CHAPTER-2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In this chapter literature survey of different researcher has been carried out. The review of
literature is arranged first concept of area wise and the control methodology used like
conventional control and intelligent control (fuzzy, ANN and ANFIS). In each section and sub-
section, literature is arranged as per the year of publication.

2.1 SINGLE AREAS POWER SYSTEM

2.1.1 Based on Conventional Control theory

Pan C. T. and C. M. Liaw (1989), reported ‘An Adaptive Controller for Power System Load
Frequency Control’. This paper presents an adaptive controller for load-frequency control of
power system. The pole assignment technique is used to find the parameters of the linear
controller, and the Popov's theorem is applied to design the parameters of the adaptation
mechanism. The simulation results indicate that good control performance can be obtained by
this proposed controller, and the performance is insensitive to the plant parameter changes.
Wang Y. et al(1994), reported ‘New robust adaptive load-frequency control with system
parametric uncertainties’. In the paper, based on a combination of the robust control approach
and an adaptive control technique, a design procedure of a new robust adaptive controller is
proposed for power system load-frequency control with system parametric uncertainties. The
simulation results demonstrate that for the example system the proposed load frequency
controller can achieve good dynamic performance. Heon-Su Ryu, et al (2000) presented
‘Extended Integral Control for Load Frequency Control with the Consideration of Generation-
Rate Constraints’. This paper presents an extended integral control to LFC scheme with the
presence of Generation Rate Constraints in order to get rid of overshoot of the conventional PI
control. The conventional LFC scheme does not yield adequate control performance with
consideration of the singularities of speed governor such as rate limit on valve position and GRC.
In order to overcome this draw back, an extended integral control is developed for the PI control
of the speed governor under the presence of GRC. The key idea of this integral control is using a
decoying factor to reduce the effect of error in the past. The simulation results show that the
proposed controller based on extended integral control yields much improved control
performance, compared to the conventional PI controller.

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Yang Ming-Sheng (2000), presented ‘Load-Frequency Control Scheme for Power Systems
Using Smoothed Switching Structure Theory’. A design scheme of smoothed switching structure
theory based load-frequency control for power systems including parameter uncertainties is
presented in this paper. However, knowledge about the bounds of the parameter uncertainties is
required for controller design. The basic concept and design scheme of switching structure
control are briefly discussed.
George Gross and Jeong Woo Lee (2001) presented ‘Analysis of Load Frequency Control
Performance Assessment Criteria’. This paper presents the development and application of an
analytic framework for the formulation and evaluation of control performance criteria in load
frequency control (LFC). The framework is constructed so as to explicitly represent the
uncertainty in the measured variables in LFC and to use metrics that are meaningful for the
structure of the problem.
Young-Hyun Moon, et al (2001), presented ‘Power System Load Frequency Control Using
Noise-Tolerable PID Feedback’. This paper presents a new PID (Proportiona1, Integral and
Differential) control scheme based on the feedback of averaged derivatives to realize a noise-
tolerable differential control with its application to the load frequency control in the power
system. It is well known that the LFC (Load Frequency Control) is exposed to the quite noisy
environment. The test results show that the proposed controller yields the outputs much closer to
the output of the original PID control neglecting noise effects. This demonstrates that the purpose
of noise-tolerable control is achieved by the proposed PID control using a delay element.
Dulpichet Rerkpreedapong et al (2003) presented ‘Robust Load Frequency Control Using
Genetic Algorithms and Linear Matrix Inequalities’. In this paper, two robust decentralized
control design methodologies for load frequency control (LFC) are proposed. The first one is
based on H∞ control design using linear matrix in-equalities (LMI) technique in order to obtain
robustness against uncertainties. The second controller has a simpler structure, which is more
appealing from an implementation point of view, and it is tuned by a proposed novel robust
control design algorithm to achieve the same robust performance as the first one. The simulation
results show that the responses of GALMI tuned PI load frequency controllers are almost the
same as those of the robust H∞ controllers, which have effective control performance and
robustness against possible disturbances
Khodabakhshian A. and N. Golbon (2004) presented ‘Unified PID Design for Load Frequency
Control’. This paper presents a new PID controller for power system load-frequency control. A
systematic tuning method is developed. The method is mainly based on a maximum peak-
resonance specification that is graphically supported by the Nichols chart. The proposed

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controller is simple, effective and can ensure that the overall system performance is desirable.
Comparative results of this new load-frequency controller and a conventional PI one show the
improvement in system damping remarkably.
Giuseppe Dell Olio et al (2005) presented ‘A pluralistic LFC scheme for online resolution of
power congestions between market zones’. This paper introduces the theoretical aspects and
functional design of such an advanced LFC scheme, capable of controlling at the same time the
cross border ex-changes of the pluralistic block and the power flows between net-work subareas
defined as market zones. Simulations on the Italian power system show the performance, main
advantages, and limits of the proposed control method.
Guangwei Meng et al (2009) presented ‘power system load-frequency controller design based
on discrete variable structure control theory’. This paper proposes a discrete-time variable
structure reaching law with attenuating quasi-sliding mode band, and gives the variable condition
of quasi-sliding mode band. The proposed reaching law is applied to design a load-frequency
controller for a power system. The simulation results show that the controller can not only
eliminate system chattering, but also improve dynamic performance of the system effectively and
make the system possess a strong robustness property.
Wen Tan, Zhan Xu (2009), presented ‘Robust analysis and design of load frequency controller
for power systems’. Robust load frequency control for power systems is discussed. A detailed
robustness analysis of the existing control laws shows that parameter variation is not a critical
issue but more attention should be paid to the un modeled dynamics in robust load frequency
controller design. A new robust load frequency control method is then proposed considering the
un-modeled dynamics of power systems. Finally, a new configuration is proposed to overcome
the effects of generation rate constraints (GRC).
Muwaffaq Irsheid Alomoush (2010) presented ‘Load frequency control and automatic
generation control using fractional order controllers’. Recently, fractional calculus has received
extensive attention and research. Accordingly, there is an increasing interest in fractional-order
(FO) dynamic systems and controllers. The widely used classical integer-order proportional
integral controller and proportional-integral-derivative controller are usually adopted in the load
frequency control (LFC) and automatic generation control (AGC) to improve the dynamic
response and to eliminate or reduce steady-state errors. The simulation results show that the
proposed FO controllers are robust and competitive to IA-based optimal controllers.
Kresimir Vrdoljak et al (2010) presented ‘Applying Optimal Sliding Mode Based Load-
Frequency Control in Power Systems with Controllable Hydro Power Plants’. In this paper an
optimal load-frequency controller for a nonlinear power system is proposed. Due to a non-

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minimum phase behavior of hydro power plants, full-state feedback sliding mode controller must
be used. Therefore, an estimation method based on fast output sampling is proposed for
estimating the unmeasured system states and disturbances. Finally, the controller parameters are
optimized using a genetic algorithm. Simulation results show that the proposed control algorithm
with the proposed estimation technique can be used for LFC in a nonlinear power system.
Khodabakhshian A. and R. Hooshmand (2010) presented ‘A new PID controller design for
automatic generation control of hydro power system’. This paper presents a new robust PID
controller for automatic generation control (AGC) of hydro turbine power systems. The method
is mainly based on a maximum peak resonance specification that is graphically supported by the
Nichols chart. The open-loop frequency response curve is tangent to a specified ellipse and this
makes the method to be efficient for controlling the overshoot, the stability and the dynamics of
the system. Comparative results of this new load frequency controller with a conventional PI one
and also with another PID controller design tested on a multi machine power system show the
improvement in system damping remarkably. The region of acceptable performance of the new
PID controller covers a wide range of operating and system conditions.

2.1.2 Based on Fuzzy Control Technique

Shih Chun Hsu et al (1995) presented ‘Automatic Generation of Fuzzy Control Rules by
Machine Learning Methods’. This paper presents a multi-strategy learning technique for
automatic generation of fuzzy control rules. The resulting decision tree can be easily converted
into IF-THEN rules, which are then fuzzified. The fuzzy rules are further improved by tuning the
parameters that define their membership functions using the gradient-descent approach.
Experimental results of applying the proposed technique to nonlinear system identification have
shown improvements over previous work in the area.
Chown G.A. and RC. Hartman (1997), presented ‘Design and Experience with a Fuzzy Logic
Controller for Automatic Generation Control (AGC)’. This paper describes the design,
implementation and operational performance of a fuzzy controller as part of the Automatic
Generation Control (AGC) system in Eskom’s National Control Centre. The fuzzy controller was
implemented to the control ACE calculation, which determines the shortfall or surplus generation
that has to be corrected. The controller was also very simple to implement and configure and
could be incorporated as an option on the vendor’s product.
Ha Q. P. (1998) presented ‘A Fuzzy Sliding Mode Controller for Power System Load-Frequency
Control’. The application of a robust sliding mode control method to the load frequency control
problem of a single area power system is considered in this paper. The control signal consists of

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an equivalent control, a switching control, and a fuzzy control. The influence of not only load
changes but also parameter variations and governor S backlash is considered with and without
generation-rate constraints. Simulation results demonstrate that the system responses are strongly
robust to load disturbances and parameter variations even in the presence of governor’s backlash
dead band and imposed generation physical constraints.
Jawad Talaq and Fadel Al-Basri (1999), presented ‘Adaptive Fuzzy Gain Scheduling for Load
Frequency Control’. An adaptive fuzzy gain scheduling scheme for conventional PI and optimal
load frequency controllers has been proposed. A Sugeno type fuzzy inference system is used in
the proposed controller. The Sugeno type fuzzy inference system is extremely well suited to the
task of smoothly interpolating linear gains across the input space when a very non-linear system
moves around in its operating space. The proposed adaptive controller requires much less
training patterns than a neural net based adaptive scheme does and hence avoiding excessive
training time. Results of simulation show that the proposed adaptive fuzzy controller offers better
performance than fixed gain controllers at different operating conditions.
Kazuto Yukita et al (2000) presented ‘Study of Load Frequency Control using Fuzzy Theory by
Combined Cycle Power Plant’. This paper proposes a new control method using the combined
cycle power plant that consists of multi-power generation units, to improve the load frequency
control (LFC) characteristics and to secure the regulation capacity in power system.
Dulpichet Rerkpreedapong and Ali Feliachi (2002), presented ‘Fuzzy Rule Based Load
Frequency Control in Compliance with NERC’s Standards’. In this paper, a set of fuzzy logic
rules is designed to manipulate load frequency controllers of generating units providing
regulation and load following services. The fuzzy based load frequency controllers take smart
actions that (1) assure compliance with NERC’s control performance standards, CPS1 and CPS2,
and (2) also reduce wear and tear of generating units’ equipments.
Musiala M. et al (2004), presented ‘An Adaptive Fuzzy Controller Gain Scheduling for Power
System Load-Frequency Control’. In this paper, an adaptive fuzzy controller gain scheduling
scheme for power system load-frequency control is designed to damp the frequency oscillations
and to track its error to zero at steady state, A Sugeno type inference system is used in the
proposed controller to adapt the scaling gains of a single fuzzy controller through a classical on-
line monitoring of the most sensitive parameters of the system. The proposed controller avoids
excessive patterns and training time compared to neural network based adaptive schemes. A
typical single-area non reheat power system is considered. Simulation results indicate that the
proposed controller is insensitive to parameter changes in a wide range of operating condition,
and to the generation rate constraints. Furthermore, it is simple to implement.

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Soundarrajan A. et al (2009), presented ‘Particle Swarm Optimization Based LFC and AVR of
Autonomous Power Generating System’. In this paper, an evolutionary computing approach for
determining the optimal values for the proportional-integral derivative (PID) controller
parameters of load frequency control (LFC) and Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) system of
single area power system using the particle swarm optimization technique is presented.. The
results are compared with conventional PID, Fuzzy and GA based controllers.

2.1.3 Based on ANN Control Technique

Murat Luy et al (2008) presented ‘Load Frequency Control in a single area power system by
artificial neural network (ANN)’. In this study, an artificial neural network (ANN) application of
load frequency control (LFC) of a single area power system by using a neural network controller
is presented. The study has been designed for a single area interconnected power system. The
comparison between a conventional Proportional and Integral (PI) controller and the proposed
artificial neural networks controller is showed that the proposed controller can generate the best
dynamic response for a step load change. The proposed ANN controller is recommended to
generate good quality and reliable electric energy.

2.1.4 Based on Hybrid ANN- Fuzzy Control Technique

Vinod Kumar D. M. (1998), presented ‘Intelligent Controllers For Automatic Generation

Control’. This paper presents a novel approach of Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques viz.,
Fuzzy logic, Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Hybrid Fuzzy Neural Network (HFNN) for
the Automatic Generation Control (AGC). The limitations of the conventional controllers
Proportional, Integral and Derivative (PID) are slow and lack of efficiency in handling system
non-linearities. The intelligent controllers, Fuzzy logic, ANN and Hybrid Fuzzy Neural Network
approaches are used for Automatic Generation Control for the single area system and two area
interconnected power systems. The performance of the intelligent controllers has been compared
with the conventional PI and PID controllers for the single area system as well as two-area
interconnected power system. The result shows that Hybrid Fuzzy Neural Network (HFNN)
controller has better dynamic response i.e., quick in operation, reduced error magnitude and
minimized frequency transients.
Mathur H.D. and S. Ghosh (2006), presented ‘A Comprehensive Analysis of Intelligent
Controllers for Load Frequency Control’. This paper presents summaries of novel approaches of
artificial intelligence (AI) techniques, like fuzzy logic, artificial neural network (ANN), hybrid
fuzzy neural network (HFNN), genetic algorithm (GA) for the load frequency control of

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electrical power system. The intelligent controllers are used for load frequency control for the
single area system. The performance of intelligent controllers with the conventional controllers
has been thoroughly compared and analyzed. It is observed that intelligent controllers are found
more suitable in present day power system where complexity is gradually increasing day by day.

2.2 TWO AREA INTERCONNECTED POWER SYSTEM

2.2.1 Based on Conventional Control Technique

Elgerd Olle I. and Charles E. Fosha, (1970), presented ‘Optimum Megawatt-Frequency

Control of Multiarea Electric Energy Systems. The North American Power Systems
Interconnection Committee recommends that each control area set its frequency bias equal to the
so-called area frequency response characteristic (AFRC).The authors question seriously the basis
for this practice and prove by the methods of optimum control that better response and wider
stability margins can be obtained by lower bias settings.
Fosha Charles E. and Olle I. Elgerd (1970), presented ‘The Megawatt-Frequency Control
Problem: A New Approach via Optimal Control Theory’. This paper records the development of
a state variable model of the megawatt-frequency control problem of multi area electric energy
systems. The model is in a mathematical form necessary for application of theorems of modem
optimal control theory. An optimal feedback controller whose structure is radically different from
that considered before is developed. The results of this study allow the authors to suggest feasible
ways of greatly improving dynamic response and stability margins of the megawatt-frequency
control system.
Ashok Kumar, O.P. Malik (1985), presented ‘Variable structure system control applied to AGC
of an interconnected power system’. A control scheme based on a variable-structure-system
concept is applied to the problem of automatic generation control of interconnected power
systems. The proposed algorithm is simple and easy to implement. The effect of generation-rate-
constraint nonlinearity on the dynamic performance of the system for reheat-and non reheat-type
steam turbines is also studied. A comparison of the conventional and the proposed variable-
structure control strategies shows that, with the application of the proposed algorithm, the system
performance is improved significantly.
Song Jiahua and Zheng Xinguang (1985) presented ‘Adaptive control with multistep predictor
for power system load frequency’. The regulation of electric power is of controlled process with
time delay. The time delay is existed because measuring, processing, telecommunication, unit
mechanical delay and using simplified model which should have a equivalent time delay to
describe a complex system performance exactly. The interest of the paper is put on treating such

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problem. A method of design of adaptive controller for load frequency has been prescribed
considering the time-delay.
Kothari M.L. & J. Nanda (1988) presented ‘Application of optimal control strategy to
automatic generation control of a hydrothermal system’. The paper highlights the design of
automatic generation controllers through optimal control strategy, for an interconnected
hydrothermal system using a new performance index that circumvents the need for a load
demand estimator. The dynamic performances of these controllers are analyzed and compared
with those obtained through the usual performance index as that used by Fosha and Elgerd
(1971), considering a step-load perturbation in either of the areas. Attempt is made to suitably
design the new optimal controller that can provide safe generation rate and reasonably good
response.
Kothari N.L. et al (1989), presented ‘Discrete Mode Automatic Generation Control of Two
Areas Reheat Thermal System with New Area Control Error’. This paper deals with discrete
mode Automatic Generation control of an interconnected reheat thermal system considering a
new area control error (ACEN) based on tie-per deviation, frequency deviation, time error and
inadvertent interchange. Optimum integral and proportima1 integral controllers using the
concept of stability margin and ISE technique have been obtained with conventional ACE and
new ACE, and their dynamic performances compared for a step load perturbation. The result
reveals that regulator based on the new ACE concept always guarantees zero steady state time
error and inadvertent interchange unlike in the case of a controller based on conventional ACE.
The settling time for tie-power and frequency deviations is however, somewhat more with the
controller based on new ACE.
Katsumi Yamashita and Hayao Miyagi (1991) presented ‘Multivariable self tuning regulator
for load frequency control system with interaction of voltage on load demand’. This paper
presents a new method of designing a multivariable self tuning regulator for a load frequency
control system with the inclusion of interaction of voltage on load demand. The self tuning
controller through speed governor control and excitation control is derived by defining a cost
function with a term for presenting the constraints on the control effort, and then by minimizing
it with respect to the control vector. The proposed method is applied to a two-area power system
provided with non reheat turbines in which the interaction of voltage deviation on load demand
is considered, and the control effects of this regulator are examined using digital simulation.
Das D. et al (1991) presented ‘Variable structure control strategy to automatic generation control
of interconnected reheat thermal system’. The paper deals with the analysis of automatic
generation control (AGC) of a two-area reheat thermal system considering a variable structure

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controller (VSC) based on the sliding mode concept. Investigation reveals that there is a
significant improvement in system dynamic performance with a VSC over that with an integral
controller. More over, the variable structure controller is found to be quite insensitive to wide
variations of system parameters. A systematic method has been suggested for the designs of
variable structure controllers operating in sliding mode for a two equal area reheat thermal
system.
Khatibi M. H. and O.A. Mohammed (1994) reported ‘An Automatic Two-Area Interconnected
System Load-Frequency Control Design’. The design, implementation and evaluation of a
programmable automatic load-frequency controller for a two- area interconnected system is
described. Implementation aspects along with speed requirements of the generators have been
fully investigated, taking into consideration the feedback of the output of these generators for
comparison with model reference. The described work has been implemented in the power
system laboratory at Florida International University.
Kourosh Sedghisigarchi et al (2002) presented ‘Decentralized Load Frequency Control in a
Deregulated Environment using Disturbance Accommodation Control Theory’. In this paper, a
decentralized controller is proposed for the load frequency control problem in a deregulated
environment. The deregulation scenario considered here assumes that generating units in each
area supply regulated power according to their energy contracts. Disturbance Accommodating
Controllers (DAC) are designed which are decentralized controllers using frequency and tie-line
power measurements only.
Hassan Bevrani et al (2003) presented ‘A scenario on Load-Frequency Controller Design in a
Deregulated Power System’. An approach based on µ synthesis and analysis theory is proposed
for the design of load frequency controller in response to the new technical control demand for
power system m a deregulated environment. In this approach the power system is considered as a
collection of separate control areas and each control area can buy electric power from some
generation companies to supply the area-load. The proposed technical scenario is illustrated with
application to the design of load-frequency controller for a typical control area the resulting
controller is shown to minimize the effect of disturbances and achieve acceptable frequency
regulation in presence of uncertainties and load variation.
Muthana T. Alrifai and Mohamed Zribi (2005) presented ‘Decentralized Controllers for
Power System Load Frequency Control’. This paper presents two decentralized control schemes
for load frequency control (LFC) of interconnected power systems. The first controller is a state
feedback linear controller. The second controller is a nonlinear controller. The two control
schemes are designed using Lyapunov theory. For simplicity and without loss of generality, the

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analysis and simulation studies are carried out for a two area interconnected power system. The
simulation results indicate that the proposed control schemes work well even in the presence of
generation-rate constraints. Moreover, the simulation results show that the proposed controllers
are robust to changes in the parameters of the power system.
Tyagi Barjeev and S.C. Srivastava (2005) presented ‘A LQG Based Load Frequency Controller
in a Competitive Electricity Environment’. This paper presents the design of a Linear Quadratic
Gaussian (LQG) regulator for the frequency control of a multi-area power system in a
restructured competitive electricity market environment. A general model of the LQG regulator
has been developed for multi-area system (with hydro and thermal generators) having Poolco and
bilateral transactions.
Tyagi Barjeev and S. C. Srivastava (2006) presented ‘A Decentralized Automatic Generation
Control Scheme for Competitive Electricity Markets’. This paper presents the design of a
decentralized automatic generation control (AGC) scheme for interconnected multi area power
system. The proposed controller incorporates various types of transactions taking place in a
competitive electricity market. The controller has been designed by appropriately assigning the
Eigen structure of each isolated subsystem via state feedback, satisfying the sufficient conditions
for stability. The functioning of the proposed decentralized controller has been demonstrated on a
39-bus New England system and a 75-bus Indian power system, and the results have been
compared with those obtained by using a centralized control scheme. Compliance with the North
American Electric Reliability Council standards for AGC has also been established.
Abolfazl Salami et al (2006) resented ‘The Effect of Load Frequency Controller on Load Pickup
during Restoration’. This paper proposes a method to improve the frequency response of a power
system during restoration. A Load Frequency Control (LFC) scheme with a PID controller is
used. In the initial phase of restoration; the proposed control scheme helps to increase the amount
of load pick- up. Presented method is capable of achieving better frequency response for a
determined load step. The aim is to assess desired frequency response for different power plant.
The proposed controller has been tested for different power plants, and simulation results show
that the frequency controller can improve load pick-up.
Ahmed Bensenouci and A. M. Abdel Ghany (2007) presented ‘Mixed H∞/H2 with Pole-
Placement Design of Robust LMI-Based Output Feedback Controllers for Multi-Area Load
Frequency Control’. In this paper, mixed H∞/H2 control theory with pole-placement is applied to
design centralized and decentralized robust output feedback controllers for Load Frequency
Control (LFC) of interconnected power systems. The system performance is analyzed through
simulating severe disturbances and wide parameters variation in the presence on the system

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inherent nonlinearity. In both centralized and decentralized cases, the system with the designed
robust controllers incorporated is found to fulfill the main LFC requirements.
Prasanth B. Venkata and S. V. Jayaram Kumar (2008), presented ‘Load Frequency Control
for a Two Area Interconnected Power System Using Robust Genetic Algorithm Controller’. In
this paper a new robust load frequency controller for two area interconnected power system is
presented to quench the deviations in frequency and tie line power due to different load
disturbances. The dynamic model of the interconnected power system is developed without the
integral control. The area control error is also not included. The frequency and derivatives are
zero under normal operation and after the disturbance effects are died.
Aswin N. Venkat et al (2008) presented ‘Distributed MPC Strategies with Application to Power
System Automatic Generation Control’. A distributed model predictive control (MPC)
framework, suitable for controlling large-scale networked systems such as power systems, is
presented. The overall system is decomposed into subsystems, each with its own MPC controller.
These subsystem-based MPCs work iteratively and cooperatively towards satisfying system wide
control objectives.
Sinha S.K. et al (2008), presented ‘Design of Optimal and Integral Controllers for AGC of Two
Area Interconnected Power System’. In this work Automatic Generation Control (AGC) of two-
area interconnected power system has been studied. As a consequence of continually load
variation the frequency and tie line power deviate over time and these transients are to be
minimized using different controllers. An optimal controller has been designed to ascertain zero
steady state frequency deviation and tie-line power flow deviation under all operating conditions.
For the same two-area system an integral controller has also been designed and the performance
of the two types of controllers has been compared. The simulation results indicate that better
control performance in terms of overshoot and settling time can be obtained by optimal controller
as compared to conventional integral controller.
Tyagi Barjeev and S. C. Srivastava (2008), presented ‘Automatic Generation Control Scheme
based on Dynamic Participation of Generators in Competitive Electricity Markets’. In this paper
a general model for multi-area AGC, suitable for deregulated electricity market has been
proposed. A dynamic participation factor for Gencos and Discos based on their bid has also been
proposed. To develop the model, control areas of different ratings and each area having number
of Discos and Gencos with different response rate has been considered. Different types of
transactions, possible in the deregulated markets, have also been considered to develop the model.
The developed model has been tested on a 75-bus Indian power system, with PID and the fuzzy

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logic based controller. Frequency deviations in all the areas settle down to zero more quickly
with the fuzzy logic based controller as compared to the conventional PID controller.
Sheikh M.R.I. et al (2009), presented ‘Application of Self-Tuning FPIC to AGC for Load
Frequency Control in Multi-Area Power System’. In this study, a self-tuning control scheme for
SMES is proposed and applied to automatic generation control (AGC) in power system. The
system is assumed to be consisting of two areas. The proposed self-tuning control scheme is used
to implement the automatic generation control for load frequency control application adding to
conventional control configuration. The effects of the self tuning configuration with fuzzy
proportional integral controller (FPIC) in AGC on SMES control for the improvement of load
frequency control (LFC) is compared with that of PI controlled AGC.
Ghazanfar Shahgholian et al (2009), presented ‘Dynamic Analysis and Stability of the Load
Frequency Control in Two Area Power System with Steam Turbine’. The aim of this paper is to
model, analysis and simulation of load frequency control in two area power system and
parameters variation effects. State equations of a LFC in two area power system for a steam
turbine are proposed. Then by examining some factors such as tie-line stiffness, turbine time
constant, inertia constant and damping factor, the frequency control methods and influence of a
small load variation are discussed. Finally, the steady state change in frequency in different cases
using Matlab is calculate and compared. The response of the system is studied for load each area
and parameters changes.
Mariano S.J.P.S. et al (2009), presented ‘Optimal Output Control: Load Frequency Control of a
Large Power System’. This paper addresses the stabilization and performance of the load
frequency regulator. The problem is solved by using the theory of the optimal control. An
algorithm, based on the new technique, proposed by the authors, to overcome the difficulties of
specifying the weighting matrices Q and R, is presented. The algorithm here proposed considers
the multi-area electric energy system. The results indicate that the obtained controller exhibits
better performance then those based on classic control.
Chamnan Koisap and Somyot Kaitwanidvilai (2009) presented ‘A Novel Robust Load
Frequency Controller for a Two Area Interconnected Power System using LMI and Compact
Genetic Algorithms’. This paper proposes a new technique for designing a fixed-structure robust
load frequency controller for a two area interconnected power system. The proposed technique
uses Linear Matrix Inequality (LMI) method to form an initial solution, and then the global
search algorithm, Compact Genetic Algorithm (CGA), is adopted for evaluating the final solution.
Bevrani H. et al (2010) presented ‘Reinforcement Learning Based Multi-agent LFC Design
Concerning the Integration of Wind Farms’. Frequency regulation in interconnected networks is

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one of the main challenges posed by wind turbines in modern power systems. The wind power
fluctuation negatively contributes to the power imbalance and frequency deviation. This paper
presents an intelligent agent based load frequency control (LFC) for a multi-area power system in
the presence of a high penetration of wind farms, using multi-agent reinforcement learning
(MARL). Nonlinear time domain simulations on a 39-bus test power system are used to
demonstrate the capability of the proposed control scheme.
Chatterjee Kalyan (2010) presented ‘Design of Dual Mode PI Controller for Load Frequency
Control’. The paper presents a new technique for the automatic generation control of
interconnected power systems. The proposed technique is developed for designing the controller
using the concept of dual-mode control in the PI controller such that the proportional mode is
made active when the rate of change of the error is sufficiently larger than a specified limit
otherwise switched to the integral mode. A digital simulation is used in conjunction with the
Hooke-Jeeve’s optimization technique to determine the optimum parameters (individual gain of
proportional and integral controller) of the PI controller. The Integrated Square of the Error (ISE)
performance index is considered to measure the appropriateness of the designed controller. Case
studies justify that dual mode with optimized values of the gains improved the control
performance than the commonly used Variable Structure System.
Liu Xiangjie et al (2010) presented ‘Load Frequency Control considering Generation Rate
Constraints’. Constrained generalized predictive algorithm is employed to load frequency control
in this paper. Generation rate constraint (GRC) has been considered. Using the linearization
modeling technique, this paper deals with load frequency control by multivariable generalized
predictive control method to build Controlled Auto-Regressive Integrated Moving Average
model (CARIMA) and obtain generalized predictive control algorithm for load frequency control
of the two-area reheat power system. Results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed
generalized predictive control algorithm.
Siraj S. F. et al (2010), presented ‘A Robust Adaptive Predictive Load Frequency Controller to
compensate for Model Mismatch’. The paper describes the design and implementation of a self-
tuning Load Frequency Controller (LFC) of a power system based on the Adaptive Generalized
Predictive (AGP) controller. The application of predictive control in power system control is
considered due to its ability to handle disturbances and un-modeled dynamics often encountered
in interconnected power system environments. Simulation results show that the controller
exhibits robustness in handling both problems with proper tuning of its parameters, especially
when compared to the normal adaptive control methods of minimum variance and pole
assignment. It has been observed that for the LFC system studied, the system with AGP

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controller is always stable even in the presence of randomly varying or step disturbances as well
as un modeled dynamics.
Angel Molina-Garcia et al (2010) presented ‘Decentralized Demand-Side Contribution to
Primary Frequency Control’. Frequency in large power systems is usually con-trolled by
adjusting the production of generating units in response to changes in the load. As the amount of
intermittent renewable generation increases and the proportion of flexible conventional
generating unit decreases, a contribution from the demand side to primary frequency control
becomes technically and economically desirable. One of the reasons why this has not been done
was the perceived difficulties in dealing with many small loads rather than a limited number of
generating units. Simulation results show that, using this approach, the demand side can make a
significant and reliable contribution to primary frequency response while preserving the benefits
that consumers derive from their supply of electric energy.
Aidin Sakhavati et al (2011), presented ‘Decentralized robust load-frequency control of power
system based on quantitative feedback theory’. This paper aims at investigating the problem of
Load Frequency Control (LFC) in interconnected power systems in order to obtain robustness
against uncertainties. A design method for a robust controller, based on Quantitative Feedback
Theory (QFT), has been presented in this paper. For a two-area power system, the simulation
results show that the system response with the proposed QFT controller exhibits transient
response beyond PI controllers. It is also shown that the transient response of the tie line power
can also be improved.
Khodabakhshian A. et al (2012) presented ‘Design of a robust load frequency control using
sequential quadratic programming technique’. This paper presents a new methodology, named
Sequential Quadratic Programming (SQP), to design a robust PID controller for Load Frequency
Control (LFC) of nonlinear interconnected power systems. The robust performance of the
proposed controller is compared with that of a conventional PI controller, through the simulation
of two multi-machine power system examples with a variety of disturbances. Results show that
the proposed technique gives a better performance.
Dey Rajeeb et al (2012), presented ‘H∞ load frequency control of interconnected power systems
with communication delays’. This paper considers the problem of power system load frequency
control design incorporating the effect of using open communication network instead of a
dedicated one for the area control error signals. To have this appropriately considered time delays
in the ACE signals. A delay-dependent two-term H∞ controller design has then been proposed
using linear matrix inequalities. Comparison of effectiveness of the proposed two-term controller

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with that of existing one-term and two-term controller designs establishes the superiority as well
as applicability of the present design for the LFC problem.
Parmar K.P. Singh et al (2012) presented ‘Load frequency control of a realistic power system
with multi-source power generation’. In this paper, load frequency control (LFC) of a realistic
power system with multi-source power generation is presented. In practice, access to all the state
variables of a system is not possible and also their measurement is costly and difficult. Usually
only a reduced number of state variables or linear combinations thereof, are available. To resolve
this difficulty, optimal output feedback controller which uses only the output state variables is
proposed. The sensitivity analysis reveals that the proposed controller is quite robust and
optimum controller gains once set for nominal condition need not to be changed for ±25%
variations in the system parameters and operating load condition from their nominal values.

2.2.2 Based on ANN Control Technique

Bid A. P. et al (1994) presented ‘An Enhanced Neural Network Load Frequency Control
Technique’. In this work it is continued to investigate the use of neural Network (NN) to act as
the control intelligence in conjunction with a standard adaptive load frequency control scheme. In
this approach a NN is operated in parallel with a full load frequency adaptive control &e. The
NNs are able to monitor the system frequency as the controller issues control command. This
neural control approach is shown to have several advantages over the basic fixed parameter
schemes and the more advanced adaptive control technique that have been developed. The
inherent stability and rapid ability to re configure the NN control strategy, to match the operation
of the controlled system; will be more beneficial than other method.
Shayeghi H. and H. A. Shayanfar (2004) presented ‘Power System Load Frequency Control
Using RBF Neural Networks Based on µ-Synthesis Theory’. This paper describes a nonlinear
Radial Basis Function Neural Networks (RBFNN) controller based on µ-Synthesis technique to
load frequency Control (LFC) of the power systems. Power systems such as other industrial plant
& have some uncertainties and deviations due to multivariable operating conditions and load
variations that for controller design, had to take the uncertainties into account For this reason, in
design of the proposed load frequency controller the idea of µ-Synthesis theory is being used.
Shayeghi Hossein and Heidar Ali Shayanfar (2004), presented ‘Automatic Generation Control
of Interconnected Power System Using ANN Technique Based on μ Synthesis’. This paper
presents a nonlinear Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) controller based on μ–synthesis for
Automatic Generation Control (AGC) of power systems. Power systems such as other industrial
plants have some uncertainties and deviations due to multivariable operating conditions and load

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changes. The simulation results on a two-area power system show that the proposed ANN
controller is effective and gives good dynamic responses even in the presence of Generation Rate
Constraints (GRC). In addition, it is superior to the conventional PI and μ–based robust
controllers.
Shayeghi H., H.A. Shayanfar, O.P. Malik (2007), presented ‘Robust decentralized neural
networks based LFC in a deregulated power system’. In this paper, a decentralized radial basis
function neural network (RBFNN) based controller for load frequency control (LFC) in a
deregulated power system is presented using the generalized model for LFC scheme according to
the possible contracts. The results of the proposed controllers are compared with the mixed
H2/H∞ controllers for three scenarios of the possible contracts under large load demands and
disturbances.
Bhongade Sandeep et al (2011), presented ‘Performance of SMES unit on Artificial Neural
Network based Multi-area AGC scheme’. This work investigates the performance of
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) unit on Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
based multi-area AGC scheme. SMES units have been used to the power systems to inject or
absorb active power. A three layer feed forward neural network (NN) is proposed for controller
design and trained with Back propagation algorithm (BPA). The result shows that the
performance of the ANN controller with SMES unit is better than the performance without
SMES unit.
Bhongade Sandeep et al(2011), presented ‘Effect of SMES unit in load following contract in a
restructured power system’. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the effect of SMES unit on
the Dynamic Neural Network (DNN) based multi area AGC scheme. The advantage of the DNN
controller is that it does not require extensive and rigorous model for optimal tuning. It requires a
set of training data. The training data can be generated from the system model. The result shows
that the performance of the DNN controller with SMES unit is better than the performance
without SMES unit.

2.2.3 Based on Fuzzy Control Technique

Hiyama Takashi et al(2000), presented ‘Fuzzy Logic Based Multi-Functional Load Frequency
Control’. This paper presents a multi-functional fuzzy logic based Tie- line Bias Control (TBC)
scheme considering the MWh constraint for the power transmission on the tie-line and the
regulation margin. In addition, the real power flow constraint on each trunk line is also taken
into account. A detailed non linear LFC simulator has been developed in the Matlab/Simulink
environment. Simulation results demonstrate the efficiency of both the proposed control scheme

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and the simulator performance. By using the proposed fuzzy logic control scheme, the MWh
constraint is satisfied to avoid the MWh contract violation. The regulation capacity is always
kept to a certain level by the replacement of the required generation from the LFC units to the
non-LFC units.
Tyagi Barjeev and S.C. Srivatav (2003), presented ‘A Fuzzy Logic Based Load Frequency
Controller in a Competitive Electricity Environment’. This paper presents the design of a fuzzy
logic based controller for Automatic Generation control (AGC) in a deregulated electricity
environment. A general model of the integral controller has been developed for multi-area system
having poolco, bilateral and mixed transactions employing fuzzy logic scheme for optimal tuning
of integral gain. The Area Control Error (ACE) signal and rate of change of the Area Control
Error (Che ACE) have been used as input to the fuzzy logic based controller.
Nanda J. and J. S. Sakkaram (2003), presented ‘Automatic Generation Control with Fuzzy
Logic Controller Considering Generation Rate Constraint’. This paper describes application of
Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) for Automatic Generation Control (AGC) of a two area reheat
thermal power system. Different types of inputs for the FLC and different number of triangular
Membership Functions (MF) are considered to examine their effect on the dynamic responses for
the Automatic Generation Control (AGC) system.
Nanda J. and A. Mangla (2004), presented ‘Automatic Generation Control of an Interconnected
Hydro-Thermal System Using Conventional Integral and Fuzzy Logic Controller’. This paper
deals with Automatic Generation Control of interconnected hydrothermal system in the
continuous- discrete mode using conventional integral and fuzzy logic controllers. Effects of
variation of sampling time period on dynamic responses have been investigated, both with
conventional integral controller and fuzzy logic controllers, considering small step perturbations.
Effects of different number of triangular membership functions and inputs for Fuzzy Logic
Controller on dynamic response have been explored. Further, dynamic responses under small
step perturbation have been compared, considering integral and fuzzy logic controllers. Presence
of FLC in both areas and small step perturbation in either area or in both areas simultaneously
provides better dynamic response than with conventional integral controller.
Altas I. H. and J. Neyens (2006), presented ‘A Fuzzy Logic Decision Maker and Controller for
Reducing Load Frequency Oscillations in Multi-Area Power Systems’. This paper deals with the
application of a fuzzy logic based decision maker and controller in order to damp load-frequency
oscillations in multi area power systems. A linearised dynamic model of a two area power system
is derived from that of a well known single area system and combined with the proposed fuzzy
controller for simulation purposes. The fuzzy logic based controller with a decision making unit

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is designed to replace the classical integral type controllers. The proposed approach is compared
with classical ones for performance and validity.
Rao C. Srinivasa et al (2007), presented ‘Automatic Generation Control of TCPS Based
Hydrothermal System under Open Market Scenario: A Fuzzy Logic Approach’. This paper
presents the analysis of Automatic generation control (AGC) of a two-area interconnected
thyristor controlled phase shifter (TCPS) based hydrothermal system in the continuous mode
using fuzzy logic controller (FLC) under open market scenario. The effects of nonlinearities like
dead band and generation rate constraint on the system have also been investigated. Simulation
results show that the limitations of integral controller can be overcome by including Fuzzy
concept and thereby the response of frequency and tie line power can be improved substantially
following a load change in any area.
Haider A.F. Mohamed et al (2008), presented ‘Load frequency controller design for Iraqi
National Super Grid System using Fuzzy logic controller’. This paper presents a Fuzzy Gains
Scheduled Proportional and Integral (FGPI) controller for Load Frequency Control (LFC) of the
Iraqi National Super Grid system (INSGS). A linear-time-invariant mathematical model is
derived for the system that consists of six generating stations with various types of turbines.
Maintaining frequency of each area and the net tie-line power at scheduled value due to the load
perturbations are considered in this study. Simulation of the proposed control scheme show better
results and transient performance improvements when compared to the conventional method
which is also simulated in this paper.
El-Metwally K.A. (2008), presented ‘An Adaptive Fuzzy Logic Controller for a Two Area Load
Frequency Control Problem’. This paper presents an adaptive fizzy logic control approach for
designing a decentralized controller for load frequency control of interconnected power areas.
The proposed adaptive fuzzy logic load frequency controller (AFLFC) has been designed to
improve the dynamic performance of the frequency and the tie line power flow under a sudden
load change in the power areas. The AFLFC replaces the original conventional integral controller
and utilizes the same area criteria error input. The effect of generation rate constraint (GRC) for
both areas has been considered in the controller design. Time domain simulations using
MATALB/SIMULINK program has been performed to demonstrate the effectiveness of the
proposed AFLFC.
Aravindan P. and M.Y. Sanavullah (2009), presented ‘Fuzzy Logic Based Automatic Load
Frequency Control of Two Area Power System with GRC’. This paper describes the Automatic
Generation Control (AGC) of interconnected reheat thermal system using Proportional - Integral
(PI) and extended Proportional-Integral (extended PI) and Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC). The

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extended PI controller is used to reduce the peak over shoot and settling time error in the past.
System performance is examined considering 1% step load perturbation in either area of the
system. The system performance is observed on the basis of dynamic parameter (i.e.) settling
time. The simulation result shows that the FLC yields much improved control performance when
compared to both extended PI and conventional PI controller.
Hassan Lokman H. et al (2009), presented ‘Load Frequency Control of Power Systems with
Sugeno Fuzzy Gain Scheduling PID Controller’. This paper proposes a new Fuzzy Gain
Scheduled Proportional, Integral and Derivative (FGPID) controller by using Takagi-Sugeno
(TS) fuzzy system to the load frequency control problem in multi-area power systems. The TS
fuzzy inference engine is chosen and the range of the controller is selected suitably to enhance
the output performance of the system. Nonlinear simulation results show that the proposed
controller provides better performance than the other two models.
Anand B. and A. Ebenezer Jeyakumar (2009), presented ‘Load Frequency Control with Fuzzy
Logic Controller Considering Non-Linearities and Boiler Dynamics’. This paper describes the
Load Frequency Control (LFC) of two area interconnected reheat thermal system using
conventional Proportional – Integral (PI) controller and Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC). The
system is incorporated with governor dead band, generation rate constraint non-linearities and
boiler dynamics. The conventional PI controller does not yield adequate control performance
with the consideration of nonlinearities and boiler dynamics. To overcome this drawback Fuzzy
Logic Controller has been employed in the system. The simulation results conclude that FLC
yields fast settling time with less number of oscillations which advocates the smooth settlement
of the quality power supply.
Mazinan A. H. and M. F. Kazemi (2010), presented ‘An Efficient Solution to Load-Frequency
Control Using Fuzzy-Based Predictive Scheme in a Two-Area Interconnected Power System’.
This work deals with a novel load-frequency control (LFC) using the fuzzy-based predictive
scheme in a two-area interconnected power system. At first, the power system needs to be
modeled and subsequently the Takagi-Sugeno-Kang (TSK) fuzzy-based approach using the
linear generalized predictive control (LGPC) scheme is realized to implement on the system
presented.
Sayed Mojtaba Shirvani Boroujeni et al (2011), presented ‘Load frequency control in multi
area electric power system using genetic scaled fuzzy logic’. In this paper, a new Fuzzy type
controller is considered for Load Frequency Control problem. In this new Fuzzy technique,
the upper and lower bounds of the Fuzzy membership functions are obtained using
genetic algorithms optimization method and so this Fuzzy method is called “scaled-Fuzzy.

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The simulation results visibly show the validity of scaled Fuzzy method, in comparison with the
traditional PI type method.
Sudha K.R. and R. Vijaya Santhi (2011) presented ‘Robust decentralized load frequency
control of interconnected power system with Generation Rate Constraint using Type-2 fuzzy
approach’. Literature shows that fuzzy logic controller, one of the most useful approaches, for
utilizing expert knowledge, is adaptive in nature and is applied successfully for power system
stabilization control. This paper proposes a Type-2 (T2) fuzzy approach for load frequency
control of two-area interconnected reheat thermal power system with the consideration of
Generation Rate Constraint (GRC). The performance of the Type-2 (T2) controller is com-pared
with conventional controller and Type-1 (T1) fuzzy controller with regard to Generation Rate
Constraint (GRC). The system parametric uncertainties are verified by changing parameters by
40% simultaneously from their typical values.

2.2.4 Based on GA Control Technique

Pinang Li et al (2002) presented ‘Genetic Algorithm Optimization for AGC of Multi-Area

Power Systems’. A Genetic Algorithm (GA) for parameter optimization of PID sliding mode
load frequency control used in Automatic Generating Control (AGC) of multi area power
systems with nonlinear elements has been proposed. The method has the advantages of both PID
and sliding mode control. Instead of using traditional analysis algorithm to obtain the controller
parameters, GA optimization technology is introduced. PID parameter optimization for the
interconnection of the AGC loops using MATLAB Simulink model is developed. A Real Coded
Genetic Algorithm is adopted and integrated into MATLAB Simulink. The simulation of a two-
area power systems with PI and PIU controllers are reported and the results are reasonable.
Juang C.F. and C.F. Lu (2006), presented ‘Load frequency control by hybrid evolutionary
fuzzy PI controller’. Power-system load-frequency control by fuzzy-PI (FPI) controller is
proposed. During control, a fuzzy system is used to decide adaptively the proper proportional and
integral gains of a PI controller according the area-control error and its change. To ease the
design effort and improve the performance of the controller, design of the FPI controller by
hybridizing a genetic algorithm and particle-swarm optimization, called FPI–HGAPSO, is
proposed. FPI–HGAPSO is based on the hybrid of the genetic algorithm and particle-swarm
optimization. In FPI–HGAPSO, elites in the population of GAs are enhanced by particle-swarm
optimization and these enhanced elites are selected as parents for crossover and mutation
operations. Simulations of the proposed evolutionary FPI-control approach on a multi area

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interconnected power system with different kinds of perturbations are performed. The
performance of the proposed approach is verified from simulations and comparisons.
Roy Ranjit and S. P. Ghoshal (2006), presented ‘Evolutionary Computation Based
Optimization in Fuzzy Automatic Generation Control’. This paper presents a comparative
optimization performance and transient performance studies among three evolutionary
computational techniques as Genetic Algorithm (GA), Hybrid Particle Swarm with Constriction
factor Approach (HPSOCFA) and Hybrid Taguchi Particle Swarm optimization (HTPSO)
methods in automatic generation control. For comparative study of performances, the above-
mentioned techniques are firstly used to determine nominal optimal Proportional-Integral-
Derivative gains of PID controller and nominal transient responses of frequency deviations in
each area for nominal area input parameters. HTPSO based optimal gains result in true optimal
transient responses of frequency deviations and tie line power flow changes.
Mehdi Nikzad et al (2010), presented ‘Comparison of Artificial Intelligence Methods for Load
Frequency Control Problem’. Practice LFC systems use simple proportional-integral (PI) or
integral (I) controllers. But the PI control parameters are usually tuned based on the classical or
trial-and-error approaches and they are incapable to obtain good dynamic performance under
various load conditions. For this problem, in this paper the artificial intelligence methods such as
Genetic Algorithms (GA) and Fuzzy logic are proposed to tune the controllers for LFC problem
in power system. A two-area power system example is considered as case study to illustrate the
proposed methods. To show effectiveness of proposed methods and also comparing the
performance of GA and Fuzzy controllers, several time domain simulations for various load
changes scenarios are presented. Simulation results emphasis on the better performance of Fuzzy
controllers than GA controllers in LFC problem.
Ramakrishna K. S. S. et al (2010), presented ‘Automatic generation control of interconnected
power system with diverse sources of power generation’. In this paper, automatic generation
control (AGC) of two area interconnected power system having diverse sources of power
generation is studied. The two area power system is simulated for different nominal loading
conditions. Genetic algorithm (GA) is used to obtain the optimal PID gains for various cases
using integral squared error plus integral time absolute error (ISE+ITAE) performance index for
fitness evaluation. Some of the transient responses are shown for different nominal loading
conditions due to step load disturbances in the system.
Bhongade Sandeep et al (2010) presented ‘Genetic Algorithm based PID controller for
Frequency Regulation Ancillary services’. In this paper, the parameters of Proportional, Integral
and Derivative (PID) controller for automatic Generation Control (AGC) suitable in restructured

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power system is tuned according to Generic Algorithms (GAs) based performance indices. The
key idea of the proposed method is to use the fitness function based on Area Control Error (ACE).
Bhongade Sandeep et al (2011), presented ‘Genetic algorithm based PID controller design for a
multi-area AGC scheme in a restructured power system’. In this paper, a multi-area Automatic
Generation Control (AGC) scheme suitable in a restructured interconnected power system has
been proposed. The results of GAPID controller have been compared with those obtained by
using the Least Square Minimization method. Compliance with North American Electric
Reliability Council (NERC) standards for AGC has also been established in this work. Effort has
been made in this paper to reduce the cost incurred by earlier proposed systems by having SMES
unit located in one area in case of two area system and only two areas out of four areas in case of
four area system to regulate multi-area frequency.
Boroujeni et al (2012) presented ‘Multi Area Load Frequency Control Using Simulated
Annealing’. In this paper a PI type controller is considered for LFC problem. The parameters of
the proposed PI controller are tuned using Simulated Annealing (SA) optimization method. A
multi area electric power system with a wide range of parametric uncertainties is given to
illustrate proposed method. To show effectiveness of the proposed method, a PI type controller
optimized by Genetic Algorithms (GA) is designed in order to comparison with the proposed PI
controller. The simulation results visibly show the validity of SA-PI controller in comparison
with the GA-PI controller.

2.2.5 Based on hybrid Intelligent Control Technique

Hosseini S.H and A.H. Etemadi (2008) presented ‘Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system
based automatic generation control’. Fixed gain controllers for automatic generation control are
designed at nominal operating conditions and fail to provide best control performance over a
wide range of operating conditions. So, to keep system performance near its optimum, it is
desirable to track the operating conditions and use updated parameters to compute control gains.
A control scheme based on artificial neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS), which is trained by
the results of off-line studies obtained using particle swarm optimization, is proposed in this
paper to optimize and update control gains in real-time according to load variations. Also,
frequency relaxation is implemented using ANFIS. The efficiency of the proposed method is
demonstrated via simulations.
Taher Seyed Abbas et al (2008) presented ‘Optimal Decentralized Load Frequency Control
Using HPSO Algorithms in Deregulated Power Systems’. LFC systems use simple Proportional-
Integral (PI) or Integral (I) controllers. However, since the PI or I control parameters are usually

70
tuned based on classical or trial-and-error approaches, they are incapable of obtaining good
dynamic performance for various load changes scenarios in multi-area power system. For this
reason, in this study the PI and I control parameters are tuned based on Hybrid Particle Swarm
Optimization (HPSO) algorithm method for LFC control in two-area power system. Because
HPSO is an optimization method, therefore, in the uncertainty area of controller parameters, finds
the best parameters for controller and obtained controller is an optimal controller.
Panda Gayadhar et al (2009), presented ‘Hybrid Neuro Fuzzy Approach for Automatic
Generation Control of Two Area Interconnected Power System’. This paper deals with a novel
approach of artificial intelligence (AI) technique called Hybrid Neuro-Fuzzy (HNF) approach for
an (AGC). The advantage of this controller is that it can handle the non linearities at the same
time it is faster than other conventional controllers. The result shows that intelligent controller is
having improved dynamic response and at the same time faster than conventional controller. The
effectiveness of the proposed controller in increasing the damping of local and inter area modes
of oscillation is demonstrated in a two area interconnected power system.
Panda Gayadhar et al (2009) presented ‘Automatic Generation Control of Interconnected
Power System by Hybrid Neuro Fuzzy Approach’. The design of Automatic Generation Control
(AGC) system plays a vital role in automation of power system. This paper proposes Hybrid
Neuro Fuzzy (HNF) approach for AGC of two-area interconnected reheat thermal power system
with the consideration of Generation Rate Constraint (GRC). System performance is examined
considering disturbance in each area of interconnected power system. Also the simulation results
are compared with a conventional PI controller. The result shows that the proposed intelligent
controller is having improved dynamic response and at the same time faster than conventional PI
controller.
Nanda Janardan et al (2009), presents ‘Maiden Application of Bacterial Foraging-Based
Optimization Technique in Multi area Automatic Generation Control’. A maiden attempt is made
to examine and highlight the effective application of bacterial foraging (BF) to optimize several
important parameters in automatic generation control (AGC) of interconnected three unequal
area thermal systems, such as integral controller gains for the secondary control, governor speed
regulation parameters for the primary control and frequency bias parameters, and compare its
performance to establish its superiority over genetic algorithm (GA) and classical methods.
Shayeghi H. and H.A. Shayanfar (2010), presented ‘PSO Based Neuro-Fuzzy Controller For
LFC Design Including Communication Time Delays’. The Proportional Integral Derivative (PID)
controller is the most adopted controllers for industrial plants, due to its simplicity and
satisfactory performances for a wide range of processes. The problem of robustly off-line tuning

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of PID based LFC design is formulated as an optimization problem according to the time
domain-based objective function which is solved by Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)
technique that has a strong ability to find the most optimistic results. To demonstrate the
effectiveness of the proposed control strategy a two-area restructured power system is considered
as a test system under different operating conditions and system nonlinearities. The simulation
results show that the tuned gains of the PID based load frequency controller using the ANFIS can
provide better damping of frequency oscillations.
Rao C. Srinivasa (2010), presented ‘Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Based Inference System For Load
Frequency Control of Hydrothermal System Under Deregulated Environment’. This paper
presents the analysis of Load Frequency Control (LFC) of a two-area hydrothermal system under
deregulated environment by considering Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS).
Fixed gain controllers for LFC are designed at nominal operating conditions and fail to provide
best control performance over a wide range of operating conditions. So, in order to keep system
performance near its optimum, it is desirable to track the operating conditions and use updated
parameters to compute control gains. A control scheme based on ANFIS, which is trained by the
results of off-line studies obtained using genetic algorithm, is proposed in this paper to optimize
and update control gains in real-time according to load variations. The efficiency of the proposed
method is demonstrated through computer simulations.
Farhangi Reza et al (2012), presented ‘Load frequency control of interconnected power system
using emotional learning based intelligent controller’. In this paper a novel approach based on the
emotional learning is proposed for improving the load frequency control (LFC) system of a two-
area interconnected power system with the consideration of generation rate constraint (GRC).
The controller includes a neuro-fuzzy system with power error and its derivative as inputs. A
fuzzy critic evaluates the present situation, and provides the emotional signal (stress). The
controller modifies its characteristics so that the critic’s stress is reduced. The convergence and
performance of the proposed controller, both in presence and absence of GRC, are compared
with those of proportional integral (PI), fuzzy logic (FL), and hybrid neuro-fuzzy (HNF)
controllers. By applying the stress signal to the neuro-fuzzy controller, the controller parameters
are tuned in order to optimize system performance.

2.2.6 Based on Combining AC-DC Link

Ibrahim et al (2005) presented ‘Recent Philosophies of Automatic Generation Control Strategies

in Power Systems’. An attempt is made in this paper to present critical literature review and an
up-to-date and exhaustive bibliography on the AGC of power systems. Various control aspects

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concerning the AGC problem have been highlighted. AGC schemes based on parameters, such as
linear and nonlinear power system models, classical and optimal controls, and centralized,
decentralized, and multilevel control, are discussed. AGC strategies based on digital, self-tuning
control, adaptive, VSS systems, and intelligent/soft computing control have been included.
Finally, the investigations on AGC systems incorporating BES/SMES, wind turbines, FACTS
devices, and PV systems have also been discussed. The paper presents a critical review of the
recent philosophies in the area of AGC. Due attention has also been paid to recent developments,
such as AGC schemes based on the concepts of neural networks and fuzzy logic and the
incorporation of parallel AC/HVDC links in the designs of AGC regulators. Emphasis has been
given to categorizing various AGC strategies reported in the literature that highlights their salient
features.
Rao C. Srinivasa et al (2009), presented ‘Improvement of dynamic performance of
hydrothermal system under open market scenario using asynchronous tie-lines’. This paper
presents an analysis on dynamic performance of a two-area hydrothermal system interconnected
via parallel ac/dc transmission links when subjected to parametric uncertainties. In this paper
area-1 consists of thermal power plant whereas area-2 consists of hydro power plant. The
degradation in system dynamic performance can be compensated effectively using dc link in
parallel with ac tie-line and the same have been presented using MATLAB/SIMULINK.
Nakayama K. et al(2009), presented ‘Load Frequency Control for Utility Interaction of Wide-
Area Power System Interconnection’. This paper discusses LFC (load frequency control) with
HVDC (High Voltage DC transmission system). So far, AGC (Automatic generation control) has
focused on economic dispatch control and load frequency control; especially the latter is mainly
on frequency stabilization for ac-link network systems. However, the upcoming power-
electronics based HVDC transmission system offers new aspects for the improvement of
frequency control. Whole DC-interconnected system now acts as a single system and the
disturbance to even the weaker system is easily suppressed since it is treated as a tiny disturbance
to the whole system.
Ramesh S. and A. Krishnan (2010) presented ‘Fuzzy Rule Based Load Frequency Control in a
Parallel AC-DC Interconnected Power Systems through HVDC Link’. In this paper, a fuzzy
logic controller is proposed for an application of HVDC link to stabilize the frequency oscillation
in parallel AC-DC interconnected power systems. By simulation study, the fuzzy logic controller
is very effective in suppressing the frequency oscillations caused by rapid load disturbances. For
further study, the proposed control design of HVDC link will be extended to stabilize the
frequency oscillations in a multi area interconnected power system.

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Naimul Hasana et al (2012) presented ‘Sub-optimal automatic generation control of
interconnected power system using constrained feedback control strategy’. This paper presents
sub-optimal AGC regulator designs for a 2-area interconnected power system using constrained
feedback control strategy. The power system with identical thermal plants consisting of non-
reheat thermal turbines interconnected via parallel AC/DC links is considered for the
investigations. The implementation of optimal AGC regulator requires monitoring of all the state
variables of the system or state reconstruction, which may be undesirable from cost and
complexity considerations. Due to these limitations of optimal AGC regulators, sub-optimal
AGC regulators are designed based on the constrained feedback control strategy using the
feedback of system states which are accessible and available for measurement.

2.3 THREE AREAS POWER SYSTEM

2.3.1 Based on Conventional Control Theory

Alan R Oneal (1995), presented ‘A Simple Method for Improving Control Area Performance:
Area Control Error (ACE) Diversity Interchange’. Control Areas within three major (and
essentially separate) areas of North America are interconnected electrically, thus enjoying vastly
improved reliability and economy of operation compared to operating in isolation. Each must
continually balance load, interchange and generation to minimize adverse influence on
neighboring control areas and interconnection frequency. This requires investment in control
systems and the sacrifice of some fuel conversion efficiencies to achieve the objective of
complying with minimum control performance standards set by the North American Electric
Reliability Council (NERC).
Wake Koichi et al (2001) presented ‘A Study on Automatic Generation Control Method
Decreasing Regulating Capacity’. This paper presents a method of automatic generation control
(AGC) decreasing the regulating capacity of load frequency control (LFC). The regulating
capacity is reduced economic load dispatching control (EDC) and LFC using the regulating
decreased level (Dei). In this paper, it is examined that this technique is effective on random
disturbance using a three-area longitudinal system model. The proposed LFC can decrease the
regulating capacity than the conventional LFC by using the regulating decreased level.
Delfino F. Fornari and S. Massucco (2002), presented ‘load frequency control and inadvertent
interchange evaluation in restructured power systems’. The subject of load-frequency control
(LFC) from the point of view of the restructuring process of the electrical industry is addressed.
LFC is treated as an ancillary service essential for maintaining the electrical system reliability at
an adequate level. Reference is made to the guidelines suggested by the Union for the Co-

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ordination of Transmission of Electricity. The results of simulations performed on a power
system based on an IEEE Reliability Test System arranged into a three-control-area configuration
are reported for the different LFC schemes. Evaluation of inadvertent interchanges is performed
and suggestions on their accounting are proposed.
Bevrani H. et al (2004), presented ‘Robust decentralized load-frequency control using an
iterative linear matrix inequalities algorithm’. In practice LFC systems use simple proportional-
integral (PI) controllers. However, since the PI controller parameters are usually tuned based on
classical or trial-and-error approaches, they are incapable of obtaining good dynamical
performance for a wide range of operating conditions and various load changes scenarios in a
multi-area power system. For this problem, the decentralized LFC synthesis is formulated as an
HN-control problem and is solved using an iterative linear matrix inequalities algorithm to design
of robust PI controllers in the multi-area power systems. A three-area power system example
with a wide range of load changes is given to illustrate the proposed approach. The resulting
controllers are shown to minimize the effect of disturbances and maintain the robust performance.
Shayeghi H. and H. A. Shayanfar (2005), presented ‘Mixed H2/H∞ Based LFC of a
Deregulated Power System’. In this paper, a decentralized robust controller for the Load
Frequency Control (LFC) of a power system in the deregulated environment is proposed. A
generalized model for the LFC scheme is developed based on the possible contracts in the new
environment. The proposed method is tested on a three-area power system with the possible
contracted scenarios under large load demands. The results are shown to maintain robust
performance in the presence of specified uncertainties and system nonlinearities for a wide range
of area load demands and disturbances in comparison with the PI controller.
Shayeghi Hossein and Heidar Ali Shayanfar (2005), presented ‘Design of Decentralized
Robust LFC in a Competitive Electricity Environment’. A new decentralized robust controller for
Load Frequency Control (LFC) in a deregulated electricity environment is presented in this paper.
This newly developed design strategy combines the advantage of the H2 and H1 control
synthesizes and gives a powerful multi-objectives design addressed by the Linear Matrix
Inequality (LMI) techniques. The effectiveness of the proposed method is demonstrated on a
three-area power system with possible contracted scenarios under large load demands. The
results of the proposed controller are compared with the conventional PI controller and are shown
to maintain robust performance in the presence of specified uncertainties and system
nonlinearities.
Koji Abe et al (2006), presented ‘New Load Frequency Control Method suitable for Large
Penetration of Wind Power Generations’. In this paper, it propose a designing method of a load

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frequency control using disturbance observer when a large amount of wind power generations are
introduced in the power system. The disturbance cancellation problem in the disturbance
observer is considered. The disturbance observer estimates disturbances from observable
quantities of states, and cancels the effect of the disturbance. By this method, the instantaneous
power variations of the wind power generations can be suppressed. As an example, it has been
run simulations for a three-area longitudinal system to compare the proposed method with a
conventional method (PI type controller).
Liu Le et al (2008) presented ‘Object-controllable and Predictive Frequency Bias Coefficient
Setting Method’. In order to implement object-controllability and pre-control of AGC, a method
of estimating frequency bias coefficient by using multi-objective optimization technology and
very short-term load prediction is presented. For practical implementation, the method is
designed based on discrete-time system. The method is examined by digital simulation with a
three-area system model. The results showed that the method is accurate and effectual for
estimating B coefficient, and the performance of interconnected power systems is improved by
using the object-controllable and predictive frequency bias coefficient
Kresimir Vrdoljak and Muharem Mehmedovic (2008), presented ‘Optimal Parameters for
Sliding Mode Based Load-Frequency Control in Power Systems’. One of main obstacles in the
usage of sliding mode based load-frequency control in a power system is the difficulty in
choosing optimal controller parameters. Those parameters define the sliding surface and also
dynamics of the reaching law. Constraints upon the choice of those parameters come out from the
requirements of system’s stability and no steady state error. In this paper the parameters are
computed using a genetic algorithm. Obtained optimal parameters are tested on simulations,
which are conducted on a power system model consisting of three interconnected control areas.
Zhang Yao et al (2009), presented ‘Load Frequency Control for Multiple-Area Power Systems’.
This paper presents the development and application of an Active Disturbance Rejection
Controller (ADRC) to regulate the frequency error for a three-area interconnected power system.
The effectives of the controller are validated by both simulation results and a frequency-domain
analysis of the control system.
Prabhat Kumar and Ram Naresh Mishra (2008), presented ‘Optimal Control of 3-Area
Interconnected Hydro-Thermal Power Systems with EHVAC/HVDC Links’. In this paper, an
attempt is made for optimal control of 3-area interconnected Hydro-Thermal power systems with
EHVAC/HVDC links when subjected to small step load perturbations. The system responses
have been simulated in Matlab. Responses of deviation in frequencies, deviation in tie line power

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and integral of area control errors have been plotted for three areas. Thus, on the basis of these
responses, the dynamic performance of the system has been studied.
Wen Tan (2010) presented ‘Unified Tuning of PID Load Frequency Controller for Power
Systems via IMC’. A unified PID tuning method for load frequency control (LFC) of power
systems is discussed in this paper. The tuning method is based on the two-degree-of-freedom
(TDF) internal model control (IMC) design method and a PID approximation procedure. The
time-domain performance and robustness of the resulting PID controller is related to two tuning
parameters, and robust tuning of the two parameters is discussed. The method is applicable to
power systems with non-reheated, reheated, and hydro turbines. Simulation results show that it
can indeed improve the damping of the power systems. It is shown that the method can also be
used in decentralized PID tuning for multi-area power systems.

2.3.2 Based on ANN Control Technique

Demiroren A. et al (2001) presented ‘The Application of ANN Technique to Load-frequency

Control for Three-area Power System’. This paper includes an application of layered artificial
neural network controller to study load frequency control problem in power system. The
proposed control has been designed for a three-area interconnected power system that two areas
include steam turbines and the other area includes a hydro turbine. Only one artificial neural
network (ANN) controller, which controls the inputs of each area in the power system together,
is considered. In the study, back propagation-through- time algorithm is used as neural network
learning rule. The performance of the power system is simulated by using conventional integral
controller and ANN controller, separately. By comparing the results for both cases, the
performance of ANN controller is better than conventional controllers.
Bevrani H et al (2006) presented ‘Load-frequency regulation under a bilateral LFC scheme
using flexible neural networks’. A new approach based on artificial Flexible Neural Networks
(FNNs) is proposed to design of load frequency controller for a large scale power system in a
deregulated environment. In this approach, the power system is considered as a collection of
separate control areas under the bilateral Load Frequency Control (LFC) scheme. The proposed
control methodology was applied to a 3-control area power system under a bilateral LFC scheme.
Simulation results demonstrated the effectiveness of methodology. It has been shown that the
suggested FNN load frequency controllers give better ACE minimization and a quick
convergence to the desired trajectory in comparison with one based on the traditional ANNs.
Sundaram V. Shanmuga and T. Jayabarathi (2011) presented ‘An Investigation of ANN
based PID Controllers using Three- Area Load Frequency Control in Interconnected Power

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System’. The objective of LFC is to minimize the transient deviations and to provide zero steady
state errors of these variables in a very short time. This paper deals with various controllers like
proportional integral (PI), Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) and ANN (Artificial neural
network) tuned PID controller for three area load frequency control. The performance of the PID
type controller with fixed gain, Conventional integral controller (PI) and ANN based PID (ANN-
PID) controller have been compared through MATLAB Simulation results.

2.3.3 Based on Fuzzy Control Technique

Mathur H.D. and H.V. Manjunath (2006) presented ‘Extended Fuzzy Logic Based Integral
Controller for Three Area Power System with Generation Rate Constraint’. In this paper, a fuzzy
logic controller is proposed for load frequency control problem of electrical power system. The
fuzzy controller is constructed as a set of control rules, and the control signal is directly deduced
from the knowledge base and the fuzzy inference. The study has been designed for a three area
interconnected power system with generation rate constraint. Simulation results of the proposed
fuzzy controller are presented and it has been shown that proposed controller can generate the
best dynamic response following a step load change. Robustness of proposed controller is
achieved by analyzing the system response with varying system parameters.
Shayeghi Hossein et al (2007) presented ‘Multi Stage Fuzzy PID Load Frequency Controller In
A Restructured Power System’. In this paper, a multi stage fuzzy Proportional-Integral-
Derivative (PID) type controller is proposed to solve the Load Frequency Control (LFC) problem
in a restructured power system that operates under deregulation based on the bilateral policy
scheme. The proposed method is tested on a three-area power system with different contracted
scenarios under various operating conditions. Simulation results show that the proposed strategy
is very effective and guarantees good robust performance against parametric uncertainties, load
changes and disturbances even in the presence of GRC.
Soundarrajan and S. Sumathi (2009) presented ‘Effect of Non-linearities in Fuzzy Based Load
Frequency Control’. This paper resents an approach for designing fuzzy logic based load
frequency controller with the presence of non-linearity and obtaining better dynamic response as
compared to conventional controllers. This paper also develops an extended control to LFC
scheme with the presence of generation rate constraint (GRC) non-linearity to a typical three area
power system model proposed by Hadi Sadaat. The simulation has been conducted in MATLAB
Simulink package for the three area interconnected power system with various load changes. The
simulation result shows that the proposed method of fuzzy logic controller for load frequency

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control is giving 40% reduction in settling time and 20% reduction in peak overshoot when
compared to conventional controller.
Soundarrajan, and S. Sumathi (2009), presented ‘Effect of Non-linearities in Fuzzy Based
Load Frequency Control’. This paper presents an approach for designing fuzzy logic based load
frequency controller with the presence of non-linearity and obtaining better dynamic response as
compared to conventional controllers. This paper also develops an extended control to LFC
scheme with the presence of generation rate constraint (GRC) non-linearity to a typical three area
power system model proposed by Hadi Sadaat. The simulation has been conducted in MATLAB
Simulink package for the three area interconnected power system with various load changes. The
result shows that the proposed method of fuzzy logic controller for load frequency control is
giving 40% reduction in settling time and 20% reduction in peak overshoot when compared to
conventional controller.
Sudha K.R. et al (2012) presented ‘Fuzzy C-Means clustering for robust decentralized load
frequency control of interconnected power system with Generation Rate Constraint’. The present
paper proposes the generation of optimal Fuzzy rule base by Fuzzy C-Means clustering technique
(FCM) for load frequency control. The phase-plane plot of the inputs of the Fuzzy controller is
utilized to obtain the rule-base in the linguistic form. The system parametric uncertainties are
obtained by changing parameters by 40% simultaneously from their typical values. The
performance of the proposed FCM controller is compared with conventional controller and
original Fuzzy controller in the presence of Generation Rate Constraint (GRC) in case of two
areas and three areas inter connected power systems.

2.3.4 Based on ANFIS Technique

Khuntia Swasti R. and Siddhartha Panda(2012), presented ‘Simulation study for

automatic generation control of a multi-area power system by ANFIS approach’. This paper
deals with the application of artificial neural network (ANN) based ANFIS approach to
automatic generation control (AGC) of a three unequal area hydrothermal system. The
design objective is to improve the frequency and tie-line power deviations of the
interconnected system. 1% step load perturbation has been considered occurring either in
any individual area or occurring simultaneously in all the areas. It is a maiden application
of ANFIS approach to a three unequal area hydrothermal system with GRC considering
perturbation in a single area as well as in all areas. The performance of the ANFIS
controller is compared with the results of integral squared error (ISE) criterion based
integral controller published previously.

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2.4 FOUR AREAS POWER SYSTEM

2.4.1 Based on ANN Control Technique

Zeynelgil H.L. et al (2004) presented ‘The application of ANN technique to automatic

generation control for multi area power system’. This paper presents an application of layered
artificial neural network controller (ANN) to study automatic generation control (AGC) problem
in a four-area interconnected power system that three areas include steam turbines and the other
area includes a hydro turbine. Each area of steam turbine in the system contains the reheat effect
non-linearity of the steam turbine and the area of hydro turbine contains upper and lower
constraints for generation rate. Only one ANN controller, which controls the inputs of each area
in the power system together, is considered. In the study, back propagation-through-time
algorithm is used as ANN learning rule. By comparing the results for both cases, the performance
of ANN controller is better than conventional controllers.

2.4.2 Based on Fuzzy Control Technique

Emre Ozkop et al (2010) presented ‘Load Frequency Control in Four Area Power Systems
Using Fuzzy Logic PI Controller’. This paper present a load frequency control in four area power
systems using fuzzy gain scheduling of PI controller is realized. The system simulation is
realized by using Matlab/ Simulink software. System dynamic performance is observed for
conventional PI, fuzzy PI and fuzzy logic controllers. The system dynamic performances are
observed via using different controllers.

Summary

The literature survey shows that much more work has been presented on power system load
frequency control problems for single area, two area and three areas interconnected power system.
Lesser attention has been given for multi (four or more) areas inter connected conventional
power system. Emre et al 2010, presented four area load frequency control of thermal-thermal
power plants by using fuzzy-PID control technique. But four area hydro thermal reheat power
plant with hybrid intelligent control by using ANN, Fuzzy and ANFIS controllers are not been
yet tested so for.

Therefore in this thesis work, Hybrid Load frequency intelligent controllers are tested on four
area hydro thermal reheat power system and results are compared with already published results
which reveals the proposed hybrid neuro-fuzzy approach in four area interconnected power
system is quite satisfactory.

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