1940 – 1956: First Generation – Vacuum Tubes

These early computers used vacuum tubes as circuitry and magnetic drums for
memory. As a result they were enormous, literally taking up entire rooms and costing a
fortune to run. These were inefficient materials which generated a lot of heat, sucked
huge electricity and subsequently generated a lot of heat which caused ongoing
breakdowns.

These first generation computers relied on ‘machine language’ (which is the most
basic/lowest level programming language that can be understood by computers). These
computers were limited to solving one problem at a time. Input was based on punched
cards and paper tape. Output came out on print-outs. The two notable machines of this
era were the UNIVAC and ENIAC machines – the UNIVAC is the first every commercial
computer which was purchased in 1951 by a business – the US Census Bureau.

1956 – 1963: Second Generation – Transistors

The world would see transistors replace vacuum tubes in the second generation of computers. The transistor was
invented at Bell Labs in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 1950s. The
replacement of vacuum tubes by transistors saw the advent of the second generation of
computing. Although first invented in 1947, transistors weren’t used significantly in
computers until the end of the 1950s. They were a big improvement over the vacuum
tube, despite still subjecting computers to damaging levels of heat. However they were
hugely superior to the vacuum tubes, making computers smaller, faster, cheaper and
less heavy on electricity use. They still relied on punched card for input/printouts.

The language evolved from cryptic binary language to symbolic (‘assembly’) languages.
This meant programmers could create instructions in words. About the same time high
level programming languages were being developed (early versions of COBOL and
FORTRAN). Transistor-driven machines were the first computers to store instructions
into their memories – moving from magnetic drum to magnetic core ‘technology’. The
early versions of these machines were developed for the atomic energy industry.

1964 – 1971: Third Generation – Integrated Circuits

By this phase, transistors were now being miniaturised and put on silicon chips (called
semiconductors). This led to a massive increase in speed and efficiency of these
machines. These were the first computers where users interacted using keyboards and
monitors which interfaced with an operating system, a significant leap up from the
punch cards and printouts. This enabled these machines to run several applications at
once using a central program which functioned to monitor memory.

As a result of these advances which again made machines cheaper and smaller, a new
mass market of users emerged during the ‘60s.

1972 – 2010: Fourth Generation – Microprocessors

This revolution can be summed in one word: Intel. The chip-maker developed the Intel
4004 chip in 1971, which positioned all computer components (CPU, memory,
input/output controls) onto a single chip. What filled a room in the 1940s now fit in the
palm of the hand. The Intel chip housed thousands of integrated circuits. The year 1981
saw the first ever computer (IBM) specifically designed for home use and 1984 saw the
MacIntosh introduced by Apple. Microprocessors even moved beyond the realm of
computers and into an increasing number of everyday products.

The increased power of these small computers meant they could be linked, creating
networks. Which ultimately led to the development, birth and rapid evolution of the
Internet. Other major advances during this period have been the Graphical user
interface (GUI), the mouse and more recently the astounding advances in lap-top
capability and hand-held devices.

2010- : Fifth Generation – Artificial Intelligence

Computer devices with artificial intelligence are still in

development, but some of these technologies are beginning to emerge and be used
such as voice recognition.

AI is a reality made possible by using parallel processing and superconductors. Leaning

to the future, computers will be radically transformed again by quantum computation,
molecular and nano technology.

The essence of fifth generation will be using these technologies to ultimately create
machines which can process and respond to natural language, and have capability to
learn and organise themselves.
Computers internal architectural design comes in different types and sizes, but the basic
structure remains same of all computer systems.
The term 'computer hardware' or 'computer parts' is used to describe computer
components that can be seen and touched. The major components of general-purpose
computer system are Input Unit, main/internal Memory or Storage Unit, Output Unit,
Central Processing unit. The CPU is further includes Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
and control unit(CU). All the units also referred to as "The functional units”. Devices that
are not integral part of CPU referred to as peripherals.
.

The below section describe briefly all the computer components in a computer
system

Input Unit
Input unit is used for transfers’ raw Data and control signals into
the information processing system by the user before processing and computation. All
the input unit devices provide the instructions and data are transformed into binary codes
that is the primary memory acceptable format.
Example of Input unit devices: keyboard, mouse, scanner, joystick, MICR, Punched
cards, Punched paper tape, Magnetic tape etc.

Memory or Storage Unit

Memory or Storage unit is used for storing Data during before and after processing. The
capacity of storage is expressed in terms of Bytes.
The two terms Memory or Storage unit are used interchangeably, so it is important to
understand what is the difference between memory and storage?
Memory
This unit retains temporarily results till further processing, For example, Random Access
Memory (RAM).This memory is volatile, which means data is disappears when the power
is lost.
Storage
The storage or "secondary storage" is used for retain digital data after processing for
permanently. For example hard drive. The Storage is non-volatile in nature. CPU does
not access directly to secondary storage memories, instead they accessed via input-
output unit. The contents of secondary storage memories are first transferred to the main
memory (RAM) and then CPU access it.

Output Unit
Output Unit receives information from the CPU and then delivers it the external storage
or device in the soft or hard processed form. The devices which are used to display output
to the user are called output devices. The Monitor or printer is common output device.

Central Processing Unit

The main chip in a computer is the microprocessor chip, which is also known as the CPU
(central processing unit). The CPU is mounted on a printed circuit board called the main
board or mother board. This chip is considered to be the controlling chip of a computer
system since it controls the activities of other chips as well as outside devices connected
to the computer, such as monitor and printer. In addition, it can also perform logical and
computational tasks. Microprocessors work on a parallel system. Figure shows a typical
structure of one of the first-generation microprocessors. The recent ones possess greater
complexity, although the basic design concept has not changed much.

The various activities that a microprocessor performs, such as storing data, doing
arithmetic calculations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, etc.), are the result
of instructions given to the CPU in the form of sequences of 0s and 1s. Microprocessors
are designed to carry out a large number of instructions and all the instructions may be
represented by different sequences of 0s and 1s. Each instruction is represented by a
unique set of 0s and 1s.
The internal structure of a typical CPU consists of circuits which form a number
of registers (the typical number is 16), an arithmetic unit for carrying out arithmetic
operations, a logic unit, and a control unit.
Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
Arithmetic Logical Unit is used for processing data after inputting data is stored into
primary unit. The major operations of Arithmetic Logical Unit are addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, logic and comparison.
Control unit (CU)
It is like a supervisor, that checks ordaining operations or check sequence in which
instructions are executed.
The central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of your computer. It handles all the instructions you give your
computer, and the faster it does this, the better. Learn about how a CPU processes instructions and how
computer engineers are continuously coming up with ways to make it go faster.

Introduction
So you're shopping for a new computer in an electronics store and you're trying to make sense of the technical
specifications. One computer that looks pretty cool has a 64-bit quad-core Intel i7 3.5 GHz processor. Sounds
impressive, but what does it really mean?
The last computer you bought a few years ago had a sticker on it that said Pentium 4, but you don't remember
the details. The computer was getting sort of slow, but why would you need a 64-bit quad-core? Why exactly
is this better than the processor in your old computer? To understand what the specifications mean, we first
have to look at how the processor is designed and how it functions.

Definitions
The central processing unit (CPU) of a computer is a piece of hardware that carries out the instructions of a
computer program. It performs the basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations of a computer
system. The CPU is like the brains of the computer - every instruction, no matter how simple, has to go
through the CPU. So let's say you press the letter 'k' on your keyboard and it appears on the screen - the CPU
of your computer is what makes this possible. The CPU is sometimes also referred to as the central processor
unit, or processor for short. So when you are looking at the specifications of a computer at your local
electronics store, it typically refers to the CPU as the processor.
When we start to look at the various components of a CPU and how they function, remember that this is all
about speed. When we use a computer, we want the instructions to be carried out very fast. As the instructions
become more complicated (for example, creating a 3D animation or editing a video file), we demand more
from the CPU. Thus, the technological advances we have seen in processor technology have largely been
driven by the need for speed.

Components
A typical CPU has a number of components. The first is the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs
simple arithmetic and logical operations. Second is the control unit (CU), which manages the various
components of the computer. It reads and interprets instructions from memory and transforms them into a
series of signals to activate other parts of the computer. The control unit calls upon the arithmetic logic unit to
perform the necessary calculations.
Third is the cache, which serves as high-speed memory where instructions can be copied to and retrieved.
Early CPUs consisted of many separate components, but since the 1970s, they have been constructed as a
single integrated unit called a microprocessor. As such, a CPU is a specific type of microprocessor. The
individual components of a CPU have become so integrated that you can't even recognize them from the
outside. This CPU is about two inches by two inches in size.

Top-view of an Intel CPU - because it is a single integrated unit, the components are not
visible from the outside

Bottom-view of an Intel CPU - the gold plated pins provide the connections to the
motherboard
CPUs are located on the motherboard. Motherboards have a socket for this, which is specific for a certain
type of processor. A CPU gets very hot and therefore needs its own cooling system in the form of a heat sink
and/or fan.

CPU located on a motherboard with a heat sink and fan directly on top

The ALU is where the calculations occur, but how do these calculations actually get carried out? To a
computer, the world consists of zeros and ones. Inside a processor, we can store zeros and ones
using transistors. These are microscopic switches that control the flow of electricity depending on whether the
switch is on or off. So the transistor contains binary information: a one if a current passes through and a zero if
a current does not pass through.
Transistors are located on a very thin slice of silicon. A single silicon chip can contain thousands of transistors.
A single CPU contains a large number of chips. Combined, these only cover about a square inch or so. In a
modern CPU, however, that square inch can hold several hundred million transistors - the very latest high-end
CPUs have over one billion! Calculations are performed by signals turning on or off different combinations of
transistors. And more transistors means more calculations. You may be interested to know that the material,
silicon, used in chips is what gave the Silicon Valley region of California its name.