Learning theories are an organized set of principles explaining how individuals acquire,

retain, and recall knowledge. By studying and knowing the different learning theories, we can
better understand how learning occurs.
Learning Theory describes how students absorb, process, and retain knowledge
during learning. ... Those who advocate constructivism believe that a learner's ability
to learn relies largely on what they already know and understand, and the acquisition of
knowledge should be an individually tailored process of construction.

Behaviorist Theories

A behaviorist perspective includes an assumption that student learning behaviors may be

shaped by specific actions (stimuli) that lead to specific responses. From a behaviorist
perspective, reinforcement plays a vital role. Both positive reinforcement (employing a
stimulus to the environment) and negative reinforcement (withholding a stimulus from the
environment) increase the likelihood of the learning behavior occurring on a consistent basis.
Understanding and implementing an effective process of reinforcement decisions determine
the level of change in the learner—that is, the degree to which new learning is taking place.
Much behaviorist research has been completed using animals, with the results then applied to
human learning.

Cognitive Theories

Originally conceived as an alternative theory to the behaviorist approach, cognitive theories

seek to explain how the mind works during the learning process. While changes in behavior
occur, the cognitivist attributes these changes to specific mental processes that may be
measured and enhanced. Like a computer, the mind takes in information, processes that
information, then uses that information to produce learning outcomes. Central to the cognitive
approach is the understanding that individuals must participate actively in the learning process
rather than just responding to stimuli. Stages of cognitive development determine the learner’s
ability to understand abstract, complex concepts.

Constructivist Theories

Central to the constructivist approach is the learner as a constructor of knowledge. New

learning is shaped by past experiences and constructs/schema the learner brings to the learning
process. Cultural tools such as speech and writing are first used in a social context and may
lead to higher-level thinking and learning. The context or setting of the learning environment
may determine the effectiveness of a learner’s ability to construct new knowledge. Encouraging
the application of knowledge to new situations enhances the learner’s ability to transfer
knowledge and increases skill development that may be universally applied.

Motivation/Humanist Theories

Humanist theories find their focus in the whole person of the learner—that is, cognitive and
affective needs of the learner must be addressed. The growth of the individual over a lifetime
must be considered, and the individuality of each learner is central to the effectiveness of that
growth. Recognizing that human potential is expansive and that the learner brings values and
personal perspective to the learning environment is key. The learning environment at its best
is student-centered and should be personalized to the needs of each individual student.

These foundational learning-theory domains provide insight and perspective to our

understanding of the roles of the educator and the student in a school setting. Some follow-up
questions, however, seem appropriate: In what ways do these theories impact learning in a
digital age? How do these theories inform classroom and instructional design? In a school
setting, what are the implications of each theory domain for student life-readiness preparation?

The Five Educational Learning Theories

Educational Learning Theories

While studying to become a teacher, whether in a bachelor’s degree or alternative

certificate program, you will learn about learning theories. There are 5 overarching
paradigms of educational learning theories; behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism,
design/brain-based, humanism and 21st Century skills.

Below, you will find a brief outline of each educational learning theory, along
with links to resources that may be helpful.

1. Behaviorism is a view in which behavior can be explained by external factors and

behavioral conditioning can be used as a universal learning process. In behaviorism,
the ideas of positive and negative reinforcement are effective tools of learning and
behavior modification, as well as a punishment and reward system.

 Behaviorism Overview
 Behaviorism Learning Theory

2. Cognitivism is a learning theory developed by Jean Piaget in which a child

develops cognitive pathways in understanding and physical response to experiences.
In this theory, students learn most effectively through reading text and lecture
instruction.

 Paradigms of Learning
 Educational Theories of Learning

3. Constructivism is the idea that people are responsible in creating their own
understanding of the world and using what they know based on previous experiences
in the process of linking new information to these experiences. People use these
experiences and new information to construct their own meaning.

 Constructivism
 Influential Theories of Learning

4. Humanism focuses on the individual as the subject and asserts that learning is a
natural process that helps a person reach self-actualization. Scenarios and role
modeling are important factors in humanistic learning, as are experiences, exploring
and observing others.

 Humanistic Approaches to Learning

 Humanism Learning Theory

5. Connectivism is a relatively new learning theory, developed and based upon the
idea that people process information by forming connections. This theory has
developed with the digital and technology age, adapting to advances in these arenas.
This new theory suggests that people no longer stop learning after formal education
and continue to gain knowledge from other avenues such as job skills, networking,
experience and access to information with new tools in technology.

 Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age

Learning theory–and the research that goes into it–is a topic seen frequently in universities
and teaching programs, then less frequently after once teachers begin practicing in the
classroom.

Why this is true is complicated. (If you’re teaching, you may have more pressing concerns than
being able to define obscure learning theories which don’t seem to have a place or role in what
you’re teaching tomorrow.) I thought it might be useful to have a brief overview of many of
the most important learning theories teachers should know in a single graphic, which is why I
was excited to find Richard Millwood‘s excellent graphic.

Millwood is Visiting Research Fellow at Trinity College Dublin, Director of Core Education
UK. (You can read his blog here.) While the graphic is necessarily brief (and has a few typos),
I found it did a great job of bringing together a lot of the most critical–and common–learning
theories in one place.

If you get nothing else from a post like this, perhaps the most critical takeaway is that there are
dozens of theories that underpin what and how you teach already, and that the better you
understand them, the better chance you’ll have to master your current approach and begin to
bring new possibilities into your classroom as your ‘teaching brain’ makes room for this kind
of thinking.

Some definitions were a bit too brief, so I added language for clarity or depth (though a few I
need to go back and further deepen and explain, like ‘Interpersonal Relations.) Let me know in
the comments if you have any suggested citations or ideas that could improve the resource. I’ll
continue to add resource, links, and citations as relevant.

32 Learning Theories Every Teacher Should Know

1.Instructivism
The premise behind ‘Instructivism’ is that teachers take on a central role in the learning process
and transfer that knowledge directly to the students.

2. Multiple Intelligences
We have several different ways of learning and processing information, but these methods are
relatively independent of one another: leading multiple intelligences as opposed to a (single)
‘general intelligence) factor among correlated abilities.

3. Experiential Learning
Knowledge is continuously gained through both personal and environmental experiences. The
learner must be able to reflect on the experience, use analytical skills to conceptualize the
experience, and make decisions and solve problems to use the ideas gained from the
experience.

4. Learning Styles
Optimal learning demands that students receive instruction tailored to their learning styles.
(And stop learning styles don’t work.)
 5. De-schooling Society
School is damaging to education: “The pupil is thereby ‘schooled’ to confuse teaching with
learning, grade advancement with education, a diploma with competence, and fluency with the
ability to say something (well) or new.”

6. Home schooling
Home schooling: Characterized primarily by the family being responsible for the child’s
‘education.’ There’s a spectrum of approaches available from reproducing school at home, to
project-based learning in authentic and self-actuated and organized learning environments, to
complete ‘unschooling.’

7. Unschooling
The underlying assumption of Unschooling is that children will learn naturally if given the
freedom to follow own interests and a rich assortment of resources.

8. Critical Pedagogy
An educational movement guided by passion and principle to help students develop
consciousness of freedom, recognize authoritarian tendencies, and connect knowledge to
power and the ability to take constructive action.

9. Interpersonal Relations
Teacher types: lion-tamer, entertainer and new romantic–the problem of self-judgment in
assessment

10. Montessori Education

Montessori Principles:

1. Mixed-age classrooms, with classrooms for children aged 2.5 or 3-years-old to 6-years-old.
2. Student choice of activity within a prescribed-range of options
3. Uninterrupted blocks of work time
4. A ‘Constructivist’ or ‘discovery’ model where students learn concepts from working with
materials rather than by direct instruction
11. Scientific Pedagogy
Education-based on science that modifies and improves the individual

12. Experiential Education

The process that occurs between the teacher and student that infuses direct experience with the
learning environment and content.

13. Constructionism
The underlying principle of Constructionism as a learning theory is that the learner is not a
passive ‘vessel,’ but must actively participate in their own learning. It requires learners to build
on existing knowledge when acquiring new knowledge.

14. Social Constructivism

A learning theory founded on the idea that meaning is both built and socially-negotiated
through interactions with others.
15. Constructivism: Radical Constructivism
Knowledge as mental representation:

1a. Knowledge is not passively received either through the senses or by way of
communication;

1b. Knowledge is actively built up by the cognizing subject;

2a. The function of cognition is adaptive, in the biological sense of the term, tending towards
fit or viability;

2b. Cognition serves the subject’s organization of the experiential world, not the discovery of
an objective ontological reality.

16. Project-Based Learning

A framework for unifying otherwise disparate ‘strands’ of teaching and learning. In ‘PBL,’
students learn through the design, completion (and often ongoing iteration) of ‘projects.’ One
way to think of PBL is in contrast to traditional ‘units’ of ‘instruction.’

17. Genetic Epistemology

A human being develops cognitively from birth throughout his or her life through four primary
stages of development; sensorimotor (0-2), preoperational (2-7), concrete operational (7-11),
and formal operational (11+). Assimilation (occurs through the) incorporation of new
experiences into existing mental schema; accommodation changes mental schema.

18. Zone of Proximal Development

The area of capabilities that learners can exhibit with the support from a teacher.

19. Scaffolding
Scaffolding is the support given during the learning process which is tailored to the needs of
the student with the intention of helping the student achieve his/her learning goals.

See also The Gradual Release of Responsibility

20. Discovery Learning
Learners obtain knowledge by forming and testing hypotheses.

21. Meaningful Learning

New knowledge to acquire is related with/to previous knowledge.

22. Mastery Learning

In Mastery Learning, ‘the students are helped to master each learning unit before proceeding
to a more advanced learning task.”

23. Educational Objectives

Taxonomy of learning objectives that educators set for students in three ‘domains’: Cognitive,
Affective, and Psychomotor. Learning at the higher levels is dependent on achieving lower
levels (first). Designed to motivate educators to focus on all three domains, creating a more
holistic form of education.
24. Radical Behaviorism
Learning as a process of forming associations between stimuli in the environment and the
corresponding responses of the individual. Reinforcement strengthens responses and increases
the likelihood of another occurrence when the stimulus is present again.

25. Communities of Practice

Groups of people who share a concern of a passion for something they do and learn how to do
it better as they interact regularly.

26. Situated Learning

According to Northern Illinois University, Situated Learning is “an instructional approach
developed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger in the early 1990s, and follows the work of
Dewey, Vygotsky, and others (Clancey, 1995) who claim that students are more inclined to
learn by actively participating in the learning experience. Situated learning essentially is a
matter of creating meaning from the real activities of daily living (Stein, 1998, para. 2) where
learning occurs relative to the teaching environment.”

27. Conversation Theory

A cybernetic and dialectic framework that offers a scientific theory to explain how interactions
lead to ‘knowing.’

28. Competency-Based Learning

Competency-Based Learning is an approach to learning that focuses on actual, observable skills
(or ‘competencies’) rather than grasp of concepts as measured by traditional academic
assessments. Though mastering competencies obviously requires understanding of concepts, it
is not driven towards that end.

29. Problem-Based Learning

An approach to learning where the solving or important ‘problems,’ often through inquiry and
Project-Based Learning catalyzes the learning experience.

30. Place-Based Education

The emphasis of a meaningful ‘place’ (that is, one meaningful to the learner) in the
circumstance of learning.

31. Question-Based Learning

A formal process of inquiry where questions are formed, then improved based on the revelation
of relevant, significant, and accurate data.

32. Learning Blends/Combination Learning

An alternative to traditional academic ‘lessons,’ combination learning blends are combinations
of learning ingredients (e.g., topic, audience, outcome, apps,
Theories of Learning

Learning theories provide a foundation for ISD. An instructional designer's theoretical

approach to learning affects how the instruction is designed, developed, implemented,
and evaluated. Most instructional designer's theoretical orientation is based upon one
or the integration of three theories: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.
These three theories may be familiar to you from an undergraduate psychology or
education courses. They may also be familiar to you from previous courses in your
program.

Although the distance education literature, particularly for higher education, purports
that constructivism underlies effective distance learning, additional learning theories
are also applicable. Let's briefly consider definitions of these theories and their
application to distance education instructional design. Please note that in in-depth
study of each of these theories is not within the scope of this course. If you would like
to know more, I would encourage you to read the seminal works of some of the
theorists mentioned in this discussion.

Behaviorism Applied to Distance Education

Davidson-Shiver and Rasmussen (2006) purport that there are several key concepts
of behaviorism that have been applied to the educational environment and that you
may find important in designing and implementing a distance education course or
program. Please note that these are a few selected concepts; there are many more.

Practice - Research demonstrates that repetition via practice can strengthen

learning. Providing learners with opportunities practice after the presentation of
material or reading may allow learners to strengthen a specific skill. In the e-learning
environment, an instructor may use Second life, a virtual world, to deliver a lecture
and engage his or her students in a role-play. To read about an example of this, take a
virtual trip to Innovate to Read Educational Opportunities for Clinical Counseling
Simulations in Second Life.

Modeling - Modeling is defined as a demonstration of the desired behavior or

response. For example, a course designer may encourage an instructor to provide
instructions for an assignment and then post exemplarily work of previous students as
examples. Another example is an instructor modeling the writing of desired discussion
board responses when interacting on discussion forum.

Reinforcement - Theorists purport that learners learn or exhibit desired behaviors

when provided with positive or negative reinforcement. For example, in the e-learning
environment, an e-mail from the instructor providing results and explanation of those
results on an assignment may serve as a positive reinforcement. In the mobile
environment a reinforcing text could be sent. (Note: For this to be a positive
reinforcement the learner must view the e-mail as pleasant. When planning
reinforcement, learners' characteristics should be taken into consideration).
Active Learning - Behaviorist purport that learners should be active in that they
should respond to stimulus in order for learning to occur. In the e-learning or mobile
environment, instructors may require students to require students to answer
questions in a discussion forum or via text messaging. The instructor may require
learners to share documents in a collaborative workspace such as a wiki or other
collaborative workspace. The purpose of this is so that instructors may observe
students understanding of the material; thus, making this different than active
learning described in constructivism.

Cognitivism Applied to Distance Education

Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

 Mayer, is well known for his cognitive theory of multimedia learning. Mayer,
(2003) says the following about learner centeredness, “it is not what is done to
the learner, but how the learner interprets what happens, that is, on the
learner’s personal experience” (p. 5). His theory is based upon several primary
assumptions: There are two separate channels (auditory and visual) for
processing information
 Each channel has a finite capacity, and the learner can only process a finite
amount of information in one channel at a time
 The brain does not interpret a multimedia presentation of words, pictures, and
auditory information in a mutually exclusive fashion; rather, these elements are
selected and organized dynamically to produce logical mental constructs.
 Learning is an active process of filtering, selecting, organizing, and integrating
information based upon prior knowledge, and the learner make sense of
incoming information by actively creating mental representations.

Many of the design principles are based upon this theory. We will read more about this
in the upcoming weeks as we delve deeper into our text book.

There are multiple key principles of cognitivism that have been applied to the
educational environment and that you may find important in designing and
implementing an e-learning course. Many of these, as stated earlier, are discussed in
detail in your text book (Clark& Mayer, 2008); a few are identified here:

 Reflection upon content is important. In the online environment, an instructor

can ask students to reflect upon the content to bring prior knowledge and
experience to the forefronts of their minds.
 In order for learning to be meaningful, it should be relevant. In the online
environment, an instructor or instructional designer may identify primary
learner audience prior knowledge and background and relate instruction and
assignments to learners’ backgrounds.
Instructional Design (ISD) Models

Now that we have explored learning theories that are foundational to instructional
design, we are going to consider instructional design models, these processes assist
us in applying learning theories in a systematic, yet often iterative manner as we
design instruction. Although there are many different approaches, most ISD models
follow ADDIE: Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and
Evaluation. The following describes each stage of ADDIE:

1. Analysis - The process for identifying and defining what is to be learned

2. Design - The process of determining how it is to be learned-based on audience need,
timetable, and budget
3. Development - The process of authoring and producing the learning materials
4. Implementation - The process of installing the learning solution within the real-
world business environment
5. Evaluation - The process of measuring the effectiveness and efficiency of the
learning, based on the stated objectives; occurring in each phase of the ADDIE model
and at the project end (see
http://www.crawfordinternational.com/html/cai_addie.asp)

Davidson-Shivers and Rasmussen (2006) identify two type of ISD models. They say
that traditional ISD models focus on planning, developing, implementing, and
evaluating on a lesson of course level. The core elements of the traditional models
include determining learners' needs, identifying learning goals and objectives,
planning assessment and developing assessment tools, planning instructional
strategies and media, pilot testing, implementing, and evaluating. The most common
traditional ISD models include Gagne's (1985) Conditions of Learning and Dick,
Carey, and Carey's (2005) model.

The second type of ISD model is for macro-level design. These models assist with
design on a program level rather than a lesson or course level. Common ISD models
for macro-level design include Reigeluth, Merrill, Wilson and Spiller's Elaboration
Theory, Rapid prototyping (expeditiously developing prototypic instructional
material), and Morrison, Ross and Kemps' (2004) model. In this unit, two of these
models are briefly summarized: Dick, Carey, and Carey's (2005) and Morrison, Ross
and Kemps' (2004) model. These are the two models upon which much of the
instruction in this course is based and what you will use as a foundation to design your
own instructional unit in this course. To learn more about these models and the ones
mentioned above, you can use the links at the end of the unit. I would also encourage
you to read some of the seminal works on the ISD models.
Now that we have briefly discussed the different learning theories, let's
summarize them.

Learning Traditional Traditional Constructivism/

Theory (Behaviorism) (Cognitivism) Social
Constructivism
Theorists Thorndike, Koffka, Dewey, Vygotsky
Pavlov, Watson, Kohler, Lewin, Rort, Piaget,
Guthrie, Hull, Piaget, Bruner
Tolman, Skinner Ausubel,
Bruner, Gagne
Theories and Pavlov's Dual Coding Situated Cognition
Instructional Classical Theory
Models Conditioning Social-Cultural
Elaboration Learning
Skinner's Theory
Operant Case-Based
Conditioning Schema Theory Learning

Thorndike's Collins & Discovery

Laws and Stevens Inquiry Learning
Connectionism Teaching
Model Distributed
Contract Learning
Learning Keller's ARCS
Model of Problem-Based
Individualized Motivation Learning (PBL)
Instruction
Merrill's
Information Component
Processing Display Model
Model
Assumptions Knowledge is an Knowledge is Knowledge is
about objective reality an objective constructed
Knowledge to be obtained reality to bethrough
and obtained environmental
Learning Learning is a interactions and it
change in Learning is is embedded in
behavior and the concerned with the context in
goal of teaching internal mental which it is used
is to produce process
behavioral (including Knowledge is
change in insight, collaboratively
information constructed and
processing, meaning is
 desired memory, individually
direction perception) and imposed
results in
Emphasis is on information in
the relationship an organized
between manner in the
observable, stored in
measurable memory
behaviors and
environmental
variables
Locus of Stimuli in Internal Learning is in
Learning external cognitive relationship
environment structuring between people
and environment.
Educator's Expert, Is responsible Facilitator
Role knowledge to structures
source Arranges content of Guide
environment to learning
elicit desired activities to Collaborator
response assist learners
in organizing
information in
an optimal
manner for
assimilation

Works to
establish
communities of
practice in
which
conversation
and
participation
can occur.
Learner Passive, Active Active,
consumer of processor of constructors of
knowledge information knowledge

According to
behaviorism, the
learner is a
responder to
environmental
stimuli, a tabula
 rasa shaped by
reinforcements
Instruction Instruction and Instruction and Instruction and
and assessment is assessment is assessment is
Assessment teacher- independent, student -centered,
centered and contextual, and collaborative, and
criterion-based; reflective customized to
learners' prior
The purpose of Instructions knowledge.
instruction is to aims to assist
elicit the desired learners in Authentic
response based using strategies assessments,
on a stimulus that result in portfolios,
(e.g., changes in contextual, case-
automatically thinking based projects,
performing a authentic tasks
specified Instruction and dialogue are
procedure) encourages primarily
instructional
Knowledge The goal of strategies.
obtainment, instruction is
retention, and for learners to Instruction is a
reproduction develop process of
(recalling facts) capacity and supporting
is key. skills to learn knowledge
better construction
rather than
communicating
knowledge for the
purpose of a
product.