Laboratory Experiment

Cite This: J. Chem. Educ. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX pubs.acs.org/jchemeduc

Supporting the Teaching of Infrared Spectroscopy Concepts Using a

Physical Model
Lyniesha C. Wright* and Maria T. Oliver-Hoyo
Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
*
S Supporting Information

ABSTRACT: A physical model has been designed to help

students visualize concepts involved when solving infrared
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spectra. The physical model uses balls and springs to

incorporate the harmonic oscillator model and Hooke’s law
to study dynamic vibrations within diatomic molecules.
Various concepts are addressed with the model to abstract
principles about how bonds interact with infrared light as well
as how reduced mass, bond order, electronegativity, bond
dipole, and bond polarity influence peak position and peak
intensity in a spectrum. The model has a corresponding
activity developed to maximize applicable heuristics and deter
the need for memorization based on functional groups or surface features. The model has been thoroughly tested in organic
chemistry laboratories where students have successfully used the concepts to justify peak position and explain peak intensity in
infrared spectra.
KEYWORDS: Second-Year Undergraduate, Organic Chemistry, Hands-On Learning/Manipulatives, IR Spectroscopy,
Laboratory Equipment/Apparatus

O rganic chemists routinely select and utilize appropriate

scientific instrumentation for characterization. Chem-
istry educators have explored the use of infrared spectroscopy
in instructional laboratories to reflect the organic chemist’s
research experience.1−3 The study of infrared spectroscopy in
the undergraduate chemistry curriculum is traditionally
structured for the identification of functional groups.2,4,5
Students are often introduced to infrared spectroscopy by
first discussing wave theory and the electromagnetic spectrum,
followed by analyzing spectra to compare to IR correlation
tables. This process has led students to peak picking and
memorizing wave numbers during structure elucidation.5
Memorization, without a focus on comparing and analyzing
molecular structures, has prevented learners from constructing
interconnected and long-term chemical knowledge.6 For
example, studies have shown a prevalence of undergraduate
students detaching bonding from its dynamic nature and
seeing molecules as a collection of distinct atoms acting
independently.4,7 Novice students are also likely to interpret a
molecule by assuming additive properties of the atoms instead
of emergent properties.8,9 Students tend to lack the ability to
discern and identify domain-specific heuristics,6,10,11 which
leads them to interpret “more peaks mean more fragments” or
apply irrelevant heuristics like “the size of the atom is related to
the size of the peak” when analyzing IR data.4
In order to make IR spectroscopy instruction more
meaningful, inquiry-based approaches have been used to
guide students to analyze spectra and find trends prior to
referencing absorption tables.5,12 The prominence of carbonyl
© XXXX American Chemical Society and
Division of Chemical Education, Inc.
stretching peaks in IR spectra has made them attractive to use
when studying molecular concepts. For example, students
successfully predicted relative carbonyl stretching frequencies
based on resonance, hydrogen bonding, and the inductive
effect.12 Inquiry-guided instruction also aided in drawing
resonance structures and predicting how resonance impacts the
strength of the carbonyl bond.13 Instructors have also taken
advantage of visualization tools such as Spartan, MOLVIB, and
Gaussian 03W to depict animated vibrations for different types
of bonds as a vehicle to reduce memorization.14−16 Using
Gaussian 03W students were able to interactively compare the
complementarities of IR and Raman spectra by viewing the
corresponding bond oscillation of the molecule.15
The nature of IR spectroscopy lends itself to the
incorporation of Hooke’s law in instructional resources. As
molecules vibrate with the absorption of infrared light, the
energy transmitted for a particular vibration is quantified when
a change in dipole occurs. The wavelength that is transmitted
is contingent upon the strength of the bond and the mass of
the connected atoms. Hooke’s law as it relates to covalent
bonds can be described with eq 1:
1 κ
ν=
2π μ (1)
Received: November 13, 2018
Revised: March 5, 2019
A DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00805
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Journal of Chemical Education
Figure 1. Model includes (a) a triatomic arrangement to discuss stretching and bending, (b) magnets incorporated to increase mass and reflect
dipole considerations, and (c) the system setup.
where ν is the vibrational frequency (s−1) directly related to
wavenumber, μ is the atom’s reduced mass (kg), and κ is the
force constant (N m−1). Instructional activities have been
designed using this equation to calculate the force constant of
carbon−hydrogen bonds, predict wavenumbers of carbon−
deuterium or carbon−chlorine bonds,17,18 and compare force
constants of several bonds.19
Hooke’s law has also been the instructional framework to
examine bond properties by using various springs, masses, and
timers to observe the relationships between mass, bond
strength, and frequency. For example, in an activity designed
by Csizmar and colleagues, students were assigned a trend (i.e.,
bond order) to observe how changes in covalent bonds
influence the wavenumber required for vibration.14 Borgsmiller
and colleagues designed a spring system using multiple springs
to represent bond order15 while Anderson et al. overlaid
spectra to compare how bond order and resonance influence
peak position and how hydrogen bonding influences peak
width.16 Missing in these instructional activities is a discussion
of peak intensity in IR spectra. Only bonds with a change in
dipole will give a peak, resulting in an intense peak for polar
bonds. In addition, the abundance of a bond causes an increase
in peak intensity because of the ability of those bonds to
absorb more light.
We describe herein a lab activity that allows students to
explore the factors affecting peak position and intensity in an
IR spectrum by using hollow plastic balls with holes (referred
to throughout by a common brand name, wiffle balls) and
springs. Magnets are incorporated to target electronic effects.
Additionally, the oscillatory nature of vibrating atoms and
bonds is incorporated as students manipulate the model,
allowing the balls to experience the restorative force that is
proportional to their displacement. Our physical model
couples the harmonic oscillator model with Hooke’s law for
students to study how IR spectroscopy is used to understand
properties between diatomic atoms such as dipole, polarity,
mass, and bond order.
The use of the model and corresponding lab activity were
evaluated with respect to the following questions:
1. Can the activity be incorporated into an IR laboratory as
a complementary module in the study of IR spectra?
B DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00805
Laboratory Experiment
2. What difficulties do students encounter when manipu-
lating the model?
3. How well did the activity facilitate the incorporation of
the principles gathered to analyze spectra?
The activity was tested in three cycles; each cycle
incorporated modifications to address findings to the above
questions. We provide here the product that is currently used
in our laboratories.
■
MODEL CONSTRUCTION
Hooke’s law and the simple harmonic oscillator model were
used in the design where atoms and bonds are represented by
wiffle balls (atoms) and springs (bonds). The harmonic
oscillator model of molecular vibrations makes the assump-
tions that when a diatomic molecule vibrates two atoms move
in phase with one another20 and the bond’s mass is
neglected.21 The reduced mass in eq 1 has an inverse
relationship with vibrational frequency and can be calculated
using eq 2 below:
MA × MB
μ=
MA + MB (2)
Here, MA and MB are the masses of balls A and B (atoms A and
B), respectively.
The physical model is constructed to explicitly demonstrate
how various concepts influence peak position and intensity.
Showing atoms as spheres is a common representation in
chemistry, while using springs as bonds emphasizes dynamic
motion and strength. The model is assembled by connecting
wiffle balls to spring coils using small hooks. The hooks are
large enough to allow for multiple coils to fit into the eye of the
hook to demonstrate an uneven distribution of electron
density. Yellow spheres are lighter than blue spheres for
students to explore reduced mass effects. Magnets are hidden
inside the spheres to increase mass and are also used to
demonstrate attraction or repulsion of atoms as spheres have
either a south pole or north pole (Figure 1b). The model uses
a thin spring as a single bond and a thicker spring as a double
bond.
The model can be shown as triatomic, represented by three
atoms connected in a bent formation by two springs (Figure
1a). The triatomic model is manipulated to show different
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Figure 2. Manipulation of the diatomic model from a nonpolar bond to a polar bond (a) by increasing the number of coils in one sphere. The
magnetic bar between the spheres attracts them to demonstrate how infrared light causes stretches and compressions with bond dipoles (b).
asymmetric, symmetric, or bending deformations. A diatomic
model is used to demonstrate how mass, polarity, and bond
strength are reflected on a spectrum. A magnetic bar is used to
represent the electronic vector of infrared light. The bar has a
north and south pole, labeled positive and negative, like the
alternating charge of an electric vector. The entire system is
comprised of the modified wiffle balls, springs, rod, and
magnetic bar (Figure 1c).
■ ACTIVITY DESIGN
The activity was designed for students to predict and justify the
location and intensity of significant peaks on an IR spectrum
without the aid of an IR absorption table, on the basis of the
following principles:
1. Different types of vibrations require different amounts of
energy.
2. Bonded atoms with smaller reduced masses vibrate at
higher frequencies.
3. The stronger the bond, the greater the vibrational
frequency required to stretch it.
4. The more polar the bond, the larger the vibrational
frequency.
5. The greater the change in the dipole, the greater the
peak intensity.
For our laboratory setting, a 15 min prelab lecture includes a
brief discussion of IR theory, a demonstration of different
vibrational deformations and spectral axes, and a demon-
stration on how to assemble the model. Students then perform
this activity as part of their IR laboratory where they also take
the IR spectrum of an unknown. The activity has five
sections, in which one section is used to discuss each
molecular concept and its influence on peak intensity or
position.
Peak Position: Types of Vibrations
Students use the triatomic model (Figure 1a) to replicate
bending and asymmetric and symmetric stretching. Students
feel the increased difficulty in doing an asymmetric stretch over
a symmetric stretch and associate an asymmetric stretch with
increased energy and wavenumber. They apply their
observations to a spectrum of cyclohexane and label the
carbon−hydrogen bending and stretching peaks.
Peak Position: Reduced Mass
Vibrations induced by IR light are at the molecular level, not
the atomic level. Therefore, it is pertinent to compare the
C DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00805
Laboratory Experiment
masses of both atoms through reduced mass. Students
calculate the reduced mass of the spheres, stretch the spheres
(as shown in Figure 1c), and record the number of vibrations.
They repeat with heavier spheres and observe how reduced
mass influences vibrational frequency. Students then label the
stretching peaks of chloroform, predict the position of the
carbon−deuterium stretch in a spectrum of chloroform-d, and
are asked to justify all answers.
Peak Position: Polarity
The transition from reduced mass to polarity elicits a
discrepant event. Students first calculate reduced mass of
carbon−hydrogen, oxygen−hydrogen, and nitrogen−hydrogen
bonds. Following, they predict the order of the peaks only on
the basis of reduced mass. Students then compare their
predictions to the partial spectra of methyl cyclohexane,
cyclohexylamine, and cyclohexanol and observe the opposite
pattern. Given that a polar bond has an unevenly distributed
electron density, students adjust the model (Figure 2a). The
sphere on the right represents the most electronegative atom
because it has the greatest electron density or number of coils.
Upon stretching and releasing the model, students realize it
takes more energy to vibrate a more polar bond, resulting in a
higher wavenumber.
Peak Position: Bond Order
Controlling mass and polarity, while varying spring strength,
allows students to analyze the effect of bond order. The thin
spring system is stretched, and when repeated with a thicker
spring, students observe it takes more energy to vibrate a
double bond than a single bond. The spectrum of pentane is
overlaid and compared to the spectra of 1-pentene and 1-
pentyne. Students predict and justify the carbon−carbon
change in bonding for each molecule.
Peak Intensity: Abundance of Specific Bonds
Students are guided to compare the carbon−hydrogen bonds
in piperidine with the number of nitrogen−hydrogen bonds.
The greater the abundance of a particular bond type, the more
light is absorbed, and the more intense the peak.
Peak Intensity: Dipole
The magnets in the blue spheres (Figure 2b) have opposite
poles attracting one another, therefore, resembling partial
positive and negative atoms. A bar magnet represents the
electric vector of light and is placed between the balls. For
spheres with magnets, when the bar is placed between them,
the spheres will either slightly stretch or compress. Students
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Figure 3. Percentage of students who successfully implemented the model according to each evaluation criterion.

Figure 4. On the left is an example of the instructions for observing reduced mass effects using the model. The right shows a student’s response and
explanation about how reduced mass influences spectra. Spectra are obtained from the SDBS.22

observe an interaction only with a difference in charge present.
The students look at the y-axis of the spectral data to further
support the explanation about how a dipole influences peak
intensity.
Synthesis Questions
The activity finishes with two sets of synthesis questions
requiring students to interpret spectra and predict spectral
differences only on the basis of the structure. IR absorption
tables are not available to answer these questions. Since the
activity guides students to first focus on peak position and then
to use abundance and dipole to justify their answers, it is
expected students will use the appropriate concepts when
answering these questions.
To evaluate the feasibility of incorporating the activity into an
existing IR organic laboratory, it was tested four times with
over 100 first semester organic chemistry students. The
students signed consent forms according to our IRB guidelines.
The length of the activity was reduced by adjusting the
sequence and number of examples students explored. Addi-
tionally, students take an IR spectrum of an unknown and use
these principles to assist in their identification. The full activity
can be found in the Supporting Information. The entire lab
takes an average of 1 h 45 min.
(2) What difficulties do students encounter when complet-
ing the activity?

■ EVALUATION
The student use of the model and the corresponding activity
were evaluated to address the questions below.
(1) Can the activity be incorporated into an IR laboratory as
a complementary module in the study of IR spectra?
D DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00805
Model implementation was evaluated according to model
usage, principles brought up by students, and spectral analysis.
Model Usage pertains to the usability of the physical model
when answering questions. Principles Obtained considers when
students described the correct trend. Spectral Analysis accounts
for when students accurately applied the principle to a
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Journal of Chemical Education
spectrum. The data from 40 participants enrolled in organic
chemistry laboratories is summarized in Figure 3.
Model Usage was evaluated on the basis of the students’
ability to independently complete the instructions involved
when using the model and answering activity questions. As
shown in Figure 3, almost 100% of students successfully
manipulated the model when documenting their observations
regarding reduced mass, bond order, and bond polarity. The
use of the model was not as obvious for dipole effects on
spectra. Some students had difficulty observing the subtle
interactions with the magnetic bar. However, over 75% of
students successfully used the model to discuss dipole effects.
The other two evaluation criteria are interconnected. As an
example, on the left of Figure 4 are the instructions for
observing reduced mass effects. The image on the top right is a
summary of the trend the students were expected to identify.
This student successfully depicted the trend behind the
principle (Principles). Then spectra were shown for students
to label peaks. If students could accurately label specified
peaks, then they were considered successful in applying it to
spectra (Spectral Analysis). The bottom right shows a student’s
response when applying the reduced mass effect to a spectrum
of chloroform-d.
If students completed the steps and obtained the targeted
observations on each question, then the model was considered
useful to explore that concept. The simple, yet powerful, model
required no major adjustments. In every case, at least 90% of
students grasped the principle when using the model, and over
80% used it correctly to analyze spectra.
(3) How well did the activity facilitate the incorporation of
the principles when analyzing IR spectra?
The third evaluation criterion related to the incorporation of
principles by students when analyzing spectra. This data was
taken from the final synthesis questions as these required
students to incorporate the concepts and analyze multiple
variables when identifying and justifying peaks. The first set of
synthesis questions provided students with values for position
and intensity, and had them determine if the values were
approximately correct or incorrect by focusing on molecular
structure (Box 1).
Student performance is shown in Figure 5. Since students
were prompted to justify their answers, a distinction was made
between correct answers and justifications, correct answers
without an explanation, correct answers with an incorrect
justification, and incorrect answers.
A majority of the students were able to correctly incorporate
the principles and justify their responses as shown in Figure 5.
The questions uncovered difficulties students had with
understanding concepts, and these are summarized in Table
1. For example, a few students expected the intensity to be
E DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00805
Laboratory Experiment
weak for the carbon−bromine bond in 2-bromopentane and
the carbon−nitrogen bond in ethanamine. The polarity
principle was understood, but to those students neither a
carbon−nitrogen nor a carbon−bromine bond is polar or has a
dipole. Since students had to justify answers, the activity
provides a way to identify and address concepts that students
misunderstand.
The second set of synthesis questions required students to
accurately label three prominent peaks in a spectrum of ethyl
propionate on the basis of the principles studied during the lab
activity, and to justify the intensity of those peaks. Student
performance is shown in Figure 6. Over 90% of the participants
successfully identified the principles in the first four questions.
However, applying the principles and justifying the intensity
was more difficult for 50% of the students. As seen in Table 2,
most students who incorrectly justified the intensity of
carbon−hydrogen peaks based their justification on reduced
mass.
Errors occurred at very low percentages in both sets of
synthesis questions except for the justification of intensity
based on reduced mass, which spiked at 22.5%. Overall, we
observed that students were successful at identifying the peaks
even when IR absorption tables were not provided.
■ LIMITATIONS
While the model assists students in visualizing why and how
vibrations occur when interacting with light, it is limited to
diatomic molecules. Therefore, some aspects of bending or
asymmetric stretching interactions (i.e., the induced dipole
only present in the CO2 asymmetric stretch) cannot be
explored with this model. The model does not address how
intermolecular forces affect peak width. However, these topics
can be expanded upon in lecture having used the model as a
foundation.
■ HAZARDS
There are no hazards associated with undertaking this
laboratory activity as no chemicals are used in the completion
of this lab.
■
CONCLUSION
A lab activity was designed to guide students in the exploration
of infrared spectroscopy without using IR absorption tables.
The model was incorporated to promote a discussion of the
molecular properties that manifested in IR spectroscopy by
targeting how reduced mass, polarity, and bond order influence
peak position and how bond abundance and dipole influence
peak intensity. The model is constructed using readily available
low cost materials and incorporates the harmonic oscillator
model and Hooke’s law to study dynamic vibrations between
atoms. The model was thoroughly tested, and students were
able to manipulate the model as designed.
This lab activity was evaluated to (a) identify students’
difficulties and (b) demonstrate students’ successful incorpo-
ration of the principles studied. Although students did not
always use the principles correctly, over 90% of the students
were able to abstract the principles under investigation (Figure
3, principles). In addition, over 68% of students were able to
determine an approximate value for peak position and intensity
and justify their answers on the basis of the concepts studied
(Figure 5). Students struggled with the intensity of IR peaks,
especially the intensity of carbon−hydrogen bonds, as only
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Figure 5. Results from the first set of synthesis questions.

Table 1. Errors Found in Synthesis Question 1 Table 2. Errors Found in Synthesis Question 2
Incorrect Incorrect Responses,
Responses,a% Concept Errors % (N = 40)
Question Errors (N = 40)
Bond types NA NA
Position 1 The lower the abundance of bonds, the 2.5 Reduced mass Can be used to assign every peak 5.0
lower the wavenumber
Bond order Double bond requires a lower 5.0
Position 2 Ignored reduced mass 7.5 energy wavenumber
Does not consider a carbon−bromine 2.5 Bond order plays no roll 5.0
bond polar
Polarity More polar requires a lower 5.0
Position 3 Looked at nitrogen−hydrogen bond 12.5 energy wavenumber
instead of carbon−nitrogen bond
Intensity at Ignored reduced mass 7.5
Ignored reduced mass 10.0 2985 cm−1
Single bonds have weak intensities 2.5 C−H has a large dipole 10.0
Intensity 1 Single bonds have weak intensities 2.5 Reduced mass influences intensity 22.5
Intense peaks are only a result of an 2.5 Intensity at Labeled it as C−C based on 2.5
abundance of peaks 1740 cm−1 reduced mass
Intensity 2 Single bonds have weak intensities 2.5 Double bond requires a lower 2.5
Intense peaks are only a result of an 2.5 energy wavenumber
abundance of peaks Did not distinguish between C 5.0
Carbon−bromine bond does not have a 5.0 O and C−O
dipole Ignored reduced mass 7.5
Reduced mass influences intensity 7.5 Bond order determines intensity 10.0
Intensity 3 Carbon−nitrogen bond does not have a 5.0 Intensity at Double bond requires a lower 2.5
dipole 1192 cm−1 energy wavenumber
Does not consider a carbon−nitrogen 7.5 Bond order determines intensity 5.0
bond polar
a
Labeled as C−C bond 5.0
On the basis of the sample size, 2.5% represents one participant. Ignored reduced mass 7.5

50% could correctly label peaks and justify intensity. This

suggests that instruction should reinforce the concepts of intensity. We have shown herein that this lab activity facilitates
abundance, polarity, and dipole and how they manifest in IR the study of IR spectroscopy without the reliance on
spectra for students to have a better understanding of peak memorizing values or using IR absorption tables.

Figure 6. Results from the second set of synthesis questions requiring students to accurately label the three prominent peaks on the basis of the
principles studied in lab.

F DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00805
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Laboratory Experiment

ASSOCIATED CONTENT the General Chemistry Laboratory. J. Chem. Educ. 2012, 89 (3), 379−
382.
*
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Chem. Educ. 2012, 89 (3), 365−369.
IR spectroscopy laboratory materials (PDF, DOC) (16) Anderson, J.; Hayes, D.; Werner, T. The Chemical Bond

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Lyniesha C. Wright: 0000-0001-8126-0872 Experiment. J. Chem. Educ. 1997, 74 (3), 313−315.
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