NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF SULFURIC ACID

PIPING SERVICE IN PETROCHEMICAL PLANTS

College of the Engineering and Architecture

New Era University

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering

By:

John Edward Q. Obiena

Jomarvin G. Mancio
John Christopher G. Sabas
 APPROVAL SHEET

This research study entitled, “NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF

SULFURIC ACID PIPING SERVICE IN PETROCHEMICAL PLANTS”, has been
prepared of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING and is hereby examined, accepted
and approved by our professor Engr.Erwin T. Sta.Maria .

ABSTRACT

In petrochemical industry there are several important processes that have

been conducted to process the oil and natural gas to produce chemicals. One of
the most important compound used to process the chemicals is the sulfuric acid
or also known as king of chemicals due to its numerous applications as a raw
material or processing agent. Sulfuric acid is used to make hundreds of
compounds needed by almost every industry. One of its wide applications is in
the industrial process of petrochemicals such as olefins and aromatics. Oil
refineries produce olefins and aromatics by fluid catalytic cracking of petroleum
fractions. Chemical plants produce olefins by steam cracking of natural gas
liquids like ethane and propane. Aromatics are produced by catalytic reforming of
naphtha. The mentioned processes involves the use of sulfuric acid to produce
the chemicals such as ethylene, propylene, benzene, toluene, xylene isomers
and many more. This study will focus on solving the problem brought by sulfuric
acid in the petrochemical plants due to its corrosive nature, primarily in corrosion
of pipings and tanks and how they conduct testing when these scenarios happen.

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 It is important for a petrochemical plant to conduct regular inspection of
tanks and pipings to protect the integrity of the system. Hidden leaks, cracks and
corrosion of the piping system may result to major accidents on site. The testing
of sulfuric acid piping in petrochemical industry can be destructive or non-
destructive. Destructive testing is also known as mechanical testing in which the
piping are broken or damaged to determine its physical properties such as
impact resistance, ductility, yield and ultimate tensile strength, fracture toughness
and fatigue strength. By the end of the testing, the component such as pipes and
tanks are completely destroyed and it can’t be used for further process. Also, the
petrochemical plant will need a shutdown to conduct this kind of testing which is
not economical for any industrial plant because it also hinders the plant to gain
profit. Non-destructive testing (NDT) is the opposite kind of testing in which it
draws information on the current condition of component without damaging them.
Examples of NDT includes magnetic-flux leakage (MFL), ultrasonic testing (UT),
radiography and dye penetration test. Among all these method of testing,
ultrasonic and radiography testing are the most popular because they are easier
to perform and they provide efficient results. This kind of testing is less costly
because it doesn’t involve destruction of any material assets. If done correctly,
NDT can provide useful information to assist in the management of plant safety.
If NDT is not applied correctly, then the results will give false impression of the
integrity and safety of the plant. Using the latest developments in NDT
technology reduces the risk relating to poorly applied techniques and improves
quality inspections.

This study focuses on non-destructive testing of sulfuric acid piping of

petrochemical plants. However, the major differences of destructive and non-
destructive testing will emphasize in the next chapters of this research study to
determine which is better and more economical to conduct for a petrochemical
plant. Also, the advantages and disadvantages will also discuss including the
cost differences between the two processes.

iii
 To finish this research study, data was gathered from several important
sources. Literature review of alternative methods of testing of sulfuric acid piping
. Documentary analysis of the NDT methods from various reliable sources will
provide . Interview and computation will also provide for the research. Non-
destructive testing was examined thoroughly for more detailed explanation
compared to the destructive testing. Data gathering includes the NDT methods,
how it is conducted and how easier and manageable does this process was.

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 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

This chapter will present the discussion of rationale, statement of the

problem, significance of the study, scope and limitations and definition of terms
and review of related literature of this research study. This part will explain why
the research is worth of study, the problem that the research needs to solve,
what the readers or other researchers will learn from this research, the
objectives, coverage and the things that will not be covered by this study and
also the terms that isn’t easy for the readers to comprehend. Each part will give
the reader a clearer view about the research topic.

Rationale

Corrosion is one of the huge problem faced by many industrial plants. An

asset or equipment is more prone to corrosion as it becomes older. This problem
is not a simple predicament for a big industry like the petrochemical industry. It
doesn’t only destroy equipment and assets but it also cost profit losses to many
industrial plants that’s why this research will try to bring a solution to this
problem. Often times, this corrosion is the cause of equipment failure and
unexpected shutdown which cost millions of pesos of losses. The key to avoid
the problem is by constant monitoring and regular testing of company assets in
order for it to monitor its current condition and to avoid the asset rapid corrosion.
The methods of monitoring, inspection, maintenance and testing of assets or
equipment will be tackled in the latter part of the introduction.

In petrochemical plants, sulfuric acid tanks and pipes are most likely to
producing corrosive environments. Sulfuric acid is a chemical used for countless
industrial processes of different products. It is also known as vitriol. It is heavy,
dense, oily, odorless, extremely corrosive inorganic compound which has a
chemical formula of H2SO4. One of its main use is in manufacturing of
petrochemicals particularly in fluid catalytic cracking, steam cracking and

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catalytic reforming of naphtha. Sulfuric acid is used in the process called
alkylation or the transfer of an alkyl group from one molecule to another. It is
used as a strong acid catalyst in refineries and the waste sulfuric acid (diluted
acid) is heated carefully to form sulfur dioxide which is then fed into contact
process plant thus regenerating pure acid. Depending on its purity it can be
colorless or clear or dark brown. Concentrated sulfuric acid acts as both an
oxidizing and dehydrating agent. Sulfuric acid is available in many grades
ranging from electrolyte grade (33 weight percent) for batteries, to 93 weight
percent (66 deg Baume), 98 weight percent, and 20-22 weight percent fuming
oleum containing excess dissolved sulfur trioxide. The grade most often shipped
is 93 weight percent. The most common material in sulfuric acid tanks and pipes
are carbon steel. In many cases, this material is suitable and very effective. But
in some cases, this material still exhibits corrosion in the areas like elbows, tees,
valves, extraction, contraction, welds and even in straight pipes due to excessive
flow velocities or turbulence, diluting the acid with additional water, intermittent
flow and high temperature. This is why corrosion monitoring is mostly needed in
petrochemical plants. Corrosion monitoring is a process of inspection to detect
for early signs of corrosion. This is to prevent further damage of the system
components and to monitor the existing status of several components. There are
advantages of corrosion monitoring and this includes saving significant amount of
assets, advance preparation of component failure and confidence on system
condition due to the frequent monitoring.

Corrosion monitoring is performed by inspection techniques which

investigates the components’ properties and the factors why corrosion develops
with that component. There are two ways of inspection which is destructive and
non-destructive testing (NDT). Most petrochemical plants use the old method of
testing equipment during the previous decades, which is the destructive testing.
However due to the damaged material that’s why industrial plants seek for newer
method which will not waste company assets and which will not hinder the plant
from operating. Few years later, non-destructive testing (NDT) was invented. It
was a more advance method of testing component or equipment. This method

2
doesn’t cause damage to the component or material that has been tested. It is
also a highly valuable method that can save both money and time in materials
evaluation, troubleshooting and research. Common NDT methods include
ultrasonic; magnetic particle; liquid penetrant; radiography; remote visual
inspection; and eddy current testing. NDT methods will be the main focus of this
study but in order for the readers to understand its importance, a comparison
with destructive testing will also be tackled in this research. The introduction of
non-destructive testing (NDT) in industry is often misinterpreted and
misunderstood. People often see NDT as an expensive technology that does not
give touchable returns but in fact the application of this process does the exact
opposite. If NDT was applied appropriately gives huge returns by way of savings
in scrap by lowering the ultimate rates of rejection, saving valuable
manufacturing time, increasing the overall quality and reliability of manufactured
goods, providing an extension of plant life through preventive maintenance,
saving unnecessary shutdowns, particularly through in-service inspection,
enhancing the integrity of the system and increasing sales and profit of a
particular industry. Aside from the above mentioned importance, NDT also takes
part in the safety and accident prevention in a workplace so its importance to the
industry couldn’t be denied.

Among all the mentioned NDT methods, ultrasonic thickness testing (UTT)
and radiography testing (RT) are the methods that are considered completely
nondestructive and very efficient. That’s why this research will focus in explaining
and elaborating this two NDT methods. Ultrasonic testing is a method of
characterizing the thickness or internal structure of a test piece through the use
of high frequency sound waves. The frequencies, or pitch, used for ultrasonic
testing are many times higher than the limit of human hearing, most commonly in
the range from 500 KHz to 20 MHz. High frequency sound waves are very
directional, and they will travel through a medium (like a piece of steel or plastic)
until they encounter a boundary with another medium (like air), at which point
they reflect back to their source. By analyzing these reflections it is possible to
measure the thickness of a test piece, or find evidence of cracks or other hidden

3
internal flaws. One of the advantages of ultrasonic testing is that it only needs an
access to one side of the sample to determine its thickness unlike the
measurement with mechanical thickness tools like calipers and micrometers that
needs an access to different sides of the sample. In ultrasonic testing, no
potential health risk has been recorded for a long time so it is considered a very
safe method in any plant and industry. The only challenging part with this method
is that it requires a trained operator who can set up a test with the aid of
appropriate standards and properly interpret the results. Radiography testing
(RT) is also an example of nondestructive testing that involves the use of either
x-rays or gamma rays to view the internal structure of a component. It is often
used to inspect machinery, such as pressure vessels, to detect flaws and to
inspect weld repairs. Radiographic testing can provide a permanent film record of
weld quality that is relatively easy to interpret by trained personnel. This testing
method is usually suited to having access to both sides of the welded joint (with
the exception of double wall signal image techniques used on some pipe work).
Although this is a slow and expensive method of nondestructive testing, it is a
positive method for detecting porosity, inclusions, cracks, and voids in the interior
of welds. It is essential that qualified personnel conduct radiographic
interpretation since false interpretation of radiographs can be expensive and
interfere seriously with productivity. There are obvious safety considerations
when conducting radiographic testing. X-ray and gamma radiation is invisible to
the naked eye and can have serious health and safety implications. Only suitably
trained and qualified personnel should practice this type of testing.

Regular maintenance and testing of acid lines is very important in

petrochemical industry. It is required to replace worn components, repair leaks,
install new equipment or instruments, etc. This type of work requires special
precautions due to the hazardous nature of the chemical. The ‘normal’ hazards of
sulfuric acid burns will be present as well as the additional hazard of explosions
due to hydrogen gas formation. Sulfuric acid in contact with metal can generate
explosive mixtures of hydrogen gas, particularly in storage tanks, vessels and
pipelines. Aside from acid burns and explosions, potential hazards like splashing

4
in some parts of the body, ingestion, inhalation of acid mist and spillage can
happen in the workplace. To avoid all the mentioned potential hazards, safety
precautions should be practiced in the facility so that accidents will never
happen. One of the safety practices is using Personal Protective Equipment
(PPE’s) though some workplace may not need to use it, PPE includes hard hats
to protect the scalp or acid resistant hood, full face shield with safety goggles to
protect the eye and face, body protection suit for the body especially in “Hot
Zone” where splashes may occur unexpectedly, gloves and trouser cuffs. Aside
from PPE, the workers should know the places of safety showers and eye wash
stations so when accident happens the workers will immediately know the place
where they need to go.

Statement of the Problem

Corrosion plagued the petroleum industry for many years. Huge amount of
money is lost due to this phenomenon. This problem should be taken into
consideration in the selection of materials of any industrial plant but in most
cases it wasn’t considered. When this happens then the only thing that a plant
can do is to prevent, mitigate and monitor the condition of company assets. This
inspection is either by destructive or non-destructive testing (NDT). There are
advantages and disadvantages between this two methods of inspection. Since
continuous operation of a plant is essential to gain maximum profit that’s why this
study will explain and elaborate which method is suitable. The method that will
not compromise the operation of the whole plant and its productivity will also be
tackled to prove the efficiency of this method.

This study aims to provide answers to the following questions:

(1) Why does corrosion happen and how it affects plant operation?
(2) What are the methods used to conduct corrosion inspection in
Petrochemical plants?
(3) What are the pros and cons of the current method used?
(4) What are the differences with the other methods that can be used?
(5) How will the petrochemical industry benefit with the methods used

5
 in terms of financial, safety and economic aspect?
Significance of the Study

This study is considered to give benefit to the petrochemical industries,

workers, engineering students and the future researchers.

a) Petrochemical Industries. The petrochemical industries will benefit the

most from this research study of non-destructive testing (NDT) of sulfuric
acid pipe. With NDT, the plants will not need to destroy the material to
know its properties, components and condition which will save a lot of
money for the petrochemical plants. The condition of the system could be
regularly monitored with this method. Advance preparation for an
equipment or component failure is also possible. In some cases which
NDT methods are used, the testing is conducted while the plant is 100%
operational. This is very beneficial to huge companies because instead of
losses on profit, the company could earn higher profit because the
operation is not compromised. Testing and analysis of the components will
also take less time compared to the other method. This study will give
sufficient information about NDT which can be used in analysis and further
studies with this industry.
b) The Workers. Workers will also benefit from NDT. Due to the hazardous
nature of sulfuric acid, it will be harmful for the workers to have a contact
with this chemical. NDT makes the workers safe from the dangers of
chemical burns and explosion due to hydrogen gas formation. Since NDT
is a more advance method, it reduces chances of hazard that can occur in
a workplace. Some of the NDT methods doesn’t involve a direct contact
with the component or equipment that will be tested.
c) Mechanical Engineering Students. This study will help mechanical
engineering students to understand and relate the study on their future
works and careers. This will also give them idea with the operation of
petrochemical plants particularly the current methods used to test pipe
systems. It will also broaden their knowledge with this field which could be

6
 advantageous in the near future. In addition, this research could also help
them to be more creative in creating different designs of systems which
could be used to improve efficiency of operations. Students may also
apply and relate the theorems and laws that they often study in
engineering school.
d) Future Researchers. This study will provide good references for the future
researchers with their study. This study could also be used to improve
certain processes in petrochemical plants. This will also help them with
personal development and improve their technical skills and knowledge.

Scope and Limitation of the Study

There are many different pipe systems in petrochemical plants but this
study will only focus in sulfuric acid pipe systems. The main topic of this research
is the method used to test the sulfuric acid pipe systems which is the non-
destructive testing (NDT). Though there are section with this research that will
tackle the other alternative method which is destructive testing, the main focus
will still be for NDT methods. The benefits or advantages of NDT will be
emphasized in the next chapters of this research. Its impact on system efficiency,
company assets, losses due to shut down and many other aspects will be
discussed later. Also the costing to conduct NDT and the losses that will result if
NDT wasn’t conducted is also covered in this research.

Definition of Terms

In order for the readers to easily understand this thesis the following terms are
defined.
Alkylation – It is the transfer of an alkyl group from one molecule to
another. The alkyl group may be transferred as an alkyl carbocation,
a free radical, a carbanion or a carbene (or their equivalents). An alkyl
group is a piece of a molecule with the general formula CnH2n+1, where n is
the integer depicting the number of carbons linked together.

7
Benchmark – It is a standard or point of reference against which things
may be compared or assessed. It is a level of quality that can be used as
a standard when comparing other things.

Downtime – It is a period during which an equipment or machine is not

functional or cannot work. It may be due to technical failure, machine
adjustment, maintenance, or non-availability of inputs such as materials,
labor and power.

Oleum – a dense, corrosive liquid consisting of concentrated sulfuric acid

containing excess sulfur trioxide in solution.

Petrochemical Industry – It is concerned with the production and trade

of petrochemicals. It directly interfaces with the petroleum industry,
especially the downstream sector. A major part is constituted by
the plastics (polymer) industry.

Petroleum – a liquid mixture of hydrocarbons that is present in certain

rock strata and can be extracted and refined to produce fuels including
gasoline, kerosene, and diesel oil; oil

Turbulence – violent or unsteady movement of air or water, or of some

other fluid.

Aromatic - Hydrocarbons derived from petroleum, characterized by a

ring-like molecular structure and 'sweet' or aromatic odor. Benzene,
tolune, and xylene are the most common aromatics, and are used as
chemical feedstocks, solvents, and as additives to gasoline to raise its
octane rating.
Olefins - Olefins belong to a family of organic compounds called hydrocarbons.
They consist of different molecular combinations of the two elements, carbon and
hydrogen. Another name for an olefin is an alkene. Alkenes contain one or more
double bonds between the carbon atoms of the molecule.

8
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter will present the overview of published and unpublished

literature that will help the readers to hold the research topic. Previous studies
and researches that have been conducted by other researchers will also be
presented to clarify the purpose of this study. Since this study focuses on non-
destructive (NDT) methods, this chapter will provide a sample case study on
corroded sulfuric acid line and how it was tested, analyzed and resolved.

Sulfuric acid is a highly corrosive chemical. It needs extra precaution when

handling this chemical. Also, frequent monitoring and testing is also needed to
avoid hazards and accidents within the plant. The most commonly used material
for piping for sulfuric acid ( > 77%) is carbon steel. This material is cheaper in
price and it provides good corrosion resistance. Though carbon steel is a good
material for sulfuric acid pipes, testing and experimentation suggest that leaks
often develop in elbows, tees, valves, extraction, contraction and welds due to
the greater fluid velocity in these areas compared to the straight pipes. The
velocity in these parts of the piping system let the corrosion occur easily.

A case study was conducted by VGO Testing & Inspection Engineers on

2015 about failure analysis of sulfuric acid supply line. An industrial client hired
VGO to analyze and make appropriate action to solve the problem that is
happening on a 1-inch diameter carbon steel pipe that carries 93% sulfuric acid
to a demineralizer in the steam plant. Figure 1 on the next page shows the
sulfuric acid storage tank and piping. It is reported that the several years old
supply line develop a leak at one of the elbows. Another leak below the current
leak was also reported few months ago. The result is little to no flow of sulfuric
acid in the supply line.

9
 Figure 1 Sulfuric acid tank and piping

Samples sections of failed supply line (8-foot long section) including the
leaking elbow, two other elbow and four straight pipe sections were examined by
VGO. Figure 2 below shows the submitted sample. The following analysis was
done to the submitted sample sections:
 Ultrasonic thickness survey of the line to characterize extent and location
of thinning.
 Longitudinal sectioning of line to expose interior surface for visual
examination

10
  Low power microscopic examination of corroded areas to establish
corrosion morphology
 Metallographic examination of cross sections removed from line
 Microhardness testing to estimate physical properties

Figure 2 Sample section submitted to VGO for analysis (Failed

line, three elbows, and four pipe sections including the flange.)

Upon testing of sample sections, it is found that the leak was caused by a
hole in the pipe near the elbow. It was a result of corrosion damage. Figure 3 on
the next page shows the reported leak with patch and Figure 4 without patch.
The client reported that they conducted temporary repairs to the leak in which
they cover it with fiberglass tape, coated with urethane resin. The repair failed
and the sections where the leaks occurred were replaced, reportedly with Type
316 stainless pipe.

11
Figure 3 Reported leak before patch was removed

Figure 4 Reported leak after patch is removed

12
 The analyzed pipe sections indicate signs of general thinning and diagonal
(helical) grooves, caused by “hydrogen grooving”. The sample sections were
tested using ultrasonic survey to evaluate the pattern of thinning. Three
horizontal sections of the sample section was observed that the upper part of
these pipe sections show indication of thinning while the vertical sections indicate
uniform thinning around the whole pipe. Particularly, area near the hole was
examined carefully and it is found that those areas thinned to less than 0.02 inch.
Other areas of the pipe were also tested but it also shows an indication of
thinning, with minimum thickness of 0.06 to 0.08 inch compared to the original
thickness of 0.133 inch (nominal thickness of 1-inch, Schedule 40 pipe). This
phenomenon is a result of velocity that exceeds the recommended fluid velocity
of carbon steel piping that’s why corrosion happen easily. When the fiberglass
patch is removed about the size of the ¼ inch diameter hole was seen. The area
near it has very thin pipe thickness which could be disjoined at any time. This
could be seen in Figure 4 in the previous page and Figure 5 below.

Figure 5 Views of leak and elbow after sectioning

13
 Longitudinal sectioning was conducted to the sample section so that the
inner section of the pipe could be analyzed better. Figure 6 shows the inner part
of pipe downstream of the elbow after sectioning. The upper part of the pipe
shows a series of helical grooves that indicates sign of hydrogen grooving while
in the lower part, no grooves were observed.

Figure 6 Longitudinal section of the pipe downstream of the elbow after

sectioning

Clearer view of the curves is shown in the Figure 7 where it shows a

close-up view of the pipe. Figure on the left shows the close-up view before
cleaning while the figure on the right shows the same view after cleaning.

Figure 7 Close-up view of the pipe before cleaning (left) and after cleaning
(right)

14
 The curves shown in the images indicate that hydrogen grooving occurs in
the pipe. It is a corrosion mechanism that takes place in carbon steel pipe in
concentrated sulfuric acid piping service under conditions of intermittent flow.
The groove is a result of hydrogen gas (H2) bubbles that float up in liquid sulfuric
acid and contact with metal, this bubbles will scrape off the iron sulfate coating
(protective layer of carbon steel pipes as a result of contact of the carbon pipe
and sulfuric acid) and expose the bare metal. This is a continuous process of
producing iron sulfate and hydrogen gas bubbles then eventually grooves or
curves would be observed to the inside portion of the pipe.

In horizontal pipe sections, the grooves could only be seen in the upper
part of the pipe. It is different in the vertical section of pipe in which the grooves
are uniform around the whole internal side of the pipe.

The microstructure of the pipe material was examined in a transverse

cross section through the pipe approximately 2 inches above from the leak. The
pipe internal diameter in this location was thicker than the leak site but the
experienced thinning in this portion was also great. Further from the hole, it is
thicker than the areas near that hole but still shows general thinning. It was about
50 percent thinning that these portions experienced.

The microstructure was comprised of ferrite and pearlite, which is the

expected microstructure for carbon steel pipe in this application. Micro hardness
of the pipe ranged from 79 to 89 on Rockwell B Scale (HRB), which is within the
expected range for piping for the application. Based on VGO’s result of testing,
no metallurgical defects were observed that can be considered a contributory
factor with the problem statement. Figure 13 below shows the microstructure
examination result.

15
Figure 8 Ferrite (light constituent) and pearlite (dark constituent) pipe
microstructure
The case study exhibits that corrosion could also be experienced in
carbon steel pipes even though it is suitable for sulfuric acid pipe service. It is
only in certain ranges of temperature, acid concentration and flow rate so that
piping would not experience corrosion. The result of tests that has been
conducted indicate that corrosion often occur in elbows, tees, valves and welds
due to the greater fluid velocities with these areas. A certain increase to the
maximum allowable velocities could lead to corrosion of carbon steel pipe.
Moreover, straight pipe could also experience a minimal corrosion from time to
time but this could also be considered substantial since it may also result to leaks
in the near future if regular monitoring and maintenance wasn’t done.

16
 Chapter 2

METHODOLOGY

This chapter will discuss the methods that will be used in gathering the
essential data for the research and the analysis of data. This chapter will provide
an answer to the research questions presented. Qualitative approach was also
used in this research study for more comprehensive research content. The
research design, population of the study, sample of population, instrument of
data collection, validation of questions and method of data analysis was
discussed so this research study can become a very reliable source of
information.

Conceptual Framework of the Study

The current methods used to test the sulfuric acid piping in petrochemical
plants can be destructive testing or non-destructive testing (NDT). Each of the
method has pros and cons but with this research, NDT shows a more efficient
and reliable potential than the other method. The NDT decreases the cost since it
doesn’t destroy an equipment of a plant and it could also be used after
conducting the test. The conceptual framework on Figure 9 below will elaborate
the research problem in relation to relevant literature.

Gathering Evaluation
of which Implemen
of data of tation and
process is
both Analysis and operation
more
process comparison considerat
efficient,
used for of both ions of the
economical
testing processes chosen
, faster and
sulfuric acid process
convenient
piping
.

Figure 9 Conceptual Framework of the Study

17
Research Design

Interview and documentary analysis was used by the researcher because

it is the most appropriate to answer the questions and purposes of the study.
This kind of research design is suitable for the study because there are many
reliable sources from various petrochemical companies available in the internet
which can be used as a basis for this research.

An interview is a good tool to gain detailed information from the

informant/s. There is no structured format in an interview. Data and information
was gained from the set of topics asked by the researcher. With this research,
the research questions from Chapter 1 were broadened to cover essential areas
of the topic. Several informants inside the organization were asked so that the
information that will be acquired could be considered reliable and valid. The
interviewed informants are the ones who are familiar with the job.

Documentary analysis is a process of gaining information and data from

existing documents which could be considered reliable and valid. Documents are
good tools that carry only purely facts in many researches. Many kinds of
documents was analyzed and used with this study to support the validity of the
research.

Population under Study

The population of the study is defined as a large group of individuals taken

from a general population who share a common characteristic, such as age, sex,
and/or condition. Population of the study is the main focus of scientific query.
With the case of this research, the population under study is the petrochemical
plants who process sulfuric acid as a raw material or as a product. There are
many companies in the industry that processes sulfuric acid but since not all of
them are accessible to the researcher, and this will also become a waste of time,
so this study will focus only to the company of the researcher.

18
Sample of the Population and Sampling Technique

Interview with a huge group of people will be time-consuming and

expensive so sampling technique was used in this research to prevent the
wastage. Population sampling is a process of taking a subset of subjects that is
representative of the entire population. The sample of population is small enough
to warrant the inclusion of the whole population. This sample is a portion that will
be under the study. Only the knowledgeable ones was chosen to be the subject
of interview so misleading and inaccurate data was prevented. The sample of
population includes the one (1) mechanical engineer and one (1) technician. A
total of two (2) workers became the subject of interview regarding the methods
used for testing sulfuric acid pipe and how efficient it was when used. The Table
1 on the next page shows the summary of population/informants.

The method of non-probability sampling was used in this research.

Particularly, judgmental or selective sampling was used in this research for data
gathering procedure. This sampling technique based the selection of sample with
their knowledge and professional judgment. The chosen sample had relationship
with the phenomenon under investigation, sufficient and relevant work
experience in the field of engineering as well as proven research background and
understanding of raw data concerning the concept under study. Non-probability
sampling was used since it is suitable for case study research design like the
case of this research study. A case study is a focused study on a particular
situation rather than a very broad statistical survey. It is a method used to narrow
down a very broad field of research into one easily researchable topic.

19
Table 1

Table of Respondents

Position Percent Quantity

Mechanical Engineer 50% 1

Technicians 50% 1

100% Total = 2

Instrument for Data Collection

One of the instruments of data collection was interview with the samples
of population. They were interviewed based on their knowledge and expertise
regarding the case of frequent corrosion of the carbon steel pipes for sulfuric acid
service, how the condition of those pipes was tested, how it was conducted, how
efficient it was and if the cost of testing is justifiable. The interview question was
focused in extracting information concerning these issues. Set of questions
designed by the researcher was also used in order to evaluate how important this
research study to solve the existing problem faced by companies. These set of
questions was given to the sample of population before the researcher interview
the informants. The Table below shows the preliminary questions that were given
to the informants.

Table

Evaluation Sheet for the Existing System Efficiency

By allocating scores to the responses for the questions below, you will obtain
a score. This provides the measure of the efficiency of the existing system
that was used by the company. The informants will score the following
questions from 1 point being the lowest and 5 points being the highest. The
maximum score available is 30.

20
 Points

Does the company’s solution to frequent

corrosion of sulfuric acid is helpful? 1 2 3 4 5

Does the existing testing is efficiently? 1 2 3 4 5

Does the existing testing reliable during

operation? 1 2 3 4 5

Does the existing testing need extra aid to

function efficiently? 1 2 3 4 5

Are there improvements that are needed by the

existing testing? 1 2 3 4 5

In terms of perfection, score the existing testing 1 2 3 4 5

Total Score

Aside from the interview, data was also collected from analysis of
essential documents acquired from the company. Documents related to the
contributory factors why corrosion often happens in carbon steel piping, was
analyzed in this research. Some experimentation and analysis that has been
conducted previously will be instrument for data collection.

Method of Data Collection

After validation, correction and finalization, the interview was conducted to

the two (2) sample of population. Random and different topics was asked to the
samples since the interview has no uniform structure but all of these questions
was considered essential since it will help to answer all the issues related to the
topic.

Several documents regarding the case study were collected from the
contact person from Chemrez Technologies Inc. of the researcher for further

21
analysis of the topic. Some instances where confidentiality issues became a
problem but this doesn’t hinder the researcher to extract document for the study.
All of the information that was accumulated will give important contribution to this
research study later. Figures, chart and tables will present this information better
in the later Chapter of the thesis.

22
 Chapter 3

FINDINGS AND RESULTS

The primary goal of the research is to solve the problem on corrosion of

sulfuric acid pipe systems in petrochemical plants in. This chapter will clearly
state the benefits and advantages of the proposed testing method which is the
NDT methods. This chapter will present the economic and safety aspect of NDT
and its impact to the petrochemical plants when it is implemented. The difference
of non-destructive testing (NDT) and destructive testing is also emphasized so
that there is a clear comparison between the two methods. Analysis and
interpretation of findings based on collected data and the results of computations
was also tackled. This part of the thesis presents the findings of the interview and
the documentary analysis in which all the collected data are presented in graphs,
figures and tables. It includes findings from the study of institutional
documentation and interviews conducted with the employees so that the readers
will know the importance of this study to many of the petrochemical plants.

Preliminary Test and Interview Questions Result

From the previous chapter, preliminary test was done to the sample of
population to know the insight of the employees if the existing system is needed
to be replaced by a new and improved system. Unstructured interview was also
done so that important data from the employees will be collected. The Table 5
below shows the results of the preliminary test which is the “Evaluation Sheet for
the Existing System Efficiency”. Summary of the given points by the two (2)
samples of population could be seen in this table. The result shows that the
knowledgeable mechanical engineer had given a low score to the efficiency of
the existing system while technician tend to give a passing and high score to the
existing system. As a result the overall total points of the existing system is 164

23
out of the 300 (perfect points). The average score of 16.4 will also be seen in the
table. This result indicates that the employees of the Chemrez Technologies Inc
want to find a new and improved system that will addressed their currently
occurring problem. The ones who are interviewed include the mechanical
engineer and technician which are really knowledgeable and skillful about the
whole operation of the company. Their response is considered essential to this
research study because they have the expertise to give important suggestions.

Table

RESULTS OF PRELIMINARY TEST

POINTS GIVEN BY
THE SAMPLE PERFECT POINTS

Mechanical Engineers 12 30

Technicians 16 30

Total POINTS = 28 Total POINTS = 60

AVERAGE POINTS 46.67% 100%

The Table below shows the results of the unstructured interview

conducted to each sample of population. There is no uniform format in interviews
so the researcher tried to conduct it base on the knowledge, experience and
expertise of the samples. Interview is a conversation between two people. The
whole conversation in each sample wouldn’t be presented in this research but
instead the summary of the interview containing important parts of the
conversation will be tackled with this summary.

24
Table

SUMMARY OF INTERVIEW

Mechanical Engineer

Question: The interviewer (researcher) asked if the existing method of

testing of sulfuric acid pipe is efficient.

Answer: There are pros and cons of using the existing method (destructive
testing). Most of the time the company experience loss on assets due to the
destructed material after the testing. This is troubling for the companies
because it will result to losses. Also the operation of the whole petrochemical
plant is affected.

Question: Also the researchers asked the estimate of losses.

Answers: Not sure about the exact figure but thousands of pesos are lost to
the company every time they conduct destructive testing.

Technician

Question: The interviewer asked how corrosion affects the operation of the
plant.

Answer: When there is corrosion the pipe will easily break or have a leak so
this will hinder the operation of the plant.

Question: What is the effect of leaking pipes to technician and

petrochemical plants?

Answer: This can cause accidents such as chemical burns, eye irritation,
inhalation and explosion.
Question: Interviewer asked “Are you aware that there are different method
of testing and how often you perform testing?”
Answer: No. The petrochemical plant only conducts testing once or twice a
month.

25
Cost of Corrosion Petrochemical Plants

With this study, it is important for the readers to know the impact of
corrosion in petrochemical industry. It is to quantify the exact amount of losses
with this specific industry sector. According to NACE International, the cost of
corrosion in U.S. for chemical, petrochemical and pharmaceutical is USD1.7
Billion. NACE International is a non-profit professional organization established in
1943 as the National Association of Corrosion Engineers for the corrosion control
industry. Its mission is “NACE equips society to protect people, assets and
environment from the adverse effect of corrosion.”

With the given figure above, it can be observed that the effects of
corrosion in petrochemical plants aren’t simple. A billion dollar wastage is not too
small to be ignored by this industry sector. This problem should be addressed
properly or else huge amount of money will be put into waste. The following table
is from NACE international which a very reliable source in corrosion studies.
Table 2, 3 ,4 ,5, and 6 presents the cost of corrosion in twenty-six (26) different
sectors from five (5) different categories while Table 7 present the summary of
cost of corrosion in five (5) categories. These categories include:
 Infrastructure
 Utilities
 Transportation
 Production and Manufacturing
 Government
Table 2 Cost of Corrosion – Category: Infrastructure

Sector Amount

Highway Bridges Billion USD 8.3

Gas & Liquid Transmission Pipelines Billion USD 7.0

Waterways and Ports Billion USD 0.3

26
Hazardous Materials Storage Billion USD 7.0

Airports Billion USD -

Railroads Billion USD -

TOTAL Billion USD 22.6

Table 3 Cost of Corrosion – Category: Utilities

Sector Amount

Gas Distribution Billion USD 5.0

Drinking Water and Sewer Systems Billion USD 36.0

Electrical Utilities Billion USD 6.9

Telecommunications Billion USD -

TOTAL Billion USD 47.9

Table 4 Cost of Corrosion – Category: Transportation

Sector Amount

Motor Vehicles Billion USD 23.4

Ships Billion USD 2.7

Aircraft Billion USD 2.2

Railroad Cars Billion USD 0.5

Hazardous Materials Transport Billion USD 0.9

TOTAL Billion USD 29.7

27
Table 5 Cost of Corrosion – Category: Production and Manufacturing

Sector Amount

Oil & Gas Exploration & Production Billion USD 1.4

Mining Billion USD 0.1

Petroleum Refining Billion USD 3.7

Chemical, Petrochemical & Pharmaceu. Billion USD 1.7

Pulp & Paper Billion USD 6.0

Agricultural Production Billion USD 1.1

Food Processing Billion USD 1.1

Electronics Billion USD -

Home Appliances Billion USD 1.5

TOTAL Billion USD 17.6

Table 6 Cost of Corrosion – Category: Government

Sector Amount

Defense Billion USD 20.0

Nuclear Waste Storage Billion USD 0.1

TOTAL Billion USD 20.1

Table 7 Cost of Corrosion – Summary per Categories

Sector Amount

Infrastructure Billion USD 22.6

28
Utilities Billion USD 47.9

Transportation Billion USD 29.7

Production & Manufacturing Billion USD 17.6

Government Billion USD 20.1

TOTAL Billion USD 137.9

Graph 1 Cost of Corrosion in 26 Different Sectors

From tables in previous pages, the total cost of losses due to corrosion
from twenty-six (26) different sectors in five (5) categories is USD 137.9 Billion.
From Graph 1 it can be observed that the sector of Drinking water and Sewer

29
System had the most losses due to corrosion with USD 36 Billion. This data
implies that large amount of money is lost and actions should be taken by these
different sectors to avoid these circumstances. That amount of money could be
used in a much better purpose like for example for the industrial plant projects
and initiatives. If this problem in corrosion is prevented and monitored regularly,
the possibility of savings can happen.

NDT Inspection Methods in Sulfuric Acid Pipes (PROPOSED METHOD)

Ultrasonic Testing (UT) – It is a non-destructive testing method in which high

sound waves are introduced into the material being tested and the sound coming
out of the test specimen is detected and examined. Most ultrasonic inspection is
done at frequencies between 0.5 and 25 MHz well above the human hearing,
which is about 20 Hz to 20 MHz. Ultrasonic waves, are mechanical vibrations of
the particles of the medium in which they travel. The waves are represented by a
sinusoidal wave equation having a certain amplitude, frequency and velocity.
The relationship between frequency, wavelength and velocity is given by:

𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓

Where v is the velocity of a wave (in a medium) having frequency f and

wavelength 𝜆.

There are two main types of ultrasonic waves. Longitudinal waves or

compressional waves are those in which alternate compression and rarefaction
zones are produced by the vibration of the particles. The direction of oscillation of
the particles is parallel to the direction of propagation of the waves. Because of
its easy generation and detection, this type of ultrasonic wave is most widely
used in ultrasonic testing. Almost all of the ultrasonic energy used for the testing
of materials originates in this mode and is then converted to other modes for
special test applications. This type of wave can propagate in solids, liquids and
gases. In transverse or shear waves the direction of particle displacement is at

30
right angles to the direction of propagation. For all practical purposes, transverse
waves can only propagate in solids. This is because the distance between
molecules or atoms, the mean free path, is so great in liquids and gases that the
attraction between them is not sufficient to allow one of them to move the other
more than a fraction of its own movement and so the waves are rapidly
attenuated. In a particular medium the velocity of transverse waves is about half
that of the longitudinal waves.

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing:

A typical pulse-echo UT inspection system consists of several functional units,

such as the pulser/receiver, transducer, and a display device. A pulser/receiver is
an electronic device that can produce high voltage electrical pulses. Driven by
the pulser, the transducer generates high frequency ultrasonic energy. The
sound energy is introduced and propagates through the materials in the form of
waves. When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of
the energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflected wave signal
is transformed into an electrical signal by the transducer and is displayed on a
screen. Knowing the velocity of the waves, travel time can be directly related to
the distance that the signal travelled. From the signal, information about the
reflector location, size, orientation and other features can sometimes be gained.
The Figure 13 below illustrates how the ultrasonic testing was done.

31
 Figure 13 Typical Arrangement of Ultrasonic Testing
General Procedure for Ultrasonic Testing:

The most commonly used method of ultrasonic testing is the pulse-echo or

reflection method. In this case the transmitter and receiving probes are on the
same side of the specimen and the presence of a defect is indicated by the
reception of an echo before that of the boundary or backwall signal. The CRT
screen shows the separation between the time of arrival of the defect echo
compared to that of the natural boundary of the specimen, therefore, location of
the defect can be assessed accurately. Usually one probe acts simultaneously as
a transmitter and then as a receiver and is referred to as a TR probe.

The time base of the CRT can be calibrated either in units of time or, if the
velocity of sound in the material is known, in units of distance. If "1" is the
distance from the transducer to the defect and "t" the time taken for waves to
travel this distance in both directions then, 1 = vt / 2 where v is the sound velocity
in the material.

The procedure to conduct an ultrasonic test is influenced by a number of

factors. Also the nature of the test problems in industry varies over a wide range.
Therefore it is difficult to define a method which is versatile enough to work in all

32
situations. However, it is possible to outline a general procedure which will
facilitate the inspection by ultrasonic in most cases.

Radiographic Testing – It is also a type of non-destructive testing that uses the

ability of short wavelength electromagnetic radiation (high energy photons) to
penetrate various materials. The intensity of the radiation that penetrates and
passes through the material is either captured by a radiation sensitive film (Film
Radiography) or by a planer array of radiation sensitive sensors (Real-time
Radiography). Film Radiography is the oldest approach, yet it is still the most
widely used in NDT.

Basic Principles of Radiographic Testing:

A usual arrangement of a radiographic testing is that there is a component

or a specimen to be examined in between the source of radiation (can be x ray
machine or radioactive source) and the radiation sensitive film. While passing
through the test specimen the radiations are absorbed in accordance with the
thickness, physical density and the internal defects of the specimen and the
detector system therefore receives the differential radiations from different parts
of a defective specimen which are recorded onto the detector. The Figure 14
shows a usual set-up of radiographic testing.

33
 Figure 14 Typical Arrangement of
Radiographic Testing
General Procedure for Radiographic Testing:

The test specimen is first of all properly cleaned and visually inspected
and all the surface imperfections are noted. A properly selected film, usually
sandwiched between intensifying screens and enclosed in a light proof cassette
is prepared. The source of radiation, the test specimen and the film are arranged
as shown in Figure 14. Image quality indicators and lead identification letters are
also placed on the source side of the test specimen. From a previously prepared
exposure chart for the material of the test specimen, the energy of radiations to
be used and the exposure (intensity of radiations x time) to be given are
determined. Then the exposure is made. After the source of radiation has been
switched off or retrieved back into the shielding (in case of gamma ray source),

34
the film cassette is removed and taken to the dark room. In the dark room, under
safe light conditions, the film is removed from the cassette and the screens and
processed. The processing of the film involves mainly four steps. Development
reduces the exposed silver bromide crystals to black metallic silver thus making
the latent image visible. Development is usually done for 5 minutes at 20°C. After
development the film is fixed whereby all the unexposed and undeveloped
crystals of film emulsion are removed and the exposed and image-forming
emulsion is retained on the film. The fixing is done for approximately 2-6 minutes.
The film is then washed preferably in running water for about 20-30 minutes and
dried. Finally the film is interpreted for defects and a report compiled. The report
includes information about the test specimen, the technique used and the
defects. It also sometime says something about acceptance or rejection of the
reported defects. The report is properly signed by responsible persons.

Comparison of Destructive and Non-destructive Testing (NDT)

A common scenario in testing a component or a specimen is that they cut

and section it then they examine the exposed surfaces. Some method includes
pulling and stressing and pressurizing a specimen or component until failure to
determine their properties of strength and toughness. Welds are bent to
determine the presence of cracks. Materials can be chemically treated to
determine their composition. The mentioned process or methods are examples of
destructive testing. It is sometimes called mechanical testing due to the
mechanical loads that was applied to test the components. Most of the time the
operation of an industrial plant is stopped due to this kind of testing because they
can’t proceed if some parts of the system is not properly functioning. With this
kind of testing, the examined component is damaged or destroyed after
conducting the test which is not economical for an industrial plant since important
assets are lost. It takes too much time to replace the tested component and the
plant doesn’t have a choice but to replace the damaged component since it is a
part of the whole operation. A table of comparison of destructive and non-
destructive testing was provided below.

35
Table 8 Comparison of Destructive and Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
1. Tests usually simulate one or more
service conditions. Consequently, they
tend to measure serviceability directly and
reliably.
2. Tests are usually quantitative
measurements of load for failure,
significant distortion or damage, or life to
failure under given loading and
environmental conditions. Consequently
they may yield numerical data useful for
design purposes or for establishing
standards or specifications.
3. The correlation between most
destructive test measurements and the
material properties being measured
(particularly under simulated service
loading) is usually direct. Hence most
observers may agree upon the results of
the test and their significance with respect
to the serviceability of the material or part.
4. Tests are not made on the objects
actually used in service. Consequently the
correlation or similarity between the
objects tested and those used in service
must be proven by other means.
5. Tests can be made on only a fraction of
the production lot to be used in service.
They may have little value when the
properties vary unpredictably from unit to
unit.
6. Tests often cannot be made on
Complete production parts. The tests are
often limited to test bars cut from
production parts or from special material
specimens processed to simulate the
properties of the parts to be used in
service.
7. A single destructive test may measure
only one or a few of the properties that
may be critical under service conditions.
36
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
1. Tests usually involve indirect
measurements of properties of no direct
significance in service. The correlation
between these measurements and
serviceability must be proved by other
means.C
2. Tests are usually qualitative and rarely
quantitative. They do not usually measure
load for failure or life to failure, even
indirectly. They may, however, reveal
damage or expose the mechanisms of
failure.
3. Skilled judgement and test or service
experience are usually required to interpret
test indications. Where the essential
correlation has not been proven, or where
experience is limited, observers may
disagree in evaluating the significance of
test indications.
4. Tests are made directly upon the objects
to be used in service. Consequently there
is no doubt that the tests were made on
representative test objects.
5. Tests can be made on every unit to be
used in service, if economically justified.
Consequently they may be used even
when great differences from unit to unit
occur in production lots.
6. Tests may be made on the entire
production part or in all critical regions of it.
Consequently the evaluation applies to the
part as a whole. Many critical sections of
the part may be examined simultaneously
or sequentially as convenient and
expedient.
7. Many non-destructive tests, each
sensitive to different properties or regions
of the material or part, may be applied
simultaneously or in sequence. In this way
it is feasible to measure as many different
properties correlated with service
performance as desired.
DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
8. Destructive tests are not usually
convenient to apply to parts in service.
Generally, service must be interrupted and
the part permanently removed from
service.
9. Cumulative change over a period of time
cannot readily be measured on a single
unit. If several units from the same lot or
service are tested in succession over a
period of time, it must be proven that the
units were initially similar. If the units are
used in service and removed after various
periods of time, it must be proven that
each was subject to similar conditions of
service, before valid data can be obtained.
10. With parts of very high material or
fabrication costs, the costs of replacing the
parts destroyed may be prohibitive. It may
not be feasible to make an adequate
number and variety of destructive tests.
11. Many destructive tests require
extensive machining or other preparation
of the test specimens. Often, massive
precision-testing machines are required. In
consequence the cost of destructive
testing may be very high, and the number
of samples that can be prepared and
tested may make severe demands upon
the time of highly skilled workers.
12. The time and man-hour requirements
of many destructive tests are very high.
Excessive production costs may be
incurred if adequate and extensive
destructive tests are used as the primary
method of production quality control.
37
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
8. Non-destructive tests may often be
applied to in service parts or assemblies
without interruption of service beyond
normal maintenance or idle periods. They
involve no loss of serviceable parts.
9. Non-destructive tests permit repeated
checks of a given unit over a period of
time. In this way, the rate of service
damage, if detectable, and its correlation
with service failure may be established
clearly.
10. Acceptable parts of very high material
or fabrication costs are not lost in non-
destructive testing. Repeated testing
during production or service is feasible
when economically and practically justified.
11. Little or no specimen preparation is
required for many forms of non-destructive
tests. Several forms of non-destructive
testing equipment are portable. Many are
capable of rapid testing or sorting and in
some cases may be made fully automatic.
The cost of non-destructive tests is less, in
most cases, both per object tested and for
overall testing, than the cost of adequate
destructive tests.
12. Most non-destructive test methods are
rapid and require far fewer manhours or
actual hours than do typical destructive
tests. Consequently testing all the
production units cost normally less than, or
comparable, to the costs of inspecting
destructively only a minor percentage of
the units in production lots.
Result of Destructive Testing

Figure 15 Before conducting the Destructive Testing

Figure 16 After conducting the Destructive Testing – Sectioned and

cut specimen to analyze the material

38
 The figures presented in the previous page shows the perfect example of
the result of Destructive Testing. The image in the Figure 15 shows the sulfuric
acid pipe before testing was conducted. It can be seen that the component is
dismantled from the system so it can be tested carefully. In Figure 16, the
remnants of the pipe were shown after it was sectioned for testing. It is clear that
one of the biggest disadvantage of this method is the asset that will be lost to the
company as a result of conducting this method, This is why the researcher are
proposing to switch with the new and more advanced method which is the non-
destructive testing. Aside from the assets that was saved through this method,
substantial amount of time and money was also saved due to the fact that non-
destructive testing (NDT) doesn’t need to dismantle the component just to test its
properties and NDT could be done while the industrial plant is fully operational.

Table Costing of Lost Assets due to Destructive Testing

LOST ASSETS DUE TO DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Item Description Qty/Unit Unit Price Total Price

1. Type 316 Stainless Pipe 4 pipe
USD 13.00 USD 52.00
(8’ long and 1’’ ∅) sect.
2. Elbows 3 USD 9.00 USD 27.00
Total Price USD 79.00

The computation on Table 9 shows the price of the asset that has been
lost due to the destructive testing of the pipe section shown in the image. This is
only based on a simple case study that the researcher collected that’s why the
costing was very minimal but if it was applied on a very large system it will not
only cost hundreds of dollars but even millions especially if it was done
frequently. One of the main reasons why NDT was invented is to prevent
scenario like this. Substantial amount of assets are lost every time they conduct
the test so they invented a more advanced method that will save huge amount of
money for the company or a plant.

39
Project Cost Estimate of NDT Methods

Project cost estimate is the total of all the costs involved in successfully
finishing a project. It is important for this research to show the cost of the NDT
methods so the readers would know its estimated cost. Some petrochemical
plants buy NDT equipment and conduct the testing on their own while others
choose to rent or seek for the service of some companies who provides NDT
Methods which is cheaper and more practical. Buying the NDT equipment will be
very expensive so it’s not advisable to buy those equipment. For the sake of
comparison, this, this section will show the cost of NDT methods when
equipment are bought and when it is rented from other companies. This will help
the readers and other researchers to decide which is more suitable for some
situations.
Table Cost Estimate of Equipment for Radiography Testing (RT)

CAPITAL EQUIPMENT COST FOR RADIOGRAPHY TESTING

Item Description Qty/Unit Unit Price Total Price

1. Isotope Camera 1 USD 15,000.00 USD 15,000.00
2. Portable Darkroom 1 USD 5,290.00 USD 5,290.00
3. Survey Meters 1 USD 995.00 USD 995.00
4. Portable X ray machine 1 USD 10,000.00 USD 10,000.00
5. Automatic X-ray Film 1 USD 6,800.00 USD 6,800.00
Processor
5. Consumables (Silver 1/inspe. USD 5.00 USD 5.00
Based Emulsion)
6. Manpower Cost 2pax/day USD 300.00 USD 600.00
7. Building or Facility Cost 1 USD 50,000 USD 50,000
Total Price USD 88,690.00

40
 From the Table 10, approximate price of the equipment needed to conduct
radiographic testing (RT) was enumerated. The following equipment is just the
basic equipment and may vary depending on the application and complexity of
level of automation. The above computation is not exact because there might be
some missed equipment or items but this could be used as a reference for other
researches. The total price with the above computation for basic radiographic
testing equipment, consumables and manpower is USD 88,690.00. Depending
on the type of equipment that will be used, this can surpass USD 100,000.00 or
can even exceed a million dollar. This computation is just a reference if a
petrochemical plant will need to purchase equipment for their own use but
usually petrochemical plants just avail services from companies who conduct
NDT methods which will be far less cheap.

Table 11 Cost Estimate for rented service of Radiography Testing (RT)

COST PER INSPECTION (RADIOGRAPHY TESTING)

Item Description Qty/Unit Unit Price Total Price

1. Radiography Testing 12 hrs USD 90.00 USD 1,080.00
2. Mechanical Inspector 2pax/day USD 300.00 USD 600.00
Total Price USD 1,680.00

The rates for inspection services to conduct radiographic testing (RT)

were listed above in Table 11. This is when the plant rented service from other
company. It can be seen that the computation for radiographic testing service
was cheaper compared when they purchase the equipment. But this total value is
the price that the company charges for every time they conduct testing. Meaning
it is only limited to one time testing so it is not advisable to rent service if the
testing will be conducted frequently. It will cost USD 1,680.00 every time the
petrochemical plant will need to test a component or specimen.

41
Table 12 Cost Estimate of Equipment for Ultrasonic Thickness Testing

CAPITAL EQUIPMENT COST FOR ULTRASONIC THICKNESS TESTING

Item Description Qty/Unit Unit Price Total Price

1. Ultrasonic Portable
1 USD 656.00 USD 656.00
thickness gauge
2. Portable Flaw Detector 1 USD 10,000.00 USD 10,000.00
3. Transducers 1 USD 400.00 USD 400.00
4. Manpower Cost 2pax/day USD 300.00 USD 600.00
Total Price USD 11,656.00
From the Table 12, the equipment for Ultrasonic Thickness Testing (UTT)
is listed above for reference. The listed equipment is just the basic and can be
larger than the computed total amount. The total price is USD 12,306.00 but
depending on computerization and specialization this can exceed to more than
USD 100,000.00.

Table 13 Cost Estimate for rented service of Ultrasonic Thickness Testing

(UTT)

COST PER INSPECTION (ULTRASONIC TESTING)

Item Description Qty/Unit Unit Price Total Price

1. Ultrasonic Testing 12 hrs USD 16.00 USD 192.00
2. Certified Technician 2pax/day USD 300.00 USD 600.00
Total Price USD 792.00

From the Table 13, the rates for inspection services for ultrasonic testing
thickness (UTT) were listed for reference. It can be seen that the rented service
from other companies is less cheap. But this is the amount that the company
charges for every time they conduct testing. It will only cost USD 792.00 per
inspection.

42
Table 14 Summary of Cost of NDT Methods

COST OF NDT METHODS

Bought Equipment Rented Service
Radiography Testing USD 88,690.0 Radiography Testing USD 1,680.00
Ultrasonic Testing USD 11,656.0 Ultrasonic Testing USD 792.00

On Table 14, the summary of cost of each NDT methods was listed where
the price of each method can be compared. Obviously the rented service or
equipment is lesser in price. The difference between bought equipment and
rented service is that the bought equipment could be used as many times as the
plant needs while the rented service should be paid every time they conduct
testing so it is really effective if the plant will buy the equipment if they will use it
very often. There are many factors to consider when deciding whether a
petrochemical plant would need to purchase NDT equipment or just rent service
from other companies. First, the frequency of usage of the equipment.
Obviously petrochemical plants will not need to buy very expensive equipment
that will be used in just three to four (3-4) times in a year. This would be a huge
waste of money. Most petrochemical plant just rent service because the testing is
not conducted too often and the price of the rented service seems justifiable to
them. Second thing to consider is the space where the equipment will be placed
and also the space where they will conduct the testing. This is also the reason
why most petrochemical plant just rent service because it takes space when they
buy equipment and also a small to medium size room is needed when they
conduct testing. Last thing to consider is the additional cost of employing and
training certified technicians for the NDT methods. This is why renting service
or equipment from other companies is more advantageous than buying the
equipment because it lessens the responsibility and burden on the petrochemical
plant. However, in some cases of very large petrochemical plants, they often buy
the equipment because they can afford to buy it and the testing in those plants
are often conducted. The testing is conducted on their own because it lessens
the cost of testing.

43
Benefits of Proposed NDT Methods

The figure that was presented above was the cost of the NDT methods
that was commonly done in sulfuric acid pipes. Those figures were presented for
the purpose of reference and comparison to the advantage that it can make if it
was implemented or applied in any petrochemical plant. The cost of NDT is very
small compared to the advantages that it can make for the plant. It’s not easy to
quantify the benefits of NDT because one must have all the complete documents
to raise certain figures for a very accurate information source. Also, every
industry has different costing so it’s hard to present particular amount or figures.
In some instances, in order to quantify the benefits of NDT, one may look to the
difference of conducting vs. not conducting the NDT methods. They compare its
economic impact to the company if it will not be implemented. For example, the
NDT eliminates the need for disassembly and visual inspection and NDT could
be conducted while the plant is 100% operational versus shutting down the plant
for immediate repairs. The losses for the petrochemical plant will be very high if
the downtime is longer so it’s better not to rely on the old method of testing which
is the destructive testing. It’s the best time to try new alternative testing methods
which is the NDT methods.

Cost of Plant shutdown

Non-destructive test methods are used in preventive maintenance to avoid

downtime of machines. Most industrial process operations provide a schedule for
a plant shutdown. This is because the failure of a component while in service will
result to greater losses of assets if not attended properly. NDT ensure that the
system is hundred percent (100%) safe to be used by the plant. NDT also make
sure that all potential problems are checked and monitored and given appropriate
actions if needed. In most cases, destructive testing makes the downtime longer
while NDT does the opposite. The plant shutdown takes weeks or even a month
when destructive testing methods are used and takes shorter when NDT
methods are implemented. In some cases using NDT methods, the plant doesn’t
need a plant shutdown and the testing could be conducted while the plant is in
44
operation. This arrangement is good because the losses that will be incurred by
the plant is very minimal.

Table 15 Annual Net Income of Westlake Chemical Corporation

ANNUAL NET INCOME IN MILLIONS (USD)

Year 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Net
468.781 657.934 800.280 552.407 601.548
Income

The Table 15 above shows the annual net income of Westlake Chemical
Corporation for the past five (5) years that is in million US Dollars. Westlake
Chemical Corporation is an international manufacturer and supplier of
petrochemicals, polymers and fabricated building products. The company is the
largest producer of low-density polyethylene in the US and ranks among the
Forbes Global 2000. The year with the highest profit is on 2016 while the year
with the lowest profit is on 2014.

900,000,000.00
800,280,982.00
800,000,000.00

700,000,000.00 657,934,041.00
601,548,987.00
600,000,000.00 552,407,677.00

500,000,000.00 468,781,280.00

400,000,000.00

300,000,000.00

200,000,000.00

100,000,000.00

0.00
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Annual Net Income

Graph 2 Annual Net Income of Westlake Chemical Corporation

45
 The researcher wasn’t able to extract information to the company where
he works due to confidentiality issues so the researcher decided to provide
information from document analysis of other petrochemical plant. This
information is essential to estimate the approximate amount of losses due to the
shutdown of the plant. The Graph 3 shows the graphical representation of Table
15 for a clearer comparison of its annual income. However, the data that will be
used as a benchmark is the average of the annual net income in the past five (5)
years which is USD 616,190,000.00.

Table 16 Westlake Chemical Corporation Annual and Daily Net Income

(USD)

AVERAGE NET INCOME

Annual Income USD 616,190,000.00

Daily Income USD 1,688,191.78

The Table 16 above shows the average annual and daily income of
Westlake Chemical Corporation. The average annual income was USD
616,190,000.00 while the daily income is USD 1,688,191.78. Even a day without
operation will make the petrochemical plants lose millions of dollars so it is
important to lessen or totally eliminate the downtime of the plant if possible.
Usually the shutdown of a petrochemical plant last for days, weeks or sometimes
even months so imagine the losses on profit of the plant when it shut down for a
month. A week of plant shutdown will result to USD 11,817,342.46 losses on
profit while a month without operation will result to USD 50,645,753.40 losses on
profit due to the plant shutdown. Table 17 below shows the tabular
representation of the computation.

46
 Table 17 Cost of Plant Shutdown for different interval (USD)

COST OF PLANT SHUTDOWN

Day USD 1,688,191.78

Week USD 11,817,342.46

Month USD 50,645,753.40

Non-destructive testing (NDT) was able to reduce or eliminate the impact

of plant shutdown on a petrochemical plant. It reduces the effects of plant
shutdown for about 50-80% because it was able to shorten the downtime of the
plant which is good because millions of dollars were at risk. If a petrochemical
plant will stick to the old method of destructive testing, huge amount of money
will be lost for nothing so the researcher really recommends on switching to NDT
methods.

47
 Chapter 4

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

This chapter offers the conclusion and recommendation in accordance

with the findings.

Discussion and Conclusion

The findings, data and documentary analysis shows that the

petrochemical companies will gain losses on profit; will have longer downtime of
the plant and more safety hazards when it will stick to the old method of testing
which is the Destructive Testing. Even a day without operation will make the
petrochemical plant lose USD 1,688,191.78 or more than a million dollar.
Imagine if the plant shutdown is longer, the losses on profit of the plant will
become higher in amount so it is important to lessen or eliminate the downtime if
possible. On the other hand, the implementation of the proposed method of
testing which are the NDT methods would result to savings instead of losses.
The losses couldn’t be ignored because it will be a huge amount in the future if
the problem wasn’t addressed properly.

The advantages of the proposed methods of testing are evident and

obvious that’s why the implementation of this method is a clear asset for the
petrochemical companies who will implement it. The initial investment in each of
NDT methods is very small in comparison to the benefits that this can give to the
petrochemical companies. The scheduled shutdown of the plant can become
shorter because of NDT and in some cases shutdown isn’t needed anymore
because they can do the inspection simultaneously with the plant operation
especially in critical components that are most likely to fail in which they have a
standby unit in case that the existing unit fail. Example of in-service inspection
are ultrasonic thickness testing (UTT) and ultrasonic corrosion monitoring in
pipelines and storage vessels. Another example is monitoring of pressure

48
vessels and other highly stressed components with the help of strain gauge and
acoustic emission for any probable occurrence of stress and fatigue cracks,
inspection of welds in pressure vessels using ultrasonic testing and eddy current.
The proposed method is also a safer method because it doesn’t need to have a
direct contact with the component to gain the required information unlike the
destructive testing in which it involves a direct contact with the component. There
is a greater risk of accident in destructive testing because most of the procedure
involves handling and touching the specimen. NDT is also a good tool for
petrochemical companies to monitor the condition of the plant components and
system. This prevents further damage of the equipment and the petrochemical
plant can plan in advance the appropriate actions they need to make when the
failure happens with the system. This will save millions of dollars and risk of
replacement of important assets are also eliminated. However, implementation of
the proposed method includes buying NDT equipment which is small in amount
in comparison with its benefits to the company. In other cases, petrochemical
plants rent services from other companies that conduct NDT which is more
economical than buying the equipment especially when testing is not done
frequently. Obviously, industrial plants will not buy expensive equipment that will
just become a display in one part of the plant. Implementation of the proposed
methods (NDT) will also require a small to large spaces within the plant when
NDT equipment is bought. On the other hand, when the service is rented, spaces
for this NDT equipment are also eliminated.

This research demonstrates a great opportunity to acquire a good

monitoring, management and maintenance in petrochemical plants. Through the
use of non-destructive testing (NDT) of pipes and tanks in petrochemical plants,
the testing will become easier, safer and cost-effective.

49
Recommendation

Based on the findings and conclusion made, the researcher presents the
following recommendation that is worthy for future work:

 Implement the use of NDT methods in petrochemical plants and

acquire essential information to compare it with destructive testing.

Data includes cost, downtime, safety and in-service operation.

 Evaluate the effectivity of implementation of the NDT methods in

terms of operation, monitoring and maintenance

 Perform test in order to verify or disprove the theoretical data

presented in this work.

 Evaluating the efficiency of NDT by implementing and testing it in

plant operation and processes.

 Perform costing between buying NDT equipments or renting

services from other companies of which is cost-effective.

50
 LIST OF REFERENCES

A. Published Sources

STUDIES / THESES / DISSERTATIONS / CATALOGS

[1] International Atomic Energy Agency (January 1999) Non-destructive

Testing: A Guidebook for Industrial Management and Quality Control
Personnel, Vienna Austria
[2] VGO Testing & Inspection Engineers (2015) Case Study: Failure Analysis
of Sulfuric Acid Supply Line
[3] Mohd Asyadi Azam, Mohd Fuad Ibrahim and Muhammad Zaimi
(September 2014) Corrosion Analysis of Carbon Steel Pipeline: Effect of
Different Sulfuric Acid Concentrations Faculty of Manufacturing
Engineering, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka
[4] Zehbour Panossian, Neusvaldo Lira de Almeida, Raquel Maria Ferreira de
Sousa, Gutemberg de Souza Pimenta , Leandro Bordalo Schmidt
Marques (January 2012) Corrosion of carbon steel pipes and tanks by
concentrated sulphuric acid: A Review
[5] NorFalco (April 2007) Sulfuric Acid Handbook
[6] Pfaudler (2016) Sulfuric Acid Handbook
[7] Iliyasu I, Yawas D. S. and Aku S.Y (2012) Corrosion Behavior of
Austenitic Stainless Steel in Sulphuric Acid at various concentrations
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria,
Nigeria
[8] Jeff Kitchen Sulfuric Acid Tank Inspection
[9] NDT Equipment Supplies Ltd. (2017) Product and Price Guide
[10] Westlake Chemical Corporation. (November 2017) Westlake
Chemical Corporation City 2017 Basic Materials Conference
[11] Westlake Chemical Corporation (November 2017) Annual Report to
Shareholders
[12] Lyondellbasell Industries N.V. (2017) Advancing Possible: Annual
Report 2017

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B. Internet Sources
[13] http://www.sulphuric-acid.com/techmanual/strong%20acid/sa_
piping_maintenance.htm
[14] https://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/energy/oil-
refining5.htm
[15] www.essentialchemicalindustry.org/processes/cracking-
isomerization-and-reforming.html
[16] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrochemical

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