mirror diameter
of 6.35 cm, a focal ratio of f/12, and an intermediate field
stop that feeds an approximately collimated beam into the
Mini-TES interferometer. The 6.35-cm telescope diameter
defines the minimum size of the Mini-TES beam; the beam
diverges further at an angle of either 8 or 20 mrad, depend-
ing on the resolution mode chosen. The optical design
provides for more than 85% of the encircled energy to be
contained in an area equal to a single IFOV, 98% within an
area equal to 2  2 IFOV, and 99.8% within an area equal to
3  3 IFOV. Focus is maintained from 2 meters to infinity,
with a blur of no more than 15% of an IFOV at infinity focus.
ROV 3-5
[29] The Mini-TES Michelson interferometer uses the
same linear motor mechanism and drive electronics as the
Mars Observer (MO)/Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) TES
instruments [Christensen et al., 1992]. Double-sided inter-
ferograms at a spectral resolution of 10 cm 1 are obtained
with a mirror travel distance of 0.55 mm in 1.8 s
[30] Mini-TES uses a single uncooled deuterated trigly-
cine sulfate pyroelectric detector sized to define the instru-
ment’s 20-mrad IFOV. The IFOV, dwell time, and
interferometer scan rate have been selected to produce
frequencies in the range of 15 to 120 Hz which is the range
over which minimum noise equivalent spectral radiance
(NESR) can be achieved. The detector provides the neces-
sary performance over a temperature range from 10 to
+20C and with reduced performance from 40 to +35C.
[31] The NESR of the Mini-TES for a single spectral
accumulation interval at 10 mm observing a scene at 270 K
and 20 mrad will be <1.25  10 8 W cm 2 s 1 sr 1,
corresponding to a SNR of at least 450 for co-addition of
two observations. Radiometric calibration of Mini-TES over
its full spectral range has been performed with an absolute
accuracy of 5% or better and a relative precision (pixel-to-
pixel) of 2% or better, viewing a 270 K blackbody. The
internal calibration target is located inside the head of the
PMA, and the external target is located on the deck of
the rover. Both targets have V-grooved surfaces and are
coated with high emissivity paint. Temperature sensors
affixed to both targets have an absolute accuracy of
±0.2C and a precision of ±0.1C.
[32] Mini-TES acquires data in a cyclic fashion in two-
second increments, with each two-second period
corresponding to the Michelson mirror scan followed by
its retrace. Spectral integration is coordinated with the PMA
elevation and azimuth drive mechanisms using the rover
computer. Once the data have been transferred to the rover
memory, flight software performs a Fourier transform on the
interferogram in order to generate a spectrum. It then
performs data aggregation in order to reduce the total
volume of data to be downlinked. Data volume is further
reduced via lossless compression using a Rice algorithm.
3.1.3. Pancam Mast Assembly
[33] Pointing of both Pancam and Mini-TES is provided
by the Pancam Mast Assembly (PMA), shown in Figure 2.
The Pancam cameras (and also the Navcam cameras) are
mounted on a movable camera bar at the top of the PMA.
Mini-TES is mounted within the rover body at the base of
the PMA, and views the terrain around the rover by using
the PMA as a periscope. The hollow cylindrical mast serves
as an optical pathway for Mini-TES, and a scan mirror
assembly at the top of the mast provides the Mini-TES
pointing capability. Having Pancam, Navcam, and Mini-
TES all view the scene around the rover from atop the same
mast provides for optimal viewing of terrain, and also
allows for relatively straightforward coregistration of data
acquired from all of those sensors.
[34] The PMA uses three independent actuators for in-
strument pointing. One near the base of the PMA provides
360 of azimuth actuation for all instruments, plus 5 of
overtravel in each direction to allow data overlap. A second
one near the top of the mast moves the camera bar in the
elevation direction, providing +90/ 97 of elevation point-
ing capability for Pancam and Navcam, from zenith to just
ROV 3-6 SQUYRES ET AL.: ATHENA MARS ROVER SCIENCE INVESTIGATION
Figure 2. The Pancam Mast Assembly (PMA) in its
deployed configuration, showing the primary components.
beyond nadir. The cameras are pointed down whenever they
are not in use, minimizing exposure of the optics to dust
settling from the atmosphere. A third actuator, also near the
top of the mast, provides Mini-TES elevation pointing.
[35] Mini-TES pointing is accomplished using two mir-
rors (Figure 3). One is a fixed 45 fold mirror at the top of
the mast, directly above the Mini-TES telescope. The other
is a rotating 45 Fold mirror that is rotated about a
horizontal axis by the Mini-TES elevation actuator. Use of
two mirrors in this fashion enables elevation pointing to be
performed with reflection angles that are always 90,
eliminating radiometric calibration problems that could be
caused by reflections at variable angles.
[36] Both of the Mini-TES pointing mirrors are enclosed
within a cylindrical ‘‘can’’ at the top of the PMA. There are
actually two cans, one nested within the other. The outer can
is fixed, and the inner one rotates with the elevation mirror.
Both have openings that allow-passage of the Mini-TES
beam. The opening in the inner can is just large enough to
admit the beam, while the opening in the outer can is large
Figure 3. The Mini-TES mirrors at the top of the PMA.
enough to permit Mini-TES pointing over elevation angles
ranging from 30 above the horizon to 50 below it.
[37] The elevation mirror and the inner can that surrounds
it can be rotated over an elevation range of about 210.
From +30 to 50, the instrument views the scene around
the rover. Beyond 50, the surface of the inner can blocks
the opening in the outer can, closing off the PMA head and
protecting the mirrors from dust. The head is kept closed
whenever Mini-TES is not in use. Rotating the actuator to
an elevation angle of 180 allows the instrument to view a
full-aperture calibration target [Christensen et al., 2003a]
that is set into the inner surface of the outer can. Figure 4
summarizes the pointing capabilities of the PMA.
[38] During launch, cruise, and landing, the PMA is
stowed, lying parallel to the rover deck. It is restrained to
the deck in several positions at its head, allowing it to
sustain launch and landing loads. Shortly after landing,
pyrotechnic devices are fired to release these restraints.
Then, a fourth actuator called the Mast Deployment Drive
(MDD) is used to erect the mast to the vertical position. The
MDD uses an unusual design in which the whole mast is cut
through near its base at a 45 angle. The portion of the PMA
below this cut is vertical and fixed to the rover deck, while
the portion above it is movable and lies horizontal when the
PMA is stowed. A large circular ring gear that is coplanar
with the cut is rotated by a motor after the mast head has
been released. This motion rotates the upper portion of the
PMA about an axis perpendicular to the ring gear, sweeping
it through half a cone to reach the vertical position. Once the
upper portion of the PMA is vertical, it is latched in place.
After deploying the PMA, the MDD does not move again
for the remainder of the mission.
[39] The portion of the PMA tube that lies below the
azimuth actuator and includes the MDD is made of
titanium. Above the azimuth actuator the primary struc-
tural elements, including the inner and outer cans around
the Mini-TES mirrors, are made of graphite-epoxy com-
posite. Roundwire cabling that wraps around the MDD is
used below the azimuth actuator to carry power and data
lines for the actuators and cameras. Above the azimuth
actuator, most cabling is flexprint.
[40] The MDD, camera bar actuator, and azimuth actuator
all use Maxon RE020 brush motors, while the Mini-TES
 SQUYRES ET AL.: ATHENA MARS ROVER SCIENCE INVESTIGATION
Figure 4. Pointing capabilities of the PMA for Mini-TES (left) and Pancam (right).
elevation actuator uses the slightly larger RE025. Each
actuator uses a custom gearbox tailored to its particular
performance requirements, and each uses an encoder to
provide fine position knowledge. The camera bar, azimuth,
and Mini-TES elevation actuators all have hardstops at both
ends of their range of travel. Initialization against these
hardstops can provide unambiguous position knowledge
whenever the position knowledge provided by the encoders
is lost. Each actuator is equipped with a heater that
allows it to be warmed to its minimum operating temper-
ature of 55C under cold environmental conditions. This
low-temperature capability is particularly important for
performing Mini-TES observations of the Martian atmo-
sphere at night (see section 4.1 below).
[41] Because the PMA serves as the fore-optics of the
Mini-TES, we devoted considerable attention to its optical
properties in the thermal infrared. The Mini-TES mirrors are
both made of polished beryllium, providing reflectance of
97.5% across the full spectral range of the instrument.
Honeycomb-like ribs on the back of each mirror provide the
necessary combination of stiffness and low mass. The
combined wave front distortion introduced by the mirrors
is less than two waves (peak to valley) at >8 cycles per
aperture.
[42] Interior baffles are used along the full length of the
PMA to prevent single-bounce stray energy from outside
Mini-TES’ 20-mrad field of view from reaching the instru-
ment. It is also important to maximize the thermal emissiv-
ity of the inner surfaces of the PMA. The inner surface of
the titanium structure that forms the lower portion of the
PMA is painted with Aeroglaze Z306 high-emissivity paint.
The inner surface of the upper portion of the PMA is bare
composite, with an emissivity of approximately 0.8. The
entire outer surface of the PMA is painted white to mini-
mize its temperature (and hence its radiation into the
instrument) under solar illumination.
[43] The PMA provides absolute pointing knowledge
errors for all instruments, relative to the elevation and
azimuth hardstops, of roughly 0.1 (2 mrad). The step-
ping capability of the Mini-TES elevation actuator was
designed with the internal timing of the Mini-TES instru-
ment in mind. As noted above, Mini-TES acquires data in
1.8 second integration periods, separated by 200-msec
interferometer retrace periods. The Mini-TES elevation
mirror is able to move in steps of up to 20 mrad in size
within one 200-msec retrace period. This capability allows
ROV 3-7
a Mini-TES raster to be constructed using 20-mrad eleva-
tion steps but requiring no integration periods to be wasted
during mirror moves. Azimuth steps can take as long as
1 second, so one Mini-TES integration period typically is
discarded during an azimuth move. We therefore normally
construct Mini-TES rasters using a ‘‘snake’’ pattern in
which we scan down one column, take a small step in
azimuth, scan up the next column, and so forth. This
approach minimizes the ratio of (slow) azimuth steps to
(rapid) elevation steps.
3.2. In Situ Payload Elements
3.2.1. Microscopic Imager
[44] Much information can be obtained by studying rocks
and soils with a close-up imager that has a resolution
sufficient to enable detailed characterization of coatings,
weathering rinds, individual mineral grains, clasts, or other
particles. For sedimentary rocks, the size, angularity, shape,
and sorting of grains can reveal much about conditions of
transport and deposition. For lavas, vesicularity gives an
indication of volatile content. Grain size and texture of
igneous rocks provide information on crystallinity of the
magma when emplaced and how quickly it cooled. Optical
properties of mineral grains allow improved mineral iden-
tification. Microscopic imaging can also be used to identify
small-scale veins of precipitated minerals.
[45] The Athena Microscopic Imager (MI) is a high-
resolution imaging system mounted on the Instrument
Deployment Device (IDD). The camera body is identical
to the ones used by Pancam, so the field of view is 1024 
1024 pixels in size and the instrument has the same basic
radiometric performance characteristics as Pancam. There is
a single broad-band filter, so imaging with the Microscopic
Imager is monochromatic.
[46] The MI optics use a simple, fixed focus design at
f/15 that provides ±3 mm depth-of-field at 30 mm/pixel
sampling. The field of view is therefore 31  31 mm at
the working distance. The focal length is 20 mm, and the
working distance is 66 mm from the front of the lens barrel to
the object plane. The object-to-image distance is 100 mm.
Focus adjustment is provided by using the IDD to move the
MI forward or backward along its optical axis.
[47] The spectral bandpass of the MI optical system is
400– 680 nm. At best focus, the modulation transfer func-
tion of the optics is at least 0.35 at 30 lp/mm over this
bandpass. Radiometric calibration of the MI has been
ROV 3-8 SQUYRES ET AL.: ATHENA MARS ROVER SCIENCE INVESTIGATION
performed with a relative (pixel-to-pixel) accuracy of 5%,
and an absolute accuracy of 20% over the instrument’s
full spectral bandpass. The MI signal to noise ratio is at least
100 for exposures of 20% full well over the spectral
bandpass and within the calibrated operating temperature
range ( 55 to +5C).
[48] No onboard radiometric calibration target is provided
for inflight calibration of the MI. Flat fields can be obtained
by imaging the Martian sky. The MI is also able to view the
Compositional Calibration Target (see section 3.2.3 below),
and this target includes fiducial marks that can be used to
perform a focus check.
[49] Whenever the MI is not in use, the MI optics are
protected from contamination by a transparent cover. The
cover is opened only for MI imaging sequences. A contact
sensor attached to the MI will be used to detect rock and
other hard surfaces, to help ensure accurate positioning and
protect the MI from accidental damage.
[50] The MI acquires images using only solar or skylight
illumination of the target surface. Stereoscopic observations
and mosaics can be obtained by moving the MI between
successive frames. Stereo images and images taken at
various distances from the target will be used to derive
the 3-dimensional character of the target surface. Optical
sections will also be combined to produce an image of the
target that is well-focused across the entire frame.
[51] In-focus images obtained by the Microscopic Imager
will have a spatial resolution of 30 mm per pixel. This
resolution meets or exceeds the effective resolution pro-
vided by hand lenses typically used by field geologists.
The MI will be used in a similar fashion to reveal the fine-
scale petrographic texture of rocks, as an aid in interpre-
tation of their composition and history. MI images of fresh
rock surfaces exposed by the RAT may be particularly
useful in this regard.
3.2.2. Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer
[52] The primary objective of the APXS is to determine
the elemental chemistry of rocks and soils, complementing
the textural and mineralogical analyses of the other Athena
instruments.
[53] A key APXS objective is examination of the prod-
ucts of water-induced erosion, sedimentation, solution, and
evaporation. Elemental analyses of rocks or clasts that
resulted from these processes will constrain mineralogical
analyses. Moreover, such analyses can be compared with
analyses of local soils, showing whether the conditions
under which weathering occurred early in the planet’s
history differed substantially from conditions later. Compar-
isons of concentrations of elements with differing mobilities
during weathering, e.g., Al, Si, and Fe, can be used for this
purpose, as can concentrations of S and halogens that are
indicators of salts.
[54] The APXS can also reveal the chemistry of primary
crustal rocks. Such measurements are essential for under-
standing under what environmental conditions Martian
crustal materials formed, and how they formed. For exam-
ple, highland rocks are presumably a mixture of primordial
crust, ancient volcanic rocks, and ancient sediments, all
stirred by impact. Differences are likely from rock to rock,
and even among clasts within the same rock. Chemical
analyses may therefore shed light on a variety of processes
that were important during early Martian history.
[55] Other APXS objectives deal with the elemental
chemistry of soils. Minerals produced by weathering in
particular tend to be complex, and permit many substitu-
tions, like halogens for water, or Al for Fe. The environ-
mental conditions under which weathering took place on
Mars, as well as the composition of the source rocks, are
largely unknown, so it is important that mineralogical
determinations of soils and weathering products provided
by Mini-TES and the Mössbauer Spectrometer be con-
strained by chemistry.
[56] The APXS works by exposing Martian materials to
energetic alpha particles and x rays from a radioactive
244
Cm source, and then measuring the energy spectra of
backscattered alphas and emitted x rays. The instrument is
conceptually similar to the APXS instrument that flew on
the Mars Pathfinder mission. However, there are several
differences that improve the instrument’s reliability and
performance. Unlike the Pathfinder APXS, the Athena
APXS does not have a proton mode. The proton mode
has been dropped because recent increases in the spectral
resolution and sensitivity of the x-ray mode have made it
superfluous. Significant modifications have also been made
to the instrument to reduce the CO2-induced background
that was observed on Pathfinder, to improve x-ray spectral
resolution, and to decrease susceptibility to electromagnetic
interference. The Athena APXS has undergone extensive
preflight calibration under Mars-ambient conditions, and
has an onboard reference target for post-landing calibration
on Mars.
[57] The x-ray mode is sensitive to major elements, such
as Mg, Al, Si, K, Ca, and Fe, and to minor elements,
including Na, P, S, Cl, Ti, Cr, and Mn. The alpha mode is
sensitive to lighter elements, particularly C and O. The
depth of analysis varies with atomic number, ranging from
approximately 10 to 20 micrometers for sodium, to approx-
imately 50 to 100 micrometers for iron. The detection limit
is typically 0.5 to 1 weight percent, depending on the
element. The APXS is insensitive to small variations of
the geometry of the sample surface because all major and
minor elements are determined, and can be summed to
100 weight percent.
[58] The APXS instrument consists of a sensor head
mounted on the rover’s Instrument Deployment Device,
and electronics mounted in the rover’s warm electronics
box.
[59] The sensor head contains six 244Cm alpha radioac-
tive sources with a total source strength of about 30 mCi.
The sources are each covered with 3-mm titanium foils that
reduce the energy of emitted alpha particles from the initial
value of 5.8 MeV to about 5.2 MeV. At this energy, the
alpha particle scattering cross section of carbon is signifi-
cantly reduced. The reduction is accompanied by a slight
degradation of the alpha spectral resolution caused by
broadening of the excitation spectrum, but the net result is
a significant suppression of atmospheric background in the
alpha spectra. Collimators in front of the sources define the
instrument’s field of view, which is about 38 mm in
diameter at the nominal working distance of 29 mm.
[60] Surrounding the sources are six alpha detectors.
The FWHM for the alpha mode of a 244Cm peak at
5.8 MeV is less than 100 keV. Interior to the ring of
sources is a single high-resolution silicon drift x-ray
 SQUYRES ET AL.: ATHENA MARS ROVER SCIENCE INVESTIGATION
detector with a 5-mm beryllium entrance window. The
FWHM of this detector at 6.4 keV is about 160 eV,
compared to 260 eV for the Pathfinder APXS. The noise
level in the x-ray mode is less than 600 eV at temper-
atures below 30C. The overall sensitivity of the x-ray
mode is roughly 20 times greater than it was for the
Mars Pathfinder instrument, enabling measurement dura-
tions for x-ray spectra that are considerably shorter than
was required on the Pathfinder mission.
[61] The entrance to the detector head is normally pro-
tected from Martian dust and other potential contaminants
by a pair of doors. These doors swing inward and lock open
when the sensor head is pressed against a target or other
hard surface. They can be closed again by actuation of a
release mechanism. The inner surfaces of the doors provide
the calibration reference surface for the instrument.
[62] Proper preflight calibration is essential to analysis of
APXS data, so the Athena APXS instruments have under-
gone an extensive calibration program. Most calibration
measurements were made in a chamber filled with a mixture
of gases that closely matches the composition of the Martian
atmosphere, at the appropriate atmospheric density. Cali-
bration measurements included spectral ‘‘library’’ measure-
ments of pure elements and oxides, geochemical standards
that span a wide range of plausible Martian surface compo-
sitions, standard targets under a range of atmospheric
densities and measurement geometries, standard targets in
both natural and powdered form, to investigate texture
effects, the APXS flight calibration target, the magnets of
the magnet array, and several blind certified geochemical
reference standards, for independent assessment of the
accuracy with which compositions can be measured. All
of these measurements were made using the flight radiation
sources.
3.2.3. Mössbauer Spectrometer
[63] The primary objective of the Mössbauer Spectrom-
eter is to reveal the valence state, molecular structure, and
magnetic properties of iron-bearing minerals in rocks and
soils. A 57Fe Mössbauer spectrometer uses the resonance
absorption of recoil-free emitted gamma-rays by 57Fe nuclei
in a solid to investigate the splitting of nuclear levels due to
the interaction of the Fe atom with its surrounding elec-
tronic environment. This hyperfine interaction is different
for Fe nuclei with different electronic environments, so each
Fe-bearing mineral has its own characteristic Mössbauer
spectrum.
[64] Detailed objectives of the Mössbauer spectrometer
are to
[65] 1. Determine the oxidation state of iron: The Fe2+/
Fe3+ ratio provides information on the oxidation state of the
soils and rocks. Comparison of these oxidation states can
indicate the extent to which the oxidation state was en-
hanced during weathering, and hence can give insights into
the processes involved, the nature of surface-atmosphere
interactions, and likelihood of the preservation of organics
against the oxidation process.
[66] 2. Identify the iron oxides and the magnetic phase in
the Martian soil: Individual iron oxide and oxyhydroxide
minerals have different chemical pathways of formation.
For instance, iron oxides or hydroxides formed via precip-
itation in abundant liquid water will be different from the
oxidation products formed via solid-gas reactions. Identifi-
ROV 3-9
cation of ferric phases in the soil can therefore contribute to
the understanding of the history of Martian water.
[67] 3. Identify iron-bearing minerals in rocks: What
igneous rocks are present? By Mössbauer spectroscopy,
Fe-bearing silicate minerals like pyroxene and olivine, as
well as ilmenite and other Fe oxides, can be identified.
[68] 4. Search for Fe-sulfates, Fe-nitrates and Fe-carbo-
nates: These could be important irreversible volatile reser-
voirs, and their identification would aid in understanding of
Martian volatile evolution.
[69] The Athena Mössbauer spectrometer uses a vibration-
ally modulated 57Co source to illuminate target materials.
Backscattered gamma signals are binned according to the
source velocity, revealing hyperfine splitting of 57Fe nuclear
levels that provides mineralogical information about the
target. The main parts of the instrument are the Mössbauer
drive that moves the 57Co source with a well-known velocity,
the g- and x-ray detectors that detect the backscattered
radiation, the microcontroller unit, the 57Co/Rh Mössbauer
source, and the radiation collimator and shielding.
[70] Like the APXS, the Mössbauer spectrometer is split
into the sensor head-on the IDD and the electronics in the
rover’s warm electronics box. The sensor head carries the
Mössbauer drive with the analog part of the drive control
unit, the 57Co/Rh Mössbauer source, the radiation collimator
and shielding, the four PIN-diode detector channels includ-
ing pulse amplifiers, and one reference detector channel to
monitor the velocity of the drive using a weak 57Co source
and a well known Mössbauer reference absorber in trans-
mission geometry. The electronics in the rover body include
an internal microcontroller, so that the instrument can collect
data independently of the rover computer. The analog signals
of the five detector channels are analyzed by discriminators
for 14.4 keV and 6.4 keV peaks. Mössbauer spectra for the
two different energies of 6.4 keV and 14.41 keV are sampled
separately.
[71] Measurements are made by placing the instrument
directly against a rock or soil sample. Physical contact is
used to provide an optimal measurement distance and to
minimize possible microphonics noise on the velocity-
modulated energy of the emitted g rays. The mechanical
construction of the IDD and the interface limit vibration-
induced velocity noise at the sensor head to less than
0.1 mm/s. A contact plate is mounted at the front part of
the sensor head, assuring an optimal distance from the
sensor head to the sample of about 9 to 10 mm. A heavy
metal collimator in front of the source provides an irradiated
spot of nominally 15 mm (up to 20 mm, depending on
actual sample distance and shape) in diameter on the surface
of the sample. The average depth of sampling by Mössbauer
data is about 200 to 300 mm.
[72] Mössbauer parameters are temperature dependent.
Especially for small particles exhibiting superparamagnetic
behavior (e.g., nanophase Fe oxides), the Mössbauer spec-
trum may change significantly with temperature. The ob-
servation of such changes will help in determining the
nature of the iron-bearing phases. Therefore Mössbauer
measurements will be performed over a range of diurnal
temperatures spanning both the daytime maxima and the
nighttime minima.
[73] One Mössbauer measurement takes approximately
12 hours, depending on the phases present in the sample and
ROV 3 - 10 SQUYRES ET AL.: ATHENA MARS ROVER SCIENCE INVESTIGATION
the total iron content. The temperature variation for one
spectral accumulation interval will not be larger than about
±10C. When larger variations occur, spectra for different
temperature ranges are stored separately, resulting in an
increase in the total data volume (depending on the number
of temperature intervals required), and a decrease of statis-
tical quality for the individual subspectra.
[74] In parallel with the measurements of samples, cali-
bration spectra will be taken using the reference channel
implemented in the instrument. A Compositional Calibra-
tion Target containing a thin slab of magnetite-rich rock is
also included on the rover where it can be viewed directly
by the instrument immediately after landing, as well as later
in the mission if necessary.
3.2.4. Rock Abrasion Tool
[75] The primary scientific objectives of the Athena
investigation involve using the rover and its payload to
read the geologic record at the landing sites and to assess
past environmental conditions and possible former habit-
ability of the site. Because weathering processes can alter
the texture and composition of rock surfaces, they could act
to alter or destroy evidence of the conditions under which
rocks formed. We therefore have included in the payload a
tool that can penetrate through the possibly weathered outer
regions of rocks, exposing fresh rock underneath. This
device, called the Rock Abrasion Tool (RAT), is a dia-
mond-tipped grinding tool capable of removing a cylindri-
cal area 4.5 cm in diameter and at least 0.5 cm deep from
the outer surface of a rock. The exposed area is large
enough to admit the APXS and Mössbauer sensor heads,
and to fill a Microscopic Imager frame almost completely.
All of the in-situ instruments can therefore examine a
surface that has been exposed by the RAT. RAT operation
takes a few hours for penetration into dense basalt.
[76] The RAT has a total of three actuators. One causes
each of two grinding wheels to rotate at high speeds. One
wheel has two diamond teeth, which cut out a circular area
associated with each grinding head as the head rotates. The
other wheel has a brush that helps to remove rock cuttings
from the freshly ground surface. A second actuator causes
the two grinding wheels to revolve around one another at a
much slower rate, sweeping the two circular cutting areas
around the full 4.5-cm diameter cutting region. Another
brush associated with this revolve axis pushes rock cuttings
to the periphery of the freshly ground region. Finally, a third
‘‘z axis’’ actuator translates the entire cutting head toward
the rock, causing it to penetrate to the commanded depth.
[77] In order to grind a rock, the IDD places the RAT
directly against it. Contact is made on two small knurled
balls external to the grinding heads, and a ring surrounding
the heads can adjust in two orthogonal axes to the orienta-
tion of the rock surface. Once pressed firmly against the
rock by the IDD, all further actuations take place within the
RAT itself. Rotation and revolution of the grinding wheels
is initiated, and they are slowly translated toward the rock
surface by the z axis actuator until contact is made.
Encoders monitor penetration progress, and allow closed-
loop control of the grinding process.
[78] The RAT is designed to preserve petrographic
textures of the prepared rock surfaces as fully as possible,
so that they can be viewed effectively using the MI. The
grinding process is slow enough that no measurable
modification of rock chemistry or mineralogy by frictional
heating is anticipated. The grinding wheels are designed so
that contamination of the exposed surface by cuttings from
the rock (and previous rocks) is minimized. Grinding wheel
materials have been selected so that there should be no
detectable contamination of rock surfaces due to wear of the
grinding heads themselves. If necessary, the grinding
wheels can be cleaned by actuating the RAT against a stiff
wire brush that is mounted on the forearm link of the IDD.
3.2.5. Magnetic Properties Experiment
[79] The objective of the Athena magnetic properties
experiment is to attract Martian magnetic materials, and to
hold them in a way that is optimized for investigation by
means of the payload instruments. The magnets are similar
in some respects to the magnet arrays carried on the Viking
and Mars Pathfinder missions [Hargraves et al., 1977;
Madsen et al., 1999]. However, the experiment is a signif-
icant scientific step beyond its predecessors, primarily
because of the unique mineralogical capabilities of the
Mössbauer Spectrometer that is part of the Athena payload.
[80] The nature of the magnetic phase that Viking and
Mars Pathfinder detected in the Martian soil is uncertain.
There is some evidence from reflectance spectroscopy that
superparamagnetic particles (nanophase iron oxides with
diameters of less than about 50 nm) are present. The shape
of the Mössbauer spectrum, especially of such small par-
ticles, depends strongly on temperature and particle size. By
measuring the spectrum at different temperatures one may
obtain semi-quantitative information on the crystallite size
and whether superparamagnetic particles are indeed present.
Whether the iron oxides are poorly crystalline (e.g., nano-
phase or superparamagnetic) or well crystalline also has
implications for the environmental conditions at the time
they formed.
[81] The Athena magnets include (1) ‘‘filter’’ and ‘‘cap-
ture’’ magnets mounted on the rover’s Magnet Array, (2) a
‘‘sweep magnet’’ mounted on the rover deck, and (3) RAT
magnets, mounted within the Rock Abrasion Tool.
[82] The filter and capture magnets are mounted on a
Magnet Array on each rover that is accessible to the
Mössbauer Spectrometer and the APXS. The stronger
capture magnet is designed to attract all ferro/ferrimagnetic
dust, while the weaker filter magnet is designed to attract
only the most magnetic dust.
[83] The capture magnet is designed to accumulate a
homogenous layer of airborne Martian dust as efficiently
as possible, and to provide a relatively constant magnetic
field at the position of the dust layer. The magnetic field
strength is approximately 280 mT at the active surface. On
the basis of experience from the magnetic properties exper-
iment on Mars Pathfinder, it is expected that the capture
magnet will collect sufficient material for Mössbauer anal-
ysis in about 15 sols.
[84] The filter magnet also will collect airborne dust
particles carried to the magnet by the atmosphere. The filter
magnet is designed to accumulate a homogenous layer of
strongly magnetic dust, and to attract weakly magnetic dust
as little as possible. Thus this magnet will separate out and to
keep attached to its surface a magnetic subset of the Martian
dust particles from the bulk material (if the properties of the
dust allow this). The magnetic field strength at the active
surface is approximately 140 mT. On the basis of experience
 SQUYRES ET AL.: ATHENA MARS ROVER SCIENCE INVESTIGATION
Figure 5. The Instrument Deployment Device (IDD), showing the five joints that are used to position
the four payload elements on the turret.
from the magnetic properties experiment on Mars Pathfinder,
it is expected that the filter magnet will collect sufficient
material for Mössbauer analysis in about 30 sols.
[85] The filter and capture magnets are each contained
within an aluminum disk 45 mm in diameter. Each is
positioned near the base of the PMA, mounted such that
their surface normals are oriented 45 above horizontal.
Both may be viewed by Pancam, though not by Mini-TES.
[86] An unresolved question from the Viking and Mars
Pathfinder missions is whether magnets are culling a pop-
ulation of more strongly magnetic particles from the air-
borne dust, or whether all dust particles have similar
magnetic properties [e.g., Hargraves et al., 1977; Madsen
et al., 1999]. The sweep magnet is designed to answer this
question. This magnet consists of a thin-walled magnetic
tube magnetized along its symmetry axis. With this config-
uration it is possible to make a strong magnet (350 mT at
the surface) capable of deflecting the paths of wind-trans-
ported, magnetic particles arriving at the surface of the
magnet. Magnetic particles will accumulate on a narrow
ring corresponding to the magnetic tube. The central surface
inside the ring magnet will only collect non-magnetic dust
particles. At greater radial distances from the ring magnet,
both magnetic and non-magnetic particles will accumulate.
Pancam images of the sweep magnet will provide spectral
information on the dust collected, and thus provide infor-
mation on the magnetic versus nonmagnetic particles in the
Martian dust. The sweep magnet is mounted on the rover
deck immediately adjacent to the Pancam calibration target,
so that it will be observed during each Pancam calibration
sequence.
[87] Because the scientific objectives to be addressed
using the filter, capture, and sweep magnets all require
just a single measurement once adequate dust buildup
has occurred, we have not included any mechanism for
removing dust from the magnets.
[88] Use of the RAT will produce small particles of
abraded Martian rock. Four 7 mm diameter  9 mm thick
magnets are mounted within the RAT to sample and
concentrate the magnetic portion of the abraded rock. After
a RAT operation, Pancam can be used to examine any
cuttings that may have adhered to the magnets. The RAT
ROV 3 - 11
magnets have different strengths, providing a range of
conditions for magnetic particles to be attracted and held.
3.2.6. Instrument Deployment Device
[89] The four in-situ payload elements (MI, APXS, MB,
RAT) are mounted on a five-degree-of-freedom (DOF)
manipulator called the Instrument Deployment Device
(IDD), shown in Figure 5.
[90] The IDD is a robotic arm, with a shoulder, an elbow,
and a wrist. Its dimensions are similar to those of a human
arm. Two joints at the shoulder provide actuation in azimuth
and elevation. A single joint at the elbow provides addi-
tional elevation actuation. The four payload elements are
mounted pointing radially outward at roughly 90 to one
another in a ‘‘turret’’ arrangement (Figure 6); actuators at
the wrist provide pitch and rotation actuation for the turret.
[91] The combined ranges of motion of these five actua-
tors define a five-dimensional IDD ‘‘work volume’’ at the
front of the rover. Any target surface within the work
volume can be defined by five parameters: its x, y, and z
position, plus two angles that describe the orientation of the
surface normal vector. Use of five DOFs means in principle
that we can orient each payload element normal to any
surface in the work volume, but without a sixth DOF we
have no control of the rotational or ‘‘twist’’ angle of the
payload element around the surface normal.
[92] The original design goal for the IDD work volume
was a cylindrical volume in front of the rover directly along
the rover’s centerline, 50 cm in diameter and is 70 cm high.
The actual work volume approximates this goal, but is
significantly more complex in shape. Joint motion restric-
tions and potential collisions with rover structure define
keep-out zones within this five-dimensional space. There
are also secondary work volumes on the rover body that
allow the APXS and Mössbauer Spectrometer to be placed
against the Compositional Calibration Target, and also
against the capture and filter magnets.
[93] During launch, cruise, and landing, the IDD is
stowed beneath the rover body, and is restrained so that it
can sustain launch and landing loads. Pyrotechnic devices
are fired after landing to release these restraints, allowing
the IDD to be deployed from its launch locks once the rover
has successfully traversed off the lander.
ROV 3 - 12 SQUYRES ET AL.: ATHENA MARS ROVER SCIENCE INVESTIGATION
Figure 6. An image of the IDD turret, showing the RAT
(lower left), MI (lower right), MB (upper left) and APXS
(upper right). The dark cylindrical structure at the top of the
image is a support fixture and not part of the flight
hardware.
[94] When not in use during surface operations, the IDD
is stowed in a position similar to the launch position. Stereo
images obtained using the front Hazcams show the IDD
work volume and any science targets that may be present in
it. Hazcam images are used on the ground to identify target
surfaces within the work volume, and to determine their
position and orientation relative to the rover. This position
and orientation information is then used to generate com-
mand sequences that direct the IDD to position payload
elements against target surfaces. This commanding
approach is simple and robust, but it imposes important
restrictions. No closed-loop positioning using Hazcam
images onboard is performed, and no deployment of the
IDD without analysis of Hazcam images on the ground is
permitted.
[95] The upper arm and forearm links of the IDD are built
with titanium tubes and end fittings. Flexprint cables
running the length of the IDD carry power and data signals
for the instruments and the IDD actuators. All five actuators
use identical Maxon RE020 brushed motors. Each has a
custom gearbox with a design specific to the requirements
of that joint. Heaters are provided on all five actuators,
allowing them to be brought to their minimum operating
temperature of 55C even under cold nighttime environ-
mental conditions. This capability will be used routinely to
switch from use of one in-situ instrument to another during
the Martian night.
[96] Potentiometers on each joint provide coarse position
information, and encoders provide fine position informa-
tion. The encoder information is used by the IDD control
software that runs on the rover CPU to position the payload
elements. The software permits all five joints to be operated
simultaneously, allowing considerable flexibility in how the
IDD can be operated. Each IDD-mounted payload element
also carries two redundant contact sensors that can be used
to determine when it has been brought into contact with a
target surface. This contact information can be used in a
closed-loop fashion to terminate IDD movement.
[97] Motion of the IDD and its instruments can be
accomplished in joint space or Cartesian space. Joint space
moves are typically used to move the IDD in and out of the
stowed-for-driving location, move the RAT to the RAT
brushing station located on the IDD forearm, and rotate
the instruments on the turret. Cartesian space moves are
typically used to place an instrument above a desired target
(both rover-mounted and rock and soil targets), place the
instrument on a target, and retract the instrument off of a
target. Joint space moves can be specified as relative or
absolute joint motions while Cartesian space moves can be
specified as absolute or relative moves with respect to the
rover coordinate frame or tool frame moves relative to an
instrument’s pointing vector with respect to the coordinate
frame attached to the turret.
[98] Uncertainties in the kinematics of the IDD (knowl-
edge of link lengths, joint offsets, joint positions relative to
hardstops, etc.) and inaccuracies in the target positions and
orientations as determined from front Hazcam images
contribute errors to the positioning capability of the IDD.
Hazcam images generally allow determination of surface
positions to within 5 mm, and surface orientations to within
5. When combined with the capabilities of the IDD
hardware itself, these uncertainties mean that the IDD can
position each payload element within 10 mm of a science
target that has not previously been contacted by another in-
situ instrument, and to within 10 of the target’s surface
normal. Once contact has been made, the IDD is capable of
repeatably positioning instruments to ±2.5 mm in position
and ±3 in orientation.
[99] For the APXS and the Mössbauer Spectrometer, the
IDD’s job is simply to place these instruments into physical
contact with their targets so that measurement integrations
can take place. The other two in-situ payload elements,
however, impose other special requirements. The RAT must
be placed against rock targets with a preload, and the
grinding capability of the RAT increases with increasing
preload. The minimum preload requirement for the RAT is
10 N. The IDD can provide 20 N over its full work
volume, 50 N over 60% of the work volume, and 80 N
over 10% of the work volume. For the Microscopic Imager,
which has no focus mechanism, the IDD is used to change
the instrument’s focus position. The instrument’s depth of
field is ±3 mm. The IDD provides a minimum controllable
motion along a science target’s surface normal vector of 2 ±
1 mm RMS, allowing it to image a rough surface in a
sequence of images. After placing the MI in position for
imaging, the motion of the IDD damps down to an ampli-
tude of less than 30 microns (i.e., less than one MI pixel)
within 15 seconds.
4. Additional Science Objectives
4.1. Atmospheric Science
[100] The primary scientific focus of the Athena payload
is the composition of Martian rocks and soils, and what they
indicate about past environmental conditions and habitabil-
ity at the two landing sites. However, Pancam and Mini-
TES also have the ability to view the Martian sky, and hence
to provide information about the present Martian climate.
 SQUYRES ET AL.: ATHENA MARS ROVER SCIENCE INVESTIGATION
[101] Mini-TES can view upward to provide high-resolu-
tion temperature profiles in the Martian atmospheric bound-
ary layer. Temperatures are retrieved from the wings of the
15-mm CO2 band.
[102] The Martian boundary layer has large temperature
contrasts across it, varying from extremely stable at night to
extremely unstable during the day. Over sloping terrain the
cold nighttime boundary layer may produce unusual drain-
age winds. Other mesoscale circulation phenomena are also
expected. With temperature profiles obtained through diur-
nal and annual cycles, models of winds and surface stresses
can be constrained. Improved understanding of surface
stresses could lead in turn to improved understanding of
dust storm generation.
[103] Water abundance may be estimated by upward
viewing of rotational H2O lines. Separate measurements
of water near the ground might be obtained by viewing
distant surface obstacles. The broad librational water ice
feature near 800 cm 1 may allow monitoring of ground ice
hazes. Together, these measurements may help illuminate
the behavior of water in lower atmosphere and of water
transport between the atmosphere and surface. Observing
the sky, the spectrum of high ice clouds will appear in
emission.
[104] Atmospheric dust abundance may be obtained using
the redundant temperature information in the two sides of
the 15-mm CO2 band, together with differential absorption
across the dust band in that region. Combining dust and
temperature data, profiles of atmospheric heating rates can
be calculated that will help constrain general circulation
models.
[105] Pancam will also be used to conduct atmospheric
observations. The instrument can image the full Martian
sky, including direct imaging of the sun. A time series of
atmospheric dust opacity in the visible, complementary to
the one in the IR from the Mini-TES, can therefore be
obtained by imaging the sun through neutral density filters
and applying Beer’s Law. Systematic diurnal variations in
atmospheric opacity, probably due to variations in water ice
clouds, have been observed by Viking and Mars Pathfinder
[e.g., Pollack et al., 1979; Tomasko et al., 1999]. Pancam
sky images and direct determination of atmospheric opacity
over two wavelength regions can provide more detailed data
on diurnal opacity changes, and hence, in concert with
Mini-TES observations, on diurnal variation of water ice
or dust aerosols.
[106] Aerosol properties like mean size, single scattering
phase function, and single scattering albedo are important
for atmospheric modeling, and can also be obtained from
sky imaging [Tomasko et al., 1999]. Variation of sky
brightness near the sun defines the diffraction peak of the
aerosols, and from that allows approximate determination of
mean particle size. Particle phase function can be deter-
mined from variation of sky brightness over a large range of
angles from the sun. Once particle size and phase function
are known, single scattering albedo may be determined from
absolute sky brightness [e.g., Ockert-Bell et al., 1997].
4.2. Soil//Rock Physical Properties
[107] The Athena payload and the MER rovers can also
be used to study a variety of physical properties of Martian
rocks and soil [Arvidson et al., 2003b].
ROV 3 - 13
[108] Mini-TES observations of rocks and soils will
reveal these materials’ temperatures. Data obtained over
diurnal cycles can be used to determine thermophysical
properties (primarily thermal inertia) of Martian materials.
Layering in soils, including crusts up to 5 cm deep like
those seen in local patches by Viking, should be detect-
able. These observations can provide information on
formation of crusts and deposition of unconsolidated sedi-
ments. They should provide useful ground truth for orbital
thermophysical observations that average over larger
spatial scales.
[109] Viking Lander and Pathfinder observations showed
that the soils at these three Mars landing sites are diverse,
with surface deposits of aeolian dust, drifts and dunes, and
an underlying indurated deposit that has been called duri-
crust. Viking Lander observations [Clark et al., 1982]
showed that duricrust contains more sulfur and chlorine
than loose surface deposits. Many researchers believe that
duricrust formed when thin films of water migrated from the
subsurface to the surface, evaporated, and left behind salts.
Others believe that the duricrust formed as sulfur and
chlorine rich volcanic aerosols settled onto the surface
under relatively moist conditions that would allow cemen-
tation to occur. The origin of duricrust remains uncertain,
although the correlation with volatile species and probable
association with water remain key elements of extant
hypotheses.
[110] The relevance to the MER mission is that the
rovers are capable of excavating in soils to a depth of
about half a wheel diameter (approximately 10 cm), well
beneath the loose deposits and into the duricrust found at
all three Mars landing sites and therefore presumably
widespread on Mars. Exposure of fresh subsurface deposits
by wheel excavation experiments will help us to charac-
terize the texture, mineralogy, and chemistry of soils at the
landing site and along the traverses, in particular, deposits
hypothesized to have been modified by aqueous activity.
Preflight wheel calibrations experiments will be conducted
to be able to understand the relationships among motor
voltage, motor current, and wheel torque as a function of
temperature.
[111] A prime subsurface soil experiment will be to lock
all but one wheel, spin that wheel, and let it dig into the soil
up to a depth of half the wheel diameter. During the
experiments, the rover would first characterize the undis-
turbed surface, conduct subsurface soil excavation experi-
ments, image the wheel, back up, and then survey results
with imaging systems and, as appropriate, with Mini-TES
and the in-situ instrument suite. The engineering and
science instrument data will be used to infer physical
properties, chemistry, and mineralogy as a function of
depth. Of particular interest is determining whether or not
there are stratigraphic horizons in the soil, and whether or
not duricrust is a ubiquitous substrate, along with inferring
the properties of all units encountered.
[112] The RAT can also be used to investigate the
physical properties of rocks. During operation of the
RAT, the rover will monitor currents, temperatures, and
encoder readouts for all three RAT actuators. These data can
be used to infer information about the strength properties of
the rocks that have undergone grinding. A test program is
underway with an engineering model of the RAT to
ROV 3 - 14 SQUYRES ET AL.: ATHENA MARS ROVER SCIENCE INVESTIGATION
establish some of the relationships among these parameters
and rock strength.
5. Payload Calibration
5.1. Background
[113] In May of 2001, before calibration of the Athena
instruments began, the MER Project convened a Payload
Calibration Peer Review Board. This group was drawn from
the planetary science community at large, and it conducted a
review of calibration procedures for all of the scientific
instruments on the Athena payload. The review objectives
were (1) to document for users of MER mission data that the
Athena instruments are properly calibrated and (2) to assist
the Principal Investigator and Payload Element Leads
(PELs) in establishing calibration procedures and priorities
within budget and time constraints. Separate reviews were
held for each instrument, except that the Pancam and MI
were combined into one review. The board was chaired
by S. Baloga. Members of the board for Pancam and MI
were S. Baloga, P. Lucey, K. Klaasen and R. West; for Mini-
TES, S. Baloga, W. Calvin, and P. Lucey; for the Mössbauer
spectrometer, S. Baloga, B. Fultz, and R. Housley; and
for APXS, S. Baloga, B. Clark, and J. Crisp. PELs made
oral presentations and provided written documentation of
calibration plans. The review board sessions were also
attended by the Athena PI, the MER Project Scientist,
instrument development engineers, and members of the
Athena science team.
[114] The Payload Calibration Peer Review Board pro-
duced a written report to the MER Project, which contained a
number of recommendations. One of the key recommenda-
tions involved measurement of a well-characterized set of
geologic samples by all of the Athena instruments, including
a ‘‘round-robin’’ sample exchange program with a subset of
samples for a blind test. Such measurements (1) validate, for
the Athena science team and the general scientific commu-
nity, the primary instrument calibration, (2) document the
quality of measurement and data reduction procedures on
complex geologic samples, (3) provide cross-calibration
among Athena instruments and thus enhance the ability of
the scientific community to correlate interpretations of Mars
data from one instrument to another, and (4) aid in charac-
terizing measurement errors and identifying anomalies in
data returned from Mars. This recommendation from the
calibration review board has been followed in full.
5.2. Implementation
[115] To validate the calibration of the Athena instru-
ments, we measured a number of well-characterized rock
slabs using actual flight instruments or engineering models.
We chose to use rock slabs instead of powders because they
are relatively clean, do not pose a dust contamination
problem, and present reproducible surfaces to instruments.
Rock slabs used during system-level thermal vacuum tests
as Mini-TES and Pancam targets were required to be
mechanically strong and, because of bake-out requirements
for use in a vacuum chamber with the fully assembled MER
rovers, mechanically and mineralogically stable at 100C
for 50 hours.
[116] The rock slabs, sawed from large specimens, were
approximately square with side dimensions ranging from
3 to 15 cm and thicknesses ranging from 0.5 to 1.5 cm.
Most slabs had two nearly parallel flat faces, one polished
with 60 grit paper and the other polished with 600 grit
paper. Some slabs had natural or broken surfaces with the
opposite face polished with 60 grit paper. The 60 grit polish
approximates the surface finish that will be obtained with
the RAT [Gorevan et al., 2003]. The bulk elemental and
mineralogical compositions of the rocks were determined
by laboratory counterparts of Athena instruments (major
and selected minor element concentrations and Fe2+/Fe3+ by
x-ray fluorescence and wet chemistry, transmission Möss-
bauer spectroscopy, thermal emission spectroscopy, and
visible, near-IR spectroscopy) and by X-ray diffraction
and magnetic properties methods using procedures de-
scribed previously [e.g., Ruff et al., 1997; Morris et al.,
2000, 2001]. In addition, we obtained color digital images
of polished rock faces at a resolution of 42 mm/pixel using
a flat-bed scanner. This resolution approximates the resolu-
tion of the MI (30 mm/pixel [Herkenhoff et al., 2003]), and
the resolution can be degraded to Pancam image resolution.
These rock images also were useful in testing of image
compression algorithms.
[117] Approximately 200 rock slabs were fabricated.
Their mineralogical compositions ranged from nearly
monomineralogic rocks (e.g., olivine, pyroxene, feldspar,
amphibole, oxides, sulfates, carbonates, phosphates) to
complex assemblages (e.g., basalt and gabbro, andesite
and diorite, iron formations, and breccias).
[118] For the three in-situ instruments (MI, Mössbauer
Spectrometer, and APXS), individual rock slabs were of
course analyzed one at a time. To date, MI measurements
have been completed during instrument-level tests with
flight instruments, Mössbauer measurements are underway
with an engineering model instrument, and APXS measure-
ments are scheduled to begin in the near future with an
engineering model instrument.
[119] For Pancam and Mini-TES, two targets with multiple
rock slabs were built. The rock target used during Pancam
instrument-level thermal vacuum tests is shown in Figure 7a.
The target consists of 45 individual rock slabs, white and gray
scale standards, and red, green, blue, and yellow color
standards fixed on an optical breadboard with a flat-black
finish. The target was used at room temperature outside the
thermal-vacuum chamber and was viewed by the Pancam at a
distance of 2.3 m through the optical window of the chamber
using a front surface mirror. The second target (Figure 7b)
was used during system-level thermal vacuum tests inside the
thermal vacuum chamber with both MER rovers. Individual
rocks were glued to the aluminum plate, which was painted
with high-emissivity, flat-black paint. Strip heaters were
glued to the back of the plate to produce a temperature
contrast between the rock surfaces and the chamber walls
and rover. (Such heaters are necessary to obtain good Mini-
TES data in an enclosed vacuum chamber, since the whole
chamber forms a large blackbody cavity.) The large rock
slabs on the target were sized so that they completely
enclosed the Mini-TES beam at the target distance.
[120] In companion papers [Bell et al., 2003; Christensen
et al., 2003a; Herkenhoff et al., 2003; Rieder et al., 2003;
Klingelhöfer et al., 2003], preliminary results of calibration
measurements with flight model or engineering model
instruments are discussed. The focus in these papers is
 SQUYRES ET AL.: ATHENA MARS ROVER SCIENCE INVESTIGATION ROV 3 - 15

Figure 7. Rock slab targets used for calibration of the Athena remote sensing instruments. The target at
left (Figure 7a) contains 45 rock slabs and a number of reference standards, and was used during
standalone Pancam calibration. The target right (Figure 7b) was used for calibration of Pancam and Mini-
TES during thermal vacuum testing of each fully assembled MER rover. Both images were obtained
using flight Pancam cameras.

validation of instrument performance. The results of the
round-robin blind test will be published at a later date after
all measurements and analyses have been completed.
6. Science Operations
6.1. Background
[121] The MER rovers are robotic tools for conducting
field geology on the surface of another planet. Field geology
is an iterative process of scientific hypothesis formulation
and testing, performed in a field setting. Most geologists are
used to doing field work on foot, using simple tools and
working alone or with a partner. For the MER mission, we
have had to develop new processes for dealing with the
unique challenges of performing field geology on a distant
planet with a robotic vehicle.
[122] The MER rovers have many shortcomings com-
pared to the capabilities that field geologists are used to
having. Their mobility is restricted to tens of meters per sol,
even in rather benign terrain. The total traverse distance
over the full duration of the mission for each rover is not
expected to substantially exceed half a kilometer. Naviga-
tion errors and long response times can stretch out to several
sols the period of time that is needed to approach a rock that
has been observed in remote sensing data. Data bandwidth
is many orders of magnitude lower than the equivalent of
the human eye-brain combination. And the ability of the
rover to manipulate and interact with its environment is
extremely limited.
[123] The challenge of developing an operations ap-
proach for these rovers has been to find ways to use the
unique strengths of the rovers and their payloads to
overcome the unavoidable weaknesses. Pancam has the
equivalent of 20/20 visual acuity, but it also provides a
visible and near-IR radiometric imaging that can be used
to provide remote assessment of some aspects of rock
variability and composition that would not be apparent to
the naked eye. Mini-TES has excellent mineralogical
capabilities, allowing the basic compositional character-
istics of geologic materials to be identified and compared
from a distance, without having to drive the rover to them.
In situ APX and Mössbauer spectroscopy provide compo-
sitional data that field geologists typically only obtain by
returning hand samples to the laboratory. And the slow
pace of operations, combined with the significant budget
available to a space flight project, allow the knowledge of
many experienced geologists to be brought to bear simul-
taneously on the scientific problems that are encountered.
[124] When we first began work on the problem of rover
operations, we knew very little about how to conduct
remote geologic field exploration with a vehicle that has
MER-like capabilities. Our primary learning tool has been
JPL’s FIDO rover (Figure 8). This vehicle is MER-like in
many respects, and in using it over a series of four field
deployments we have been able to devise and refine our
approach to doing robotic field science.
[125] The first FIDO field deployment involved a great
deal of trial and error. But as we broke our activities down
into the equivalent of one-sol segments, we realized that
there were some operations that were performed repeatedly,
in a consistent way. This led us to a concept of distinct ‘‘sol
types’’ that can form the building blocks of a complex
multisol science operations sequence. After the first field
deployment, and through three subsequent ones, we were
ROV 3 - 16 SQUYRES ET AL.: ATHENA MARS ROVER SCIENCE INVESTIGATION
Figure 8. The FIDO rover during a field test conducted in
northern Arizona in the summer of 2002. FIDO has an
instrument arm similar to the MER rovers’ IDD and a
variable-height mast. Both are stowed in this image. The
arm supports a microscopic imager and a mass model that
can be used to simulate placement of the APXS, the
Mössbauer, or the RAT. The mast supports color and
monochrome imagers that simulate Pancam and Navcam, as
well as a near-infrared spectrometer that can be used as a
stand-in for Mini-TES. FIDO is the vehicle that we used to
develop processes for conducting geologic field work in a
remote setting using a robotic vehicle.
able to develop and then refine a simple flowchart that is
based on these building blocks and that describes the process
of MER science operations at a high level (Figure 9).
[126] There are five basic sol types, represented by the
rectangular boxes in the flowchart (1) Panorama Sol:
Acquire remote sensing data of the scene around the rover;
(2) Drive Sol: Move tens of meters in the direction of some
selected target or area of interest; (3) Approach Sol: Attempt
to move close enough to a target to place it within the work
volume of the IDD; (4) Spectroscopy Sol: Perform detailed
in-situ analyses on a target; and (5) ‘‘Scratch and Sniff’’ Sol:
Use the RAT to expose a rock target surface and perform
some in-situ analyses on it.
[127] Most of the MER surface mission will be a sequen-
tial ordering of these sol types - in essence, a 90-sol
traversal of this flowchart. The five basic sol types are
therefore the fundamental building blocks from which most
MER science operations are developed. The typical content
of each is described in detail in section 6.2 below.
[128] Operational decisions must be made on both a sol-
to-sol ‘‘tactical’’ timescale and a longer multisol ‘‘strategic’’
timescale. The tactical decisions are often simple ones; for
example, choosing between an approach sol and a spectros-
copy sol based on whether or not some intended target is
actually found to be within the work volume of the IDD.
The main sol-by-sol tactical decisions faced by the science
team are represented by the diamond-shaped boxes on the
flowchart, and will be made based on the data products
indicated next to each box.
[129] Decision-making on a strategic timescale requires us
to look a number of sols into the future, and to consider how
best to test the multiple scientific hypotheses that may be in
work at any given time. Our primary tools for strategic
planning are ‘‘sol trees’’ that project multiple possible
outcomes of mission activities for a number of sols into
the future (Figure 10). The sol trees are formulated and
refined on a daily basis, considering our progress against
mission objectives, all the data obtained to date, and the key
scientific questions that we face. Old branches of the sol tree
are ‘‘pruned’’ and new ones are added as some scientific
questions are resolved and new ones are generated.
[130] There is significant operational flexibility within
each of the five basic sol types. The activities listed on
the flowchart for each sol type form a menu from which the
specific activities to be executed can be selected. Not every
one will necessarily be executed on each sol, and in fact
resource constraints (e.g., available time or energy) often
prevent all of them from being executed.
[131] There are activities as part of each sol type that differ
from and supplement the main objectives of that sol. A
primary example of these are what we call ‘‘target of
opportunity’’ activities performed with instruments on the
IDD. On panorama, approach, and drive sols, work with the
IDD is not the primary objective of the sol. However, front
Hazcam images obtained from the rover’s start-of-sol posi-
tion - obtained, for example, at the end of the previous sol -
can document the appearance of the work volume of the IDD.
There will always be some Martian surface materials within
reach of the IDD; these constitute targets of opportunity. If
the rover’s configuration permits an IDD deployment, one or
more targets of opportunity can be investigated with IDD
instruments in addition to the main objectives of the sol.
[132] Some important scientific activities are not included
in Figure 9. These include calibration measurements for the
Mössbauer Spectrometer and APXS, observations of
the Magnet Array by the Mössbauer Spectrometer and the
APXS, Mini-TES observations of rocks and soils at multi-
ple times of day to determine thermal inertia, trenching
activities that use the rover wheels to expose subsurface
materials, and observations of the Martian sky with Mini-
TES and Pancam.
[133] These additional activities will be worked into the
main operations flow as the scientific circumstances and the
availability of time, power, and downlink bandwidth permit.
Mössbauer and APXS calibration measurements will be
performed as soon as possible after landing, and again
subsequently if necessary. The magnet array will be ob-
served with the APXS and the Mössbauer when Pancam
images show that an adequate buildup of dust has taken
place. Physical properties experiments like thermal inertia
and trenching can be performed at any point, but will
require one or more sols of highly focused and specialized
operations. Atmospheric observations are mostly indepen-
dent of the rover’s position, and are inserted into each sol as
necessary to support our atmospheric science objectives.
Any sol type can, in principle, be used to conduct atmo-
spheric observations.
6.2. Sol Types
6.2.1. Panorama Sol
[134] A panorama sol is used when detailed remote
sensing information is needed to establish geologic context
or to select candidate targets for subsequent in-situ analysis.
 SQUYRES ET AL.: ATHENA MARS ROVER SCIENCE INVESTIGATION ROV 3 - 17

Figure 9. MER Rover Operations Flowchart. Rectangles represent the five basic sol types used during
operations. Items within the rectangles list the activities that can be conducted on each sol type, in the
typical order. Diamonds indicate key operational decisions, and items in parentheses indicate the data
products used to make these decisions. The MER mission will be a many-sol traversal of this tree, with
decisions made and data products collected to help in the formulation and testing of scientific hypotheses.

[135] The main events of a panorama sol are collection of
large Pancam and/or Mini-TES panoramas. There is con-
siderable flexibility in how observing time and data volume
can be distributed between the two instruments, and in how
the observations can be laid out. In some instances it may be
beneficial to perform two successive panorama sols from
the same location, to provide a more comprehensive view of
the scene.
[136] Although its focus is on remote sensing, a panorama
sol can also include target-of-opportunity science with IDD

Figure 10. An example of a sol tree, beginning with a panorama sol on Sol N. A sol tree is an alternate
representation of the flowchart in Figure 9, with time on the vertical axis. Sol trees are the key tool used
by the science team in strategic planning of rover operations. New branches are added or pruned as new
strategic options are developed or eliminated.
ROV 3 - 18 SQUYRES ET AL.: ATHENA MARS ROVER SCIENCE INVESTIGATION
instruments, observing any target that is within the IDD’s
work volume. The rover does not move on a panorama sol,
and the rover’s design allows IDD instruments to be used at
the same time that Pancam or Mini-TES data are being
collected. Panorama sols therefore permit all three of the
IDD instruments to be used on targets of opportunity, includ-
ing long APXS and/or MB integrations if desired. The RAT is
not normally used for target-of-opportunity science, since
RAT operations require several hours and cannot take place
simultaneously with other payload activities.
6.2.2. Drive Sol
[137] The primary objective of a drive sol is to move the
rover from one place to another. In particular, drive sols
are used when the distance to be traversed is more than
10 meters. Because the rover’s navigational errors can be
as large as 10%, drive sols typically end with a significant
positional uncertainty.
[138] The first events of a drive sol can include collection
of Pancam and/or Mini-TES data on areas of interest around
the rover, and also may include target-of-opportunity in-situ
observations within the work volume of the IDD. Unlike
target-of-opportunity activities on a panorama sol, these
must be brief. They therefore are typically limited to MI
images and/or short APXS integrations that are aimed at
obtaining x-ray data only.
[139] Once the IDD has been stowed, the rover drives to
locations specified in lander-centered coordinates, using a
combination of low-level motion commands and higher-
level ‘‘waypoint’’ commands in which specific points along
the traverse can be specified by the operator. When execut-
ing waypoint commands, the rover will autonomously
detect and avoid obstacles (e.g., rocks and steep slopes)
using its front Hazcams and navigation software.
[140] In order to help reconstruct the events of the traverse
after it has happened, Navcam panoramas can be obtained at
points along the traverse. Hazcam images are also acquired
at frequent intervals for onboard processing. Some or all of
these images can be downlinked at the end of the sol to aid
traverse reconstruction, although data bandwidth restrictions
are significant. At the end of the traverse, front/rear Hazcam
images and a full or partial Navcam panorama are acquired
to document the rover’s new location and the contents of the
IDD work volume. Front Hazcam images that were acquired
50 cm before the end of the drive also are downlinked,
showing the configuration of the terrain that lies underneath
the rover at the end of the drive. Any remaining time and
power for that sol can then used to acquire Pancam and/or
Mini-TES data.
6.2.3. Approach Sol
[141] Approach sols are used to attempt to place the rover
close enough to a science target that it can be investigated
on the next sol with the in situ elements of the payload.
Depending on their geometry and their initial distance from
the rover, some targets may require two or more successive
approach sols before the target is found to be within the
work volume of the IDD. Because this work volume is
roughly 20 cm in radius (and because rover navigation
errors can be as large as 10%), the distance traveled during
the final approach sol in an approach sequence often will be
no more than 2 meters.
[142] An approach sol can begin with Pancam and/or
Mini-TES investigation of areas of interest, and/or target-
of-opportunity MI and/or APXS observations on some area
within the arm’s work volume. The rover is then com-
manded to drive to a location what will place the target that
has been selected for detailed in situ analysis within the
work volume of the IDD. Again, front Hazcam images
acquired 50 cm before the end of the show the configu-
ration of the terrain under the rover. The sol concludes with
Navcam and Hazcam images to document the new position,
and Pancam and/or Mini-TES data, usually in the direction
of the intended target. The front Hazcam images acquired at
the completion of the drive are particularly important, since
they reveal whether or not the target is actually within the
IDD’s work volume.
6.2.4. Spectroscopy Sol
[143] The purpose of a spectroscopy sol is to perform
detailed in-situ investigation of a rock or soil target.
[144] A spectroscopy sol can begin with Pancam and/or
Mini-TES observations of areas of interest around the
rover. If resources allow, brief target-of-opportunity sci-
ence with the MI and/or the APXS can be performed on
some target other than the main spectroscopy target. The
main events of the sol are observations of the main target
with the Microscopic Imager, the Mössbauer Spectrome-
ter, and the APXS. The effort required to get a selected
target within the IDD work volume is substantial, so all
three in situ instruments normally are used. MI imaging
takes place first, followed by long (10-hour) integra-
tions with the Mössbauer and the APXS. APXS measure-
ments are normally performed last, taking advantage of
the cold late-night/early-morning temperatures to maxi-
mize the performance of the x-ray mode. The switch from
Mössbauer to APXS takes place during the night, requir-
ing a rover wakeup and heating of the IDD actuators to
above their minimum operating temperature. All IDD
activities on a spectroscopy sol are documented with
front Hazcam images that show the instrument placement.
Because the Mössbauer-to-APXS switch takes place in
the dark, the APXS placement is documented with
Hazcam images on the morning of the next sol, before
the IDD is stowed.
[145] After the final sol of in situ investigation of a target
has been completed, a crucial event on the next sol, before
leaving the target for good, is to acquire high-resolution
Pancam and Mini-TES data for the target. These data
provide a complete suite of observations with all five
Athena instruments, at the highest resolution possible. For
many targets this requires that the rover drive backward a
few tens of cm so that the target is placed within the fields
of view of both Pancam and Mini-TES. Whenever such
observations are made, the risk of leaving the target without
verification on the ground that the data were obtained
successfully must be weighed against the time that would
be lost in waiting for such verification.
6.2.5. ‘‘Scratch and Sniff’’ Sol
[146] ‘‘Scratch and sniff’’ sols are used to expose a fresh
rock surface with the RAT, and then to conduct in-situ
analyses on that surface.
[147] A scratch and sniff sol can begin with Pancam and/or
Mini-TES investigation of any areas of interest around the
rover, and/or a Microscopic Imager and/or APXS sequence
on some area within the arm’s work volume. The target
typically would be the same spot to be exposed by the RAT,
 SQUYRES ET AL.: ATHENA MARS ROVER SCIENCE INVESTIGATION
if it has not already been investigated on a prior sol. The
main event of the day is the use of the RAT to grind away
rock over an area 4.5 cm in diameter. The nominal depth of
grinding is 5 mm. In some geometries grinding to slightly
greater depths may be possible. Shallower depths may also
be used if circumstances warrant it. Once grinding has been
finished, the remaining time and power for the sol can be
devoted to some combination of Microscopic Imager, Möss-
bauer Spectrometer, and APXS data collection on the
exposed surface. As is the case for a spectroscopy sol, all
IDD activities are documented as fully as possible with front
Hazcam images.
[148] Note that the rover operations flow depicted in
Figure 9 allows for considerable flexibility in RAT use.
For example, multiple cycles of rock abrasion - grinding a
short distance followed by in situ observations and then
more grinding - are possible if the scientific circumstances
warrant it. Such activities take significant time, however,
and we will have to balance the scientific return against the
intense time demands imposed by the short MER mission
duration.
6.3. Other Operational Issues
6.3.1. Impact Through Egress
[149] The period of time at the beginning of the landed
mission, from lander impact through rover egress from the
lander, is different from other mission phases. At landing,
the rover is folded up inside the lander, with the PMA and
the IDD stowed. Of course, the primary focus during
impact-through-egress is on the engineering activities
needed to support deploying the rover and getting it off
the lander. However, some important science activities are
conducted at this time. The PMA is deployed on Sol 1 (the
landing sol), making remote sensing possible very early.
Pancam and Mini-TES each undergo basic health checks,
and each view their respective calibration targets. Pancam
will probably be used to acquire some images of the scene
around the lander even before the rover ‘‘stands up’’ - i.e.,
before the mobility system is deployed and the rover is at
its full height.
[150] After stand-up, three key scientific observations will
be made. Pancam will be used to acquire a high resolution
color stereo panorama of the full scene around the lander,
and Mini-TES will be used to acquire a full panorama as
well. These two data products document the terrain around
the lander, and provide a framework of observations within
which the first sols of deployed surface operations will
occur. Third, Mini-TES will be used to observe the Martian
sky, providing the first upward sounding the Martian
atmospheric boundary layer. Because the Mini-TES data
in particular are of such high science priority, they will be
downlinked in full as a risk mitigation measure before
egress occurs.
[151] The IDD cannot be used until after egress has taken
place. However, pre-egress health checks of the IDD-
mounted instruments are possible, including Mössbauer
spectra of the internal reference target and APXS spectra
of the Martian atmosphere (the APXS is launched with its
doors latched open). Also during this timeframe, Pancam
will be used to provide baseline images of the filter, capture,
and sweep magnets, as well as the rovers’ solar panels,
before dust accumulation occurs.
ROV 3 - 19
[152] As soon as possible after egress the IDD will be
deployed and the APXS and Mössbauer Spectrometer
will make measurements on their respective calibration
targets.
6.3.2. Support Imaging
[153] Navcam and Hazcam are not formally part of the
Athena payload, but support imaging with these cameras is
an essential part of MER science operations. Extensive
support imaging is crucial for determination of rover posi-
tion relative to both prospective science targets and terrain
obstacles. Whenever possible, a complete set of Navcam
(360 panorama) and Hazcam (front and rear) images is
acquired at the end of every rover move. Determination of
rover position after a traverse, as well as analysis of events
that occurred during a traverse, is aided significantly by
searching for and identifying rover tracks in end-of-traverse
images. Hazcam images of the IDD work volume must be
acquired after every rover move and analyzed on the ground
before the IDD can be deployed safely from the new rover
position.
[154] Navcam panoramas can be particularly useful for
efficient planning of Mini-TES and Pancam activities. If
Navcam data exist from a new rover location, one of the
most effective ways to use Mini-TES on a sol when other
activities are planned is to start the sol with small Mini-
TES rasters or linear scans on targets that have been
selected in Navcam data. If the targets are chosen on the
basis of their appearance to test specific scientific hypoth-
eses, such Mini-TES observations can provide as much
science value as a large Mini-TES panorama, but in much
less time. Similar time savings can be afforded by using
Navcam panoramas to target high-resolution multispectral
Pancam coverage.
6.3.3. Pre-uplink Activities
[155] One of the most important characteristics of the
MER rovers is that each sol’s uplink is not received onboard
and ready for execution until an hour or more after the rover
wakes up. This means that ‘‘overnight’’ operations planning
must in fact include both the post-uplink activities for the
coming sol and the pre-uplink activities for the sol after that.
Other key characteristics of the rovers are that front Hazcam
images of the IDD work volume must be acquired before
any IDD deployment, and that Navcam images can be
necessary for planning accurate pointing of some Pancam
and Mini-TES observations. Because the Hazcam and
Navcam images that are needed to plan some pre-uplink
activities of sol N + 2 may not be available on sol N if the
rover is going to move on sol N + 1, some special
considerations apply.
[156] 1. If sol N + 2 follows a panorama sol, a spectros-
copy sol, or a scratch and sniff sol (none of which involve
moving the rover), there are no restrictions; all the necessary
support images to support IDD operations or PMA pointing
should be in hand.
[157] 2. If it has been decided that sol N + 2 is going to be
a panorama sol, which does not involve rover motion, then
panoramic data acquisition on sol N + 2 can begin imme-
diately upon rover wake-up. Note, however, that any target-
of-opportunity in situ science on that sol cannot begin until
after the uplink has been received.
[158] 3. If sol N + 2 follows an approach sol, rover position
knowledge will be imperfect. Pointing of pre-uplink Pancam
ROV 3 - 20 SQUYRES ET AL.: ATHENA MARS ROVER SCIENCE INVESTIGATION
and Mini-TES observations therefore must be done based
primarily on rover attitude knowledge, plus images acquired
from the rover’s location before the approach. Such obser-
vations must be designed with likely position errors, and
hence pointing errors, in mind. In general, study of distant
targets is favored under such circumstances, since the
azimuth to a distant target in Mars surface coordinates will
have changed relatively little due to the rover motion.
[159] 4. If sol N + 2 follows a drive sol, knowledge of the
scene around the rover may be poor. Pre-uplink use of
Pancam and Mini-TES on such a sol is best performed in a
panoramic fashion, surveying a large portion of the scene
rather than trying to point at small targets whose positions
may be poorly known or unknown.
6.3.4. Low-Power Operations Near Mission End
[160] Near the end of the mission when output from each
rover’s solar arrays is diminishing, operations will be
changed to conserve electrical power and extend mission
duration. Pixel summing can be used to reduce the acqui-
sition time for image panoramas. Even summed at 3  3
pixels - reducing data volume by almost an order of
magnitude - Pancam images will still have resolution
comparable to the highest resolution images returned from
past Mars surface missions. Mini-TES panoramas can be
acquired using fewer 1.8-second integration periods per
pixel, diminishing signal-to-noise ratio, or they can be
acquired with larger azimuth and elevation step sizes
between pixels, diminishing spatial resolution. APXS and
Mössbauer data can be acquired with shorter integration
times, decreasing signal-to-noise ratio for these instruments.
Note, however, that good x-ray data, providing the abun-
dances of nearly all the major rock-forming elements, can
still be obtained with very short integration times. And by
limiting operations to the warmest parts of the Martian
day, requirements for heating of actuators and other
payload elements can be diminished, further lengthening
the mission.
7. Conclusions
[161] The MER rovers, each equipped with the Athena
payload, are robotic tools for field geologic exploration.
Their primary scientific objective is to explore two sites on
the Martian surface where water is likely to have been
present in the past, and to read the geologic record there.
Companion papers in this volume describe each of the
scientific elements of the payload in more detail. We have
devised science operations processes for the rovers that
should allow us to formulate and test scientific hypotheses
at each of the MER landing sites, and to assess past
environmental conditions at those sites and their suitability
for life.
[162] Acknowledgments. The Athena payload is the work of literally
hundreds of dedicated engineers and scientists, all of whom have our
heartfelt thanks for their efforts. Sam Dallas of the Jet Propulsion Labora-
tory managed the original Athena mission proposal in 1995 – 96, and
provided invaluable engineering insights during the earliest stages of
payload development. Barry Goldstein of JPL held the same role on the
Athena payload proposal written in 1997, and provided superb engineering
leadership for the development of the payload up until the start of the MER
Project in 2000. Joel Rademacher managed the development of the
Mini-TES, APXS, and Mössbauer payload elements, Mark Schwochert
led the engineering teams for Pancam and the Microscopic Imager, and
Steve Kondos and Mark Johnson managed the development of the
Rock Abrasion Tool. Innumerable other scientists and engineers con-
tributed their time and talents as well, and the on-time delivery of two
fully tested and calibrated science payloads is testimony to their efforts.
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