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1 INTRODUCTION
In a single bore pipeline the velocity will be a maximum at the end of the
pipeline. It is the value of the minimum velocity of the air that is critical to the
successful operation of a pneumatic conveying system. Volumetric flow rate, of
course, is given simply by multiplying conveying air velocity by pipe section area.
In this process, however, the correct velocity has to be used and this is considered
in detail in the next chapter on 'Air Requirements'.
The minimum value of conveying air velocity depends to a large extent on
the properties of the bulk particulate material to be conveyed and the mode of
conveying. For dilute phase conveying this velocity is typically about 3000 ft/min,
although this does depend upon particle size, shape and density, as will be dis-
cussed.
For dense phase conveying the minimum velocity is about 600 ft/min. For
fine powders that are capable of being conveyed in dense phase the minimum
value of conveying air velocity also depends upon the concentration of the mate-
rial in the air, or the solids loading ratio, and this will be considered in detail in this
chapter.
In dilute phase conveying the particles are conveyed in suspension in the air
and this relatively high value of velocity is due, in part, to the large difference in
density between the particles and the air. In hydraulic conveying typical velocities
for suspension flow are only about 300 ft/min, but the difference in density be-
tween water and particles is very little in comparison. The difference in density
between water and air is about 800:1. Since the difference in conveying medium
velocity is only of the order of about 10:1 it will be seen that the pressure of the
air, and hence its density, will not have a major effect on the value of minimum
conveying air velocity for general pneumatic conveying.
30
Figure 4.1 Air only pressure drop data for pipeline shown in figure 4.2.
The simplest starting point is to consider the air only flowing through the
pipeline. If a graph is drawn of pressure drop against air flow rate for a conveying
line the result will be similar to that shown in Figure 4.1.
The data in Figure 4.1 relates to a 165 ft long pipeline of 2 inch nominal
bore which includes nine ninety degree bends. Details of the pipeline are presented
in Figure 4.2. This pipeline was used for conveying many of the materials for
which conveying characteristics are presented in the first part of this chapter, and
several subsequent chapters. As a consequence, both the pipeline in Figure 4.2,
and the air only pressure drop datum in Figure 4.1, will serve as a reference for
much of the data that follows.
The line representing the air only pressure drop on Figure 4.1 is effectively
the lower limit for conveying and will appear on subsequent graphs with a zero to
indicate that this is the datum for conveying and represents a material flow rate of
Olb/h.
It will be seen from Figure 4.1 that the air only pressure drop increases
markedly with increase in air flow rate. When material is added to the air in the
pipeline, at any given value of air flow rate, there will be an increase in pressure.
This is as a consequence of the drag force of the air on the particles to enable them
to be conveyed through the pipeline.
The air, however, has to be at a velocity that is sufficiently high to convey
the material, otherwise the particles will not convey, and a build up of such mate-
rial could cause blockage of the pipeline.
Pipeline:
165 ft long
2 inch nominal bore
9 * 90° bends
D/d = 24
In some situations, when fine dust is fed into a pipeline, there will be a slight
reduction in pressure drop, and this relates to modification of the boundary layer.
The flow rates of material involved are very small and have no relevance to pneu-
matic conveying. It will be seen from Figure 4.1 that if an air mover having a low
pressure capability is to be employed, the pressure drop available for conveying
material will be very limited, particularly if a high air flow rate is required for di-
lute phase conveying. Pipeline bore, of course, can be increased in order to com-
pensate if the pressure available for conveying is limited.
2.1.1.1 Pressure Drop Evaluation
Figure 4.1 relates to single phase flow and the analysis of such flows is well estab-
lished and quite straightforward. The pressure drop, Ap, for a fluid of density p,
flowing through a pipeline of a given diameter, d, and length, L, can be determined
from Darcy's Equation:
fLpC2
Ap a lbf/in 2 - - (1)
d
where / is the friction factor, which is a function of the Reynolds
number for the flow and the pipe wall roughness,
and C is the mean velocity of the flow - ft/min
It can be seen from this mathematical model, which is presented in more de-
tail in Chapter 6 on 'The Air Only Datum', that pressure drop follows a square law
relationship with respect to velocity. This means that if the velocity is doubled the
D V\
r\ _ fD
T . V2 _ D V0
^0 .-T*.
T
•M
T
*2
T
-'0
576 V
C = — ft/min - - - - - . . . . - (3)
This shows quite clearly how velocity is influenced by both gas pressure and
temperature, for a given volumetric flow rate of free air, and that for any given set
of conditions the gas velocity can be evaluated quite easily. These equations are
developed further in the next chapter.
In Figure 4.3 a graph is presented that will allow the conveying air velocity
to be evaluated for any given free air flow rate and conveying air pressure for con-
veying data relating to Figures 4.1 and 2. Conveying air velocity values up to
about 6000 ft/min have been considered as this is ideally the maximum value that
should normally be employed in dilute phase conveying.
I
L 4000 Atmospheric Pressure
_o = 14-7 Ibf7in 2 absolute
>
•= 2000
c
o
U Pipeline Bore = 2 in nominal
Air Temperature = 60 F
Figure 4.3 The influence of air flow rate and pressure on conveying air velocity for test
pipeline and data.
and density of the particles. For horizontal conveying, low density 20 micron sized
particles are likely to be conveyed at about 90% of the velocity of the conveying
gas, and for high density 1000 micron sized particles the value will be about 50%.
A typical representative value for the velocity of powdered materials is about 85%
of the gas velocity for horizontal conveying and 75% of the gas velocity for con-
veying vertically up.
20
Q
0.
o
10
c
o
U
0
0 40 80 120 160 200
Free Air Flow Rate - ItVmin
The first is the limit on the right hand side of the graph, but this is set only
by the volumetric capacity of the compressor or blower used. This was 200
ftVmin, and by reference to Figure 4.3 it will be seen that conveying air velocities
are up to about 8000 ft/min at the end of the pipeline. For the majority of pneu-
matic conveying systems this is considered to be the upper limit.
This upper limit is partly influenced by problems of material degradation
and bend erosion in the conveying line, but it is mainly due to the adverse effect
on the conveying line pressure drop and hence material flow rate. This aspect of
the problem is considered in more detail in the next section. In terms of the overall
conveying characteristics, the shape of the curves is quite clearly established
within this maximum limit.
The second limit is that at the top of the graph and this is set by the pressure
rating of the compressor or blower used. Once again this is not a physical limit, for
if air is available at a higher pressure, it can be used for conveying, but it would
normally be recommended that the pipeline be stepped to a larger bore in order to
limit the very high values of conveying air velocity. This aspect of system design
is considered in Chapter 9.
The third is the limit on the left hand side of the graph and this represents
the approximate safe minimum conditions for successful conveying with the mate-
rial. The lines actually terminate and conveying is not possible in the area to the
left at lower air flow rates. This limit is governed by a complex combination of
material properties, material concentration and conveying distance, and is consid-
ered in more detail later in this section.
Any attempt to convey with a lower air flow rate would result in blockage of
the pipeline, in a conventional conveying system. This is because the air flow rate
would be below the minimum required to convey the material. The terminology
employed for these situations is choking, when conveying vertically up, and salta-
tion when conveying horizontally.
40 30
> 40
<u
CS -AREA
30
_0 _o
20 I 20
O
a "o3
S
10 10
Conveying
Pressure Dri
- Ibf/iiv
0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
3
Free Air Flow Rate - fVVmin Free Air Flow Rate - ft /min
(a) (b)
Figure 4.5 Performance data for cement conveyed through the pipeline shown in Fig-
ure 4.2. (a) Material flow rate data and (b) conveying characteristics.
ft/min for the dense phase conveying. As the pressure of the conveying air in-
creases, a greater volumetric flow rate of air is required to maintain the same value
of conveying air velocity, and hence the positive slope to the conveying limit
curve in these areas.
Between these two regions two opposing effects come into play. One is the
problem of compressibility, which means that a greater air flow rate is required as
the air supply pressure increases. The other relates to the considerable increase in
solids loading ratio that is possible with an increase in conveying line pressure
drop. This means that the cement can be conveyed at a lower velocity, which in
turn means that a lower air flow rate is required. The combination of these two
effects dictates the shape of the transition between the dilute phase and the very
dense phase portions of the conveying limit curve.
2.3.4.1 Solids Loading Ratio Influence
The relationship between the minimum conveying air velocity and the solids load-
ing ratio at which a material is conveyed can be determined experimentally with
the material in a pipeline. This is typically derived during the conveying trials car-
ried out with a material in order to determine the conveying characteristics for the
material, since the determination of conveying limits is generally an integral part
of the test work.
Pneumatic conveying trials with bulk particulate materials are considered in
Chapter 23. The approximate influence of solids loading ratio on the minimum
conveying air velocity for the cement is presented in Figure 4.6.
3000
• 2000
1000
en
c
c
o
U
20 40 60 80 100
Solids Loading Ratio
Figure 4.6 Approximate influence of solids loading ratio on the minimum value of
conveying air velocity for the pneumatic conveying of ordinary portland cement.
This curve is typical of the relationship between minimum conveying air ve-
locity and solids loading ratio for air retentive materials that are capable of being
conveyed in the sliding bed mode of dense phase flow. This relationship has a
major influence on the operation and pneumatic conveying capability of this type
of material and will feature at many points throughout this Handbook. Possibly the
greatest effect is the change that occurs with increase in conveying distance, which
is considered in Chapter 7.
Since high solids loading ratios can only be achieved with a high value of
pressure gradient, an increase in conveying distance will mean that the value of
solids loading ratio must be reduced if there is no increase in the air supply pres-
sure. A reduction in solids loading ratio, as will be seen from Figure 4.6, will re-
quire an increase in conveying air velocity and this will consequently require an
increase in air flow rate.
In the extreme the solids loading ratio will reduce to a value at which the
material can only be conveyed in dilute phase. This relationship is introduced later
in this Chapter.
30
Q
e
u 20
I
OJ
OH
DO 10
C
C
o
U
Within the limit of the 30 Ibf7in2 pressure drop the alumina was conveyed at
flow rates up to about 25,000 Ib/h through this two inch nominal bore pipeline. If
this is compared with the corresponding data for the cement in Figure 4.4 it will be
seen that the maximum value of flow rate for the alumina is very much lower and
that the air flow rate required to achieve 25,000 Ib/h is significantly greater than
that required to convey the cement at 35,000 Ib/h.
The same conveying limits, as discussed in relation to the conveying of ce-
ment, apply to the alumina. It is the same pipeline and so the air only pressure
drop relationship is the same. It is the same air supply and so the air flow rate and
pressure considered are also the same. It is the conveying limit for the material that
differs. Conveying capability and conveying limits, however, do differ widely
from one material to another, and this is why conveying data is so essential.
60 60
50 50
Conveying Line o NO
Pressure Drop * 40
40 Solids Loading
- lbf/in2 GO
.o Ratio
I30
AREA
Conveying
g30 Limit
o •5
25
320
20 Conveying Line 20
od Pressure Drop
- lbf/in 2
10
10
Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin
(a) (b)
Figure 4.8 Performance data for sandy alumina conveyed through the pipeline shown
in figure 4.2. (a) Material flow rate data and (b) conveying characteristics.
The comparison is striking in terms of the small area of the graph in which
the data for the sandy alumina appears. It will be noted in Figure 4.8a that the lines
of constant conveying line pressure drop terminate at progressively higher air
mass flow rates as the material flow rate increases. This does not mean that the
minimum conveying air velocity increases. This is entirely due to the influence of
air pressure and the compressibility of the air. By reference to Figure 4.3, it will be
seen that the minimum conveying air velocity for this material is about 2600
ft/min and that it changes little over this range of material concentration.
This slope of the minimum conveying limit on Figure 4.8b is a characteristic
feature of all materials conveyed in dilute phase and will be seen on the conveying
characteristics for most of the materials presented here. It applies equally to mate-
rials capable of being conveyed in dense phase, if the pressure gradient is low, as
will be seen in the very low pressure area on Figure 4.5b for the cement.
With the cement it was possible to convey the material with higher air sup-
ply pressures. From Figure 4.5a it will be seen that within the limit of 60,000 Ib/h
of material, conveying line pressure drop values up to 40 Ibf/in2 were employed.
From Figure 4.8a for the alumina it will be seen that 25 Ibf/in 2 is close to the maxi-
mum pressure that could be employed. Although the air pressure with the test fa-
cility was available at 100 Ibf/in 2 gauge, a pressure higher than 25 Ibf/in 2 could not
be used because the volumetric flow rate of the air was limited to 200 ftVmin.
The locus of the conveying limit line is included on Figure 4.8b and it will
be seen that this passes through the 200 ftVmin air flow rate limit with an air sup-
ply pressure of about 30 Ibf/in2. At these air supply pressures the minimum con-
veying air velocity for the alumina is about 2600 ft/min compared with only 600
ft/min for the cement, and so for a given air supply pressure the air flow rate is
more than four times greater.
^ 3000
2000
<5
.S 1000
oo
c
o
O
20 40 60 80 100
Solids loading ratio
Figure 4.9 Approximate influence of solids loading ratio on the minimum value of
conveying air velocity for the pneumatic conveying of sandy alumina.
60 60
300200 120 100 80
50
NO
40 40 GO Solids Loading
Ratio
AREA
Conveying
ai
Limit
o
20 .320 \ 35 V.20
Conveying Line
Pressure Drop 25 15
S 10 10 10
0
50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
(a) Free Air Flow Rate - frYmin (b) Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin
Figure 4.10 Conveying characteristics for materials conveyed through the pipeline
shown in figure 4.2. (a) A fine grade of pulverized fuel ash and (b) silica sand.
Material 30
Flow Rate
Ib/h x 1000
60 60
50 50 NO
o
o
Solids Loading
o GO Ratio
Conveying Line
40 Pressure Drop
AREA
- lbf/in 2
« 30
cd
as \ Conveying Line
Pressure Drop
FT 20 - lbf/in%
10
o,
e 20
D
NO
20
GO
AREA
g'lO
c Conveyin:
o
U Limit
Conveying data for four different materials is presented in Figure 4.14. Each
material was conveyed in a positive pressure conveying system up to a limit of 8
lbf/in2 in terms of conveying line pressure drop. All four materials were conveyed
through the same pipeline, a sketch of which is given in Figure 4.15. Although
each material could only be conveyed in dilute phase, because of the limit on pres-
sure available, it will be seen that there are significant differences in their convey-
ing capabilities.
The differences between materials are mainly in terms of the material flow
rates achieved, varying from 8500 Ib/h for the pearlite to 3500 Ib/h for the iron
powder, for a pressure drop of 8 lbf/in 2 . Since all the materials were conveyed in
dilute phase, and they were all either powders or fine granular materials, such
marked differences would not be expected in terms of minimum conveying air
velocities. With a 3 lbf/in 2 pressure drop, these varied between 2400 ft/min for the
pearlite and 3200 ft/min for the iron powder.
Although the iron powder achieved the lowest flow rate of the four materials
presented, it should be noted that the iron powder conveyed very well, regardless
of the fact that particle density was 355 lb/ft3 and the bulk density about 150 lb/ft3.
Metal powders can be conveyed pneumatically; the main problem is that many of
them are potentially explosive and so require to be conveyed with nitrogen.
Uranium with even higher density values is regularly conveyed in pneu-
matic systems because of the safety aspects of the conveying system. At the other
extreme the pearlite had a bulk density of only 6 !b/ft' and a particle density of 50
lb/ft'. With a higher pressure gradient available both the iron powder and pearlite
have dense phase conveying potential.
Solids Loading
Conveying Line Ratio Solids Loading
Pressure Drop 8 Conveying Line Ra(io
- lbf/in 2 Pressure Drop
- lbf/in 2
o7
x
6
X3
~T 5
^
<L>
"8
o
x,
2
3
u
!2
i
0 40 60 80 100 120
40 60 80 100 120
Free Air Flow Rate - ft'/min Free Air Flow Rate - frVmin
(a) (b)
Conveying Line
Pressure Drop
o o - lbf/in 2
o Solids Loading
2
Solids Loading
6 Ratio Ratio
X
_c
£ 5
.Conveying Line
- Pressure Drop
4 - lbf/in 2
8.
3
B 2
Figure 4.14 Conveying characteristics for low pressure conveying of materials, (a)
Pearlite, (b) sodium chloride (salt), (c) iron powder, and (d) sodium carbonate (soda ash).
Pipeline:
length 115ft
bore 2 in
bends 8 x 90°
D/d = 5
Figure 4.15 Details of pipeline used for low pressure conveying trials.
Many different materials have been tested in the pipeline presented in Figure
4.15. To illustrate how the conveying characteristics of different materials can
vary in such a low pressure system, the 8 lbf/in 2 constant conveying line pressure
drop curves from a number of such materials are compared on Figure 4.16.
With additional materials it will be seen that the conveying performance, in
terms of material flow rate achieved, does not correlate with material density.
Soda ash is little better than iron powder and pulverized fuel ash is better than
pearlite in terms of material flow rate achieved. Lump coal is better than fine
granular salt, although a slightly higher value of conveying line inlet air velocity is
required, and so performance does not correlate with particle size either.
(U
^ . Soda Ash
oi 4
Silica Sand
•g2
Iron Powder
Conveying
Limit
50
Solids Loading 50
Ratio
NO
I40 Conveying Line >40
GO Solids Loading
I I Ratio
30 730
AREA
Conveying
Bi Limit
° 20
fcu
.220
~
is
'C
is
0) <B Conveying Line
'S 10
JS10 Pressure Drop -
- lbf/in 2
0
0 40 80 120 160 200 40 80 120 160 200
Free Air Flow Rate - ft3/min Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin
(a) (b)
60 60 -
Conveying
Conveying Line Limit
50 " Pressure Drop 0 50
o Solids Loading
: NO
o
o
Ratio X
• GO
^40 =5 4Q " Solids
£ : AREA Re
u
£ 30 (S30 ; cConvey!
s
_o
Limit
_o E
• Conveying Line
i 2° |20
.5 Pressure Drop
; - lbf/in 2 \
'8 1
S 10 10 ; 15
AREA 5 r=-j .
^^
: .^
50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Free Air Flow Rate - ft/min Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin
(C) (d)
Figure 4.17 Conveying characteristics for high pressure conveying of materials, (a)
Wheat flour, (b) granulated sugar, (c) iron powder, and (d) zircon sand.
o
o
o 40
Barite
Sugar
Granulated
30
Iron Powder
FT 20 Cement
Wheat Flour
10 PVC Powder
Magnesium/
Sulfate
50 100 ^ 150 200
Free Air Flow Rate - ft'/min
It will be noted that at the extreme right of Figure 4.18, at high air flow
rates, all the materials are conveyed in dilute phase and the degree of scatter in
material flow rates is similar to that shown in Figure 4.16. All the pressure drop
curves have a negative slope in this area and each one will probably reach the air
flow rate axis at a value of about 600 ft3/min.
As a result of the different slopes of the pressure drop curves, at low values
of air flow rate, for the different materials, quite remarkable differences in material
flow rate can be obtained. This is for materials conveyed through exactly the same
pipeline and under exactly the same conveying conditions. Differences in mini-
mum conveying air velocities, for materials that will not convey in dense phase,
significantly add to the problems of reliable system design, particularly for a new
or unknown material.
50 '100 /80
§40
o20 20
.3
j§
10 10
Figure 4.19 Comparison of material conveying limits for conveying under identical
conveying conditions.
The minimum conveying air velocity for the copper concentrate was about
1600 ft/min. With the granulated sugar, however, conveying at a solids loading
ratio of 20 could not be achieved and the minimum value of conveying air velocity
was about 3200 ft/min.
4 MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION
500
100
50
"o
I
10
Figure 4.20 Geldart's classification of fluidization behavior for fluidization with ambi-
ent air.
500
Group D
100
Strong
t 50 Axisymmetric
g Slugs
Q
Group C
10
S GROUP 3
10
PLUG TYPE
GROUP 2 FLOW
DILUTE PHASE
GROUP 1 \ (SusPension Flow)
Q
T3
& 0-5 MOVING BED
TYPE FLOW
0-1 1 10 100
Permeability Factor - ft3 in/lb x l(r6
If the material is granular, the ball bearing is unlikely to penetrate the mate-
rial and will simply come to rest on the top of the surface. In this case the material
is unlikely to have sufficient air retention to allow it to be conveyed in dense phase
in a conventional conveying system.
If the material has good permeability, however, such that it falls into Group
3, it is possible that the material will convey at low velocity in the plug type dense
phase mode of flow. Pelletized materials, such as polyethylene and nylon, are
ideal candidates and will convey very well in a conventional conveying system.
Coarse granular materials having a wide particle size distribution, however, do not
generally have sufficient permeability to be capable of dense phase conveying in
the plug phase mode.
For a given material a particular problem with pneumatic conveying systems is the
evaluation of their conveying potential. The capability of a pneumatic conveying
system in terms of achieving a given material mass flow rate, depends essentially
on the following three parameters:
Within normal limits, and for a given material, air flow rate is a secondary
function, being primarily dependent upon the pipeline bore and air pressure. It is,
however, important with respect to achieving optimum conveying conditions in a
given pipeline. The properties of the material to be conveyed are also of para-
mount importance. Their main influence, however, in terms of material mass flow
rate, is in placing an upper limit on the solids loading ratio at which the material
can be conveyed under particular conditions, as shown in Figure 4.19.
m
<t> = — (4)
ma
Since air is a compressible fluid its density changes with pressure and so the
volumetric flow rate, and hence velocity, of the conveying air can increase quite
significantly along the length of a pipeline. Solids loading ratio, therefore, is a
particularly useful parameter for describing the concentration of the material in the
air in pneumatic conveying system pipelines, for it is a dimensionless quantity and
its value remains essentially constant. This applies to stepped bore pipelines as
well as single bore lines.
m = m Ib/h (5)
Note:
To convert free air flow rate, in ftVmin, to a mass flow rate, in Ib/h,
multiply by the density of the air, in lb/ff, and by 60 min/h:
x
0-0765 x 60 Ib/h (6)
n d2
V = x C ft7min (7)
576
where d = pipeline bore - in
and C = conveying air velocity - ft/min
Therefore
m,. oc Ccf (8)
As a first order approximation, for simplicity, conveying air velocity, C, can
be considered as being constant, so that:
m cf (9)
For a given system, therefore, throughput capability can be increased quite
considerably by increasing the pipe bore and so enable high material flow rates to
be achieved. The air requirements, of course, also have to be increased in the same
proportion in order to maintain an equivalent air velocity.
150 100 80 60 40
15
o
00
3
10
£ 5
Figure 4.23 Influence of air supply pressure and conveying distance on solids loading
ratio for low pressure systems.
60
30
50
40
3 30
cn
a
0-
20
., ,0
Conveying Distance - ft
Figure 4.24 Influence of air supply pressure and conveying distance on solids loading
ratio for high pressure systems.
Figure 4.24 shows that if very long conveying distances are required, the
solids loading ratio will be relatively low, even with a high pressure system. With
a low pressure system the maximum value of solids loading ratio that can be
achieved will be very low, and then only with a large bore pipeline. It must be
stressed once again that the high values of solids loading ratio are only applicable
if the material being considered is capable of being conveyed in dense phase.
REFERENCES