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Casting Aluminum Alloys

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Casting Aluminum Alloys

VADIM S. ZOLOTOREVSKY and NIKOLAI A. BELOV

Moscow Institute of Steel and Alloys – State Technical University, 119049,
Moscow, 4 Leninsky Pr., Russian Federation

MICHAEL V. GLAZOFF
Alcoa Technical Center, Alcoa Center, PA 15069, USA

Amsterdam • Boston • Heidelberg • London • New York • Oxford

Paris • San Diego • San Francisco • Singapore • Sydney • Tokyo
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CONTENTS

Preface ix
Notations xiii

1. Alloying Elements and Dopants: Phase Diagrams 1

1.1 The Role of Alloying Elements and Dopants: Basic Alloy Systems 1
1.2 Phase Diagrams of Ternary Systems 14
1.2.1 The Al–Be–Fe system 14
1.2.2 The Al–Be–Si system 15
1.2.3 The Al-Ce-Cu system 16
1.2.4 The Al–Ce–Fe system 18
1.2.5 The Al–Ce–Ni system 20
1.2.6 The Al–Ce–Si system 21
1.2.7 The Al–Cr–Fe system 22
1.2.8 The Al–Cr–Mg system 23
1.2.9 The Al–Cr–Mn system 24
1.2.10 The Al–Cr–Si system 26
1.2.11 The Al–Cu–Fe system 26
1.2.12 The Al–Cu–Mg system 29
1.2.13 The Al-Cu-Mn system 32
1.2.14 The Al–Cu–Ni system 34
1.2.15 The Al–Cu–Si system 36
1.2.16 The Al–Cu–Zn system 36
1.2.17 The Al–Fe–Mg system 38
1.2.18 The Al–Fe–Mn system 39
1.2.19 The Al–Fe–Ni system 41
1.2.20 The Al–Fe–Si system 42
1.2.21 The Al–Mg–Mn system 45
1.2.22 The Al–Mg–Si system 45
1.2.23 The Al–Mg–Zn system 47
1.2.24 The Al–Mn–Ni system 49
1.2.25 The Al-Mn-Si system 53
1.2.26 The Al–Ni–Si system 54
1.3 Phase Diagrams of Four-Component Systems 55
1.3.1 The Al–Be–Fe–Si phase diagram 56
1.3.2 The Al–Cu–Fe–Mg system 58
1.3.3 The Al–Cu–Fe–Mn system 58
1.3.4 The Al–Cu–Fe–Ni system 60
1.3.5 The Al–Cu–Fe–Si system 62
1.3.6 The Al–Cu–Mg–Mn system 64
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1.3.7 The Al–Cu–Mg–Si system 64

1.3.8 The Al–Cu–Mg–Zn system 66
1.3.9 The Al–Fe–Mg–Mn system 68
1.3.10 The Al–Fe–Mg–Si system 70
1.3.11 The Al–Fe–Mn–Si system 74
1.3.12 The Al–Fe–Ni–Si system 77
1.3.13 The Al–Mg–Mn–Si system 79
1.3.14 The Al–Mg–Ni–Si system 79
1.4 Five-Component Phase Diagrams 81
1.4.1 The Al–Fe–Cu–Mg–Si system 85
1.4.2 Five-component Systems with Manganese 91

2. Structure and Microstructure of Aluminum Alloys in As-Cast State 95

2.1 Phase Diagrams, Thermodynamics, and Alloy Microstructure 95
2.2 Equilibrium Thermodynamics and Its Development 97
2.2.1 Classical equilibrium thermodynamics 97
2.2.2 Equilibrium thermodynamics of concentrationally
non-uniform systems 98
2.3 Brief Description of Solidification Microstructure Evolution in Casting
Aluminum Alloys via the “Phase-Field’’ Approach 101
2.3.1 Phase-field approach applied to solidification 102
2.3.2 Dendritic solidification of pure metals 102
2.3.3 Phase-field model for solidification of eutectic alloys11 104
2.3.4 Solidification microstructure calculations: perspectives and
future work 106
2.4 Quantitative Characteristics of Alloy Structure and Methods of its
Evaluation 107
2.5 Non-Equilibrium Solidification of Binary Alloys 114
2.5.1 Microsegregation 115
2.5.2 Influence of cooling rate upon solidification and formation of
constituent particles of secondary (excessive) phases 128
2.6 Non-Equilibrium Solidification of Multi-Component Alloys 134
2.6.1 Non-equilibrium phase diagrams of multicomponent systems 134
2.6.2 Microsegregation in three-component and industrial aluminum
alloys 145
2.7 Microstructure of Cast Aluminum Alloys 154
2.8 Substructure of Casting Aluminum Alloys 162
2.8.1 Types of dislocation structures in as-cast aluminum alloys of
different systems 162
2.8.2 The influence of solidification conditions upon dislocation
microstructure 166
2.8.3 The mechanisms of formation of dislocation microstructures in
cast aluminum alloys 171
2.8.4 Decomposition of aluminum solid solution in the process of
alloy cooling after the completion of solidification 177
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3. Influence of Heat Treatment Upon Microstructure of Casting

Aluminum Alloys 183
3.1 Homogenizing Heat Treatment 184
3.1.1 Dissolution of non-equilibrium constituent particles in the
course of homogenization 184
3.1.2 Elimination of microsegregation during homogenization 200
3.1.3 Fragmentation and spheroidization of constituent particles 213
3.1.4 Changes of grain and dislocation microstructure of aluminum
solid solution in the course of homogenization 222
3.1.5 Decomposition of aluminum solid solution in the process of
isothermal heat treatment before quenching 230
3.1.6 Development of porosity during homogenization 240
3.2 Aging After Casting and Quenching 240

4. Dependence of Castability and Mechanical Properties on

Composition and Microstructure of Aluminum Alloys 247
4.1 Castability 247
4.1.1 General characterization of castability 247
4.1.2 Concentration dependence of casting properties 258
4.2 Mechanical Properties 262
4.2.1 Geometry of elongation diagrams for as-cast and quenched
aluminum alloys, and its connection to the structural
transformations accompanying deformation 266
4.2.2 Quantitative analysis of relations between tensile mechanical
properties and structural characteristics of castings 280
4.2.3 Calculations of mechanical properties of castings using
the totality of microstructural characteristics 295
4.2.4 The influence of casting microstructure upon fracture toughness
and fatigue properties 302
4.2.5 Some regularities in changes of mechanical properties with alloy
chemical composition 311

5. Industrial Casting Aluminum Alloys 327

5.1 Al–Si Alloys 327
5.1.1 General characterization of al–si alloys 327
5.1.2 Industrial 4xx and 3xx casting alloys without copper and zinc
(“copper-less’’ alloys) 336
5.1.3 Industrial Al–Si alloys with copper and zinc 351
5.1.4 Engine piston Al–Si alloys 367
5.2 Alloys on the Basis of the Al–Cu System 376
5.3 Al–Mg and Al–Mg–Zn Alloys 386
5.3.1 General characteristic of Al–Mg alloys 386
5.3.2 Industrial Al–Mg and Al–Mg–Zn alloys 390
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6. New Alloys 397

6.1 Alloys with Small Amounts of Eutectic 397
6.2 General Principles of Alloying for Eutectic Materials 405
6.3 High-Strength Alloy AZ6N4 and ATs7Mg3N4 (734) 420
6.4 Alloys Doped with Transition Metals for Improved Thermal Stability 426
6.5 Alloys with Small Amounts of Silicon (<4%Si) 442

Literature 449
Appendix 1 Compositions of Standard Casting Aluminum Alloys 461
Appendix 2 Principal Characteristics of Binary Phase Diagrams
Closer to Aluminum Side 487
Appendix 3 Guaranteed Mechanical Properties of Standard
Russian Aluminum Alloys 491
Appendix 4 Recommended Heat Treatments of Standard
Russian Casting Aluminum Alloys 499
Appendix 5 Data on Fracture Toughness and Shock Toughness,
Fatigue Life, Characteristics of Thermal Stability,
Corrosion Resistance, and Castability of Standard Al-Si Alloys 507
Appendix 6 Derivation of Equations Describing Uniaxial Tensile Testing
in Finite Deformations 511
A.6.1 The Case of Infinitesimally Small Deformations 513
A.6.2 The Case of Finite Deformations 515

Index 523
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PREFACE

By definition, casting alloys are materials used for the production of shape cast-
ings, that is aluminum alloy products with complex geometrical shape(s). Casting
aluminum alloys are quite widespread and find more and more applications in
modern industry.
According to different estimates, up to 20–30% of all aluminum products
manufactured worldwide are used for shape castings. Suffice it to say that in
addition to such giants as Alcoa Inc. and Alcan, there are literally hundreds of cast
houses in North America. Aluminum castings are also manufactured by different
companies that specialize in end materials/products other than aluminum (e.g.,
General Motors, Ford, etc.)
Aluminum castings can be and indeed are produced with very substantial
amounts of recycled aluminum scrap. For example, in the USA,Western Europe,
and Japan up to 75–80% of the overall alloy mass comes from recycled alu-
minum/scrap. This is several times higher than the corresponding numbers for
wrought aluminum alloys. Earlier it was hypothesized that the general level of
properties required of cast aluminum products was lower, and it was used mostly
for the production of non-critical (e.g., not heavily loaded) parts. Indeed, for such
parts the application of recycled aluminum with elevated levels of impurities was
quite acceptable.
However, during the last 10 or 15 years this situation has started to change.
Due to considerable improvements in casting technologies, now it is possible to
produce high-quality castings with properties that are comparable to those of
similar wrought products. Moreover, this can be done not only for high-quality
alloys, but also for those manufactured with substantial amounts of aluminum
scrap. In the latter case the advantage, of course, is in lower production costs.
Significant improvements in the quality of shape castings were achieved due to
improved production processes. Today it is possible to employ modern methods
of molten metal handling, which result in dramatic reduction of harmful non-
metallic impurities. Hot isostatic pressing is used to reduce shrinkage porosity. All
these, and many other, innovations result in significant improvement of aluminum
shape casting quality.
There are several important requirements to casting aluminum alloys: good
corrosion resistance, high level of mechanical properties (such as ultimate ten-
sile strength (UTS), yield strength (YS), and elongation (El.)) and, finally, good
castability. This last property is particularly important; it implies that solidifying
metal is not prone to hot cracking, possesses excellent fluidity in molten state, and
minimal shrinkage porosity. It is because of excellent castability that Al–Si casting
alloys (containing more than 4%Si) have retained their leading role among all
other casting alloy compositions during the last 60 years, even though the general

ix
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x Preface

level of all other properties is quite average. Indeed, as far as low temperature
strength is concerned, Al–Cu and Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloys are considerably better
than Al–Si. Creep resistance is the best for Al–Cu–Mn alloys, corrosion resistance
is better for Al–Mg and Al–Zn–Mg alloys. However, mostly due to excellent
castability, more than 90% (!) of all shape castings today are manufactured from
Al–Si alloys.
Obviously, this situation is not normal as it seriously impedes further devel-
opment of aluminum alloy shape castings. Evidently, there are two principal ways
to approach this important and old problem:
1. Casting technology improvement and development of principally new tech-
nological processes that would ensure a high quality of castings made from
alloys with low castability.
2. Development of new casting alloy compositions that would combine excellent
level of properties with good castability using traditional approaches (e.g., sand
casting, permanent mold casting, etc.).
Today there is no doubt that the automotive industry is the most important
consumer of aluminum alloy shape castings. Each year the overall volume of
cast aluminum in automotive technologies grows steadily. This is especially true
during the last 10 years, when the production of “aluminum’’ cars started and
the number of aluminum-intensive vehicles grew rapidly. Such details as cylinder
blocks, pistons, other engine parts, frames, and covers of different devices “under
the hood’’ are traditionally cast from aluminum now.
All these complex details and products are manufactured using different casting
techniques and amount to many millions of parts per year.
Due to their excellent specific strength, corrosion resistance, and relatively low
labor intensity of production, cast aluminum alloys are also widely used in other
transportation sectors of the economy such as aerospace, marine, and railroad
transportation.
It was mentioned above that in the automotive industry Al–Si alloys find the
most widespread application. However, in the aerospace industry a substantial
number of all castings are made of high-strength Al–Cu alloys of the 2xx series,
while in shipbuilding the corrosion-resistant Al–Mg alloys of the 5xx series1 are
ubiquitous. Alloys of the Al–Mg and Al–Si types are also used in railroad car
construction (e.g., massive brake gear).
Large amounts of aluminum alloy castings are consumed by the defense indus-
try, electronics, nuclear industry, etc. Examples of large cast aluminum parts
include gaskets of electric motors, wheels of armored vehicles, and tank turrets.
It is obvious that further successes in perfection of already existing and devel-
opment of novel casting aluminum alloys will be defined by our understanding of
their metals science and metals physics, that is our capability to relate alloy prop-
erties to their composition and microstructure. In the second half of the 20th
century this level was significantly raised; however, there are still many questions
1 Here and below the classification of cast alloys adopted by the Aluminum Association will be used.
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Preface xi

and problems that remain unsolved. To a significant degree, such a situation arises
because only a limited (and decreasing) number of specialists in several countries
were involved in aluminum research. For example, in major American univer-
sities this area of research is no longer “fashionable’’. Consequently, the actual
aluminum research is conducted mostly in technical centers of large industrial
companies, such as Alcoa Inc.
The present monograph mostly summarizes research conducted at the Moscow
Institute of Steel and Alloys over many decades (Chair of Non-Ferrous Metals), in
part together with Alcoa Inc. (especially during the last 5–7 years). This research
was initiated by such talented scientists as A.A. Bochvar between 1930 and 1940,
I.I. Novikov between 1950 and 1960, and continued by the authors of the present
work. Many dozens of professors, research scientists, graduate and undergraduate
students took part in it. The authors would like to express their gratitude to
all these numerous researchers. One of the authors (M.V. Glazoff) expresses his
sincere gratitude to the Technical Director of the Alcoa Technical Center, Dr.
William A. Cassada, III, and to the Division Managers, Dr. Jonell M. Kerkhoff
and Dr. Ralph R. Sawtell, for permission to publish this monograph and for
continuous support of our research efforts.
Finally, it was decided to retain the original nomenclature for most Russian
casting alloys and references used in this monograph. This was done to facilitate
direct discussions between the interested researchers without causing otherwise
inevitable spelling or translation problems. The authors would like to hope
that it will not cause confusion in understanding the corresponding parts of
this book.
Moscow, Pittsburgh 2007
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NOTATIONS

(Al), (Si) Solid solutions on the basis of aluminum, silicon (and other
elements)
D Grain size of primary dendrites of (Al): Dmin , Dmax – minimal
and maximal sizes
d Dendritic parameter of (Al) primary crystals
d
Subgrain size
De Average size of eutectic colonies
de Dendrite arms spacing
Vc Cooling rate upon solidification
S Specific surface of inclusions (grain boundaries)
Cx Concentration of a given component in alloy: C 1 , C 2 ,
C Cu , C Fe
C x–y Concentration of a component in a phase: C 1–2 , C 2–2 , C Cu–Al
C e , Ca Concentration of component in eutectic and limit
solubility in (Al)

C, Cmin , C max Concentration difference, minimal and maximal
concentration
K Distribution coefficient for an element
QV Volume fraction of phases, pores, and eutectic
QM Mass fraction of a phase or eutectic
m Thickness of the second phase inclusions
I Distance among inclusions
γ Specific weight (density)
ρ Density of dislocations
ρ1 , ρ2 Density of dislocations outside and inside planar subgrain
boundaries
b Dislocation Burgers vector
a Lattice spacing
θ Angle of disorientation between subgrains
DV Coefficient of volume diffusion
T Temperature
τ Time

xiii
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