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Iron Ore Sintering: Process

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Iron Ore Sintering: Process

D. Fernández-González, I. Ruiz-Bustinza, J. Mochón, C. González-Gasca & L. F.

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MINERAL PROCESSING AND EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY REVIEW
2017, VOL. 38, NO. 4, 215–227
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08827508.2017.1288115

Iron Ore Sintering: Process

D. Fernández-Gonzáleza, I. Ruiz-Bustinzab, J. Mochónb, C. González-Gascac, and L. F. Verdejaa
a
Department of Materials Science and Metallurgical Engineering, School of Mines, Energy and Materials, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Asturias,
Spain; bDepartment of Primary Metallurgy and Recycling, National Centre for Metallurgical Research (CENIM-CSIC), Madrid, Spain; cEuropean
University of Madrid – Laureate International Universities, Villaviciosa de Odón, Madrid, Spain

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Sintering is a thermal agglomeration process that is applied to a mixture of iron ore fines, recycled Agglomeration; CAP process;
ironmaking products, fluxes, slag-forming agents, and solid fuel (coke). The purpose of the sintering flame front; HPS process;
process is manufacturing a product with the suitable characteristics (thermal, mechanical, physical and iron ore; MEBIOS process;
sintering; softening and
chemical) to be fed to the blast furnace. The process has been widely studied and researched in the iron
melting
and steelmaking industry to know the best parameters that allow one to obtain the best sinter quality.
The present article reviews the sintering process that the mixture follows, once granulated, when it is
loaded onto the sinter strand. There, the sinter mixture is partially melted at a temperature between
1300-1480°C and undergoes a series of reactions that forms the sinter cake to be loaded into the blast
furnace to produce pig iron.

1. Introduction (Patent no. DE210742). In 1906, A. S. Dwight and R. L. Lloyd

Oxidized iron ores with a granulometry within 10 and
120 mm were loaded into the blast furnace until the fifties
of the last century (Peacey and Davenport 1986). The devel-
opment of agglomeration processes appeared with the pur-
pose of using iron ores (and concentrates) with a size lower
than 10 mm (Sancho et al. 2000). Agglomeration processes
include briquetting (used in ferroalloys industry, Ordiales
et al. 2016), nodulizing, sintering, and pelletizing.
Sintering is a thermal agglomeration process (1300-1480°C,
Eisele and Kawatra, 2003) of a mixture of iron ore mineral fines
(0.5-8 mm), by-products of the iron and steelmaking industry,
fluxes, slag-forming elements and fossil fuel (coke). The objec-
tive of the process, whereby the mixture of materials charged is
partially fused at a high temperature to produce clustered
lumps, is obtaining a load (12-35 mm) for the blast furnace
with the suitable physical-chemical and mechanical properties
with the lowest price (Fernández-González et al., 2016).
The origin of the sintering process was in 1887 when
F. Haberlein and T. Huntington (Patent no. US786814)
invented a sintering process for copper sulphide ores. The
process was based on a sintering bed being blown with air
from bottom upwards. This process was also known as up-
draft sintering process (Patent no. US786814). In 1902, a
sintering method for pyrite cinder and dusty iron ores with
addition of coal and air blowing through the bed from bottom
upwards was patented (Patent no. DE137438). In 1905, E. J.
Savelsberg applied the Huntington-Heberlein equipment to
the sintering of iron, and by 1912 there were fifteen iron ore
plants using that technique (Koerner and MacDougall 1983)
invented a machine for vacuum sintering (Patent no. US
882518 A). In 1909, A. S. Dwight and R. L. Lloyd invented a
moving-bed of fine ore particles and additives supported on a
metallic chain type strand with exposure to high tempera-
tures, (Patent no. US916393). In 1909, a rotatory type of
sintering machine was patented (Patent no. DE226033). In
1913, W. K. Bartsch described a sintering method (belt type)
for operation with air blowing from bottom upwards (Patent
no. DE276424). Since then, Dwight-Lloyd technology has
been the main technology for iron ore sintering (Ghosh and
Chatterjee 2008).
2. Sintering process
The sintering process is based on treating a mix (mineral
fines, return fines, fluxes, etc.) layer in presence of coke dust
to the action of a burner placed in the surface of the layer. In
this way, heating takes place from the upper to the lower
sections. The mix layer rests over a strand system and an
exhausting system allows to the whole thickness to reach the
suitable temperature for the partial melting of the mix, and
the subsequent agglomeration. In the Dwight-Lloyd system,
the sintering grate is a continuous chain of large length and
width, formed by the union of a series of pallet cars that make
the sintering strand (Figure 1).
Each pallet car passes below a charging hopper where is
charged firstly by material of coarse granulometry (10-20 mm)
in a layer of 3-6 cm that forms the hearth layer composed
mainly by sinter (Umadevi et al., 2011; Gupta 2010). The
hearth layer protects steel grates from over-heating during the

CONTACT D. Fernández-González fernandezgdaniel@uniovi.es Department of Materials Science and Metallurgical Engineering, School of Mines, Energy and
Materials, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Asturias 33004, Spain.
© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
216 D. FERNÁNDEZ-GONZÁLEZ ET AL.

Figure 1. Sintering plant scheme.

sintering process. Secondly, and over the first layer, a second sidered other granulometric fractions: 10 and 20 mm
layer of fine material (0-8 mm) is charged. This second layer is (Umadevi et al., 2011; Ying et al. 2011) or 10 and 15 mm
formed by fine mineral, return fines, fluxes and coke. (Gupta 2010).
Then, the pallet car passes bellow an initializing furnace, ● More than 20 mm (Umadevi et al., 2011) o more than
where the combustible ignition takes place in the surface of 15 mm (Gupta 2010) are directly sent to the blast fur-
the mix. At the same time, the mix is subjected to down- nace. Maximum grain sizes <50 mm according to Lu
draught suction through the load. and Ishiyama 2015.
The pallet car continues the process and the combustion
progresses in the direction of the gas flow. In this way, the
Return fines are unavoidably formed during the sintering
sintering process takes place. The combustion process does
process, and are recycled back into the sintering process, mak-
not happen simultaneously in the whole thickness of the bed.
ing up 30 to 40% of the iron bearing materials. Wu et al. 2013,
On the contrary, combustion happens as a horizontal layer
studied the proper ratio of using return fines in the sintering
that moves vertically through the bed. The thickness of this
process. They observed that return fines from sintering sieving
layer is a small fraction of the bed. Permeability is a quality
were a little easily assimilated than that from the blast furnace
requirement for the load, and for that reason the granulation
sieving due to the lower high-Ca calcium ferrite content (Wu
process is previously used (permeability is improved during
et al. 2013). Wu et al. 2013 suggested an optimal ratio of 30 mass
granulation) (Fernandez-González et al., 2017). In the region
% (max.) return fines from blast furnace sieving and 20 mass %
above the combustion zone, very hot sintered product heats
return fines from sintering sieving.
the air that passes through this layer. In this way, pre-heated
Four zones can be identified in the bed height:
air arrives to the combustion area. The heat of the air/gases
previously heated is absorbed in these cold sections, causing
preheating of the load and evaporation of the water. In this ● Cold and wet zone: Includes the zone of the sinter bed
context, high temperatures that cause partial melting are with a temperature lower than 100°C. This area is
reached, and the sintering process takes place. formed by the mix to be sintered, with upper limit
This high thermal efficiency is caused by heat accumula- saturated in water/water vapor.
tion in a partial layer of the load called sintering zone or ● Drying zone: Sinter area with temperatures between
flame front. The flame front progresses at 10-30 mm/min 100°C and 500°C. The vaporization of the mix moisture
(23.9-27.7 mm/min, Zhou et al., 2015; 12-28 mm/min, and subsequent dehydration of hydroxides take place.
Loo and Dukino 2014) towards the sintering grate. In a ● Reaction zone (maximum temperatures: 1300-1480°C,
bed height of 500-600 mm the process would take 25 min- according to Eisele and Kawatra, 2003): Includes the
utes (Gosh and Chaterjee, 2008). zone of the sinter bed with a temperature between
Once the end of the strand is reached, the sintered material 500°C (coke ignition beginning) and 900°C (cooling
is discharged and subjected to cooling, crushing, and screen- period beginning). The main processes that happen in
ing. Obtained product can be divided into three granulo- this zone are: coke combustion (exothermal), carbonates
metric fractions: decomposition (endothermal), solid phase reactions,
reduction and re-oxidation of iron oxides and reactions
● Between 0 and 5 mm (0 and 10 mm, according to Gupta of formation of the sintered mass.
2010), called return fines, which are sent to the feeding ● Cooling zone: This zone is found immediately after the
hoppers (Williams 1983; Lu and Ishiyama 2015; Loo and reaction zone. Cooling and re-crystallization of the sin-
Dukino 2014; Mochón 2014a). tered product take place. There is a superficial zone
● Sinter with a granulometry within 5 and 20 mm is used where the sinter layer is brittle than in the rest of the
as hearth layer in the sinter strand. Other authors con- sinter bed.

Nozawa et al. 2013 investigated the cause of sinter process
fluctuations to enable lowered consumption of carbon, thus
lowering carbon dioxide emissions. Frequency analysis of
plant data (exhaust gas temperature at one wind-box, mixture
charging level and mixture moisture content) indicated that
feed mixture moisture variations were linked to fluctuations
of gas exhaust temperature at the particular wind-box. Process
control was improved by controlling the feed mixture moist-
ure content in a narrow band of values, thus enabling lower
carbon consumption and fewer carbon dioxide emissions.
2.1. Combustibles for the sintering process
Cokes and anthracites are used in general as solid fuels in the
iron ore sintering process, but they must be reconsidered due
to the rise of coke price, the unstable supply of anthracites and
the global warming by CO2 emissions (Murakami et al., 2013).
Arikata et al., 2013 studied the reduction of specific coke
breeze consumption by examination of the influence that
coke breeze morphology and pseudo-particles structure have
on sintering quality. They controlled the coke breeze mor-
phology in pseudo-particles by delaying the timing of coke
breeze addition in the granulation process. As a consequence
of adding more coke breeze in the later stage of granulation it
was observed that permeability improved, but also much of
coke breeze stayed in the surface layer of pseudo particles or
in free particle leading to improve quality and burn through
speed (BTS). Arikata et al., 2013 observed that when the entire
charge of coke breeze was added in the latter stage, combus-
tion quality was improved, but conduction and accumulation
of heat impaired, reducing yield as a consequence of heat loss.
Arikata et al., 2013 searched for a ratio of the second-stage
addition (after moisture addition). With a ratio of 50%, sinter
quality and permeability were improved, while maintaining
good BTS, because the area of the sintering bed with tem-
perature at 1200°C or higher was expanded, enabling the
reduction of coke breeze consumption.
Fan et al., 2014, studied the use of straw char as a
supplementary fuel for coke in iron ore sintering. They
studied two possible types of carbonization: one-stage car-
bonization (700°C, 10-25°C/min, carbonization time of 30
min) and two-stage carbonization (stage-1: 500°C, stage-2:
700°C); having similar volatile and fixed carbon contents
than coke breeze. Fan et al., 2014, concluded that straw
char prepared as mentioned is able to replace coke breeze
by 20% (one-stage carbonization) and 40% (two-stage car-
bonization), with emission reduction for SOX and for NOX,
10.98% and 38.15% (one-stage carbonization) and 12.67%
and 22.53% (two-stage carbonization), respectively.
Fan et al., 2015 developed a coke-biochar composite from
coking coal and raw straw, and they used it as fuel for the
sintering process. They concluded that small changes in sinter
quality are achieved for 40-60% of coke-biochar composite
replacement. The fuel nitrogen conversion rate is decreased
by 8.3% during combustion.
Kawaguchi and Hara, 2013 suggested the utilization of
biomass (raw-biomass and biomass carbonized char) for
iron ore sintering. They observed that yield and exhaust gas
were not good when using raw biomass as carbon material.
MINERAL PROCESSING AND EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY REVIEW 217
Kawaguchi and Hara, 2013 observed a good productivity and
exhaust gas (NOX, SOX, dust, dioxins) when using biomass
carbonized char as carbon material, but operation is necessary
to be optimized (size and moisture control of biomass char) as
a consequence of the high biomass char combustion rate.
Sinter yield is similar to the obtained with anthracite and
coke when biomass char is used, and it was observed the
effectiveness of biomass char to decrease CO2, NOX, SOX,
dust, etc. emission in sinter exhaust gas.
Lu et al., 2013 studied the substitution charcoal as an
alternative fuel for coke breeze. They observed that compared
with coke breeze, sinter mixtures containing charcoal required
higher mix moisture contents to achieve optimum granula-
tion. Lu et al., 2013 observed that fuel rate increased consid-
erably with charcoal substitution because of the increased fuel
addition and decreased sinter yield (this question did not
imply a reduction of sinter productivity, on the contrary,
sintering speed and productivity increased with increases in
charcoal substitution rate). Lu et al., 2013 observed that with
increasing substitution of charcoal for coke breeze implied
that both CO and CO2 concentrations in the waste gas
increased, and that both SO2 and NOX decreased.
Zhang et al., 2014, studied the effect of CO and CO2 in
suction gas and they observed that the presence of a small
amount of CO was beneficial to improve the coke combustion
efficiency, but also sinter productivity, yield and sinter
strength. Zhang et al., 2014 also observed that excessive
amount of CO2 impair coke combustion efficiency and sinter-
ing indexes. Zhang et al., 2014 suggested that CO2 content in
suction gas should be lower than 5 vol. %.
Fujino et al., 2013 studied the effect of adding metallic Fe
particles (as an alternative agglomeration agent) to coke with
the purpose of reducing CO2 emissions in the sintering pro-
cess. Fujino et al., 2013 observed changes in the pressure of
the sinter bed, which caused a decrease in permeability
(consequence of the blockage that produces the increasing
amount of formed melt).
Ohno et al., 2013 studied the combustion rate in the fine
layer of the quasi-particle, considering void ratio and liquid
formation. They observed that coke combustion rate
decreased with the increasing of liquid formation as liquid
phase in quasi-particle prevented oxygen diffusion. Ohno
et al., 2013 also observed that the higher mixing ratio of
coke, the larger effective diffusion coefficient of oxygen as a
consequence of that mixing ratio of coke made higher the
void ratio in the sample after coke combustion.
3. Alternative processes to sintering and pelletizing
3.1. HPS process: Hybrid Pelletized Sinter
The HPS process is based on the incorporation of conven-
tional processes for the production of both sinter and pellets.
This process was developed by the NKK (Nippon Kokan
Keihin, now JFE Steel Corporation) with the purpose of
using large amounts of fine iron ores, including pellet feed
with high iron content. As opposed to the traditional sintering
process, the blended ore, limestone and burned lime are firstly
mixed and pelletized in the Hybrid Pelletized Sinter
218 D. FERNÁNDEZ-GONZÁLEZ ET AL.
equipment. This process used disk pelletizers to produce
green pellets that are coated with coke breeze before being
charged onto the sinter machine. A commercial plant using
HPS process with an annual capacity of 6 million tons per
annum was built by the JFE Steel Corporation at Fukuyama
(Lu and Ishiyama 2015).
3.2. MEBIOS: Mosaic Embedding Iron Ore Sintering
The behavior of raw mixes with high goethite ore content in
sinter bed structure and permeability have been being studied
since 1980’s by Japanese steel mills (Otomo et al. 1996; Yang
et al. 2000). The basic mineralogy of West Angelas iron ore
(Australia) is an association of martite and goethite. Marra
Mamba (Australia) ores present a wide range of lithological
and mineral types from hard/dense to soft/highly porous and
from martite to goethite and ochreus goethite. In this way, the
softest ores can produce a high proportion of ultrafine parti-
cles (up to 30% <0.15 mm). In 2001 ISIJ began a research
project on porous meso-mosaic texture sinter with the pur-
pose of improving sintering in the case of incorporating
Australian goethite/limonite ores (Australian ores can contain
significant levels of goethite (Loo and Ellis, 2014)), generally
divided into Marra Mamba and pisolitic ores, in the raw mix
(Kawaguchi and Usui 2005; Kasai et al. 2005). The objective is
to utilize large amount of fine ores by controlling the void
structure of the sinter bed structure (improving permeability
of sinter bed and sinter yield).
As a result of the project a new agglomeration concept was
defined, and was known as MEBIOS (Mosaic Embedding Iron
Ore Sintering) (Hayashi et al. 2009). The MEBIOS process
organizes dense granulated pellets (ageing bed) in a conven-
tional sinter mixture (induction bed). In this way, well-devel-
oped voids and few pores create a ventilation route
(Otomo et al., 2009; Kamijo et al., 2013) (see Figure 2). The
ageing bed is based on Marra Mamba ore (consisting of fine
Figure 2. Illustration of the mosaic embedding iron ore sintering process
(MEBIOS process).
and coarsely granulated material), while the induction bed
consisted of pisolitic limonite ore blended with coke and
CaO. The aim of the MEBIOS process is the formation of a
ventilation route in the sintering bed by creating a low-density
area around the large pellets arising from a kind of wall effect
and suppression of sinter bed shrinkage due to support of the
load by dense large pellets in the upper part of the sinter bed
(Lu and Ishiyama 2015).
Another version of this process is RF-MEBIOS
(return fine-mosaic embedding iron ore sintering) that was
developed to utilize return fines as the dry particles
(Yamaguchi et al., 2013; Matsumura et al., 2013). Small dry
particles charged into the packed sinter bed have a similar
effect on controlling the bed structure due to friction
between the dry and wet particles. The utilization of return
fines as the dry particles eliminates the requirements for
drying coarse ore particles. The productivity is increased at
the same charging moisture content in the sinter mixture as
a consequence of the higher permeability of the packed bed
(due to the increase in the pseudo-particle size during gran-
ulation, and due to the decrease in the bulk density of the
packed sinter bed after charging). The beneficial effect of RF-
MEBIOS on sinter productivity was confirmed on Number 3
sinter plant in the NSSMC Kashima Steel Works, and it has
now been installed on three commercial sintering machines
(Kashima, Wakayama and Kokura) belonging to Sumitomo
Metal Industries Ltd (Lu and Ishiyama, 2015).
3.3. Composite Agglomeration Process (CAP)
The exhaustion of high grade deposits has increased the
utilization of domestic iron ores (low grade and small scale).
These ores are typically transformed into fine grained con-
centrates by grinding and beneficiation, and that has caused
an increase in the supply of fine grained concentrates (accom-
panied with imported fine grained concentrates increase). If
this kind of ores is used to produce pellets, pelletizing plants
are necessary to be built. However, pelletizing plants construc-
tion is restricted as a consequence of the stability of iron ore
sources, current overall arrangement and investment and the
difficulty of pelletizing plants to be able to treat all kinds of
iron raw materials (Jiang et al., 2010a). Nowadays, fine con-
centrates are used to produce sinter along with coarse grained
iron ores, and this causes a certain deterioration of the sinter
production because fine concentrates impairs sinter bed per-
meability. Sinter and pellets are used together in blast furnace
(Jiang et al., 2010a), but there are several drawbacks, mainly:
spherical shape of pellets (lower angle of repose than sinter,
and for that reason higher tendency to flow toward the center
of the furnace, causing unstable operation), and the higher
bulk density of pellets that makes them to sink into the coke
layer during burden descent (Jiang et al., 2010a). Jiang et al.,
2010a developed the Composite Agglomeration Process as a
method to overcome the problems associated with the sphe-
rical shape of pellets and the increase in the supply of fine
grained iron raw materials.
The process is schematized in Figure 3. The basis of the
process developed by Jiang et al., 2010a is:

Figure 3. Composite Agglomeration Process (CAP).
(1) Part or all of fine grained iron raw materials suitable
for balling are transformed into 8-16 mm green pel-
let; the rest of fine grained and coarse fine ores,
fluxes, fuels and return fines are mixed and granu-
lated (primary mixture).
(2) Green pellets and primary mixture are blended
(secondary mixture), and that secondary mixture is
then fed onto the sintering machine.
(3) The mixture is transformed into the composite
agglomerate (composed by basic sinters and acid
pellets, where acid pellets are embedded in basic
sinter) by ignition and down draft firing.
(4) The composite agglomerate is crushed and
screened, and fraction <5 mm is considered return
fine and sent back to the beginning of the process.
CAP was put into practice firstly at Baotou Iron and Steel
Company in 2008. CAP improved sinter bed permeability,
decreased fuel consumption, and increased productivity of
sinter machine (Jiang et al., 2012). This process is similar to
MEBIOS that displays its predominance on efficiently using
low-grade iron ores and limonite (with high productivity and
reducibility, but also enhancing sinter strength) (Jiang et al.,
2015).
Zhang et al., 2011 studied the use of CAP to specularite
ore. Jiang et al., 2015 studied the application of CAP to
prepare blast furnace burden materials from titanomagnetite
concentrate.
Iron concentrates containing fluorine is a typical inferior
sintering material with very low Tumbler Index and pro-
ductivity. Jiang et al., 2010b studied the effect of CAP on
fluoric iron concentrates sintering. Jiang et al., 2010b
observed an improvement in the yield and quality of the
sinter.
MINERAL PROCESSING AND EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY REVIEW 219
4. Flame front
Flame-front speed has a large influence on sinter quality,
productivity and sintering time (Zhou et al. 2015). The
flame-front is the region where coke particles are combust-
ing, having two borders, where coke begins to combust in
the initial one and is burned out in the opposite (Loo 2000).
However the temperature at which coke particle starts to
combust depends on size, oxygen partial pressure, volatile
content and component types in the coke. The temperature-
time profiles are measured by means of thermocouples
embedded in the sintering bed. Other authors suggest that
the flame-front is the area where coke did not reach the
combustion temperature, defining a border between com-
busted zone and initial mix of raw materials (Yang et al.
2006). Zhao in 2012 suggested that flame front is the zone
where the coke combustion rate is greater than 1%
(Zhao 2012). Raising flame front temperature increases air-
flow resistance and leads to longer sintering times and a
lower productivity (Nakano et al. 2010), also speeding up
the flame-front is achieved by increasing the airflow rate
(increasing heat transfer down to bed and oxygen level in
the gas) (Zhou et al. 2015). Flame front speed from 23.9 to
27.7 mm/min increases productivity without affecting sinter
strength, but higher flame front speeds (> 27.8 mm/min)
deteriorates productivity, sinter size, and strength
(Zhou et al. 2015). The ideal flame front profile in the
sintering process is shown in Figure 4. Heating time in
the high temperature zone (above 1100°C) should be short
(1.5 min). The reason is that partial oxygen pressure in this
zone is low as a consequence of coke combustion and FeO
formation (harmful for sinter reducibility). On the contrary,
cooling time (from maximum temperature down to 1100°C)
should be long (3-5 min) with the purpose of avoiding a
strong sinter structure by the formation of a gangue matrix.
220 D. FERNÁNDEZ-GONZÁLEZ ET AL.
Figure 4. Ideal profile of temperatures distribution in the sinter bed (adapted
from Cores et al. 2013).
Achieving uniformity regarding to maximum temperature
and heat distribution ensures homogeneous sinter, process
efficiency and sinter quality. A double layer sintering is
performed in some plants to satisfy this objective (achieving
homogenous Tmax in the whole thickness of the sinter bed),
and consists of preparing an upper layer with higher coke
content than in the lower one to avoid the tendency of Tmax
to rise in this lower layer (Toda et al. 1984; Ishikawa et al.
1982). Infrared thermography is used in modern plants to
monitor the sintering burn-through point (when the flame
front reaches the bottom of the bed), but also to predict
sinter qualities and to adjust the solid fuel rate (adjust the
quantity of coke in the mixture) (Usamentiaga et al. 2013).
Simulation models have been used in sintering to study the
variables of the process (Dawson et al. 1984; Patisson et al.
1991), and to achieve equations for heat distribution
(Yasumoto and Tanaka 1982).
Flame front properties are critical because they determine
the heat transferred to the particulate bed, being responsible
of the strength of the formed sinter bed. Loo et al., 2012
studied the factors that influence the flame front tempera-
ture and the speed at which it descends down a bed, being
both properties dependent on post-ignition airflow rate
(at the same time dependent on the pre-ignition airflow
and flow resistance of the flame front) and properties of
the sinter mix. Moreover, there is a strong dependence of
flame front resistance on gas flow velocity, flame front speed
and applied suction. Loo et al., 2012 observed that dense ores
produce high bulk density and low porosity beds, causing the
slowing down and broadening of the flame front, compared
with porous ores. Loo et al., 2012 checked that increasing
flame front speed decrease coke combustion efficiency.
Loo et al., 2012 remarked that for any sinter mix, increasing
flame front speed will decrease both residence time and also
the enclosed area between the temperature profile and the
temperature of 1000°C (increasing this area increased sinter
yield and strength).
4.1. Flame front temperature and sinter bed structure
Flame front speed influences the mineralogy and microstruc-
ture of the formed sinter. A molten (mainly of Fe2O3 and
CaO) is generated in the sinter bed when the sintering process
is carried out at 1200°C. Iron oxide and fine particles are
incorporated to the molten. When the molten penetrates the
hematite grain, interfacial breakdown takes place, and pri-
mary hematite (un-melted) is left. This primary hematite is
considered beneficial for sintering because improves the
Reducibility Index (RI). According to the chemical reaction:
Fe2 O3 þ CaO þ SiO2 þ Al2 O3 ! SiO2  CaO  ðFe; AlÞ2 O3
When CaO and Al2O3 are assimilated to the molten, this
reacts with the iron oxide and generates acicular calcium
ferrite (< 10 μm) with Al2O3 and SiO2 as solid dissolutions.
This compound is known as silicoferrites of calcium and
aluminum (SFCA) (Ferreira et al., 2014), and is considered
beneficial for the sinter structure (good reducibility, improves
shatter index (SI) and Tumbler index (TI)). SFCA in iron ore
sinter can be divided into two types according to its composi-
tion, structure and morphology: SFCA and SFCA-I
(Scarlett et al., 2004; Webster et al., 2012). SFCA is a low-Fe
form that exhibits a prismatic or columnar morphology, while
SFCA-I is a high-Fe and low-Si form (Webster et al., 2012).
McAndrew and Clout, 1993 said that the intersecting micro-
plates morphology of SFCA-I is beneficial for sinter strength
and reducibility (sinters with important amount of SFCA-I
are considered of high quality).
When sintering is performed at temperatures lower than
1300°C, magnetite formation decreases (less FeO) and
improves the RI and the Reducibility Degradability Index
(RDI). Moreover, the optimum structure for sinter reducibility
in the blast furnace is achieved, hematite nuclei (un-melted)
surrounded by an acicular ferrite network (Toda et al. 1984;
Ishikawa et al. 1983). Figure 5 shows the development of the
different structures of sinter as a function of the Tmax reached
in the sinter bed.
When sintering is performed at temperatures higher than
1300°C, a fraction of the ferrite dissolves and melts to convert
into hematite or magnetite and into gangue components
(Matsuno and Harada 1981; Hsieh and Whiteman 1989a;
Hsieh and Whiteman 1989b). During the cooling period, the
molten forms new phases as large acicular ferrite, and second-
ary hematite, which deteriorates the RDI (Ishikawa et al. 1983).
In Table I, the phase composition and sinter quality indices
as a function of sintering maximum temperature (Tmax ) can
be observed (Formoso et al. 2003; Cores et al. 2010a). The best
results are reached among 1225°C and 1275°C, that is to say,
maximum percentage of ferrites, high primary hematite, low
secondary hematite, good porosity and good quality indices
(FeO, Reduction Degradation Index, Reducibility Index and
Shatter Index).
5. Softening and melting
The cohesive zone (or beginning of the load (coarse mineral
grains, sinter and pellets) softening) is one of the blast furnace
zones defined according to the physical characteristics of the
 MINERAL PROCESSING AND EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY REVIEW 221

the cohesive zone to be as narrow as possible with the purpose

of facilitating the penetration of the reducing gas (because this
gas must reach upper zones for reducing the load). The
cohesive zone should be as low as possible, so that the furnace
preparation zone above this one is sufficiently large to allow
the reduction of iron oxides. In order to satisfy both ques-
tions, softening and melting isotherms must be as high as
possible and the difference between them must be as minimal
as possible.
The general sequence of events during typical bulk scale
softening and melting experiment is: pre-softening, softening,
exudation and dripping stage. The softening mechanism is
related with the melting rate of the core as a function of
temperature. Deformation is related with macroporosity gen-
erated by the transfer of liquid from the core to the shell.
Initial liquid phase formation plays a role in the start of
softening, reduction, retardation and dripping of liquid from
the bed (Bakker and Heerema 1997; Jeon et al. 2010).
Liu et al. 2016, studied the effect on the softening-melting
behavior of sinter with different MgO contents made from
chromium-bearing vanadium-titanium magnetite. They
observed that with increasing MgO content in the sinter the
softening and melting intervals increased and the location of
the cohesive zone shifted downward slightly and became
moderately thicker (Liu et al. 2016). Moreover, they found
that greater MgO contents in the sinter resulted in the gen-
eration of greater amounts of high-melting-point compo-
nents, affecting negatively the permeability of the mixed
burden (Liu et al. 2016).
Research was carried out by Bakker and Heerema 1997
in Tata Steel blast furnaces where coke with high ash
content (25-30%), sinter with high basicity (2.5) and
high alumina and magnesia content were used (4.5% and
5.2%, respectively). Blast furnaces were loaded (apart from
sinter) with hematite ores of Joda and Naomundi (Fetotal =
Figure 5. Development of sinter structure (adapted from Cores et al., 2013). 65%). In this way, softening and melting was determined
for sinters with different basicities (1.5 to 3.0), magnesia
Table 1. Phase composition and sinter quality indices as a function of maximum contents (3.3 to 10%) and sinter reducibility grades. It was
temperature in the bed (%) (Cores et al., 2013). observed that blast furnace behavior improves (lower and
Tmax ð CÞ narrower cohesive zone) as the sinter/ore ratio in the load
1175-1225 1225-1275 1275-1350 increases (Bakker and Heerema 1997). Nandy et al. 2006,
Primary hematite 50 42 22 studied the effect of FeO content in sinters used by Tata
Secondary hematite 5 5 20 Steel (10% -12.1%) with the purpose of knowing the
Magnetite 10 15 20
SFCA 35 38 30 influence of softening and melting in the blast furnace
Glass + 2CaO·SiO2 7 10 12 (Nandy et al. 2006). Sinter with higher FeO content
Porosity 35 30 15
FeO 3 4 6
caused early softening of the burden, which is undesirable
RDI 30 32 36 in blast furnace (Barnaba 1985). Unreduced FeO will be
RI 72 70 64 reduced at a higher temperature (by direct reduction),
SI 93 94 95
leading to a higher coke rate in the process. High FeO
content is also responsible of lower wind volume, produc-
load (Sancho et al. 2000). This zone is limited by softening tion and productivity (Nandy et al. 2006).
and melting isotherms (Sancho et al. 2000; Propster and Hsieh and Liu 1998, researched the influence of material
Szekely 1979; Wakayama et al. 1979; Busby et al. 1994; composition on softening and melting properties of China
Cores et al. 2010b). Uniformity is important for the process Steel Corporation burden materials used in blast furnace.
in the blast furnace, and for that reason pretreated loads Sinter showed a high softening temperature but relatively
(sinter and pellets) are used because it is possible to attenuate low meltdown ratio and poor permeability at high tempera-
thermal segregation problems. The cohesive zone is formed by ture. Increasing sinter basicity was observed to be detrimental
alternative layers of soft sinter and coke. It is important for for the fluidity of melted slag and iron (being blocked in the
222 D. FERNÁNDEZ-GONZÁLEZ ET AL.

coke layer, and this decreases the percentage meltdown and

increases the gas resistance) in the furnace, so sinter basicity is
necessary to be low. Increasing Al2O3 and MgO lowers the
slag melting point and a reduction in high temperature gas
resistance is favored. Sinter behaves better in softening and
melting than pellets and ore, but worse in meltdown and high
temperature gas resistance, so a mixed burden containing 65%
sinter, 20% lump ore, and 15% pellets is found to have the
best results (Hsieh and Liu 1998).
Pal et al. 1998, studied the softening temperature of a series
of iron ores and sinters of the Steel Authority of India Limited
(SAIL). They discovered that softening temperature comes
Figure 6. Reaction sequences involved in the formation of SFCA (adapted from
down as the gangue content in the ore increases, as a con- Scarlett et al. 2004).
sequence of that gangue is formed by compounds with low
melting point (2FeO·SiO2, FeO·SiO2·CaO, Fe2O3·SiO2CaO).
Alkalis in the gangue also form compounds with low melting
point (Na2SiO3, K2SiO3, NaAlSi2O6) (Pal et al. 1998).
Ueno et al. 1994, researched sinters of the Nippon Steel
Corporation (NSC) when decreasing Al2O3 content from 1.85
to 1.50%. It was checked quantitatively that reducing Al2O3
content in sinter, the reduction and softening-melting proper-
ties of the sinter in the blast furnace improve. Moreover,
permeability resistance index in the cohesive zone improves
(Ueno et al. 1994).
Loo et al. 2011, studied the softening and melting behavior of
lump hematitic ores and sinter. They found that beds of lump ores
contract much earlier than sinter by the formation of fayalite (low
melting point, around 1177-1205°C). No fayalite forms in sinter
and less bed deformation is achieved. Moreover, there are not
significant differences for the softening and melting temperatures
for sinter and for 80% sinter and 20% lump ore blend.

6. Reactions in the sintering process

The sintering process is based on rising the temperature of the
raw mix with the purpose of achieving its partial melting and
producing a molten metal which, during the cooling, crystal-
lizes or solidifies into several mineral phases that agglomerates
the structure. The combustion of coke supplies the energy for
the process (Dawson 1987; Loo et al. 2011). In this way, from
a mix, whose main constituents are Fe2O3, CaO, SiO2 and
Al2O3, a sintered product is obtained, having the following
constituents: Fe2O3, Fe3O4, FeO, FeM, calcium ferrites and
silicates. Metallic oxides and FeM (iron metal) are bounded
together by calcium ferrites and silicates (calcium silicate,
olivines, fayalite, and others). Figure 6 shows schematically
the reaction sequences involved in the formation of SFCA.
Reactions solid-solid (between 750-780°C and 1200°C (melting
point of these ferrites)) are the responsible of the first ferrites
formation (Figure 7). The sequence of formation is:
Dicalcium ferriteðC2 F ÞðEq:1Þ ! Calcium ferriteðCF ÞðEq:2Þ
! Calcium diferriteðCF2 ÞðEq:3Þ
Fe2 O3 þ 2CaO ! 2CaO  Fe2 O3 750  780 C (1)
2 CaO  Fe2 O3 þ Fe2 O3 ! 2½CaO  Fe2 O3  920  1000 C (2)
Figure 7. SiO2-CaO-Fe2O3 ternary diagram (TAPP 2.2. Software. E. S. Microware,
Inc., Hamilton, OH).
CaO  Fe2 O3 þ Fe2 O3 ! CaO  2Fe2 O3 1050  1150 C (3)
Calcium oxide combines easily with iron oxides in the mix
to produce calcium ferrites. The liquid phase formation reac-
tion starts at the point of contact between the ore fines and
calcium oxide. At the same time, the solid-solid SFCA forma-
tion reaction begins at around 1050°C and continues as solid-
liquid reaction above 1200°C. The SFCA stability is increased
by the Al2O3 presence (Scarlett et al. 2004). Al2O3 also lowers
the ferrites start of formation temperature.
The air cooling stage has large influence on the formation
of minerals. Magnetite may react with silicate melt and oxy-
gen to produce a large amount of calcium ferrite (that has
good strength, Yu et al., 2015) and also oxidize to reoxidized
hematite (Hsieh and Whiteman 1989a; Hsieh and Whiteman
1989b). On its behalf, hematite phase, which is formed in the
heating stage, does not usually react with silicate melt to form
calcium ferrite. Hsieh and Whiteman 1989a simulated the
cooling situation in industrial iron ore sintering, and found
for specimens heated up to 1255°C and 1210°C in the low and
intermediate oxygen potential followed by slow cooling in air

that contained significant levels of calcium ferrite and reox-
idized hematite and less magnetite (which is in agreement
with Wang et al., 2016 as they observed that magnetite was
almost totally eliminated during slow cooling for sintered
samples with 0.5% and 5% O2) and glassy silicate. Wang
et al., 2016 also observed that SFCA was produced during
cooling via crystallization from a silicate melt at high tem-
peratures, being strongly promoted the formation of SFCA
when slow cooling in an oxidizing gas atmosphere (Webster
et al., 2012, observed that during cooling form 1350°C to 25°
C, the first phase to crystallize by reaction between Fe3O4 and
melt was and Fe-rich SFCA phase with composition similar to
SFCA-I in synthetic iron ore sinter mixtures). Fan et al., 2011
observed a calcium ferrite (CF) strong ability of precipitation
during the sintering process (CF could crystallize rapidly at a
cooling rate of 150°C/min, and decreasing cooling rate favors
the development of the crystal) which is in agreement with
Ding et al., 2016. The needle-like CF has good strength,
excellent reducibility, and low temperature formation (Fan
et al., 2011). Low sintering temperature favors the formation
of acicular calcium ferrite during heating (an increase in
heating temperature and time promotes the transformation
from acicular type through columnar to irregular) (Hsieh and
Whiteman 1989b). Acicular calcium ferrite can be also formed
during cooling according to Hsieh and Whiteman 1989b,
being both options necessaries in order to improve sinter
properties. Ding et al., 2016 studied the non-isothermal crys-
tallization kinetics of 2CaO·Fe2O3 and CaO·Fe2O3 and
observed that increasing the cooling rate promotes
CaO·Fe2O3 crystallization but inhibits 2CaO·Fe2O3 crystalliza-
tion. This aspect is beneficial during sintering as it was pre-
viously mentioned.
Higher temperatures than 1200°C, the main reaction is
solid-liquid. The presence of a molten phase reinforces the
formation of ferrites:
CaO  Fe2 O3 þ Al2 O3 þ SiO2 ! CaO  SiO2  ðFe; AlÞ2 O3
Scarlett et al. 2004 showed the sequence of reactions
followed to obtain SFCA by sinter mixtures. In this research,
it is said that the presence of alumina increases the tem-
perature at which CF and C2F initially form. Moreover, it is
mentioned that silica (quartz) reacts with neither Fe2O3 nor
CaO, and remains inert until SFCA and SFCA-I begin to
form at around 1050°C (Scarlett et al. 2004). Alumina addi-
tion (up to 5%) decreased the formation temperatures and
increased the formation rates of SFCA and SFCA-I (Scarlett
et al. 2004). Maeda et al. 2004, studied CF, CF + Al2O3 and
CF + SiO2 samples. The presence of alumina is effective to
dissolve the hematite in CF, and the addition of SiO2 is
effective to raise the CF formation rate (Maeda et al. 2004).
Kim et al. 2002, studied CF2, CF2 + Al2O3 (3-9%) and CF2 +
SiO2 (1-7%) samples sintered to prepare SFCA. Alumina
solubility in CF2 at 1250°C is 5-7% and silica solubility is
2-4% (Kim et al. 2002). Monoclinic structure CF2 changes to
triclinic when it reacts with Al2O3 and SiO2 to form SFCA
(Kim et al. 2002). The addition of SiO2 at 1200°C causes
partial decomposition of CF2 into calcium silicates (Kim
et al. 2002). Moreover, hematite formation decreases and
MINERAL PROCESSING AND EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY REVIEW 223
SFCA formation increases when the Al2O3/SiO2 ratio
increases (Kim et al. 2002).
An important aspect of sinter formation is the variation in
partial pressure conditions with temperature at different
stages of the sintering process. Wang et al., 2016 illustrated
this aspect in the sinter process by the comparison of micro-
structures of commercial sinter to the laboratory generated
sinters. Wang et al., 2016 studied the effects of sintering
temperature, CaO/SiO2 ratio, sintering gas atmosphere and
cooling procedure on the formation of mineral phase during
the sintering process, with special interest in the SFCA. Wang
et al., 2016 observed that SFCA content is affected by tem-
perature increasing in the range of 1250-1300°C
(further increasing in sintering temperature causes SFCA
decomposition by reduction of Fe3+ to Fe2+ in the SFCA
crystal structure). Wang et al., 2016 also verified that slow
cooling in an oxidizing gas atmosphere strongly promoted
SFCA formation. Wang et al., 2016 concluded that increasing
CaO/SiO2 ratio and oxygen partial pressure favor SFCA for-
mation. They stated that increasing partial oxygen pressure
promoted SFCA formation by stabilizing Fe2O3 relative to
Fe3O4. Although Wang et al. 2016 did not distinguish in
their analysis between the two types of SFCA phases, their
observations on the effect of partial oxygen pressure agrees
with Webster et al., 2013 in higher partial pressure being
preferable (if low oxygen partial pressure, SFCA-I is not
formed). Webster et al., 2013 found that SFCA-I (the pre-
ferred phase) does not form at low partial oxygen pressure
(at 1·10–4 atm), and at too high partial pressure the stability
field of SFCA-I, the precursor phase to SFCA, is reduced.
Jeon et al. 2010 found the following reaction rate of iron
oxide (Fe2O3) with lime for the formation of dicalcium
ferrite: FeO > Fe3O4 > Fe2O3. In this way, Fe2O3 is reduced
to Fe3O4 and FeO before the calcination of limestones
beginning, as a function of the partial pressure of oxygen
(determined according to the CO content in the CO+CO2
reducing mixture) (Jeon et al. 2010).
Yin et al., 2013 studied the formation behavior of calcium
ferrite in solid state below 1200°C when calcium hydroxide
and calcium carbonate are used as CaO sources. They
observed the formation of both Ca2Fe2O5 and CaFe2O4
when Fe2O3 and either CaCO3 or Ca(OH)2 are used as start-
ing materials, with the formation of Ca2Fe2O5 tending to be
prior to CaFe2O4 at lower temperatures (<900°C). Yin et al.,
2013 observed that calcium ferrite formation is related to the
starting CaO sources, and for that reason they found that
formation rates of CaFe2O4 were higher when CaCO3 was
used as CaO source.
Iron oxide can simultaneously be reduced by carbon mon-
oxide (from partial combustion of coke-coal) (Egundebi and
Whiteman 1989; Rojas and Barraza 2008). Fe3O4 can oxidize
to Fe2O3. FeO can oxidize to Fe3O4 or Fe2O3, and can initiate
with outside energy (carbon or solar), low melting point slag
formation reactions (Egundebi and Whiteman 1989; Ruiz-
Bustinza et al. 2013; Mochón et al. 2014b):
FeO þ SiO2 ! SiO2  FeO 1180 C
FeO þ CaO þ SiO2 ! CaO  SiO2  FeO1223 C
224 D. FERNÁNDEZ-GONZÁLEZ ET AL.
Silica from the iron can react with molten ferrite to form
calcium silicates and precipitate hematite or magnetite,
depending on the oxygen partial pressure in the reaction
system, together with the silicate formed (Matsuno 1979;
Matsuno and Harada 1981):
CaO  Fe2 O3 þ SiO2 ! CaO  SiO2 þ Fe2 O3
Blended particulate bed on the sinter strand is partially
melted in the flame front to give a multiphase system com-
posed by solid, melt and gas. The mix coalesces, changes its
shape and aggregates to form dense clusters in presence of
melt. After the flame front, a solidified bed of dense clusters,
which is crushed at the end of the strand with the purpose of
achieving the granulometry mentioned previously, is
obtained. The coalescing behavior of the molten mix formed
in the flame front is responsible of the size, density, and
strength of the sinter as Liu and Loo 2016 said. In Figure 5
it is possible to see the development of the sinter structure.
Coalescence strongly depends on the volume of melt in the
mix that also depends on the properties of iron ore in the mix
(Liu and Loo 2016). In this context, unless a certain level of
coalescence is reached, the sinter product will not have suffi-
cient size to be fed into the blast furnace, but also will not
have enough strength (Liu and Loo 2016). Liu and Loo 2016
studied the melt properties on coalescence. They observed
that iron ore size and its initial densities govern the densifica-
tion process in solid state. Liu and Loo 2016 observed that the
ore type has influence on liquid phase sintering (porous ore is
the most effective, as it is more readily to form a more
deformable system). Higher levels of porous ore and return
fines in sinter mix facilitates coalescence in flame front
according to Liu and Loo 2016.
Yoshimura et al. 2009, studied the effects of adding 3-5%
SiO2 and 3-5% Al2O3 on the penetration characteristics of
calcium ferrite (CF) melts into hematite sinter, varying the
percentage of porosity (5-15%). Yoshimura et al. 2009
observed that the penetration of CF liquid into 5% porosity
hematite is reduced by the addition of SiO2 and Al2O3 (being
the SiO2 addition more effective than the Al2O3 addition).
The penetration of CF into 15% porosity hematite was 10
times deeper than in the case of 5% porosity hematite
(Yoshimura et al. 2009), and is accelerated by the addition
of SiO2, as it reduces the melting point in the calcium ferrite
system. Yoshimura et al. 2009 checked that the ratio between
surface tension and viscosity of melts dominated the penetra-
tion depth of CF-based melts.
Patrick and Pownceby 2002, researched the SFCA sta-
bility between 1240 and 1390°C in air. Specimens of SFCA
where prepared from mixtures of four ores in the Fe 2O3-
CaO-Al2O3-SiO2 system (Patrick and Pownceby 2002).
The lower temperature limit of 1240°C was selected on
the basis that is the lowest anticipated SFCA melting
temperature (Patrick and Pownceby 2002), and it is esti-
mated that SFCA solid solution will completely decompose
at around 1480°C (Patrick and Pownceby 2002). Webster
et al., 2013 observed that the temperature stability of
SFCA in air range from 1173°C to 1321°C, while similarly
SFCA-I in air range from 1143°C to 1321°C. Scarlett et al.,
2004 observed in vacuum experiments that SFCA-I breaks
down to form SFCA and hematite at temperatures higher
than 1220-1240°C.
As it was mentioned, sintering process converts fine iron
ores into suitable lumpy agglomerates. Sinter is composed by
three phases: iron oxides, calcium ferrites (silicon ferrite of
calcium and aluminum, SFCA) and silicates. SFCA is a desir-
able bonding phase that plays an important role in strength
and reducibility. Sinter mixture includes several types of ores,
fluxes, fuels and return sinter fines, and as a consequence of
the large variation of particle size (which is detrimental to the
bed permeability) the mixture should be granulated to have a
quasi-particle before charging onto the sinter strand
(Fernández-González et al., 2017). Jeon et al., 2015 studied
the utilization of magnetite concentrate as an additive in
adhering fines of quasi-particle and the effect of magnetite
addition on assimilation behavior. Jeon et al., 2015 observed
that a small addition of magnetite significantly affected the
physicochemical properties of melt and final sinter micro-
structure (more SFCA was formed with fixed CaO because
Fe2+ (of the magnetite) directly replaced Ca2+ in the substitu-
tion mechanism of SFCA). Jeon et al., 2015 also concluded
that the assimilation behavior was improved with the proper
addition of magnetite in adhering fines of quasi-particle. Jeon
et al., 2014, studied the utilization of high Al2O3 pisolitic ore
in sintering process. They designed a quasi-particle where the
pisolitic ore is used as nuclei and ultrafine hematite and
magnetite ores are used as adhering fines. Jeon et al., 2014
observed that the quasi-particle comprising high Al2O3 piso-
litic ore and ultrafine magnetite ore had competitive sinter
quality (similar to the quasi-particle sample consisting nuclei
of dense hematite and adhering fines of ultrafine hematite).
The increase of iron ore consumption has forced the use of
low quality iron ores (some low grade and high SiO2 iron
ores). The high iron ores SiO2 content leads to an increase in
this compound in the sinter mixture and then of the slag
content of the sinter. For that reason the consumption of
serpentine containing SiO2 and MgO has to be decreased
and substituted by dolomite containing CaO and MgO or
other MgO-bearing materials with low SiO2. Zhang et al.
2013 studied the optimal usage of dolomite in the sintering
process, by mixing dolomite with magnetite concentrate
before granulation (improving contact condition of MgO
and FeOX could increase the solid solubility of MgO in the
magnetite, thus decreases the MgO content in calcium ferrite,
and for that reason increases the fluidity of the bonding phase
and sinter strength) and by using dolomite with mean size of
1 mm (could decrease the dispersity of MgO in the sinter
mixture, decreasing the negative influence of MgO on the
fluidity and bonding capacity of the bonding phase).
7. Conclusions
A review of the history of the sintering machines has been
done. Nowadays, Dwight-Lloyd is typically used in the main
sinter plants.
Sintering is performed after the granulation process, and
allows obtaining a product > 20 mm to be used in the blast
furnace as burden material. New alternative processes to sin-
tering and pelletizing have being studied in this paper: HPS

(Hybrid Pelletized Sinter, to produce sinter from pellets); and
MEBIOS (Mosaic Embedding Iron Ore Sintering, to improv-
ing sintering when Australian goethite/limonite ores are
employed); CAP (Composite Agglomeration Process, combi-
nation of the sintering and pelletizing processes to solve the
problem of spheroidal shape of pellets and the increase of fine
grained iron ore concentrates in the market).
Flame front defines the sintering process and has large
influence on sinter bed structure, being the SFCA
(Silicoferrites of Calcium and Aluminum) component the
one that gives the best characteristics of reducibility, Shatter
index and Tumbler index. Reactions that take place during the
sintering process and how they influence in sinter quality have
been also reviewed.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Education,
Culture and Sports via an FPU (Formación del Profesorado
Universitario) grant to Daniel Fernández González (FPU014/02436).
The authors wish to thank the CENIM-CSIC for their cooperation in
conducting the investigation.
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