Chapter 1 PDF

UNIT
1 Diversity of Living Things
C
anada’s Carolinian ecosystem, located in southern
• All living things can be classified Ontario, is unique. With over 2000 species of plants
according to their anatomical and
physiological characteristics. and approximately 400 species of birds, it is one of
Canada’s most diverse ecosystems. These baby opossums
• Human activities affect the diversity of
living things in ecosystems. are just one of many animal species that live in Carolinian Canada.
How are scientists able to identify and classify all of the organisms
Overall Expectations that live in Carolinian Canada? They use a classification system that
In this unit, you will...
has been developed over the last 250 years.
The system allows scientists to begin with a broad category and
• analyze the effects of various human
activities on the diversity of living things continue to narrow down the classification of an organism based
on its distinguishing characteristics. For example, you know these
• investigate through laboratory and/or
field activities, or through simulations, opossums fit into one broad category, animals, but how could you
the principles of scientific classification, narrow down the classification even more? Since they have hair and
using appropriate sampling and glands that produce milk to nourish their young, they are mammals.
classification techniques But what type of mammal? Did you know that, like kangaroos and
• demonstrate an understanding of the koala bears, opossums are pouched mammals? After the young are
diversity of living organisms in terms born, they continue to develop in a pouch on the mother’s body.
of the principles of taxonomy and
What other characteristics might scientists use to classify these
phylogeny
opossums into more specific categories?
As you study this unit, look ahead to the Unit 1 Project on pages
Unit 1 Contents
142 and 143, which gives you an opportunity to demonstrate and
Chapter 1
Classifying Life’s Diversity
apply your new knowledge and skills. Keep a planning folder so you
How do scientists classify life on Earth?
can complete the project in stages as you progress through the unit.
Chapter 2
Diversity: From Simple to Complex
What are the characteristics of bacteria,
archaea, and protists?
Chapter 3
Multicellular Diversity
How do plants, fungi, and animals differ?
2
3
UNIT
1 Preparation
Sustainable Ecosystems
• An ecosystem includes all the interacting parts of a • Climate change refers to changes in the long-term
biological community and the non-living components trends of climate conditions experienced by a region.
of its environment. • Ecosystem services are the benefits experienced by
• Sustainable use of a resource is use that does not organisms, including humans, that are provided by
cause long-term depletion of the resource or affect the sustainable ecosystems. Ecosystem services are the
diversity of the ecosystem from which the resource is natural result of all the activities that occur in the
obtained. biosphere.
• A sustainable ecosystem is one that is capable of • Biodiversity is the number and variety of organisms
withstanding pressure and giving support to a variety found in a specific region. The current accelerated rate
of organisms. Sustainable ecosystems endure, and they of extinctions is often referred to as the biodiversity
support a wide variety of organisms. All organisms crisis. Scientists hypothesize that the biodiversity crisis
require sustainable ecosystems for survival. has resulted from the actions of humans.
• Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are reciprocal
processes that cycle oxygen and carbon dioxide
through the biosphere.
1. Which is a predicted impact of climate change? 5. Define the term ecosystem. Include a description of
a. Sea ice coverage will increase in area. a terrestrial ecosystem and an aquatic ecosystem in
b. Evaporation rates will decrease worldwide. your definition.
c. Flow rate of ocean currents will increase. 6. Define the term sustainable ecosystem.
d. Sea levels will rise. 7. What is meant by the statement, “All organisms
e. The frequency and intensity of storms will decrease. require sustainable ecosystems for survival”?
2. Which is an example of an ecosystem service? 8. Explain why you agree or disagree with the statement
a. the provision of food and clean water that consumers depend on producers for survival.
b. the cycling of nutrients 9. Explain climate change in terms of rising average
c. the conversion of atmospheric carbon into biomass temperatures, changing precipitation, and severity of
d. the pollination of crops and natural vegetation storms.
e. All of the above are true. 10. Explain how ecosystem services are linked to the
3. Which is a threat to biodiversity? concept of sustainable ecosystems.
a. reforestation d. bioremediation 11. Explain the connection between biodiversity and
b. wetland restoration e. bioaugmentation ecosystem sustainability.
c. deforestation 12. Write a caption explaining what is displayed on the
4. The diagram below shows the processes of graph below.
photosynthesis and cellular respiration in a plant leaf. Mass Extinctions
O2
(families per million years)
CO2 Photosynthesis 20
light (day) Late Permian-
Ordovician Triassic
Extinction Rate
15 Cretaceous-
H2O glucose Late Tertiary
Devonian Late
energy 10 Triassic
5
Cellular Respiration H2O CO O2
(day and night) 2 Paleozoic Mesozoic
0
600 300 0
a. What is photosynthesis? Millions of Years Ago
b. What is cellular respiration?
4 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

Safe and Effective Use of the Microscope
• The light microscope is an optical instrument that • A compound microscope consists of structural
magnifies objects that are usually too small to be seen and optical components. The three basic structural
with the unaided eye. components of a compound microscope are the tube,
• A compound light microscope uses a series of lenses base, and arm. There are two optical systems in a
and a light source to view the object. compound microscope: the eyepiece lens and the
objective lenses.
• A microscope is an expensive, precision instrument
that must be handled properly and carefully. • There are proper procedures to follow and skills
required to use a microscope safely and effectively.
13. Which microscope is commonly found in most high 17. Make a table in your notebook that
school science labs? a. identifies the parts of the microscope shown below
a. compound light microscope b. describes the function of each component
b. transmission electron microscope (TEM)
c. scanning electron microscope (SEM)
A
d. phase contrast microscope
e. fluorescence microscope
K
14. Which statement is false with respect to using a
microscope? B
J
a. The specimen appears upside down and backward.
b. When you move your slide to the right, it appears to
move to the left. I C
c. When you switch from the low-power objective lens H
to a higher-power objective lens, the field of view
decreases.
G D
d. When you switch from the low-power objective
lens to a higher-power objective lens, the amount of
detail you observe decreases.
e. The total magnification of the specimen you are E
observing with a 10× eyepiece lens and a 40×
objective lens is 400×. F
15. Explain why it is important to follow the proper
procedures for handling and using a microscope.
Include the proper way to carry a microscope from the
storage area to your lab station. 18. When working with microscopic specimens, it is often
16. Which shows the proper way to calculate the total difficult to observe the structures in the specimens
magnification of an object viewed under low power? clearly. You can use various stains to colour the
(Assume the eyepiece magnification is 10× and the structures you want to see. Summarize the steps you
low-power objective is 4×.) would use to stain onion epidermis cells and then
a. 10 × 4 = 40× make a wet-mount slide of these cells. Assume you will
use iodine solution to stain the cells. A piece of onion
b. 10 ÷ 4 = 2.5×
is lined on either side by a single layer of cells, which is
c. 10 - 4 = 6×
called an epidermis.
d. 10 + 4 = 14×
19. Summarize the proper microscope procedures for
e. 10 × 4 × 4 = 160×
viewing the wet-mount slide that you described
making in question 18.
Unit 1 Preparation • MHR 5

Cell Structure and Function
• The cell theory is one of the major theories in science. • In plant and animal cells, specific functions to
• All cells have a cell membrane to control what enters support life are carried out by internal cell parts called
and leaves the cell. The membrane separates the inside organelles. Examples of cellular organelles include
of the cell from the outside environment. mitochondria, Golgi bodies, ribosomes, vesicles,
vacuoles, chloroplasts, and a nucleus or multiple nuclei.
• The cytoplasm includes the organelles and other
life-supporting materials, such as water, all of which are
contained by the cell membrane.
20. Which statement about cell theory is false? 25. Which describes the function of a chloroplast?
a. Cells are the structural and functional units of life. a. captures light energy for photosynthesis
b. Cells divide to produce new cells. b. controls cell’s functions
c. Cells can arise spontaneously out of inorganic matter. c. makes proteins
d. All organisms are composed of one or more cells. d. packages proteins into vesicles
e. Cells pass copies of their genetic material on to e. stores food
daughter cells. 26. Identify the structures labelled in the diagram below.
21. What is the primary function of a cell membrane? Record your answers in your notebook.
a. allows materials to move out of but not into the cell B
b. allows materials to move into but not out of the cell
A
c. always uses energy to move materials into and out
of the cell
d. creates a separate, independently functioning
environment in the cell
e. controls what enters and leaves the nucleus
22. Mitochondria in both plant and animal cells carry out
which function?
a. producing glucose from sunlight
b. converting glucose into usable energy
c. manufacturing proteins
d. packaging and secreting proteins C
e. storing water and nutrients
23. Which statement about cells is true? F
D
a. Only plant cells have a cell wall and chloroplasts.
b. Only animal cells have a cell wall and chloroplasts. E
c. Only plant cells have a nucleus and mitochondria.
27. Identify the function of each organelle listed below.
d. Only animal cells have a nucleus and mitochondria.
a. ribosome
e. There are no differences between plant and animal
b. mitochondrion
cells.
c. vacuole
24. Which structure helps strengthen plant cells? d. vesicle
a. cell wall
28. Describe a procedure to identify whether a sample of
b. chloroplast
cells was collected from an animal or from a plant.
c. cytoplasm
29. Explain the relationships between the nucleus,
d. endoplasmic reticulum
ribosomes, and proteins.
e. ribosome

Diffusion and Osmosis
• The cell membrane controls what enters and leaves • Diffusion is the net movement of particles from
the cell. an area of high concentration to an area of lower
• Concentration is the quantity of a given substance in concentration.
a given volume. • Osmosis is the movement of water molecules across
a cell membrane from an area of higher concentration
of water to an area of lower concentration of water.
30. Which is an example of osmosis? 33. Explain the term selectively permeable as it applies to
a. movement of oxygen from the alveoli in lungs into a cell membrane.
capillaries of the circulatory system 34. Compare the processes of diffusion and osmosis in the
b. movement of carbon dioxide from capillaries of the context of a cell membrane.
circulatory system into the alveoli in lungs 35. Describe the importance of diffusion to a cell.
c. absorption of nutrients from the villi of the small
36. An amoeba (Amoeba proteus) is a single-celled
intestine into the capillaries of the circulatory
protozoan that lives in fresh water. Water continually
system
moves into this organism by osmosis. Amoebas use
d. absorption of water from the soil to plant root cells an organelle called a contractile vacuole to remove
e. movement of sugar produced by photosynthesis excess water from the cell.
from the leaves to other parts of a plant
31. Which plant cell shown below is in an environment contractile
where there is a higher concentration of water vacuole
molecules inside the cell than outside of the cell?

H2O H2O H2O H2O H2O
a. Describe what would happen to an Amoeba proteus

if it did not have a contractile vacuole.
b. Predict the effect of placing an Amoeba proteus in
salt water.
I II III IV 37. Dialysis tubing is a material used to make artificial
a. I c. III membranes that are selectively permeable. A
b. II d. IV photograph of a membrane model made with dialysis
tubing is shown below. Imagine that the membrane
32. A dropper-full of ink is released into a beaker of water.
model contains distilled water and is placed in the
The three photographs below show how the ink diffused
ink-and-water beaker from question 32. Assume that
in the water over a period of time. Write one caption
the ink has fully diffused through the water when the
to go with this set of three photographs to explain
membrane model is placed in it. Also assume that the
what is happening. The following terms should appear
dialysis tubing is permeable to water but not to ink
in your caption: diffusion, high concentration, low
particles. Describe what will happen as time passes,
concentration, ink, water.
and explain why it will happen.
Unit 1 Preparation • MHR 7

CHAPTER Classifying Life’s Diversity
1
Specific Expectations
In this chapter you will learn how to . . .
• B1.1 analyze some of the risks and
benefits of human intervention to the
biodiversity of aquatic and terrestrial
ecosystems (1.4)
• B2.1 use appropriate terminology

related to biodiversity (1.1, 1.4)
• B2.4 create and apply a dichotomous

key to identify and classify organisms
from each of the kingdoms (1.3)
• B3.1 explain the fundamental principles

of taxonomy and phylogeny (1.1, 1.2)
• B3.2 compare and contrast the

structure and function of different
types of prokaryotes, eukaryotes, and
viruses (1.3)
• B3.5 explain why biodiversity is

important to maintaining viable
ecosystems (1.4)
This blind, white crab, known as the yeti crab (Kiwa hirsuta), is
covered in hair-like structures that are home to millions of bacteria.
Living more than 2 km under the ocean’s surface, this crab is a new
species discovered during the Census of Marine Life. The Census is
a 10-year project with the goal of learning more about the diversity
and distribution of marine life.
The yeti crab is one example of that diversity. Based on genetic
analysis, it is so different from other crabs that a new family,
Kiwaidea, was created to help classify it. Identifying and classifying
this crab, along with more than 5000 other new species discovered
by the Census, helps scientists learn more about the history and
biodiversity of life on Earth. It also helps people make decisions
about how to ensure that ocean biodiversity endures for the future.

Launch Activity
Organizing Life
When you think of biodiversity, you may think of the ocean or a
rainforest. However, biodiversity exists in your area as well. Think
about the different types of birds, insects, or plants that you see when
you are outside in your neighbourhood. How many different kinds of
organisms live in your neighbourhood? In this activity, you will list and
classify local species.
Procedure
1. Make a list of all the different plants, animals, and fungi that you
observe during a 15-minute trip around your school or home.
Include indirect evidence of organisms as well, such as tracks, animal
droppings, nests, and sounds. Aim for at least 15 species in your list.
2. Organize your list into three main groups: plants, animals, and fungi.
Within each main group, create subgroups based on the similarities
and differences you observe or infer among the various kinds of
organisms. Begin by choosing a characteristic that lets you divide
each group into two subgroups: one that has the characteristic and
one that does not. For example, one characteristic could be wings
and no wings.
3. Next, decide if you can divide any of your groups and subgroups
further using another characteristic. If so, list the organisms in each
new group or subgroup.
4. Continue dividing your lists until you cannot see another way to do so.
Questions
1. What characteristics did you use to define your groups? How many
different subgroups did you make?
2. Exchange your lists with a partner. Interpret and discuss each other’s
system of classification.
3. Compare the similarities and differences among the classification
systems in the class. Why were so many systems invented?
Chapter 1 Classifying Life’s Diversity • MHR 9

SECTION
Identifying, Naming, and Classifying Species
1.1
Key Terms Take a moment to think about the great variety of organisms that inhabit Earth. From
microscopic bacteria to carnivorous plants that capture insects, whales that migrate
species
thousands of kilometres, and fungi that help break down dead trees, there are millions
morphology
of species on Earth. To date, scientists have identified about 2 million species on Earth.
phylogeny Although 2 million is a large number and new species are discovered every day, it is
taxonomy thought that this is just a fraction of the total number of species on Earth. Scientists
binomial nomenclature estimate that the total number of species on Earth ranges from 5 million to 20 million.
genus Knowing the identity of Earth’s species is important not just to biologists or other
classification scientists, but to everyone in society. Farmers and gardeners need to be able to identify
hierarchical classification weeds that might be growing next to their crop plants. Doctors need to know which
rank species of bacteria a patient is infected with in order to prescribe the correct medication
taxon for treatment. Many people, including Aboriginal peoples, collect plants for medicinal
use. It is critical for them to correctly identify the species they need. Border inspection
species a group of officials must check incoming goods to prevent the introduction of an invasive
organisms that can species. Because species have been identified, defined, and named by scientists, people
interbreed in nature and
worldwide can communicate about all of the different organisms that live on Earth.
produce fertile offspring
Identifying and Naming New Species

Suppose you are a scientist who discovers a new species, such as the woolly rat found
in the crater of a volcano in New Guinea or the pink iguana found on only one of the
Galapagos Islands, both of which are shown in Figure 1.1. Although it seems obvious that
the rat is a mammal and the iguana is a reptile, how would you determine exactly what
species these organisms are? What methods would you use to determine how closely
they are related to other species? What methods would you use to classify them and give
them scientific names? Throughout history, scientists have used different methods, and
examined and compared different characteristics, to define and classify a species.
A B
Figure 1.1 (A) The Bosavi woolly rat, about 1.5 kg in mass and 80 cm in length, is one of the
largest rats in the world. Despite its size, it is closely related to the rats and mice most people
are familiar with. (B) This pink iguana is found only in the crater of Wolf Volcano on Isabela
Island in the Galapagos Islands.
Apply How might scientists determine whether this pink iguana is a different species from
other iguanas living on the same island?

Identifying Species: Using Species Concepts
Despite centuries of thought and research, scientists have been unable to agree on a
morphology the
single definition of what a species is. Instead, they have proposed various definitions branch of biology that
of species, which are called species concepts. Table 1.1 describes three commonly used deals with the structure
species concepts, along with advantages and disadvantages for each. Notice that each or form of organisms
species concept focuses on a different aspect of organisms. phylogeny the
evolutionary history of
• The morphological species concept focuses on morphology—body shape, size, and a species
other structural features.
• The biological species concept defines species on the basis of whether two organisms
can produce fertile offspring.
• The phylogenetic species concept examines the phylogeny, or evolutionary history,
of organisms.
Table 1.1 Species Concepts

Species Concept Description Advantages and Disadvantages
Morphological species concept The morphological species concept Advantage: The relative simplicity of
focuses on the morphology of an this species concept makes it the most
organism. This species concept relies widely used, particularly for plants.
on comparing measurements and Disadvantage: The challenge in
descriptions of similar organisms, applying this species concept comes
taking into account that species change from having to decide how much
over time and that they have variation. difference between individuals is too
After comparisons are completed, much variation. Almost all populations
scientists decide whether similar are made up of non-identical
organisms represent different species. individuals.
Biological species concept The biological species concept focuses Advantage: This species concept is
on similar characteristics and the widely used by scientists.
ability of organisms to interbreed Disadvantages: This species concept
in nature and produce viable, fertile cannot be applied in all cases. For
offspring. This means that if two example, when two populations are
individual organisms can mate under physically separated, they never have
natural circumstances and they the opportunity to interbreed in
produce offspring that can successfully nature. This means that the viable,
live and reproduce, then those two fertile offspring requirement cannot
individuals are the same species. be tested. Also, this species concept
cannot be applied to organisms that
reproduce asexually, nor can it be
applied to fossil species, which are no
longer reproducing.
Phylogenetic species concept The phylogenetic species concept Advantages: The phylogenetic species
focuses on evolutionary relationships concept can be applied to extinct
Bacteria among organisms. A species is species. It also considers information
defined as a cluster of organisms about relationships among organisms
that is distinct from other clusters learned from DNA analysis, a method
and shows a pattern of relationship scientists are using more and more. For
among organisms. For example, when example, it was through DNA analysis
a prehistoric species branches into that scientists were able to classify the
Archaea
two species over time, it becomes pink iguana from the Galapagos Islands
two different phylogenetic species. as a new species.
This concept has become increasingly Disadvantage: Evolutionary histories
Common
Ancestor popular as biologists have obtained are not known for all species.
more evidence through DNA analysis
about how species are related.

Naming Species
Once researchers have decided which organisms qualify as a separate species, a name
must be assigned to the species. Most familiar organisms have been given several—
and sometimes many more—names that differ from continent to continent, country
to country, and often from region to region within the same country. For example,
in English-speaking North America alone, the animal in Figure 1.2 may be known to
different people as a groundhog, a woodchuck, a whistle pig, or a forest marmot. Using
so many names for the same type of organism can cause confusion. Thus, having a
standard system for naming organisms, understood by any scientist, anywhere in the
world, is essential.
Figure 1.2 This animal, made famous every February 2 in Canada and the United States, is
known in English by many names. To biologists around the world, however, it is known only by
one name: Marmota monax.
A System of Standard Names for Species: Binomial Nomenclature

taxonomy the branch
of biology that identifies, Taxonomy is the branch of biology that identifies, names, and classifies species.
names, and classifies Swedish scientist Carl von Linné, who is better known by the Latinized version of his
species based on natural name, Carolus Linnaeus, is often referred to as the Father of Taxonomy. He is credited
features
with developing the system for naming species: binomial nomenclature. Binomial
binomial refers to something with two parts, and nomenclature means a naming system. Thus,
nomenclature the
system of giving a in this system, each species has a two-part name. The two-part name is known as the
two-word Latin name species name, although it is often referred to as the scientific name as well.
to each species—the The first word in the scientific name is the genus name. The second word in the
first part is the genus scientific name identifies the particular species. The scientific name is italicized when
and the second part is
typed, with the genus name capitalized and the species in lower case. For example, the
the species
scientific name for humans is Homo sapiens. When the scientific name is written by
genus (plural genera)
taxonomic group of hand, both parts of the name are underlined.
a closely related species

Learning Check
1. Explain why it is important to everyone in society 4. Explain the advantages of using binomial
for scientists to identify, define, and name species. nomenclature rather than common names to refer
2. Explain why there are several different species to organisms.
concepts, rather than a single definition for a species. 5. Use a graphic organizer to compare and contrast the
3. State which presentation of the scientific name for types, advantages, and disadvantages of the species
the domesticated dog is correct. Then explain why it concepts described in Table 1.1.
is correct and why the other three are incorrect. 6. The offspring of a horse and a donkey is a mule.
a. Canis familiaris c. Canis familiaris Mules are unable to reproduce. Are horses and
b. Canis familiaris d. Canis Familiaris donkeys members of the same species? Why or why
not? Use the biological species concept to explain
why or why not.
Classifying Species
Species concepts allow scientists to determine what groups of organisms make up a
classification the
species. Binomial nomenclature allows scientists to apply a formal name for each of grouping of organisms
those species. But millions of species currently live on Earth, and many other extinct based on a set of
species have been identified from fossils. However, to understand, demonstrate, and criteria that helps
communicate the relationships in life’s diversity, scientists need a set of agreed-upon to organize and
indicate evolutionary
rules or criteria to help them classify species. Again, it was Linnaeus who developed relationships
the basis of the system of classification we use today.
Activity 1.1 You Decide: Snake or Lizard?
Suppose that you observe a reptile like the one shown 3. What other data could you collect or analyze to provide
in the photograph below. The reptile has no legs. However, additional evidence to help you confirm your decision?
that does not mean that it is a snake, because legless lizards Morphological Characteristics of Snakes and Lizards
also exist. How could you determine whether this reptile is
a snake or a lizard? Tail Tip
Breaks
Procedure Ear Off When
Organisms Eyelids Openings Handled Legs
1. Use the information in the table on the right to
determine whether your specimen is a snake or a lizard. Snakes Cannot No No No
move
Questions
Lizards Movable Yes Yes Yes/No
1. What type of reptile do you think the organism is?
Explain your reasoning. Your Movable Yes Yes No
specimen
2. Which species concept did you use to help classify your
specimen? Explain your reasoning.
This legless reptile is known as Ophisaurus attenuatus.

Hierarchical Classification
Imagine a world in which there are just four sports: golf, tennis, hockey, and soccer.
hierarchical
classification the Any sports competition could then be classified in one of four categories—a very
method of classifying simple, un-nested system, such as the first one in Figure 1.3. Notice, however, that
organisms in which this simple system can be modified by rearranging the sports into categories based on
species are arranged in the characteristic of team sports versus non-team sports. The resulting classification
categories from most
general to most specific scheme is known as a nested system, because there is a hierarchy of categories. That
is, the four specific sports are clustered into two more general categories. A hierarchy
is an arrangement of items in which the items are identified as being above, below,
or at the same level compared to other items. Because nested classification systems
have categories arranged in hierarchies, this method of organization is called
hierarchical classification.
Un-nested Classification
Sports
Hockey Soccer Tennis Golf
Nested Classification
Sports
Team Sports Non-team Sports
Hockey Soccer Tennis Golf
Figure 1.3 Both of the classification systems shown here recognize the four activities as sports, but
the nested classification provides more information. As more items (in this case, sports) are added,
nesting becomes increasingly important for making classification as clear and detailed as possible.
Taxonomic Categories Used To Classify Organisms

Taxonomic categories are the groupings, arranged in a hierarchy, that are used to
rank a level in a
classification scheme, classify organisms that have been named and identified. In most cases, a species is
such as phylum or order classified by assigning it membership in eight nested categories. Each of the eight
taxon (plural taxa) taxonomic categories is known as a rank. The name of each rank is called a taxon.
a named group of Table 1.2 shows how the species Canis lupus, the grey wolf, is classified using
organisms such as taxonomic categories. To start, based on the morphology and complexity of its cells,
phylum Chordata or
order Rodentia
the grey wolf is placed in the domain Eukarya. A domain is the broadest of the ranks
(categories). All large organisms have similar cells, so the grey wolf shares that domain
with millions of other species, including those that do not have obviously similar
characteristics, such as sugar maples and mushrooms.

Table 1.2 Taxonomic Classification of the Grey Wolf (Canis lupus)
Rank Number of
(Taxonomic Grey Wolf Species Examples of Species in Taxon
Category) Taxon in Taxon
Domain Eukarya 4–10 million
Kingdom Animalia 2 million
Phylum Chordata 50 000
Class Mammalia 5 000
Order Carnivora 270
Family Canidae 34
Genus Canis 7
Species Canis lupus 1
The Grey Wolf: Kingdom to Species

Within the domain Eukarya are four kingdoms, and the grey wolf is placed in the animal SuggestedInvestigation
kingdom. The kingdom has fewer species in it than a domain. However, because the
ThoughtLab Investigation
animal kingdom includes insects and all other animals, it still contains more than a 1-A, Classifying Aquatic
million species. As you can see from Table 1.2, within the animal kingdom is the chordate Species
phylum. A phylum further narrows an organism’s classification. Wolves are classified in
the chordate phylum. The chordate phylum does not include animals such as insects and
worms, but it still includes other groups, such as fish and birds.
As classification of the grey wolf continues to be narrowed down, the ranks become
more specific and the number of members in each taxon becomes fewer. A major chordate
class is the mammals—warm-blooded animals that have fur or hair and that nurse their
young. Within the mammals is the order Carnivora, a group adapted for meat-eating,
which includes weasels, cats, dogs, and seals. Within that order is the family Canidae, the
dogs, including foxes, jackals, and the domestic dog. The Canis genus includes the grey
wolf, shown in Figure 1.4, as well as the coyote and five other species. Finally, the only kind
of animal that remains at the species level is the grey wolf—Canis lupus.
Figure 1.4 Wolves are
carnivores, a characteristic
that distinguishes them
from other types of
mammals.

Section 1.1 RE V IE W
Section Summary
• Biologists use the morphological species concept, • All species are classified by being placed in eight nested
the biological species concept, and the phylogenetic ranks. The broadest category is the domain, continuing to
species concept to define species. narrow to kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus,
• Species often have common names. However, they are and finally species, which is the narrowest category.
formally known by two-part scientific names. • Each named rank is known as a taxon.
Review Questions
1. C Make a Venn diagram to compare and contrast 10. A The table below shows the classification of a
the morphological species concept and the praying mantis, an insect that preys on smaller insects.
phylogenetic species concept. a. What is the scientific name for the praying mantis?
2. A In northwestern Ontario, there are two similar- b. Which is the broadest category of classification for
looking garter snakes: the red-sided garter snake the praying mantis?
and the eastern garter snake. The two interbreed c. What is the narrowest rank and taxon that the
successfully in nature in that part of Ontario, praying mantis and the grey wolf have in common?
producing offspring that have a mix of the physical Do you think these two organisms are closely
traits of the two. The eastern garter snake also co-exists related? Why or why not?
in southern Ontario with another very similar snake, Classification of the Praying Mantis
the eastern ribbon snake. However, these two snakes
Category Praying Mantis
are not known to interbreed successfully. Infer whether
these three snakes are the same species or not. Explain Domain Eukarya
your reasoning. Kingdom Animalia
3. K/U What is binomial nomenclature? Phylum Arthropoda
4. K/U Two terms can be used to describe the Class Insecta

organization of organisms into hierarchies that help Order Mantodea
scientists understand the relationships among living Family Mantidae
things: classification and taxonomy. Explain why both Genus Stagmomantis
terms can be used correctly for this purpose. Species Stagmomantis carolina
5. A Design a different nested classification for the
four sports in Figure 1.3.
6. C A mnemonic is something to help people
remember things. Help yourself remember the eight
taxonomic ranks by making an eight-word mnemonic
sentence using the first letter of each rank as the first
letter of each word in the sentence. An example is Does
Kim Play Chess Or Fix Great Sandwiches?
7. C Distinguish between the terms rank and taxon.
Include an example in your answer.
8. K/U Two organisms belong to the same family in the A praying mantis feeds on ants, bees, and spiders.
modern classification system. List the other ranks in 11. T/I In one naming system used before Linnaeus
which these two organisms would also be placed developed his, the European honeybee had a name
within this system. with 11 descriptive words, all in Latin (Apis pubescens,
9. K/U Compare the number and variety of organisms thorace subriseo, abdomine fusco, pedibus posticis
placed in a kingdom taxon to the number and variety glabris untrinque margine ciliatis). In the system
of organisms found in a species taxon. developed by Linnaeus, this bee’s scientific name
became Apis mellifera. Evaluate the advantages of the
current naming system compared to the earlier system.

SECTION
Determining How Species Are Related
1.2
The goal of modern classification is to assign species to taxa so that the classification Key Terms
reflects both morphological similarities among organisms as well as hypotheses about
ancestor
their phylogeny (evolutionary history). To do this, biologists use the concept of shared
anatomy
evolutionary history. If two species share much of the same evolutionary history, it means
physiology
they have a fairly recent common ancestor. In other words, the more a species shares
phylogenetic tree
its evolutionary history with another, the more closely related they are thought to be.
Consider the example of the animals in the family Canidae, which includes wolves,
coyotes, jackals, foxes, and domestic dogs. Members of this family have morphological
characteristics in common, including having five toes on the front feet and four toes on
the back feet. They are not able to retract, or pull closer to the body, their claws, unlike ancestor an organism
other carnivores such as cats. They also have elongated snouts. Aside from morphology, (or organisms) from
what other types of evidence do scientists examine to determine relationships among which other groups
of organisms are
species? In terms of phylogeny, it is hypothesized that organisms in family Canidae
descended
share a common ancestor. In particular, based on DNA evidence, scientists believe that
the grey wolf is the ancestor of the domestic dog.
Evidence of Relationships Among Species

Do you think that the giant panda in Figure 1.5 is more closely related to bears or
raccoons? Giant pandas have characteristics of both groups, and scientists debated the
puzzle of how to classify them for more than 100 years. How do scientists determine
how much of the evolutionary histories of two species is shared? In modern taxonomy,
three main types of evidence that are used include anatomical, physiological, and DNA.
The information is then interpreted to make hypotheses about evolutionary history
and how closely related different species are. In the case of the giant panda, both
physiological and DNA evidence placed this species closer to bears than raccoons.
giant panda
raccoon
other bears
red panda
common ancestor
Figure 1.5 This branching tree diagram shows the relationships among giant pandas, bears, and raccoons.

Anatomical Evidence of Relationships
Recall that morphology refers to the body size, shape, and other physical features of
anatomy the branch
of biology that deals organisms. Studying morphology helps scientists learn more about how an organism
with structure and develops and functions structurally. Studying morphology also helps scientists
form, including internal determine evolutionary relationships among species. Anatomy, which is the study of
systems the structure of organisms, is a branch of morphology. Study the oviraptor and the
New Guinean cassowary shown in Figure 1.6.
At first glance, it may not seem that these two organisms—one a dinosaur, the other
a bird—are closely related. In fact, biologists used to think that modern reptiles shared a
much closer evolutionary relationship with dinosaurs than birds did. However, detailed
studies over the past several decades provide convincing evidence that dinosaurs and
birds share a surprising number of anatomical features. For example, both have bones
with large hollow spaces, whereas living reptiles have dense bones. Also, the arrangement
of dinosaur bones in the hip, leg, wrist, and shoulder structures show stronger similarities
to birds than to living reptiles. Some small dinosaur fossils, calculated to be about
150 million years old, have feathers, as you can see in Figure 1.6 (C). These are some
of the kinds of anatomical evidence that biologists have used to hypothesize a close
evolutionary relationship between modern birds and dinosaurs.
A B C
Figure 1.6 (A) This artist’s conception of Oviraptor philoceratops might not appear to be related
to the cassowary (B), a bird from New Guinea, but these animals have many similar characteristics
that indicate a shared evolutionary history. (C) This fossil shows the remains of Archaeopteryx,
an animal from about 150 million years ago that had many dinosaur features as well as feathers.
Infer Which similarities might prompt you to think that the oviraptor and the cassowary are
more closely related than was commonly thought?
Another example of using anatomical evidence to determine relationships among

organisms comes not from fossils, but from living species. Compare the bones in
Figure 1.7 from a whale flipper, a bat wing, a horse leg, and a human arm. Even though
these species look different on the outside, they have similar bone structures on the
inside. Over millions of years, the size and the proportions of the bones have been
modified for different purposes (swimming, flying, running, and grasping). However,
the overall arrangement and similarities indicate a shared evolutionary history.
Figure 1.7 The same Whale Bat Horse Human
bones are found in the
forelimbs of these four
mammals. The matching
sets of bones are colour-
coded in this illustration.

Physiological Evidence of Relationships
Physiology is the study of the functioning of organisms—how they work. Physiology
physiology the branch
includes studying the biochemistry of organisms, including the proteins they make. of biology dealing
Whether as enzymes or as parts of cells and tissues, an organism’s proteins are with the physical and
determined by the organism’s genes, since genes are coded instructions for making chemical functions of
proteins. By comparing proteins among different species, the degree of genetic organisms, including
internal processes
similarity or difference can be determined. Modern technology has provided new tools
for comparing species at this level, which has led to some organisms being reclassified.
A B
Figure 1.8 Guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus) (A) were once considered to be in the rodent order,
like mice (B). Studies of protein structure suggest that guinea pigs are sufficiently different from
other rodents that they should be placed in a separate order.
For example, do you think the guinea pig and the mouse in Figure 1.8 are closely
related? In the past, both mammals were classified in the order Rodentia, the rodents.
However, an analysis of several proteins, including insulin, caused scientists to rethink
this classification. Guinea pig insulin is so different from that of typical rodents that
guinea pigs were reclassified into a taxon of their own. What about the horseshoe crab
in Figure 1.9? Although it has the word crab in its common name, studies of blood
proteins in the horseshoe crab have shown that this animal is more closely related to Figure 1.9 Horseshoe
crabs have pincher-like
modern spiders than to crabs. appendages and lack jaws.
Learning Check
7. What is the main goal of modern classification? 11. Refer to Figure 1.5. Which pair of organisms in
8. Use a graphic organizer, such as a flowchart or a the diagram do you think is more closely related—
main idea web, to show clearly how the following Pair A: a giant panda and a red panda or Pair B: a
words are related: morphology, anatomy, red panda and a raccoon? Explain your reasoning.
and physiology. 12. Many animal species have red blood cells that
9. Scientists often reclassify organisms as new contain the oxygen-carrying protein hemoglobin.
information is discovered. Why is it important Chickens (45), dogs (15), gorillas (1), frogs (57),
for scientists to continue to classify and and humans are included in this list. The numbers
reclassify organisms? in brackets represent the number of amino acid
differences between human hemoglobin and the
10. Sharks and dolphins have similar morphological
hemoglobin of the other species. Based on this
characteristics. They both have fins and bodies
information, rank these animals from most closely
shaped for swimming. How could examining their
to least closely related to humans.
anatomy and physiology help to further classify
these two organisms?

Figure 1.10 Based on Animals Fungi Plants
analysis of DNA, scientists
hypothesize that animals
and fungi are more closely
related to each other than
plants and fungi.
Time
Common Ancestor
DNA Evidence of Relationships

Study the diagram in Figure 1.10. Are you surprised that it shows that fungi are more
closely related to animals than to plants? Genetic analysis suggests that this is the
case. Genes are sections of DNA made of long chains of molecules called nucleotides.
(You will learn more about genes, their composition, and their function in Unit 3.)
Technological advances over the past few decades have made it increasingly possible
to determine the sequence of the nucleotides of specific genes. Just as anatomical
and physiological evidence can be compared among species, so too can these DNA
sequences. This research has been a great benefit to our understanding of evolutionary
history and its application to classification.
In some cases, new DNA evidence has meant that prior classifications based on
morphological, physiological, or other evidence have to be dramatically restructured.
Sometimes DNA evidence indicates unexpected relationships. For example, fungi
and plants are superficially similar in that they do not move and they grow out of the
ground. However, DNA evidence suggests that fungi are more closely related to animals
than to plants. The diagram in Figure 1.10 reflects this evidence. Similarly, Canada’s
only vulture, the turkey vulture shown in Figure 1.11, appears similar to vultures from
Asia and Africa. However, DNA indicates the turkey vultures may be more closely
related to the storks, which are large wading birds.
Figure 1.11 DNA evidence
suggests that the turkey A B
vulture (A) is really more
closely related to the
wading stork (B) than it is
to the vultures of Asia and
Africa. Both turkey vultures
and storks are the only
birds known to urinate on
their legs, which they do to
help keep their bodies cool
during hot weather as well
as to kill bacteria and other
pathogens that cling to
their legs.
Phylogenetic Trees
phylogenetic tree Once scientists have studied the features of organisms and learned more about their
a branching diagram evolutionary histories, they often use a tool called a phylogenetic tree to represent a
used to show the hypothesis about the evolutionary relationships among groups of organisms. You saw
evolutionary relationships an example of a phylogenetic tree in Figure 1.5, when you considered the relationships
among species
among giant pandas, bears, and raccoons.

Order Artiodactyla
Figure 1.12 shows another example of a phylogenetic tree—this time, one that
illustrates the phylogeny of hooved mammals. Like a family tree, the roots or the base
of the phylogenetic tree represents the oldest ancestral species. The upper ends of the
branches represent present-day species that are related to the ancestral species. Forks
in each branch represent the points in the past at which an ancestral species split—
evolved, or changed over time—to become two new species.
In Figure 1.12, these four species have a common ancestor, and this common
ancestor has general characteristics that it shares with all the species that evolved from
it. Members of the order Artiodactyla typically have an even number of hooved toes on
each foot and have specialized teeth and digestive systems adapted to eat plants. There
are about 150 members of this order worldwide, including goats, deer, cattle, antelopes,
and pigs.
Family Bovidae
New species that evolve from a common ancestor have some characteristics in common
with the common ancestor, as well as new features. Biologists use these new features to
define each family level of classification on this tree. For example, members of the family
Bovidae (cows and antelopes) are artiodactyls that have the anatomical feature of horns.
Members of the family Cervidae (deer) are artiodactyls that have the anatomical features
of antlers. There are about 110 species of Bovidae and 40 species of Cervidae.
With continuing evolution, further new characteristics develop. On the time
scale of the tree, members of different genera have split apart from one another more
recently than members of different families. Smaller differences help distinguish one
genus from another. For example, the family Cervidae includes 16 genera. The genus
Cervus includes deer with highly branched antlers, while animals in the genus Rangifer
are deer with broad, palmate antlers (having the shape of a hand).
Aepyceros melampus Oryx gazella Cervus elaphus Rangifer tarandus

(impala) (oryx) (red deer) (reindeer)
Species
Genus Aepyceros Oryx Cervus Rangifer
Family Bovidae Cervidae
Order Artiodactyla
Figure 1.12 This phylogenetic tree shows the evolutionary relationships among various species
of plant-eating hooved mammals.
Interpret To which other organism shown in the phylogenetic tree is Cervus elaphus most
closely related?

The Importance of Classification to Technology,
Society, and the Environment
Understanding the evolutionary relationships among species and groups of organisms
can have important consequences in the medical field, as well as in agriculture and in
the conservation of biodiversity. Consider the following examples:
• When scientists are looking for sources of pharmaceutical drugs, hormones, and
other important medical products, they can narrow their search to species closely
related to organisms already known to produce valuable proteins or chemicals.
• Understanding phylogeny can help scientists trace the transmission of disease and
develop and test possible treatments. Diseases can spread more rapidly between
species that share certain genetic characteristics. For example, Creutzfeldt-Jakob
disease, a disease that affects the nervous system, may be transmitted from cows
to people.
• In agriculture, ways to increase crop yields and disease resistance have already been
developed by cross-breeding closely related species. Biological control through the
use of natural predators, parasites, and diseases also depends on a knowledge of
different taxa and their particular characteristics.
• Sometimes, finding a new species or reclassifying an organism as a separate species
has implications for environmental conservation. For example, in 2001, based
on morphological and DNA analysis, scientists reclassified the forest-dwelling
elephants in Africa as a new species, Loxodonta cyclotis. These elephants, shown in
Figure 1.13, had previously been considered the same species as the African bush
elephant, Loxodonta africana. Conservationists worried about the status of the new
species. Loxodonta africana is classified as threatened and protected by anti-poaching
and anti-trading laws. Now that Loxodonta cyclotis was a separate species, it was
potentially no longer protected. However, an international agreement that helps
protect species from illegal trading gives Loxodonta cyclotis the highest category
of protection.
A B
Figure 1.13 The forest-dwelling elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis) (A) have smaller bodies, smaller ears,
and longer tusks than the African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana) (B).

Section Summary
• Modern classification organizes diversity according to • Physiological evidence includes comparing the
evolutionary relationships. biochemistry of organisms, including proteins. DNA
• Taxonomists rely on morphological, physiological, and evidence includes comparing organisms’ DNA sequences.
DNA evidence to identify and classify species. • Understanding phylogeny can help scientists trace the
• Anatomical evidence includes comparing the structure transmission of disease and develop and test possible
and form of organisms, including bones. treatments.
Review Questions
1. C Construct a chart that differentiates the three 7. A Refer to Figure 1.12. Explain why a reindeer
main types of evidence scientists use to determine (Rangifer tarandus) is more closely related to a red deer
relationships among species. Include an example of (Cervus elaphus) than it is to an oryx (Oryx gazella).
each type of evidence. 8. A Invasive species can out-compete native
2. K/U Explain why knowing the shared evolutionary species when they are introduced outside of their
history of organisms is useful to each of the following: natural environment. This can threaten a region’s
a. a biologist ecosystems, economy, and society. Recently, Canadian
b. a biology student researchers helped identify 15 new bird species
c. a pharmaceutical laboratory assistant through genetic analysis. Scientists were able to
d. a conservation ecologist identify so many new species by analyzing and
comparing the DNA of over 600 North American bird
3. K/U List three anatomical features scientists have
species. Explain how you think the use of genetic
used to hypothesize the relationship between modern
analysis could help prevent the introduction of new
birds and dinosaurs.
invasive species into Canada.
4. K/U What do the nucleotide sequences in the genes
9. C There is growing concern worldwide about the
of turkey vultures suggest about their relatedness to
number of species that are going extinct. Conservation
vultures of Asia and Africa?
organizations work to protect endangered species, but
5. A You are comparing three species (A, B, and C) there may be a disagreement about exactly what a
and you face a dilemma. Morphologically, species A species is.
and B are very similar, but they are both different from a. How can classifying an organism influence our
species C. However, you have sequenced some genes in attitudes about that organism? For example, is a fish
all three and the gene sequences indicate a high degree more likely to be protected if it is known to be an
of similarity between species B and C. How would you endangered species, or if it is newly discovered and
resolve this situation? different from all known species of fish?
6. T/I Use the phylogenetic tree below to justify the b. Suppose you had been working for a conservation
conclusion that the leopard is more closely related to group when the forest-dwelling elephants
the domestic cat than it is to the wolf. (Loxodonta cyclotis) were reclassified as a separate
species. Write a letter urging the Convention on
Wolf Leopard Domestic Cat
International Trade of Endangered Species to
consider the new species as endangered.
10. C Construct a graphic organizer of your choice to
show the importance of classification to technology,
society, and the environment.
Common Ancestor

SECTION
Kingdoms and Domains
1.3
Key Terms All of the millions of species on Earth share certain fundamental similarities, such
as being made of cells and having DNA. Despite these similarities, however, the
structural diversity
structural diversity of Earth’s species—diversity that is based on variety of both
prokaryotic
external and internal structural forms in living things—is so great that it is almost
eukaryotic impossible to imagine. Examining all of life’s structural diversity at the species level
dichotomous key would be impractical, so biologists look for similarities and differences at a much
autotroph higher taxonomic rank, such as kingdoms and even domains.
heterotroph
The Six Kingdoms
Until the 1800s, the highest category for classifying organisms was the kingdom and
structural diversity
a type of biological there were only two: Plants and Animals. Table 1.3 summarizes how the number of
diversity that is kingdoms has changed since that time. In the 1800s, single-celled organisms were
exhibited in the variety added to the classification system through the creation of the kingdom Protista,
of structural forms bringing the total to three. In the first half of the 1900s, some single-celled organisms
in living things, from
internal cell structure to were found to be extremely small and without a cell nucleus, so a new kingdom,
body morphology Bacteria, was created for them, bringing the total to four. By the 1960s, it was known
that fungi were so different that they also needed their own kingdom, bringing the total
to five. During the 1990s, with new genetic information, the bacterial kingdom was
divided in two, giving the current six-kingdom system.
In Chapters 2 and 3, you will examine each of the six kingdoms in more detail.
As you study the remainder of this chapter, keep the following three important ideas
in mind:
• There are two main cell types that are significant for classification at the upper
ranks, such as kingdom.
• The study of cell types and genes has led scientists to add a rank higher than
kingdom—the domain.
• It is important to understand how biologists think the domains and kingdoms
are connected in their evolutionary history.
Table 1.3 Changes in Classification Systems for Life’s Kingdoms

Original 1860s 1930s 1960s 1990s
Animals Animals Animals Animals Animals
Plants
Plants Plants Plants Fungi
Plants Fungi Protists
Protists Protists Protists Bacteria
Bacteria Bacteria Archaea

Two Major Cell Types
If an organism is made up of one cell only, it is described as being single-celled or
unicellular. If an organism is made up of more than one cell, it is multicellular. There
is substantial variation among the cells of unicellular and multicelluar organisms.
However, after centuries of study, biologists agree that there are two major types of
cells: prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic cells, such as the bacterial cell shown in Figure 1.14, are the most
prokaryotic a smaller,
ancient cell type, though they remain abundant today. They do not have a membrane- simple type of cell
bound nucleus. The name prokaryotic reflects this important distinction in the two that does not have
cell types, because it means “before the nucleus.” Eukaryotic, on the other hand, a membrane-bound
means “true nucleus.” Eukaryotic cells do have a membrane-bound nucleus. There nucleus
are other differences as well. Eukaryotic cells, also shown in Figure 1.14, have a much eukaryotic a larger,
complex type of cell that
more complex internal structure, and on average they are about 1000 times larger than does have a membrane-
prokaryotic cells. Thus, the two cell types represent a major division in the structural bound nucleus
diversity of life. You will read more about differences between prokaryotes and
eukaryotes in Chapter 2.
Prokaryotic cell
A
DNA cell membrane cell wall
flagellum
capsule
Eukaryotic cell
B
cell membrane
chromosomes
nucleus
ribosomes
Figure 1.14 Species are made of one of two kinds of cells. Compared to eukaryotic cells,
prokaryotic cells are small, less complicated, and without a membrane-bound nucleus.
Describe one other difference between the prokaryotic cell and eukaryotic cell shown above.

The Three Domains
As scientists continued to analyze organisms in the kingdoms Bacteria and Archaea,
the category of domain was added to the classification system. Scientists found that the
differences between these two groups at the genetic and cellular levels were so great
that each group was elevated to a rank higher than kingdom—domain. So Bacteria and
Archaea are two of the three domains.
As a result of reclassifying these kingdoms as domains, biologists reclassified the
remaining kingdoms in a domain of their own, Eukarya. This makes sense, since the
other four kingdoms represent all the organisms with eukaryotic cells. Organisms in
the two prokaryotic domains are unicellular, whereas both unicellular and multicellular
organisms occur in the Eukarya. Figure 1.15 shows the current classification at the level
of domain and kingdom.
Domains
Figure 1.15 There are
six major categories in Bacteria Archaea Eukarya
the classification system Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
for living and extinct
organisms.
Traditional eukaryotic kingdoms
Dichotomous Keys
Even when taxonomists have put together logical classifications, biologists still face a
practical challenge. Imagine having a specimen whose identity is completely unknown.
How could sorting through all the names and ranks in various classifications assist
in determining what it is? The short answer is: it cannot. As a result, taxonomists use
dichotomous key an
another tool to identify individuals or species: the dichotomous key.
identification tool A dichotomous key [dih-KAW-ta-mus kee] is a system for narrowing down the
consisting of a series of identification of a specimen, one step at a time. The word key is used as a solution, and
two-part choices that a dichotomy is a two-pronged fork, where there are two choices. So, a dichotomous
lead the user to a correct
key is an identification solution that uses many two-part choices to narrow down the
identification
solution. An example of a two-part choice could be something as simple as red and
not red.
Learning Check
13. Explain how scientists overcome the impractical 16. Draw a flowchart or other graphic organizer
task of studying the structural diversity of life at the illustrating the relationship between the domains
species level. and the kingdoms found in each domain.
14. What led scientists to add the category called 17. The following is the first step in a tool used by
domain to modern classification systems? taxonomists to classify vertebrate animals. Identify
15. Make a table to compare and contrast prokaryotic this tool and describe how it works.
cells and eukaryotic cells. Include the following 1a. Hair present ......................... Class Mammalia
categories in your table: Meaning of Name, Presence 1b. Hair absent .......................... go to Step 2
of Nucleus, Size, and Internal Structure.

Using a Dichotomous Key
The ultimate goal of many taxonomists is to make an identification at the species level.
Table 1.4 shows a small key that could be used to distinguish among just eight species:
the frogs and toads in central Ontario.
Table 1.4 Dichotomous Key—Frogs and Toads of Algonquin Park
1a. Skin dry and warty ............ American toad 1b. Skin not dry and warty ................. go to 2
2a. Toes with “sticky pads” ................. go to 3 2b. Toes without sticky pads ............... go to 4
3a. Brown, < 2 cm, a darker X-shaped mark on 3b. Grey or green, yellow under the legs ..........
the back ..................... spring peeper eastern grey treefrog
4a. Back without a pair of ridges .......... go to 5 4b. Back with a pair of ridges .............. go to 6
5a. Mottled pattern, with a mammal-like odour 5b. Unmottled green pattern; to 15 cm ............
................................. mink frog bullfrog
6a. Back with large round or squarish spots 6b. Back unspotted (or with a few small spots)
................................. go to 7 ....................................... go to 8
7a. Spots round ......................... leopard frog 7b. Spots squarish ................... pickerel frog
8a. Predominantly green colour ..................... 8b. Brown, with a dark mask through the eye
green frog ....................................... wood frog
Assume you are trying to identify the species in Figure 1.16. Before you begin, since
you do not actually have the specimen in your hand, be aware that it has smooth, moist
skin and it does not have “sticky pads” on its toes. To use a dichotomous key, always
begin by choosing from the first pair of descriptions (1a and 1b). In this case, because
the skin is not dry and warty, you proceed to the next description within the first
pair of choices, 1b. If the skin had been dry and warty, you would have concluded the
animal is an American toad, and your use of the key would be complete.
At the second set of choices (2a and 2b), since the toes are not sticky, you are
directed to the fourth pair of choices (4a and 4b). Here, because you can see from
Figure1.16 that the back has a pair of ridges, you move on to the sixth pair of choices
(6a and 6b). Check Figure1.16 again to see if the back is spotted or unspotted. Because
it is unspotted, you then move to the eighth pair of choices (8a and 8b). Finally, here
you decide, based on its brown back and dark mask, that it is a wood frog (8b).
Figure 1.16 Use the dichotomous key in Table 1.4 to identify this species.

A Dichotomous Key for Kingdoms
SuggestedInvestigation To design a key to make identifications at the species level, appropriate choices of
characteristics must be made. For instance, to identify the species of wildflowers
Inquiry Investigation 1-C,
growing on a lawn, it would be logical to focus on things like the number and
Creating a Dichotomous
Key to Identify Species arrangement of leaves, flower colour, plant size, and branching pattern.
of Beetles But keys are not always designed to identify species. If you are instead designing
a key to determine what kingdom an organism is in, the focus has to be different. Here,
it is more useful to consider fundamental differences, such as the following: cell type
and cell structure; whether the organism is multicellular; and methods of reproduction
and obtaining nutrition.
Activity 1.2 Create a Dichotomous Key
Dichotomous keys are very helpful to identify and classify 4. Examine the characteristics of the objects in each
organisms. In this activity, you will develop a dichotomous subgroup. Write a second question that focuses on a
key as you group familiar objects based on their characteristic that distinguishes the objects in one of the
characteristics. groups. Divide that group into two smaller groups based
on this distinguishing characteristic.
Possible Materials
5. Continue adding questions to your key and dividing
• several different types of an object or material, such as
the objects until there is only one object in each group.
backpacks, shoes, pens, or notebooks
Make a branching diagram to identify each object with a
distinct name.
Procedure
1. Choose an object for which you will create a 6. Use your diagram to classify the same type of object
dichotomous key. from a different source.
2. Place a collection of the object in a pile. For example, you Questions

may have your group members all place their backpacks
1. Relate the groups you used to classify your object to taxa.
or their notebooks in a pile.
How do your groups relate to the groups of kingdom,
3. Examine the objects and write the first question for phyla, and the remaining six taxa in the modern
your dichotomous key. The question should focus on a classification system?
distinguishing characteristic among the objects. Divide
2. How did you use your dichotomous key to classify the
the objects into two groups based on that distinguishing
object from a different source in step 6? For example, did
characteristic.
you have to revise your key? Explain.
3. How could you modify your dichotomous key so that the
user could more effectively identify an object of this type?

Main Characteristics of Kingdoms
Table 1.5 summarizes some of the main characteristics of kingdoms and, below
autotroph an organism
it, Figure 1.17 shows some examples of organisms in each kingdom. A distinction that captures energy
has already been made between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells based on size, from sunlight (or
the presence of a nucleus, and internal complexity. Another cell-level distinction sometimes non-living
is the cell wall, a tough structure that surrounds most cells. Cell walls are absent substances) to produce
its own energy-yielding
in animals, but in other organisms the composition of the cell wall varies. With food
respect to nutrition, an autotroph is an organism that obtains energy by making heterotroph an
its own food, usually using sunlight. A heterotroph must consume other organisms organism that cannot
to obtain energy-yielding food. Finally, asexual reproduction can be found in all make its own food and
kingdoms. However, sexual reproduction, in which genetic material from two gets its nutrients and
energy from consuming
parents combines to form offspring with a unique combination of genes, is a trait
other organisms
that only occurs in the Eukarya. The data in Table 1.5 are all that is needed to make
a dichotomous key that can assign any species to its kingdom.
Table 1.5 Characteristics That Differentiate the Six Kingdoms
Domain Bacteria Archaea Eukarya
Kingdom Bacteria Archaea Protista Plantae Fungi Animalia
Example Staphylococcus Sulfolobus archaea Amoeba Maple tree Mushroom Rabbit
Cell type Prokaryote Prokaryote Eukaryote Eukaryote Eukaryote Eukaryote
Number of cells Unicellular Unicellular Unicellular and Multicellular Mostly Multicellular
multicellular multicellular
Cell wall material Peptidoglycan Not peptidoglycan; Cellulose in some; Cellulose Chitin No cell wall
occasionally no occasionally no
cell wall cell wall
Nutrition Autotrophs and Autotrophs and Autotrophs and Autotrophs Heterotrophs Heterotrophs
heterotrophs heterotrophs heterotrophs
Primary means Asexual Asexual Asexual and Sexual Sexual Sexual
of reproduction sexual
Staphylococcus 4800× Sulfolobus archaea 5000× Amoeba 160×
Maple tree Mushroom Rabbit
Figure 1.17 Organisms from each of the six kingdoms represent Earth’s biodiversity.

Section Summary
• The variety of internal and external forms exhibited • Organisms in the domain Eukarya have eukaryotic
by species represents structural diversity. cells and are unicellular or multicellular. There are four
• There are two cell types: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. kingdoms in the domain Eukarya: Protista, Plantae,
Prokaryotic cells do not have a membrane-bound Fungi, and Animalia.
nucleus. Eukaryotic cells are more complex and do • Taxonomists use dichotomous keys to make choices
have a membrane-bound nucleus. between pairs of options to narrow down identifications.
• Organisms in the domains Bacteria and Archaea
are unicellular and prokaryotic.
Review Questions
1. C Make a Venn diagram to compare and contrast 9. A Use the dichotomous key in the table below to
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. identify the organism in the image.
2. K/U Identify the three domains and the kingdoms
within each domain.
3. K/U Refer to Figure 1.15. Explain, in your own words,
how scientists arrived at the three-domain system.
4. C Explain how a dichotomous key works.
5. K/U Distinguish between autotrophs and
heterotrophs.
6. A Refer to Table 1.5 to answer the following
questions.
a. What form or forms of nutrition do eukaryotes use?
b. What type of reproduction is used primarily by
prokaryotes? Dichotomous Key—Salamanders of Algonquin Park
c. Describe the cells of organisms in domain Archaea. 1a. Skin without spots 1b. Skin with spots
d. What is one characteristic that is unique to all ..................... go to 2 ..................... go to 4
animals? 2a. Found under cover in or 2b. Found in forests
7. A Cyanobacteria, commonly called blue-green beside streams ............ ...............................
algae, are classified in the kingdom Bacteria. two-lined salamander go to 3
Cyanobacteria make their own food using carbon 3a. Red stripe down back 3b. Grey-black overall .......
dioxide, water, and energy from sunlight. They contain ................................ red-backed salamander
red-backed salamander (black variant)
the pigment chlorophyll and another pigment that is
blue. Explain why scientists in the early days of 4a. Bright red small spots 4b. Blue or yellow spots
..................... go to 5 ..................... go to 6
taxonomy would likely have classified cyanobacteria in
the kingdom Plantae. 5a. Green overall, found 5b. Reddish overall, found
in aquatic ecosystems in terrestrial ecosystems
8. T/I Refer to Table 1.5. A student was looking at
................................ ........ red-spotted newt
some pond water under a microscope and noticed a red-spotted newt juvenile (“red eft”)
single-celled organism in the field of view. This 6a. Many irregular blue 6b. Large yellow spots .......
organism had a nucleus as well as chloroplasts in its spots ........................ yellow-spotted
cytoplasm. The organism was enclosed by a cell wall. blue-spotted salamander salamander
After looking through a dichotomous key, the student
determined this organism was a green alga. Predict the 10. C Use a graphic organizer to compare the
domain and kingdom of this organism. Explain the characteristics of the kingdom Plantae to those of the
basis for your prediction. kingdom Animalia.

SECTION
Classifying Types of Biodiversity
1.4
When you hear or read the word biodiversity, you probably think first about species Key Terms
diversity. Species diversity is the variety and abundance of species in a given area.
species diversity
However, there are other ways of thinking about diversity other than species diversity,
genetic diversity
and they are just as important. Genetic diversity is evident in the variety of inherited
ecosystem diversity
traits within a species. The patterns on the tails of humpback whales, such as the one
gene pool
shown in Figure 1.18, are evidence of genetic diversity within this species. Ecosystem
population
diversity is the rich diversity of ecosystems found on Earth, each of which contains
many species. In this section, you will learn about the importance of all three of these resilience
types of diversity.
species diversity the
A B variety and abundance
of species in a given area
genetic diversity the
variety of heritable
characteristics (genes)
in a population
of interbreeding
individuals
ecosystem diversity
the variety of
ecosystems in the
biosphere
Figure 1.18 Biological diversity exists at different levels. (A) Within species there is genetic
diversity, as evident in the different tail patterns of humpback whales. (B) Within ecosystems,
like this alpine meadow, is species diversity. (C) Finally, a variety of ecosystems, such as this one
in Algonquin Park, make up ecosystem diversity.
Describe one example of genetic diversity and one example of ecosystem diversity.

Genetic Diversity
Since 1996, Tasmanian devils (Sarcophilis harrisii), shown in Figure 1.19, have been
suffering from a contagious cancer that causes tumours on the face and mouth of
the animals. The disease, spread from one individual to another by biting, eventually
results in death. The population of Tasmanian devils has been reduced so extensively,
from about 150 000 in 1996 to between 20 000 and 50 000 by 2006, that the species
was classified as endangered. Research has shown that a lack of genetic diversity in the
Tasmanian devil population is a key factor in the impact of the disease.
Genes are the genetic material that controls the expression and inheritance of traits,
Figure 1.19 The Tasmanian such as sugar content in blueberries, pattern arrangement in ladybeetles, and human
devil is native to Tasmania, height. The variation among individuals in a population is largely a result of the differences
the island that is the in their genes. Genetic diversity within a population is known as the gene pool. In other
southernmost state of
words, the gene pool is the sum of all the versions of all the genes in a population. The
Australia.
genetic diversity within a species is typically greater than that within a population, because
the gene pools of separate populations exposed to different environmental conditions
gene pool all the genes
usually contain different types or combinations of the different versions of genes.
of all the individuals in a
population
population a group of
Genetic Diversity Provides Resistance to Disease
individuals of the same Genetic diversity is especially important in disease resistance. As illustrated by the
species in a specific area Tasmanian devil example, populations that lack genetic diversity are more susceptible to
at a specific time disease than those that have high diversity. If none of the individuals in a population have
the ability to survive the disease, the entire population could be eliminated. If populations
of the same species continue to be eliminated, it can lead to the extinction of the species.
Resistance to disease is just one example of why genetic diversity is important.
Genetic diversity also allows populations and species to survive changing
environmental conditions, such as a change in resource availability, climate change, a
change in a predator population, or the introduction of a non-native species.
Genetic Diversity Supports Conservation Biology

As scientists have learned more about the importance of genetic diversity and its
relationship to species survival, they have begun to use their knowledge to help struggling
populations. For example, in 1995 the population of Florida panthers, shown in
Figure 1.20, had been reduced to between 30 and 50 individuals, partially due to a lack
of genetic diversity. As part of the recovery plan for this endangered species, scientists
introduced eight female panthers taken from a population of panthers in Texas. The effort
was considered a success, and in 2009 the population had risen to about 100 individuals.
Figure 1.20 The Florida
panther (Felis concolor coryi)
population continues to be
threatened by habitat loss
and collisions with vehicles.

Learning Check
18. Describe the difference among the three types of 22. Explain why genetic diversity is important to the
biodiversity. survival of a species.
19. Refer to Figure 1.18 (C). Identify three ecosystems 23. In the case of the Florida panther, humans
you might find in Algonquin Park. intervened to save the species. Do you agree or
20. What is a gene pool? disagree that humans should intervene to save
endangered species? Explain your answer.
21. Explain why genetic diversity within a species is
always greater than the genetic diversity within
an individual population.
Ecosystem Diversity
If the smallest scale at which scientists consider biodiversity is genetic diversity, then the
largest scale is ecosystem diversity. Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of ecosystems
in the biosphere. Recall that ecosystems are made up of two components—biotic factors
and abiotic factors. Biotic factors include interacting populations of species. Examples of
abiotic factors include altitude, latitude, geology, soil nutrients, climate, and light levels.
Because of the diversity of relationships among organisms and the variety of abiotic
factors, Earth’s surface is highly varied physically and chemically, making ecosystem
diversity very rich. Ecosystems can range in size from a small plant that grows on another
plant to an entire biome, such as a tropical rainforest or Canada’s vast boreal forest.
Activity 1.3 Sustainability and Diversity—Find a Balance?
Sustainable agriculture must balance the risks of technology Questions

with the benefits. For example, atrazine is a herbicide used 1. Why is the timing of atrazine application such an
in agriculture to prevent the growth of weeds. Crops that important factor?
have atrazine applied early in the growing season show a
25 percent increase in weed control, an 8 percent increase in 2. Draw an illustration that shows the steps involved in how
corn yield, and an increase in profit of $20 per hectare. atrazine reaches aquatic ecosystems.
On the other hand, the herbicide is applied to crops early 3. What is the direct impact of atrazine use on the leopard
in the spring and can run off into nearby lakes and rivers. frog? Why is this something to be concerned about?
Studies have shown that atrazine and other chemicals can
reduce reproductive success in many freshwater organisms. 4. Name five other species that would be affected by
The timing of atrazine contamination of water sources reduced frog reproduction. Sketch a food web to show the
directly coincides with amphibian breeding activities, since effects of atrazine on the biodiversity in ponds.
many amphibians reproduce during early spring rains.
5. Analyze your T-chart. Do the benefits of using atrazine
In several European nations, atrazine has been banned
outweigh the risks? Explain your reasoning.
because of environmental concerns. However, atrazine
is approved for use in Canada. Alternative forms of weed Testosterone Levels in The graph shows the
control in corn crops are being investigated and include Northern Leopard Frogs results of an experiment
the use of bacteria and low-growing plants that block (Rana pipiens) in which male northern
weeds from growing. Should the use of atrazine be banned leopard frogs were
Testosterone (Ng/mL)
5
completely worldwide? exposed to atrazine
4
during development.
3 The levels of
Procedure
1. Read the introductory text and make a T-chart to list the 2 testosterone in the
benefits and risks of using atrazine on corn crops. 1 atrazine-treated frogs
0
were then compared to
2. Examine the graph on the right and add information to testosterone levels in
ra Ma ted
a d
al d
M ate
m te
e- s
No les
es
a
Fe rea
your chart.
zin le
non-treated male and

tre
tre
t
n-
n-
female frogs.
No
3. Discuss the benefits and risks of using atrazine on corn

At
crops with classmates.

Treatment Group

Ecosystem Services
Ecosystem services are the benefits experienced by organisms, including humans,
which are provided by sustainable ecosystems. Without ecosystem diversity, Earth
would lose most of the services that ecosystems provide, which are shown in
Table 1.6. Forests, for instance, take up carbon dioxide and maintain soil fertility.
Ecosystems also maintain populations of organisms that are necessary for pest control,
pollination, waste management, and other processes beneficial to people.
In particular, wetlands provide several important ecosystem services, including
storing water, which reduces the risk of floods; filtering water, which removes pollutants;
and providing habitat for commercially important species of fish and shellfish. Because
wetlands are so valuable, government agencies and non-governmental organizations
often work together to preserve and protect them. For example, between 2000 and
2005, acting under the Great Lakes Wetlands Conservation Action Plan, more than
SuggestedInvestigation 12 000 hectares of wetlands around the Great Lakes region were preserved. During that
ThoughtLab Investigation same time period government agencies worked with private organizations to restore
1-B, Resilience of a another 4400 hectares of wetlands that had been disrupted by human activities such as
Grassland Ecosystem agriculture and development.
Table 1.6 Examples of the World’s Ecosystem Services
Ecosystem Service Example
Atmospheric gas supply Regulation of carbon dioxide, ozone, and oxygen levels
Climate regulation Regulation of carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and methane levels
Water supply Irrigation, water for industry
Pollination Pollination of crops such as apples, blueberries, and clover
Ecological control Pest population regulation
Wilderness Habitat for wildlife
Food production Crops, livestock
Raw materials Fossil fuels, timber
Genetic resources Medicines, genes for disease resistance in plants
Recreation Ecotourism
Cultural benefits Aesthetic and educational value
Waste treatment Sewage purification
Soil erosion control Retention of topsoil
Nutrient recycling Nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon, and sulfur cycles
Ecosystem Function and Species Diversity

Ecologists have long had the sense that ecosystems with greater species diversity
resilience the ability
of an ecosystem to were more likely to provide important services reliably. As well, there has also been a
remain functional and belief that such ecosystems exhibit resilience, the ability of an ecosystem to maintain
stable in the presence of an equilibrium, or balance, even in the face of significant outside disturbances. Field
disturbances to its parts research conducted by scientists from the University of Minnesota in the 1980s and
1990s has provided convincing evidence that this is the case.
Experiments came from a long-term project using many growing plots, each with
a specific number of native plant species, ranging from 1 to 24. In all cases, the more
species present in the plot, the more efficient the ecosystem. The plots with more native
species produced more biomass, which means they trapped more carbon dioxide. They
also consumed more nitrate, which can be toxic in high quantities. The more diverse
plots were better able to resist the invasion of non-native species and exhibited reduced
disease. The results of these experiments are shown in the graphs in Figure 1.21.

Plant Species Diversity and Plant Species Diversity and Plant Species Diversity and
Percentage of Plant Coverage Number of Invasive Species Disease Severity
65 4
60 8
55
Number of Invasive Species (%)

3
Disease Severity Index

Total Plant Cover (%)
50 6
45
2
40 4
35
1
30 2
25
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 4 8 12 16 20
Plant Species Diversity Plant Species Diversity Plant Species Diversity
Figure 1.21 In experiments conducted at the University of Minnesota from 1982 to 1993,
researchers concluded that greater biodiversity in an ecosystem results in at least three beneficial
patterns: increased plant cover, more resistance to invasive species, and more disease resistance.
Ecosystem Services and Human Actions

Sometimes humans make changes to an ecosystem to enhance the services of the
ecosystem. For example, wildlife officials may stock a lake with fish to provide
recreation for fishing enthusiasts. But what effects could this action have on the natural
ecosystem of the lake? The results of a four-year study conducted by wildlife biologists
in California showed that the introduction of non-native trout to mountain lakes in the
western United States led to reduced population numbers of several amphibian species
and changes in the number and variety of aquatic insect species. In particular, trout
consume aquatic insects in the larval stage. Other organisms, including amphibians
Figure 1.22 Widespread
and other fish, also rely on insect larvae as a food source. As well, birds and bats that introductions of the
live near the lakes eat adult insects. All of these species must now compete with the smallmouth bass in
non-native trout for food. The presence of trout has been linked with a decrease in the thousands of Ontario lakes
number of birds and in the activity of some types of bats. have increased recreational
fishing opportunities, but
In Ontario, the most successfully stocked fish is the smallmouth bass, shown there have been negative
in Figure 1.22. Introductions to previously bass-free lakes have greatly increased its consequences for species
Ontario range northward. This has enhanced recreational fishing, but ecologists have and ecosystem diversity.
documented resulting changes to lake ecology. One consequence is the loss of some
native fish species such as stickleback and dace. This leads to a decline in species
diversity and affects ecosystem diversity because the system loses complexity.
Where the bass are introduced into lakes with lake trout, the situation is worse.
Trout are commonly top predators, but the reduced numbers of small fish caused by the
introduced bass affect trout populations. With fewer small fish, trout must then consume
less nourishing food, resulting in slower growth, smaller ultimate size, and decreased
population numbers. This is a further impact on ecosystem diversity because of the food
web alteration. Research documenting the negative effects of bass introductions has
greatly reduced the practice. In Chapter 3, you will read more about how human actions
affect biodiversity, particularly species diversity and ecosystem diversity.

STSE
BIOLOGY Connections
DNA Bar Codes
Most people would find it odd if their friend collected vials POTENTIAL BENEFITS This technology has several potential
containing muscles from 940 different species of fish—but benefits. A doctor might use it to pinpoint disease-causing
then again most people haven’t undertaken a project as organisms quickly to prevent epidemics or to determine what
ambitious as this one. antidote to give a victim of a snake bite. Health inspectors
could scan foods for plant and animal contaminants. People
DNA UPC Paul Hebert, a geneticist at the University of
who are curious about their surroundings could learn what
Guelph, in Ontario, is trying to gather cell samples from all
lives around them. Farmers would be able to identify pests
of the world’s organisms. With small pieces of tissue no larger
and use species-specific methods for their removal.
than the head of a pin, Hebert and his colleagues are working
to assign DNA bar codes to every living species. A NEW WAY TO CLASSIFY Using bioinformatics—a field of
Hebert has shown that the segment of mitochondrial science in which biology, computer science, and information
DNA, called cytochrome c oxidase I, or COI, can be used as technology merge—to create a database of DNA bar codes
a diagnostic tool to tell animal species apart. The COI gene allows taxonomists to classify more organisms quickly.
is easy to isolate and allows for identification of an animal. Currently, taxonomists have identified approximately two
A different gene would need to be used for plants. Just like million species. Scientists estimate that anywhere between
the Universal Product Codes (UPC) that appear on product 5 and 20 million species exist. Historically, species have been
packaging, the DNA segment sequence could be stored in classified using morphology, genetics, phylogeny, habitat,
a master database that would allow for easy access to the and behaviour. While the bar codes would not replace classic
material. A hand scanner, when supplied with a small piece taxonomic methods, they could supplement them by giving
of tissue, such as a scale, a hair, or a feather, could identify scientists another tool to use.
the species almost instantly.
Honeybee American robin
Bumble bee Hermit thrush
This representation of DNA bar codes shows that the more closely
related two species are, the more similar their bar codes are. Connect to the Environment
One benefit of DNA bar code technology might be that

farmers could identify pests and use species-specific methods
for their removal. Do some research to find out what is
meant by “species-specific methods” and assess whether
they are less harmful to the environment than other methods
of pest removal.

Section Summary
• Too little genetic diversity reduces a population’s ability • Ecosystems provide services, such as recycling nutrients
to resist disease or other changing environmental and regulating gases in the atmosphere.
conditions. • Ecosystems with greater species diversity have higher
• Ecosystems are diverse due to variations in abiotic and resilience.
biotic factors.
Review Questions
1. C Use a graphic organizer to show the relationship 9. A Attempts to calculate the cash value of diverse
between the terms biodiversity, species diversity, genetic ecosystems have been made. One 1997 estimate placed
diversity, and ecosystem diversity. Earth’s ecosystem services at more than 33 trillion
2. A A pitcher plant (Sarracenia dollars per year. Use the table below to answer the
purpurea), shown on the right, is following questions.
an Ontario bog plant with leaves a. Which ecosystem has the greatest global economic
that hold water in which various value? Why do you think this is?
organisms live. Is a pitcher plant a b. Which ecosystem has the least global economic
species or an ecosystem? Explain value? What is different about this ecosystem
your answer. compared to the others?
3. K/U Identify which of the following are ecosystems c. In your opinion, which ecosystem provides the
and explain what your answers tell you about most important ecosystem service? Why?
ecosystem diversity. Value of the World’s Ecosystem Services
a. flower basket Total Global
b. surface of your skin Value (trillions Ecosystem
c. schoolyard Ecosystem of dollars) Service
d. Lake Ontario Coastal shelf 4283 Nutrient cycling

e. the tundra Coral reef 375 Recreation
4. K/U Explain how the relationship between genetic Cropland 128 Food production
diversity and disease resistance is similar to the Estuaries 4100 Nutrient cycling
relationship between species diversity within an Waste treatment/
Grasslands 906
ecosystem and disease resistance. food production
5. K/U Using examples from Table 1.6, explain why it is Lakes and rivers 1700 Water regulation
important to conserve ecosystem diversity. Open ocean 8381 Nutrient cycling
6. K/U Why is it important to protect species diversity Swamps 3231 Water supply
within an ecosystem? Temperate forest 894 Climate regulation/
7. C Summarize the information shown in the timber
graphs in Figure 1.21. Tropical forest 3813 Nutrient cycling/
8. T/I A microhabitat is an identifiably different raw materials
portion of a larger discrete habitat such as a forest.
10. K/U Explain the statement, “Maintaining the
Microhabitats offer a variety of microclimates, food,
diversity of Earth’s ecosystems is important for
camouflage, and shelter. The northern flicker is a
species diversity.”
woodpecker that finds shelter in a hole in a tree, while
a millipede finds food and shelter in the leaf litter at 11. C Make a concept map that organizes the results
the base of the tree. Based on this information, predict of the study by biologists in which non-native trout
the relationship between structural diversity and were introduced to mountain lakes in the western
species diversity of an ecosystem. United States.

ThoughtLab 1-A
INVESTIGATION
Skill Check
✓
Initiating and Planning
Performing and Recording
Classifying Aquatic Species
In the same way that marine organisms are mixed up in seafood stew, the names
✓ Analyzing and Interpreting
of the taxa that identify five species are mixed up in the table below. In this lab,
✓ Communicating
you will place each organism in its proper taxon at each level of the hierarchy.
Materials Organisms in Seafood Stew

• reference books Common name Market squid, American lobster, blue mussel,
Virginia oyster, European oyster
• computer with Internet access
Phylum Arthropoda, Mollusca, Mollusca, Mollusca, Mollusca
Class Malacostraca, Bivalvia, Bivalvia, Bivalvia, Cephalopoda
Order Decapoda, Decapoda, Mytiloida, Pterioida, Pterioida
Family Ostreidae, Ostreidae, Nephropidae, Mytilidae, Loliginidae
Genus Homarus, Mytilus, Ostrea, Loligo, Crassostrea
Species americanus, virginica, edulis, edulis, opalescens
Pre-Lab Questions
1. What is the order of classification for organisms?
2. Why is it useful to have a classification system for organisms?
Question
Which organisms are closely related to each other? Which are not?
Organize the Data

1. Draw a table with six columns and seven rows. At the top of the first
column, write “Taxon.” At the top of each of the other columns, write the
common name of each organism. Label the rows Phylum, Class, Order,
Family, Genus, and Species.
2. Use reference books or the Internet to classify each organism at each
taxon level.
Analyze and Interpret

The American lobster and the blue 1. Which order name is found in both the Arthropoda and Mollusca phyla
mussels shown here are both members
(plural of phylum)? What does this name mean?
of the animal kingdom.
2. Which two genera (plural of genus) have species with names containing the
same word? What does this word mean?
Conclude and Communicate

3. Which two organisms are most closely related to each other? Explain why.
4. Which organism is least closely related to the other four? Explain why.
Extend Further
Go to Organizing Data in a Table in 5. INQUIRY Place five organisms from your neighbourhood in the proper
Appendix A for help with making
your table.
taxon at each level of the hierarchy.
6. RESEARCH How are names for the levels in the hierarchy determined?

ThoughtLab 1-B
INVESTIGATION
Skill Check
✓
Resilience of a Grassland Ecosystem
Resilience is the ability of an ecosystem to maintain an equilibrium, or
✓ Analyzing and Interpreting
balance, despite significant outside disturbances. Results of studies conducted
✓ Communicating
using experimental plots of plants showed that increased biodiversity in the
experimental plots led to increased resistance to the invasion of non-native
Materials species and decreased incidence of disease. The scientists who reported these
• graph paper results also recorded data about the ability of grassland plants to resist drought
• ruler conditions in relation to species diversity. They measured the change in biomass
of the plants from 1986, the year before the drought began, to 1988, the peak of
the drought. The data collected are shown in the table below. Resistance values
closer to zero imply greater resistance to the drought.
Pre-Lab Questions
Resilience of a Plant Community 1. What is resilience?
During a Drought
2. How is resilience related to species diversity within an ecosystem?
Resistance to
Number of Drought (change
3. Why is it important to maintain biodiversity in ecosystems?
Plant Species in biomass/yr)
Question
0 0.00
2 -1.10
How does species diversity affect the resilience of an ecosystem?
4 -0.80
Organize the Data
6 -0.75
1. Make a line graph of the data in the table. Note that the values on the
8 -0.65 y-axis begin with zero and decrease to negative values.
10 -0.50
2. Label the axes of your graph and give your graph a title.
12 -0.42
14 -0.40 Analyze and Interpret
16 -0.40 1. Explain the relationship between resilience and species diversity in the
18 -0.40 grassland plots used in this experiment.
20 -0.38 2. Another factor that scientists analyze when determining the stability of an
22 -0.38 ecosystem is the amount of time it takes for the ecosystem to return to the
24 -0.38 conditions that existed before the disturbance. Predict which plots returned
to the pre-drought conditions more quickly—those with high species
diversity or those with low species diversity. Explain your reasoning.

3. How does species diversity affect the resilience of an ecosystem?
Extend Further
Go to Constructing Graphs in Appendix A 4. INQUIRY Describe another experiment to gather more evidence about the
for help with making your graph.
relationship between the resilience of an ecosystem and its biodiversity.
5. RESEARCH Find out more about how planting native species in a disturbed
area can help improve the ecosystem. Use the Internet or library to find an
example of how the resilience of a disturbed ecosystem was improved after
native plants were planted.

Inquiry 1-C
INVESTIGATION
Skill Check
✓
Creating a Dichotomous Key
✓ Analyzing and Interpreting To Identify Species of Beetles
✓ Communicating If you find an insect you have never seen before, how could you discover
its identity? Many field guides help you match up the characteristics of your
Materials specimen with those of similar organisms using a dichotomous key. This
• illustration of 18 beetles identification key uses a series of paired comparisons to sort organisms into
• sample dichotomous keys smaller and smaller groups. In this investigation, you will learn how to make
your own keys to identification.
Pre-Lab Questions
1. What characteristics do all insects have in common?
2. Name two characteristics that scientists use to tell different insects apart.
3. How can you use the characteristics of beetles to classify them?
Question
How do you make a dichotomous key?
Prediction
Predict which characteristics of insects will be most useful in creating an
identification key.
Procedure
1. Copy the diagram of a dichotomous tree shown here onto a separate
piece of paper.
group 7
A dichotomous key can help you
identify beetles such as these. group 3
group 8
group 1
group 9
group 4
group 10
All
beetles
group 11
group 5
group 12
group 2
group 13
group 6
group 14
2. Study the illustration of 18 beetles shown on the next page.

3. Select one characteristic and sort the beetles into two groups based on
whether they have the characteristic or not.
4. List each beetle’s number under either group 1 or group 2 on your diagram.

5. Record the characteristic that identifies each group. Analyze and Interpret
6. Select another characteristic of each subgroup, and 1. Did your partner produce a dichotomous key identical
repeat steps 4 and 5 for the next level down on your to yours? Explain why or why not.
diagram. 2. Which beetle characteristics were not useful for
7. Continue to subdivide the groups until you have 18 creating your key? Explain why.
groups with one beetle in each.
8. Using the characteristics shown on your diagram,
construct a dichotomous key that someone could use 3. Why does a key offer two choices at each step and not
to identify any beetle from the original large group. more than two?
a. To do this, create a series of numbered steps with 4. In your own words, define dichotomous key.
the first step showing the first characteristic you
used. Extend Further
b. At each step, offer two choices for classifying the
beetle based on a single characteristic. For example, 5. INQUIRY Your teacher will provide you with several
you may have used the characteristic “antennae different “mystery” beetles. Use your dichotomous
longer than front legs” as your first dividing key to see if you can identify what species they are.
characteristic. The first numbered step in your key You may be unable to completely identify your beetles
would be (1a) antennae longer than front legs or using your key. If this is the case, how far could you
(1b) antennae not longer than front legs. go with your key?
c. Use the sample keys provided by your teacher to 6. RESEARCH Visit the library or the Internet and get a
help you. field guide to beetles. Use this to identify the mystery
9. Exchange your key with a partner. Use your beetles. What characteristics would you have needed
partner’s key to classify a beetle, and record all the in your key in order to fully identify them?
characteristics of the species you chose.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Variegated Predaceous Crawling

Mycetaeid beetle Apricot borer Water tiger
mud-loving beetle diving beetle water beetle
7 8 9 10 11 12
Red-necked Cucumber Broad-horned

Flathead apple borer Whirligig beetle Ironclad beetle
cane borer snout beetle flour beetle
13 14 15 16 17 18
Blind False wireworm White-marked Monterey Drug store

Red flour beetle
ant-beetle beetle spider beetle cyprus beetle beetle

STSE
Case Study
Tree Plantations
The root of the problem or the solution to deforestation?
You have joined the International Youth Delegation (IYD), • Tree plantations bring many social and economic
an international coalition of youth working on urgent benefits to local farmers, including providing income
ecological issues, such as deforestation. The Food and and opportunities for other agricultural activities in the
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) reports plantation, such as livestock grazing.
that approximately 13 million hectares of forests worldwide • Aside from providing the raw materials for the lumber
are cut down every year. Much of that land, particularly in industry, tree plantations also provide the waste wood
the tropics, is cleared to increase arable land so people can that remains after harvesting. The waste wood can
grow food. A possible solution is to encourage the planting be used to produce renewable energy in the
of fast-growing and economically important tree species, form of biofuels.
such as eucalyptus, as crops to be harvested. These managed
• The tree plantations act as a carbon
tree plantations would provide income to local landowners
sink, storing carbon in the wood of the
and, at the same time, discourage ongoing deforestation.
trees and helping to keep it out of the
Your IYD group has been asked to assess the viability of
atmosphere. Forests are known to store
monoculture tree plantations as a solution to deforestation.
more carbon than they emit, so increasing
Many large organizations, including the United Nations
forest cover means reducing net emissions
and the World Bank, support the practice of monoculture
of greenhouse gases.
tree plantations. Members of the IYD are divided on the
issue. The members who agree with the UN and the World Other members of the IYD have a different
Bank have summarized their position on the issue. The key opinion. They do not agree that planting trees
points of this summary include the following: as part of monoculture tree plantations is a
• Tree plantations can be planted on cleared and deforested solution to the problem of deforestation. Rather,
land. These “re-created” forest areas provide habitats for they believe these plantations will increase
many plant and animal species, some of which are at risk the problems associated with loss of forest
of extinction due to habitat loss. biodiversity, particularly in tropical countries.
IYD members who oppose monoculture tree
• Forests reduce the potential for damage from drought
plantations have compiled a list of their concerns
and floods. As well, forests reduce soil erosion, which
about tree plantations in a memo to the FAO, shown
dramatically benefits local water quality in streams
in the next page.
and rivers.
This large monoculture operation shows regularly spaced

eucalyptus trees in Brazil. The regular, unobstructed
spacing makes planting and harvesting easier than in a
natural eucalyptus forest, but monocultures are at risk
if a pest or disease attacks the crops.
42 MHR •• Unit
Unit 11 Diversity
Diversityof
ofLiving
LivingThings
Things
Research and Analyze
1. There are tree plantations in
Canada, and one of the key
species planted is red pine.
The purpose of these tree
plantations varies from helping
the recovery of accidentally
destroyed forests, such as those
affected by forest fire, to replacing
the stock of wood harvested by
pulp and paper companies. Research and
analyze the similarities and differences between
tree plantations in Canada and tree plantations in
tropical countries as described in the scenario.
Delegation
From: International Youth tion
2. Tree plantations are considered to be a key factor
and Agriculture Organiza
To: United Nations Food ns
in the fight against climate change because forests
Practice of Tree Plantatio capture carbon. The United Nations Framework
RE: Concerns About the
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is
irable tree
ng landowners to plant des promoting a program to subsidize tree plantations
We believe that encouragi harvesting is
s and mahogany, for later in order to trap carbon and create “carbon credits”
species, such as eucalyptu The economic
fight against deforestation. for the plantation owners. These credits can then
counterproductive in the mers to clear
actually encourage local far be sold in international carbon markets, such as the
benefits of tree plantations e tracts of
forests in order to plant larg European Union Emission Trading Systems (EU ETS).
existing stands of natural
Research these programs and consider whether
monoculture trees.
to make up for you agree that tree plantations are an important
g tree plantations in order
The practice of developin tree plantations part of fighting climate change.
s does not recognize that
the loss of natural ecosystem ilarity between
ural forests—the only sim 3. Make a Venn diagram to compare and contrast
have no relationship to nat s con tain many
tain trees. Natural forest monoculture tree plantations and natural
them is that they both con the bas is
other plants that form forests. What is your opinion of monoculture tree
different species of trees and inc lud ing
ersity of other organisms, plantations? What questions do you have regarding
for supporting a huge div port some
als. Monocultures may sup tree plantations?
insects, reptiles, and mamm hab itat s compared
vide a limited number of
biodiversity, but they pro por t eco systems
ests, which are able to sup Take Action
to naturally occurring for eco sys tem in
mple, a natural forest
rich in biodiversity. For exa eac h pro vides 1. Plan In a group, discuss the concerns related to
55 species of trees, and
Nigeria has between 40 and ds and ma mm als. the issue of monoculture tree plantations. Based on
other species, such as bir
habitat and resources for research and the information in the scenario, what
a single species of tree.
A tree plantation has only are the differing points of view in your group with
ny ecosystem
ests include providing ma
The benefits of natural for ng soil
respect to the practice? What are the differences, if
g water supply and reduci any, between tree plantations in Canada and tree
services, such as regulatin be rep lac ed by planting
services cannot plantations in other, less developed countries?
erosion. These ecosystem
s destined for harvest.
monocultures of tree specie Share the results of the research and analysis you
e, and natural conducted in questions 1 to 3 above.
vulnerable to pests, diseas
Monocultures are highly l be wiped
eats occurs, entire cro wil
ps
disasters. If any of these thr cro p to support
2. Act Prepare a letter to be submitted to the FOA
ated and have no other
out. Farmers will be devast tur e.
outlining your recommendations about the
wait for new crops to ma viability of monoculture tree plantations as a
them as they replant and
solution to deforestation. Support your position
with information from credible sources.

Chapter 1 SUMMARY
Section 1.1 Classifying and Naming Species
Taxonomists classify species by using two-part scientific KEY CONCEPTS

names and by using hierarchical classification based on • Biologists use the morphological species concept, the
eight ranks. biological species concept, and the phylogenetic species
concept to define species.
KEY TERMS
• Species often have common names. However, they are
binomial nomenclature phylogeny
formally known by two-part scientific names.
classification rank
genus species • All species are classified by being placed in eight nested
hierarchical classification taxon ranks. The broadest category is the domain, continuing to
morphology taxonomy narrow to kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and
finally species, which is the narrowest category.
• Each named rank is known as a taxon.
Section 1.2 Determining How Species Are Related
Modern classification uses a variety of types of evidence • Taxonomists rely on morphological, physiological, and DNA
to classify and determine relationships among species, evidence to identify and classify species.
but genetic information is currently a strong influence • Anatomical evidence includes comparing the structure and
in our understanding of how to classify. form of organisms, including bones.
KEY TERMS • Physiological evidence includes comparing the
anatomy phylogenetic tree biochemistry of organisms, including proteins. DNA
ancestor physiology evidence includes comparing organisms’ DNA sequences.
• Understanding phylogeny can help scientists trace the
KEY CONCEPTS transmission of disease and develop and test possible
• Modern classification organizes diversity according to treatments.
evolutionary relationships.
Section 1.3 Kingdoms and Domains
All species are placed in three domains that contain six • There are two cell types: prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
kingdoms, and taxonomists use dichotomous keys to Prokaryotic cells do not have a membrane-bound
identify species. nucleus. Eukaryotic cells are more complex and do have a
membrane-bound nucleus.
KEY TERMS
• Organisms in the domains Bacteria and Archaea are
autotroph heterotroph
unicellular and prokaryotic.
dichotomous key prokaryotic
eukaryotic structural diversity • Organisms in the domain Eukarya have eukaryotic cells and
are unicellular or multicellular. There are four kingdoms in
KEY CONCEPTS the domain Eukarya: Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia.
• The variety of internal and external forms exhibited by • Taxonomists use dichotomous keys to make choices
species represents structural diversity. between pairs of options to narrow down identifications.
Section 1.4 Classifying Types of Biodiversity
Species diversity, genetic diversity, and ecosystem KEY CONCEPTS

diversity are three types of biodiversity. Each is • Too little genetic diversity reduces a population’s ability to
important to the health of a population, a species, resist disease or other changing environmental conditions.
and an ecosystem. • Ecosystems are diverse due to variations in abiotic and
biotic factors.
KEY TERMS
ecosystem diversity population • Ecosystems provide services, such as recycling nutrients
gene pool resilience and regulating gases in the atmosphere.
genetic diversity species diversity • Ecosystems with greater species diversity have higher
resilience.

Chapter 1 REVIEW
Knowledge and Understanding 6. Which species concept focuses on the evolutionary

Select the letter of the best answer below. relationships among organisms?
a. morphological species concept
1. Which kingdom has species whose cells do not have
cell walls? b. biological species concept
a. Animalia d. Plantae c. phylogenetic species concept
b. Archaea e. Protista d. taxonomic species concept
c. Bacteria e. hierarchical species concept
7. In which kingdom would you place an organism that
Use this table to answer questions 2 and 3.
is multicellular, has a cell wall made of cellulose, and is
Classification of Selected Mammals autotrophic?
Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia a. Bacteria
Phylum Chordata Chordata Chordata Chordata b. Archaea
Class Mammalia Mammalia Mammalia Mammalia c. Protista
Order Carnivora Perissodactyla Perissodactyla Perissodactyla d. Plantae
e. Fungi
Family Phocidae Rhinocerotidae Equidae Equidae
Genus Halichoerus Diceros Equus Equus

8. Which structure that makes up genes is of most
interest to modern taxonomists?
Species Halichoerus Diceros Equus Equus
grypus bicornis caballus grevyi a. glucose
Common Grey seal Rhinoceros Horse Zebra b. chitin
Name c. cellulose
d. eukaryote
2. Which animal is the most distant relative to the others?
e. DNA
a. E. grevyi d. rhinoceros
b. grey seal e. zebra Answer the questions below.
c. horse 9. What is the main benefit of scientists using the same
3. At which level does the rhinoceros split from the system to classify living things?
zebra? 10. Explain the meaning of the term binomial
a. class d. order nomenclature.
b. genus e. species 11. What is a domain? Give an example of a domain.
c. family 12. Which organisms are more closely related, those in the
4. Which term describes an identification tool that uses same genus or those in the same family?
a series of two-part choices? 13. In your notebook, state whether each of the following
a. binomial nomenclature statements is true or false. If the statement is false,
b. dichotomous key rewrite it so that it is true.
c. phylogenetic tree a. Some species of bacterium are eukaryotes.
d. phylogenetic key b. Species in the same family are more closely related
e. taxonomic key to one another than species in the same class.
5. Which type of diversity describes the variety c. The morphological species concept classifies
of heritable characteristics in a population of organisms based on their evolutionary histories.
interbreeding individuals? 14. The little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) is common
a. biodiversity throughout northwestern Ontario. The northern
b. ecosystem diversity long-eared bat (Myotis septentrionalis) is
c. evolutionary diversity also found in many regions of Canada. Explain the
d. genetic diversity taxonomic relationship between these two mammals.
e. species diversity 15. Identify five ecosystem services that sustainable
ecosystems provide.

Chapter 1 REVIEW
16. Describe how anatomical evidence can be used to 22. Infer the relatedness of the vertebrate animals shown in
indicate the shared evolutionary history of whales, this phylogenetic tree. Explain your reasoning.
bats, horses, and humans. Snakes Lizards
Crocodiles Birds
Thinking and Investigation
17. You have discovered an unknown organism while on a
field trip. You think it is a new species of protist. How
could you test to identify this species as a protist? What
data would you need to classify it in kingdom Protista? Common
18. You have found a heterotrophic species with cell walls Ancestor
made of chitin. What resources could you use from

this chapter to determine in which kingdom it belongs? Communication
Identify the kingdom to which it belongs. 23. Create a graphic organizer such as a main idea web to
19. Many agricultural crops are known as monocultures, show the different domains and kingdoms.
in which a single species is cultivated in a large For each grouping, include a list of the characteristics
field. Identify some problems that might occur in that define the grouping.
monocultures, given experiments that show the 24. Create a handout to compare and contrast prokaryotic
relationship between species diversity and ecosystem and eukaryotic cells. If you were to teach this material
efficiency. to students in a lower grade, what information
20. All living things can be classified according would be the most important to teach them the basic
to their anatomical and physiological differences between the two cell types?
characteristics. Study the organisms shown below. 25. Human activities affect the diversity of
Create a dichotomous key to identify them. Give the living things in ecosystems. There are many
key to another person to use to identify the organisms. examples of plants that are harvested for medicinal use,
Make revisions to your key as needed. such as the Pacific yew, which is used to make
medication used in the treatment of certain cancers.
In some areas, native plants used for medicinal
purposes have been overharvested. Think about the
possible effects that overharvesting of medicinal plants
could have on biodiversity within an ecosystem. Make
an argument for regulating the number of plants that
can be harvested from a particular ecosystem.
26. Over 100 billion Cavendish bananas are consumed
worldwide annually. As a result of agricultural
practices, each Cavendish is genetically identical to
all others. Write an e-mail to the owner of a banana
plantation outlining your concerns about the lack of
genetic diversity found in this important food source.
27. Biological diversity exists at different levels. Draw a
21. The scientific name of a Bengal tiger is Panthera pyramid diagram showing the relationship between the
tigris tigris, and the Siberian tiger’s scientific name is three widely accepted levels of biodiversity.
Panthera tigris altaica. The third term in each name
28. Summarize your learning in this chapter using a
identifies the subspecies of these animals. Why do
graphic organizer. To help you, the Chapter 1 Summary
you think taxonomists added the third term to the
lists the Key Terms and Key Concepts. Go to Using
scientific names of these animals?
Graphic Organizers in Appendix A to help you decide
which graphic organizer to use.

Application 32. In 2005, a hunter shot what he thought was a polar
29. Taxonomists rely on more than anatomical, bear in the Canadian Arctic. The bear was brownish
physiological, and DNA evidence to classify. With white and had some other features not typical of
animals, they also compare behaviour patterns polar bears. Genetic tests proved it was a hybrid, the
between different species to determine the degree of offspring of a grizzly bear and a polar bear mating.
relatedness. Your friend says that this is evidence that polar bears
a. How valuable do you think this type of evidence is? and grizzly bears are the same species. Do you agree?
Explain. What other information might you want to know
before you agree or disagree? Explain your reasoning.
b. Provide an example of a type of behaviour that
may be helpful to a taxonomist, and give reasons to 33. Use the dichotomous key below to answer the
support your answer. following questions.
30. Use the information in the table below to answer the
A
following questions.
Ontario Reptiles
Common Name Scientific Name Family
Eastern garter snake Thamnophis sirtalis Colubridae
Painted turtle Chrysemys picta Emydidae
Eastern massasauga Sistrurus catenatus Viperidae
B
rattlesnake
Snapping turtle Chelydra serpentine Chelydridae
Spotted turtle Clemmys guttata Emydidae
Five-lined skink Eumeces fasciatus Scincidae
Smooth green snake Opheodrys vernalis Colubridae
Musk turtle Sternotherus Kinosternidae 1a. Front and hind wings similar in size and shape,
odoratus and folded parallel to the body when at rest
Ringneck snake Diadophis Colubridae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . damselfly
punctatus 1b. Hind wings wider than front wings near base,
and extend on either side of the body when
Eastern ribbon Thamnophis Colubridae
at rest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dragonfly
snake sauritus
a. Which pair of species is the most closely related a. Identify the organisms shown in the diagrams.
pair? Explain. Explain how you came to your decision.
b. How many families are represented by the four b. From the key and the diagrams above, explain why
turtle species? Explain. you could conclude that dragonflies and damselflies
c. How many families are represented by the five snake evolved from a common ancestor.
species? Explain. 34. Use the Internet or the print resources in your school’s
d. Is the spotted turtle more closely related to the library to research the common names of the animal
painted turtle or the musk turtle? Why? Puma concolor. Based on your research, explain why
31. Canadian researchers have helped uncover 15 new scientists prefer to use binomial nomenclature rather
bird species through a process of genetic testing that than the common names of organisms.
they say will pave the way for cataloguing the world’s 35. Scientists are racing to discover new species that live
organisms. The discovery of so many new species was just below the ice in the Arctic Ocean. However, the
made possible by analyzing and comparing the DNA sea ice is disappearing and many of these unique
genetic bar codes of 643 North American bird species. organisms may become extinct. Use the Internet or
Predict what the use of DNA genetic bar codes will print resources to research the services provided by
have on the current taxonomic systems. this ecosystem. Based on this information, predict
how the loss of sea ice will affect these services.

Chapter 1 SELF-ASSESSMENT
Select the letter of the best answer below. 6. K/U Which species concept focuses on the ability of
1. K/U Which is the correct order of the categories of organisms to interbreed in nature and produce viable,
classification, from most diverse to most specific? fertile offspring?
a. Kingdom, Domain, Phylum, Family, Class, Order, a. morphological species concept
Species, Genus b. biological species concept
b. Species, Genus, Family, Order, Class, Phylum, c. phylogenetic species concept
Kingdom, Domain d. taxonomic species concept
c. Kingdom, Family, Domain, Species, Genus, Phylum, e. hierarchical species concept
Class, Order 7. K/U Which statement about binomial nomenclature
d. Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, is false?
Genus, Species a. An organism’s scientific name is made up of two
e. Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Family, Class, Order, words.
Species, Genus b. The first word of an organism’s scientific name is
2. K/U Of the organisms listed below, which is the its genus, and the second word is its species.
closest relative of the snowy owl (Bubo scandiacus)? c. The scientific name is italicized if typed.
a. barn owl (Tyto alba) d. The scientific name is underlined if handwritten.
b. great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) e. Both the genus and species names are capitalized.
c. saw-whet owl (Aegolius acadicus) 8. K/U The following is an example of a tool used by
d. eastern screech owl (Megascops asio) taxonomists to divide Order Cetacea (whales,
e. burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia) dolphins, and porpoises) into two suborders.
3. K/U Which two kingdoms are not classified in 1a. have baleen plates for filtering food from water ......
Domain Eukarya? Suborder Mysticeti: baleen whales
a. Protista and Fungi 1b. have teeth ........... Suborder Odontoceti: toothed
b. Plantae and Animalia whales
c. Bacteria and Fungi What is the name of this taxonomic tool?
d. Archaea and Protista a. scientific name
e. Bacteria and Archaea b. binomial nomenclature
4. K/U The monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) and c. phylogenetic species concept
viceroy butterfly (Limenitis archippus) look almost d. dichotomous key
identical. Which species concept might have led e. hierarchical classification
taxonomists to classify them as the same species?
9. K/U Identify the level of diversity that is evident in
the variety of inherited traits within a species.
a. species diversity
b. genetic diversity
c. ecosystem diversity
d. taxonomic diversity
e. phylogenetic diversity
a. phylogenetic species concept
b. Linnaean species concept 10. K/U Which is not a benefit of understanding the
c. biological species concept evolutionary relationships among species?

d. morphological species concept a. discovering the source of new medicines
e. binomial species concept b. discovering new proteins or chemicals
c. identifying biological controls through use of
5. K/U An autotrophic prokaryote with no cell wall
natural predators
would be found in which kingdom?
d. protecting and conserving existing species
a. Archaea d. Fungi
e. determining the number of wolves in an area
b. Bacteria e. Plantae
c. Protista

Use sentences and diagrams as appropriate to answer the 17. A The clouded leopard is a medium-sized wildcat
questions below. found in the forests of Asia. In a study comparing
11. K/U Identify the kingdom in which you would place differences in clouded leopard coat patterns and
a single-celled, eukaryotic organism that makes it coloration throughout the cat’s range, researchers
own food. concluded that individuals found on the islands of
Borneo and Sumatra are markedly different from
Use the table below to answer questions 12 and 13. animals found on the Southeast Asian mainland.
Classification of a Coyote and a Dog These observations have been supported by genetic
Rank Coyote Dog testing. Based on this information, are the clouded
Domain Eukarya Eukarya leopards of Borneo and Sumatra the same species as
Kingdom Animalia Animalia those on the mainland, or are the two groups different
Phylum Chordata Chordata species? Explain your reasoning.
Class Mammalia Mammalia 18. A In the 1800s, Irish farmers planted a large
Order Carnivora Carnivora number of potatoes that were genetically identical to
Family Canidae Canidae one another. When a potato disease swept through the
Genus Canis Canis country in the 1840s, the potatoes, and the people who
Species Canis latrans Canis familiaris depended on them for food, were devastated. Explain
how the lack of genetic diversity of the potatoes grown
12. A Use the scientific name of the coyote to explain
in Ireland could have contributed to a period of low or
binomial nomenclature.
no crop yield and widespread starvation.
13. T/I Predict the family into which the red wolf
19. T/I Rhizopus stolonifer can be found growing on an
(Canis rufus) would be classified. Explain, in terms of
old loaf of bread or a piece of fruit that has been sitting
the hierarchical classification system, your prediction.
on the counter for several days. Members of this
14. C Construct a dichotomous key you could use to species cannot make their own food, and they have a
classify the music of 10 performers on a personal cell wall. Is there enough information provided above
digital audio player. to definitively place this species in one of the six
15. C A group of concerned students is developing a kingdoms? Explain why or why not.
plan to increase the biodiversity of their school’s 20. K/U List the characteristics of eukaryotic cells and
grounds. Currently, the school ground is primarily a prokaryotic cells.
large open grass field with a handful of trees planted
21. K/U Define the term ecosystem services and list five
near the chain-link fence that surrounds the grounds.
examples of the world’s ecosystem services.
Make a list of at least five actions the students could
include in their plan to increase the biodiversity of 22. T/I While hiking in the Hudson Bay Lowlands, you
their school’s grounds. find a multicellular organism growing on the bark of
a dying black spruce tree. Under a microscope, you
16. T/I Two scientists, working independently, produce
observe that its cells are eukaryotic, have cells walls,
the phylogenetic trees shown below for the same group
and do not contain chloroplasts. Into what kingdom
of organisms. Explain why the two scientists could
would you classify this organism? Explain why.
come up with the two different phylogenetic trees.
23. C Suppose you had to explain the phylogenetic
L M N N L M
tree shown in Figure 1.5 to a class of Grade 6 students.
Write a short paragraph explaining what the diagram
Common Ancestor Common Ancestor shows and how scientists use other diagrams like it to
Phylogenetic Tree A Phylogenetic Tree B
help classify organisms.
Self-Check
If you missed
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
question ...
Review
1.1 1.1 1.3 1.1 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.2 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.2 1.1 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.2
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UNIT

1 Diversity of Living Things

4 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

Unit 1 Preparation • MHR 5

6 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

molecules inside the cell than outside of the cell?

a. Describe what would happen to an Amoeba proteus

Unit 1 Preparation • MHR 7

• B2.1 use appropriate terminology

• B2.4 create and apply a dichotomous

• B3.1 explain the fundamental principles

• B3.2 compare and contrast the

• B3.5 explain why biodiversity is

8 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

Chapter 1 Classifying Life’s Diversity • MHR 9

Identifying and Naming New Species

10 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

Table 1.1 Species Concepts

Chapter 1 Classifying Life’s Diversity • MHR 11

A System of Standard Names for Species: Binomial Nomenclature

12 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

Activity 1.1 You Decide: Snake or Lizard?

This legless reptile is known as Ophisaurus attenuatus.

Chapter 1 Classifying Life’s Diversity • MHR 13

Hockey Soccer Tennis Golf

Team Sports Non-team Sports

Hockey Soccer Tennis Golf

Taxonomic Categories Used To Classify Organisms

14 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

Domain Eukarya 4–10 million

Kingdom Animalia 2 million

Phylum Chordata 50 000

Class Mammalia 5 000

Order Carnivora 270

Species Canis lupus 1

The Grey Wolf: Kingdom to Species

Chapter 1 Classifying Life’s Diversity • MHR 15

4. K/U Two terms can be used to describe the Class Insecta

16 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

Evidence of Relationships Among Species

Chapter 1 Classifying Life’s Diversity • MHR 17

Another example of using anatomical evidence to determine relationships among

18 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

Chapter 1 Classifying Life’s Diversity • MHR 19

DNA Evidence of Relationships

20 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

Aepyceros melampus Oryx gazella Cervus elaphus Rangifer tarandus

Genus Aepyceros Oryx Cervus Rangifer

Family Bovidae Cervidae

Chapter 1 Classifying Life’s Diversity • MHR 21

22 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

Chapter 1 Classifying Life’s Diversity • MHR 23

Table 1.3 Changes in Classification Systems for Life’s Kingdoms

Plants Plants Plants Fungi

Plants Fungi Protists

Protists Protists Protists Bacteria

Bacteria Bacteria Archaea

24 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

Chapter 1 Classifying Life’s Diversity • MHR 25

Traditional eukaryotic kingdoms

26 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

Chapter 1 Classifying Life’s Diversity • MHR 27