Journal of Materials Processing Technology 120 (2002) 458±465

An optical sensing system for seam tracking and weld pool control
in gas metal arc welding of steel pipe
K.-Y. Baea,, T.-H. Leea, K.-C. Ahnb
a
Department of Industrial Automation Engineering, Chinju National University, Chinju, South Korea
b
Department of Mechanical Design Engineering, Chinju National University, Chinju, South Korea
Accepted 8 November 2001

Abstract

A visual sensing system was developed for automatic gas metal arc welding (GMAW) of the root pass of steel pipe. The system consisted
of a vision sensor that consisted of a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera and lenses, a frame grabber, image processing algorithms, and a
computer controller. A specially designed ®ve-axis manipulator was used to position the welding torch and to provide the vision sensor with
automatic access to view the welding position. During the root pass welding, an image of the weld pool and its vicinity was captured using
the camera without interference of the intensive arc light by viewing at the instance of a short-circuit of the welding power. The captured
image was then processed to recognize the weld pool shape. For seam tracking, the manipulator was used to adjust the torch position based
upon the pool image to the groove center. The measured gap size was used to determine the appropriate welding conditions to obtain sound
penetration. The welding speed was chosen using fuzzy logic with the knowledge of a skilled welder and measured gap. The automatic
welding equipment demonstrated that both welding conditions and torch position could be appropriately controlled to obtain a sound
weldment and a good seam tracking capability. # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Visual sensing; Weld pool control; Seam tracking; Root pass welding

1. Introduction
As demands on pipe structures for ocean exploration, steel
towers, water and oil pipe lines, etc. are increasing, the
requirements for greater productivity and accuracy in man-
ufacturing these structures are also increasing. For joining
one pipe to the other, girth arc welding, which consists of the
root pass and the ®ll pass procedures, is prevalently per-
formed. The welding process for manufacturing pipe struc-
tures can be accomplished with automatic equipments that
have been partially mechanized only for ®ll pass welding
and operated by a welding operator. Manufacturing toler-
ances at the preparation stage cause unavoidable amounts of
distortion, eccentricity, and mismatch that produce a varia-
tion in gap size and also in seam location. The irregularities
in the root shape of a groove make it impossible to set
welding conditions and torch location to be constant during
welding. Therefore, the root pass procedure has been very
dif®cult to automate and is generally performed by a skilled
welder. To achieve full automation of steel pipe welding, the
root pass weld should ®rst be automated. The automation of
*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kybae@chinju.ac.kr (K.-Y. Bae).
the root pass requires the ability to adjust torch position and
welding conditions, dealing with a variety of root states.
There have been many studies on visual sensing techniques
for observing weld pool images during welding. A weld pool
control technique with the vision sensor system consisting of
a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera and a long wave
pass ®lter for lowering the arc intensity in bead-on-plate
welding has been investigated [1,2]. Control of the weld pool
width in pulsed metal inert gas (MIG) welding was also
studied using measurement of the weld pool with a vision
sensor during the base current period of the pulse [3,4].
Moreover, the relationship between the observed bead width
and the penetration depth in gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
process has also been investigated [5]. However, because
most of these studies observed the weld pool with a top-side
view, only the width of the weld pool could be investigated,
and information on penetration through the joint could not
be determined. Although an automatic pipe welder with a
vision sensor that could give a front view of the weld has
previously been reported with GMAW [6,7], only a limited
information is available on this equipment.
In this study, experimental results from testing of a seam
tracking and weld pool control system for the root pass
welding of steel pipe is presented. The system consisted of a

0924-0136/02/$ ± see front matter # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 4 - 0 1 3 6 ( 0 1 ) 0 1 2 1 6 - X
 K.-Y. Bae et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 120 (2002) 458±465
®ve-axis pipe welding manipulator with its controller, the
hardware logic for detecting the short-circuit and the visual
sensing system. The manipulator was constructed to permit
the welding torch and the vision sensor to have automatic
access to a welding position with predetermined con®gura-
tions when the pipe to be welded was selected. The visual
sensing system was composed of a CCD camera, lenses and
®lters, a frame grabber and image processing algorithms.
When low current GMAW, that is used for root pass
welding, is applied, the intensive arc light momentarily
extinguishes periodically with a short-circuit. In this study,
the short-circuit phenomena was utilized in order to acquire
an image of the weld pool and its vicinity using the vision
sensor. The sensor was located almost tangent to the surface
at welding position. The acquired image was then processed
to detect the shape and size of the weld pool, from which the
relative distance between the torch position and the weld
seam was determined and the gap size of groove measured.
The information made it possible for the system controller to
determine a new welding position, permitting the torch to
advance to that position, apply new welding conditions all in
real time. For the determination of welding conditions, the
relation between the gap size and the welding speed was
chosen using fuzzy logic and incorporating the knowledge of
a skilled expert.
A series of experiments was conducted to evaluate the
performance of the seam tracking and weld pool control of
the system for the root pass welding of a steel pipe.
2. Pipe welding system
2.1. Welding manipulator
The pipe welding system developed in this study consists
of a positioner for turning the pipe, a ®ve-axis welding
Fig. 1. Pipe welding system.
459
manipulator, a welding power source, a control panel and a
control computer. Fig. 1 shows a schematic drawing of the
pipe welding manipulator.
The base table of the manipulator is composed of three
Cartesian axes, where the X- and Y-axes cooperate to travel the
curved racks grasping the welding torch and the CCD camera
to a predetermined welding position when a pipe diameter is
given. The Z-axis is used for seam tracking. By rotating one
curved rack grasping the torch holder, the torch can rotate
around thewelding position to a suitablewelding con®guration
angle (A-axis). Similarly, the other curved rack can also rotate
the camera to another con®guration (B-axis) corresponding
with the torch con®guration to observe the weld pool. The
manipulator ®nds the welding position (x, y) using the follow-
ing coordinate transformation with given information on a
pipe such as diameter (D) and welding start position (c).
x ˆ L1 L2 1 1
2 D cos…c†; yˆH 2 D sin…c† (1)
where L1 is the distance from the origin of X-axis to the
center of the pipe along the X-direction, L2 the distance from
the x-position to the center of the curved rack along X-
direction, and H is the distance from the origin of the Y-axis
to the center of the pipe along the Y-direction.
2.2. Controller
Fig. 2 shows a block diagram of the controller of the pipe
welding system that is based on an IBM compatible personal
computer. The computer acquires images of the weld pool
through the CCD camera and the frame grabber, sets the
welding current and voltage through the digital±analog (DA)
converter board, monitors the welding current through the
analog±digital (AD) converter board, commands the arc to
be on or off, controls the wire, checks the gas, etc. through
the digital input and output (DIO) board, sets torch position
through a motion control board.
460 K.-Y. Bae et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 120 (2002) 458±465
Fig. 2. Control system of torch position and weld pool.
The computer also controls the rotational speed of the
pipe positioner by voltage variation (0±10 V) through the
DA board. In addition to the computer, the controller has the
short-circuit detection board that generates the triggering
signal for an imaging of the camera as soon as it detects a
short-circuit between the wire and the pipe.
3. Weld pool monitoring
3.1. Vision sensor
A vision sensor for monitoring the weld pool requires a
special optical system to reduce the intensity of the arc [8].
In this study, for this purpose, the vision sensor which
basically consisted of a CCD camera and a close-up ring,
Fig. 3. Short detection from raw current signal: (a) current signal; (b) short signal.
was additionally equipped with a Pyrex window, an ultra-
red ®lter, and a neural density ®lter. The vision sensor was
set to be located at a 300 mm distance away from the weld
pool along the tangential direction on the pipe surface to
observe the weld pool with a front view. Then, with the
camera which had a size of 2/3 in. CCD array where 768
pixels were in column and 493 pixels in row, the sensor
resulted in a resolution of 0.04557 mm per pixel in the
transverse direction and 0.05355 mm per pixel in the long-
itudinal direction in viewing the ®eld of view of a 41 mm
…vertical†  30:8 mm (horizontal) of rectangular area
around the weld pool.
3.2. Short-circuit detection
The root pass welding necessarily uses low current and
low voltage, so there would be periodic contacts between the
wire and the substrate, showing the short-circuit phenomena
in which the arc extinguishes and the current abruptly
increases [9]. Thus, it was considered to be possible to
observe only the weld pool during the period of the arc
extinction without any interference of the arc. With this
basic concept of acquiring the weld pool image during the
short-circuit period, a short-circuit detection was con-
structed to detect the uprising edge of the current pulse.
The current signal was measured using a 10 5 O shunt
resistor connected in series with the power cable, then
ampli®ed by 100 times to be the raw current signal of 0±5 V.
Fig. 3 shows a raw current signal having periodic analog
pulses and a digital pulse train of the short-detection signal
extracted from the raw analog signal. The short-detection
signal was used to trigger the camera to take an image of the
weld pool and also to trigger the frame grabber to acquire an
image of the weld pool in synchronization with the camera.
3.3. Pool image searching
The image searching algorithm to detect boundary of the
weld pool was based on the technique that searched the
 K.-Y. Bae et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 120 (2002) 458±465
pixels along the counterclockwise (CCW) direction around
the presently detected position for a next boundary position
[3]. In the proposed algorithm in this study, a next searching
direction for the present boundary position was ®rstly
determined to be located at 458 in the CCW direction from
the presently searched direction. The angle would be then
increased by a step of 458 until to ®nd the ®rst pixel having a
gray level above the threshold, and the found pixel became a
boundary pixel of the weld pool. This algorithm can be
expressed as follows:
 0   
u cos q sin q u
ˆ (2)
v0 sin q cos q v
where u0 , v0 are the components of searching direction vector
to find a next boundary pixel, q ˆ np=4 (n ˆ 1; . . . ; 7), and
u and v are the components of present searching direction
vector derived from the following equation:
     
u i iP
ˆ B
v jB jP
Here i and j are the pixel coordinates, subscript `P' the
present boundary pixel, and subscript `B' is the previous
boundary pixel.
4. Seam tracking and weld pool control
4.1. Seam tracking
As shown in Fig. 4, an image of the weld pool necessarily
contains the shadow of the wire indicating current position
of the torch, and the center of the weld pool presenting the
center of groove. In order to search the center of the wire
with the features from an image of the weld pool, the left and
the right extreme columns of the weld pool were at ®rst
identi®ed, respectively. From the mid column between the
left extreme column and the groove center to the mid one
between the groove center and the right extreme column, the
gray level of each pixel located between a pool start pixel
Fig. 4. Features extraction in weld pool image.
461
and the pool center in the vertical direction for each column
were then added. And then, the differentiation for the
summation along the horizontal direction was carried out
to obtain minimal and maximal values, and their column
positions, respectively. Consequently, the center of the torch
could be then determined to be located at the center of the
two columns.
An offset of the welding wire from the center of a groove
makes shapes of the weld pool at both sides around the wire
to be of asymmetry. In this study, for tracking a groove
center, i.e. a weld seam, the welding torch was controlled to
move to the direction along which the asymmetry of the
weld pool around the wire diminished.
4.2. Weld pool control
The control technique of a skilled welder was implemen-
ted as the control algorithm of the weld pool to obtain a
sound penetration in welding of the pipes which had a
variation of gap. For the purpose of this, the gap size should
be ®rstly measured from an image of the weld pool as done
by a welder in a manual welding. In this study, widths of a
partial region of the weld pool from the lowest row to 10
pixels above corresponding a 0.5 mm height were averaged,
and then the result was de®ned to be a measured gap size.
Meanwhile, because the weld pool should be appropri-
ately penetrated through the gap of pipe to obtain a sound
penetration, there may be a close relation between the real
gap and the measured gap for the sound weldment. For
identifying the relationship, the temperature distributions
around the groove were considered to be of valuable infor-
mation and were therefore predicted with a welding current
of 180 A, a voltage of 20 V, and a speed of 2.1 mm/s by
using the FEM program developed for a previous study [10].
Fig. 5 shows the predicted temperature distribution of a half
section around the center of groove. The region heated above
1500 8C can be considered to be a part of the weld pool, and
it penetrates through the non-melted zones to be a back bead.
The penetrated region below the bottom of the gap would be
observed as a part of the bright weld pool by the camera, and
the width of the region is considered to be a measured gap in
this study. With the results, the relation between the actual
Fig. 5. Temperature distributions at sections in circumferential direction
under arc for pipes with different gap sizes.
462 K.-Y. Bae et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 120 (2002) 458±465

Table 1 3. If gap is big …e…k† < 0† and becomes smaller …De…k†

Suggested welding conditions for producing sound penetrations > 0†, then set lower speed …u < 0†.
Gap size (mm) Speed (mm/s) Current (A) Voltage (V) 4. If gap is small …e…k† > 0† and becomes bigger …De…k†
< 0†, then set higher speed …u > 0†.
2.0 2.4 190 20
2.5 2.2 185 20
3.0 2.1 180 20 Based on the knowledge, a fuzzy rule base was con-
3.5 1.8 175 19 structed. Each fuzzy subset for an error was set to correspond
4.0 1.7 170 19 to an error of 0, 0.5 and 1.0 mm, respectively; each fuzzy
subset for the change of an error to correspond to the change
of an error of 0, 0.125 and 0.25 mm, respectively; and
gap and the measured gap can be therefore estimated. The
each fuzzy subset for the change of a speed to correspond to
relation was also con®rmed and quanti®ed through a series
the change of a speed of 0, 0.2 and 0.4 mm/s, respec-
of welding experiments, and the result will be shown in
tively. Then, the fuzzy inference to relate the process input
Fig. 9. A real gap can be therefore obtained from the
with the two input variables was performed with the min±
measured gap by using the relationship.
max algorithm [11]. The process input that is a change of
In this study, to construct the knowledge-based model, to
speed could be then obtained by defuzzifying the fuzzy
begin with, proper welding conditions producing the sound
value using the center of gravity method. Thus, the welding
penetration for a given gap size were determined through
speed would be updated for the next control step, whereas
actual pipe welding experiments performed with assistance
the current and the voltage corresponding to the newly
of a skilled welder for each gap size of 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, and
determined speed were obtained by the linear interpolation
4.0 mm which could stand for available gaps during welding
of the relation shown in Table 1.
of the pipes speci®ed in this study. The results of the
The processing of an image of the weld pool and the
experiments are shown in Table 1. This was stored in the
determination of a control variable at every control step
computer as a database for this speci®ed welding, and then
could be carried out within a time period of 0.3 s, and it was
used as basic information for the knowledge base to control
then set to be the control cycle time for the visual sensing
the weld pool for a gap variation during actual pipe welding.
system.
For further developing the relation and thus realizing the
heuristic rules obtained from experiences of skilled worker
corresponding to a gap variation in real time, especially for
5. Experiment
the relation between gap size and welding speed, the fuzzy
logic controller as shown in Fig. 6 was proposed.
Welding experiments were conducted with GMAW for
The proposed fuzzy logic took two variables to be fuzzi-
the proposed pipe welding system to evaluate the feasibility
®ed. One was an error (e(k)), which was the difference of a
in automatic control of the root pass welding process of a
gap (G(k)) at the concerned time step (k) from the reference
mild steel pipe workpiece that had a diameter of 192 mm and
gap …G…k 1†† at the previous one …k 1†, and the other
a thickness of 15 mm and was prepared as a butt joint with a
was the change of an error, de…k†=dt …De…k††. The following
single V-groove of 608. To make a weld joint, two pipes,
knowledge was utilized to determine a new welding speed.
each of which had a length of 150 mm and was prepared at
1. If gap is small …e…k† > 0† and becomes smaller …De…k† > 0†, one end, were tacked at four quadratic positions with a
then set much higher speed …u @ 0†. 10 mm length of welding for each position. An SM70
2. If gap is big …e…k† < 0† and becomes bigger …De…k† < 0†, welding wire having a diameter of 1.2 mm and a shielding
then set much lower speed …u ! 0†. gas of 100% CO2 were used for the welding. To begin with,

Fig. 6. Block diagram of fuzzy controller.

 K.-Y. Bae et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 120 (2002) 458±465 463

the torch was moved to a welding start point located on the

joint at 458 around the center of the pipe toward CCW from
the horizon. The torch angle was then set to be at 508 toward
CCW from the horizon, and the camera angle to be at 158.
Finally, the manipulator was ®xed not to move all but in the
Z-direction which was dedicated for a seam tracking. The
direction of the pipe rotation was set to be the one so that the
torch relatively seemed to travel downward along a ®xed
slope.

5.1. Seam tracking

For simulating an actual weld seam, an initial linear offset

from 0 to 2 or 2 mm was preset from the straight seam
along a welding distance of 140 mm located between two
adjacent tacks. The welding experiment was then carried out
Fig. 7. Weld pool image.
for each specimen to verify a capability of the proposed
system in the seam tracking with a visual sensing of the weld
pool. of the test of a weld seam tracking for the root pass was
shown in Fig. 8. In this ®gure, each seam tracking for an
5.2. Weld pool control offset error of 2 or 2 mm at the end of a 140 mm weld seam
along the circumferential direction, which is presented with
In order to obtain the relation between measured and a change degree, shows a favorable result when it is com-
actual gaps, welding experiments were carried out to mea- pared with the desired seam. Accordingly, the system is
sure the gap sizes with the visual sensor during welding of considered to have the capability to track a weld seam which
each pipe having an actual gap of 2.0, 3.0 and 4.5 mm, has up to 18 offset error. In fact, under the conditions that the
respectively, with the conditions for a gap of 3.0 mm. image processing time is 0.3 s and the welding speed for a
To verify the capability of the proposed sensing system in 3.0 mm gap is 2.1 mm/s, a correction for the torch position is
adjusting welding conditions to control the weld for obtain- performed at every 0.63 mm welding, and the ®eld of view
ing a sound penetration in real time, corresponding to a gap of the camera along the transverse direction is as large as
variation, the root pass welding experiment was performed
for each pipe having a gap of 2.5 and 4.0 mm, respectively,
with the welding conditions for a standard gap of 3.0 mm. In
addition, for a comparison of weldability between with
control and without control of the weld pool, another
experiment was performed without the pool control for
the pipe having a gap of 3.5 mm.

6. Results and discussion

During the experiment, the pipe welding system with the

proposed manipulator exactly performed the decided
sequence for making con®gurations of the torch and the
camera on the surface of a pipe, which shows a very ¯exible
aspect of the system and superiority to its human competitor.
With the short-detection logic, the image of the weld pool
could be acquired during the period of a short-circuit when
the arc extinguished. Fig. 7 shows a captured image of the
weld pool, presenting clearly the boundary between the weld
pool and the background and also the shadow image of the
wire.
At every observation time, based on the features from the
image of the weld pool, the relative distance between the two
centers of the wire and the weld pool was calculated and Fig. 8. Torch trace during seam tracking for offsets in weld joint location:
diminished by using the seam tracking algorithm. The result (a) negative offset; (b) positive offset.
464 K.-Y. Bae et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 120 (2002) 458±465

Fig. 9. Comparison between actual and measured gap sizes.

30 mm, any kind of the actual seam can be therefore

theoretically traced. However, to cope with any instanta-
neous disturbance, the maximum correction data for the
weld seam were limited to 0.5 mm in each control step. Fig. 10. Response of welding conditions to a gap size of 2.0±2.5 mm: (a)
welding speed; (b) welding current.
Fig. 9 shows the comparison between measured gaps
obtained from the images of the weld pool and actual gaps
preset to the preparation of the groove. In this ®gure, as the
preset actual gap goes small, the difference from the mea-
sured gap becomes large. The difference is considered to be
caused by the fact that the smaller an actual gap size is, the
more is a root edge melted, as previously predicted with the
FEM analysis in Section 4.2. On the other hand, for a larger
actual gap, the same size of gap was measured. For the larger
gap, the weld metal penetrated between the two prepared
edges which had a small melted region and therefore added a
small shinny region, which resulted in only a little difference
from the actual gap.
When the root pass welding was performed with the
conditions for a 3.0 mm gap on the pipe which had the
gap changing from 2.0 to 2.5 mm over a whole welding
distance of 140 mm, the welding conditions could be appro-
priately controlled with the algorithm for the weld pool
control in real time along the welding length as shown in
Fig. 10 to obtain the weld pool for producing a sound
penetration through the actual gap. Especially, as soon as
the welding started, the initial speed and current for a
3.0 mm gap were rapidly changed at the same time to be
the ones for a smaller gap.
When the root pass welding with initial conditions for a Fig. 11. Response of welding conditions to a gap of 4.0 mm: (a) welding
3.0 mm gap was applied for the pipe having an actual gap of speed; (b) welding current.
4.0 mm, the welding conditions were changed as shown in
Fig. 11. Both the initial speed and current were rapidly
decreased to be suitable for the larger new gap. Welding Fig. 12 shows two pictures illustrating each result of the
conditions could be also sustained fairly well for the gap welding experiment with or without the weld pool control,
along the welding distance. respectively. Fig. 12(a) shows the result of the welding for a
According to these results, it could be assured for the gap of 4.0 mm with the weld pool control, and it presents a
proposed visual sensing system to be very feasible to control sound weldment. On the contrary, Fig. 12(b) shows the result
the weld pool for obtaining a sound penetration through the of the welding for a gap of 3.5 mm without the weld pool
root gap even when there was a variation of gap size. control. In the case when the gap was 3.5 mm, although there
 K.-Y. Bae et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 120 (2002) 458±465
Fig. 12. Result of weld pool control: (a) with control; (b) without control.
was only a small increment in the gap size compared with
the 3.0 mm gap for which initial welding conditions were
decided, no good weldment was produced by occurrence of a
penetration of the wire into the gap. Accordingly, these
results meant that the weld pool control should be always
required to deal with any gap variation in the root pass
welding of a pipe.
7. Conclusion
A visual sensing system was proposed for the seam
tracking and the pool control to automate the root pass
welding of steel pipe. As the result of the investigation of the
feasibility and weldability through a series of welding
experiments for the proposed system and its algorithms,
following conclusions could be derived:
1. The manipulator with the torch handling mechanism
worked exactly in locating the torch at a start position of
welding for any specified diameter of pipe.
2. The short-detection logic captured very well the period
of an arc extinction during welding process and correctly
issued a trigger pulse for the camera to acquire an image
of the weld pool without interference of the arc.
3. The edge-detection technique could quickly and easily
find the boundary of the weld pool from its background,
which shortened the processing time with considerable
exactness in searching an image of the weld pool.
4. The position of wire, the center of the weld pool, and the
gap size of the weld pool could be calculated with the
features extracted from an image of the weld pool.
5. The seam tracking logic for sustaining a symmetry of
the weld pool around the wire was appropriate enough to
obtain a suitable result in the seam tracking.
465
6. The fuzzy logic of which rule was based on the
knowledge of a welding expert could determine in real
time an optimal welding speed corresponding to a gap
variation.
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