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Student's Guide to tlt1
Structural Design çî1 &.

S. A. Lavan
Senior Lecturer in civil Engineering Studies, westminster college, London
B. G. Fletcher
Head of the Department of Construction, Waltham Forest College, London

Butterworths
London Boston Singapore Sydney Toronro Wellington
 w_
runr on REED Pt.c.
Ç INTERNATToNAL

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Preface
must also be obtained before any part of this publication is stored in a retrieval
system of any nature. Applications for the copyright holder's written permission
to reproduce, transmit or store in a retrieval system any part of this publication
should be addressed to the Publishers.

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their current price list.

First published 1989

Butterworth International Edition. 1989

ISBN 0 408 0s309 7 (
The purpose of lthis book is to provide a basrc
@ Butterworth & Co. (Publishers) Ltd, 1989 introduction to the requirements of structural de-
sign in reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete,
British.Library Cataloguing in Publication Data structural steelwork, structu¡al timber and unrein-
Lavan, S. A. (Sean A.) forced masonryl as set out in the relev¿nt British
Student's guide to structural design. Standards Institution codes of practice.llt is hoped
1. Structural engineering. Design
I. Title II. Fletcher, B. G. (Bernard G.) that by presenting the design procedures in a
624.t',771 logical series of stages the reader will find the
apparently daunting task of following the require-
ISBN 0-408-0217r-3 ments of the codes less so. The authors have,
where possible, set out the design procedures in a
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data applied for manne; ttrat aÍtóìl thu calculationi to be carried
out without reference to the actual code in ques-
tiory\However the book is not intended to be a
comolete substitute for the codes. It is hoped that
students of structural engineering. civil engineering
and architecture, as well as practising engineers
who require a basic introduction to the require-
ments at the limit state design codes, will find this
book both helpful and informative.
Our thanks are due to Trevor Failrnan, who so
expertly prepared the illustrations.
Extracts from British Standards are reproduced
with the permission of BSI. Cornplete copies of
the British Standards can be obtained by post
from BSI Sales, Linford Wood, Milton Keynes,
Bucks. MKl4 6LE.
S. A. Lavan
R. G. þ-letcher

Typeset by KEYTEC, Bridport, Dorset

Printed and bound by Hartnolls Ltd, Bodmin, Cornwall
K

Contents

Preface 4.4 Simple beam design 75

4.5 Basic principles for the design of simply
1 General I supported flanged beams with tension
1.1 SI units
1.2 Definitions
1

3
reinforcement only 76
4.6 Simple flanged beam design 77
1.3 Loading 7
1.4 Bending moments, shear force, deflections and
4.7 Simply supported hollow block slab desisn 77
4.8 Simple column base design 78
shear properties 9
4.9 Axially loaded columns 79
1.5 British Standards and codes of practice 14
5 Prestressed concrete 82
2 steelwork 16
Structural 5.1 Introduction 82
2.I General 16 5.2 Design requirements 82
2.2 Beams subject to bending only 17 5.3 Design of a rectangular simply supported pre-
2.3 Columns subject to axial load only 3l tensioned beam 84
2.4 Discontinuous single- and double-angle struts
subject to axial load only 34 6 Loadbearing brickwork and blockwork 87
2.5 A cased column subject to axial load only 36 6.1 Design requirements 87
2.6 Columns in simple multi-storey 6.2 Examples of determining the effective thickness
construction 37 of brick and block walls 92
2.7 Simple tension members 38 6.3 Design of a simple single-leaf wall 92
2.8 Simple connections 40
2.9 A column base plate subject to axial 7 Retaining walls 94
compressive load only
46 7.1 Pressures on retaining walls due to soil and other
2.10 Section properties 46 granular materials 94
7.2 Active pressures on a vertical wall with
3 Structural timber 58
cohesionless soil backine 95
3.1 Design requirements 58 7.3 Passive pressures on a vértical wall with
3.2 A solid rectangular timber section in cohesionless soil backine 97
bending 63 7.4 Bearing pressures on fo-undation soil 98
3.3 A solid rectangular timber section in axial 7.5 Design of a gravity wall with cohesionless soil
compression 65 backing and horizontal ground 99
7.6 Design of a reinforced concrete cantilever wall
with cohesionless soil backing and horizontal
4 Reinforced concrete 66 ground 100
4.1 Design requirements 66 7.7 Factors of safety for retaining walls in
4.2 Basic principles for the design of solid slabs and cohesionlessmaterials 101
rectangular beams 72
4.3 Simple slab design 74 lndex 103
w_

I
General

1.1 SI units 1.4 Bending moments, shear force, deflections

1.2 Definitions and shear properties
1.3 Loading 1.5 British Standards and Codes of Practice

1.1 SI Units decimal multiples or submultiples are formed using

a prefix with the name óf the unit (Table 1.3).
The Système International d'Unitei or, in its
abbreviated form, SI is an international system of
measurement based upon six fundamental units
(Table 1.1). These units can be combined in either Table 1.2 Some derived SI units
product or quotient form to derive SI units (Table
1.2). "fhe unit of force, the newton, is derived Quarttitv Name of urzit Unit symbol
from the unit of mass through the relationship that
force is equal to. times the gravitational Force newton N
^mass Area côlriìre metrc m:
constant of 9.81 mfs': e.g.
Volume cubicmetre ml
1000 kg : 1000 x 9.81 kgm/s2 = 9810 N Density kilogram kg/.'
na¡ ¡"hi¡ matra
A detailed description of the system of SI units is Pressure and newton per
given in BS 3763: 1964, The International System StTeSS square metre N/mt
(Sl) Units. -lo express magnitudes of a unit,

Table 1.3 Magnitudes of SI units

Table 1.1 Basic SI units
Multipli.cation
Quantity Name of unit Unit symbol factor Prefix Symbol Example

Length metre m l 000000000 10, grga G giganewtons (GN)

Mass kilogram kg 1 000 000 10ó mega M megawatt (MW)
Amount of mole mol 1 000 103 kilo 1.
kilometre (km)
substance 100 10'z hecto h. I
These factors are
Time second 10 10 deca dal non-preferred and
Electric cu¡rent ampere ,c' 0.1 deci
10-1 ol
Thermodynamic degree kelvin K 0-01 10-2 centi c) should be avoided
temperature
Luminous candela cd 0.001 10-3 milli m millimetre (mm)
intensity 0.000001 10-6 micro ¡,1 microsecond (ps)
 qì
tl

2 Generul DeJiniriotts 3
7. Other laws. hence 1 kNm : (103 N) x (103 mm) : 106 Nmm Elasticity
Indices
(a) (10a)'- : 10' x a* To convert N/mm2 to kN/m2: A mate¡ial is said to be elastic if it displays the
It will be noted that in Table 1.3 the multiplication of reverting to its original shape
e.g. (10 x 14)3 : 103 x 14-l characteristics
factor has been expressed in two ways: as a whole
number and as a power of l0 raised by an : 1 N: +kN: 1o-3 kN after an applied force, which has caused a de-
103 x 2744 10r formation of its shape, is removed.
appropriate index: e.g.
: 103 x (2.744 x 103) 10-3 m
1000000 or 10ö
End fixity of beams
:2'744 x 706
The method of expressing large or very small nence I mm-: (lu
r.^-11
tu "m-
m)- = '^-Á 1

.. . /to.\' 10"
(b)l- End fixity refe¡s to the degree of restraint against
numbers in terms of the power 10 raised by an | 10r'. =lof:-u-- .hence N
:: ; '--;
' \10r/ 10-3 kN rotation, in the plane of bending, of a beam at its
--ï : 10--ì+6 kN/mr
index is of considerable use to the struciural mm' = 10-n m' end supports when a force is applied to that beam.
engineering student. The laws of indices are as /rn:\a ro¡' : 103 kN/m2 The two extreme conditions of end fixity are:
follows: e.s. lål : '".,, : 10ri-:{}
-'o'\10s/ 1010 1. Fully fixed end conditions, in which case the
1. 10: x 10 . . . to occurrences of 10
10x 10 ends of the beam can resist rotation and hence
- l0-l: -
1

e.g. 104 = 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 : 10000 10rl bending forces. Bending moments are induced
at the supports (Figure 1.1).
It
follows, for example, that 2340000 can be (c) 10t/* : Vttl SI Notation
rewritten in the convenient form 2.34 x 106.
e.g. 10r/3 : Vltl The decimal marker is the conventional decimal
2. The product of powers.
10' x 10.r' : 10 x 10 x 10...
(d) ro'Á' : vl(I' point, raised from the line, not the comma used rn
some early British publications and still in use ln
e.g. 1034 : Vttll some metric countries. The full stoD on the line is
to x occurrences of 10 used in typewriting unless the machine has a
x10x10x10... special character above the line. Values less than
4\^
unity should always have a zero before the decr- - -Ueflected
ueït-. cled
e fo¡m
to y occurrences of 10 mal point, so that we write 0.600, for example, ure
F-igure l.l Fully lixcd cnd c<¡ndìtions
l.l
- 10'*+r not .600. No full stop -'is used for abbreviations
used as symbols for units: for example, the abbre-
e.g. 106 x 108 : 106+lt - 1014 Compatibility of units viation for millmet¡e is 'mm', not 'mm.'. Where Simply supported end conditions, in which case
3. The quotient of powers If calculations are to be successful it is imperative there is a group of five or more digits to left or the ends of the beam are free to rotate and
10' 10 x 10 x 10. . . to¡ indices that the quantities involved are expressed in com- right of the decimal point they are grouped in hence do not resist bending forces. A charac-
x x patible units. If, for example, it is necessary to threes with a space, not a comma dividing them; teristic of a simple support is that it cannot
10.u 10 10 10. .. roy indices calculate the area of a rectangle whose sides are thus: induce a bending moment (Figure 1.2).
lrìt-f
- 1.5 m and 350 mm it is first necessary to express
0.1041 1041.0
1nl2 the 1.5 m in millimetres or 350 mm in terms of
e.s. " +^ : 10rr-e : 103 metres. 0'1041 I 11041.0
Ends rotote in
ptqne of beonrngrL
10,
The former action would result in an answer 0'i041 I 1 I 1 1041. I
4. The product of indices. where the derived unit would be mm2 and in the
(10'*)'v : 16'1' latter case the derived unit would be m2: On drawings, dimensions are always in metres or
millimetres, indicated by figures only, with no
e.g. (103)a = 103x4 : 1012 i.e. 1m:103mm symbol. A dimension in metres always has three
(104)3=104x3-1012 hence area = 15 x 103 x 350 digits after the decimal point; thus:
F-igure 1.2 Sirnply supportcd cn<j conditions
5. 10 raised to the power of zero equals 1, i.e. : 525 x 10-ì mm2 1.740
100:1 : 525 000 mml 0.32r) all metres
tôl
In practice the degree of fixity of the beam
because ÌÌ- = 19t-t : In the latter case: 14'000 supports are somewhere between the two cases
19tt
101 fromlm:10lmm 14 described above. It is therefore normal oractice
lnl when calculating the bending moments to ionsider
but-::1 I
,lmm:,=m:lu'm -^_1 1t2.5 all millimetres a beam as being simply supported unless the end
10,
lu' fixity can be determined.
therefore LOu : 2741
1
hence area : 1.5 x (350 x 10-3)
6. Reciprocals.
: 525 x 10-3 m2 Factor of safety
1 .^-' :

: u.)l) m- 1 With regard to the design of structural members,

10
etc., the facto¡ of safety is given by
or in general terms To convert kNm to Nmm: 1.2 Defïnitions Ultimate or failing stress
I :'n,-,, ikN=103N Effective length of columns Permissible stress
10. 1m=103mm See 'Slenderness ratio' (page 6). (see also 'Load factor', below). For mate¡ials such
 .

General DeJinitions 5

as mild steel which have a definite vield ooint the factor design is based on actual conditions of stress produce a small strain. total energy of the wheel depends on the weight of
factor of safety is sometimes taken ai at failure, when stress is not proportional to strain. The modulus of elasticity must not be confused the particle and the square of its distance from the
Yield stress The factor of safety applied, for example, to with 'elastic modulus', which is used in certain axis of rotation. The moment of inertia is defined
beams is usually based on the failing (or yield) steelwork tables in place of 'section modulus' to as the sum of all these products taking all particles
P.rni.ribt" rt**
stress in tension or compression and the beams are distinguish between the elastic and plastic section into account. This can be expressed mathematical-
In overturning calculations for walls the factor of designed assuming elasticity. moduli. ly as
safety against overturning is:
Stability momenr Middle-third rule
t :2*v'
Moment of a force
Overturning moment where rn : mass of particles,
This rule is usually employed in the design of The moment of a force is the turning effect or
For slidíng of walls the factor of safety is masonry and mass concrete construction (e.g. ) = distance from axis, and
leverage of that force about a given point or axis.
Force resisting sliding foundations, piers and retaining walls) and applies It is measured by multiplying the force by the I : sum of.
Force causing sliding to rectangular cross sections. In orde¡ that tensile perpendicular distance of its line of action from In^deriving beam design formulae the expression
stresses do not develop in the material the resul- the point or axis and is generally expressed in 2ay' is arrived at, where a is the area of a small
tant thrust must not be outside the kern shown Nmm or kNm (Figure 1-4). element at a distance y from the axis of bending
Force shaded in Figure 1.3. and, because of its similarity with rry2. it is also
Force is any cause which produces or tends to called the moment of inertia. However, it might
produce motion or change of motion in the body Modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus Moment bending be more accurate to call it the second moment of
on which it acts. It is measured in newtons, and When a member or portion of a member is so aÍea.
one newton is defined as that force which, when This refers to the lengthening or shortening of In Figure 1.6 the second moment of area about
restrained or fixed that an applied moment cannot
applied to a mass. 1kg, gives that mass an members subjected to a direct force. Since in an XX
^of elastic material stress is proportional to strain, the
cause rotation about the point under considera- is
acceleration of 1 m/s¿. tion, bending is caused and the moment is then
ratio of stress and strain is constant. This constant
called a bending moment. In Figure 1.5 the bend- Ivv : lay2
is called the modulus (i.e. measure) of elasticity
Hooke's law and is usually denoted by E. It is usually express- ing moment at AA is the sum of the moments of
the forces ^acting about that point. In this case
otyi+ o'yi+ otyi+ aayl+ etc.
This law states that the deformation in an elastic ed in N/mm2:
+Vx - wx'f2. For geometrical figures (rectangles, circles, etc.)
material is proportional to the load on it. As Stress - WIA general formulae for Zay' or 1 can be found by
deformation can be described by strain and load
can be considered in terms of stress, it can be seen
Strain " õ /l integrating ay2 through the limits of +y(max) and
Moment of inertia
that in an elastic body strain is proportional to h"n"" E =
wl -y(max). For symmetrical shapes, see 'Section
stress. Aõ This is a term used in dynamics for rotating parts properties' (page 9).
such as flywheels and armatures. A flywheel has
*'h"." W : direct force, inertia (i.e. a reluctance to having its state of rest
Load factor I : gauge length, or of motion changed) and a certain moment is
Moment of resistance
A : original cross-sectional area reouired to cause it to rotate. This moment de- The bending moment of a beam must be resisted
The load factor of a member is clefined as
. of member, and pends on the mass of the material and its arrange- by an internal moment set up by the action of the
Load which would cause failure ô : change in length of member. ment with respect to the axis of rotation. The beam fibres. The maximum bending moment M
D..8" Lr"d The modulus of elasticity gives an indicätion of contribution of each particle of material to the depends on the loads and reactions. The maximum
This, of course, gives a margin of safety, but load the 'stiffness' of a material. The sreater the value
factor is not the same as factor of safetv. Load of E, the.greater the resistancJto deformation
(i.e. to lengthening, shortening or bending) of the
member: that is, a large stress is required to
Areo o3
+y (moÐ

tl x/2

w/m run

idlÏÞi
t_]_r|Lty_r __ ,/
,/
Yro,
\.

ll ,/\ ,,/çt,n" of qction

\
\M( kNm )

K-
ar\ 'Reqction =v

Figure 1.3 The middte-third rule (plan of a pier, etc.) Figure 1.4 The moment of a force Figure 1.5 A bending moment Figure 1.6 The second moment of area
6 General
safe moment of resistance M, a beam can supply
depends on the maximum permissible stress o for
the material and the size and shape of the cross
section (i.e. the moment of inertia). Normally, for
design purposes, the maximum moment of resist-
ance M r is made equal to the maximum bending
moment M. The beam design formula is obtained
from the simplified theory of bending:
Mo
Iy
where M : bending moment or moment of
resistance,
I = moment of inertia,
o : maximum permissible bending
stress, and
: the distance from the neutral
axis to the extreme fibres of the
beam.
Pinned (hinged) members
A hinge is a form of support that keeps the end of
the member in position but allows freedom to
rotate. There is therefore no bendins moment at a
hinge. Depending on the dispositioñ of the loads,
the reaction at a hinge can be at any angles (see
'End fixity of beams', page 3).
Radius of gyration
This term was first used in dynamics (e.g. of
flywheels). In comparing the effectiveness of such
wheels it is imagined that the mass of the wheel is
concentrated into one particle at a distance from
the centroid of the wheel so that the total moment
of inertia is unaltered. The distance of this oarticle
from the centre of the wheel is called the rádius of
gyration.
With respect to columns which are liable to
buckle (bend) the radius of gyration can be
thought of as the distance from the axis of bending
at which the whole area of cross section can be
assumed to be concentrated so that the resistance
to bending remains unaltered. The radius of gyra-
tion takes into account not only the size of the
cross section but also its shape, i.e. the arrange-
ment of the material with respect to the axis of
buckling.
Usually, for design of columns, the least radius
of gyration is required:
Least radius of gyration
Least moment of inertia
Area of cross section
. lr
t.e. r : \1
Roller bearing
When the ends of a member are supported on
rollers they are free to move longitudinally and
also to rotate. The reaction at a roller bearing is
always at right angles to the line of rollers (Figure
1.7).
Section modulus
The moment of resistance M, of a homogeneous
beam depends on the nature of the material and
the size and shape of its cross section. The nature
of the material is provided for by the permissible
Verticot reoc tion
onty
Figure 1.7 Roller bearing
stress o and the section modulus can be defined
the size-shape factor Z:
I Flat roofs and sloping roofs up to 10"
Z:
v 1 :
where 1 : moment of inertia and
/ = distance from neutral axis to
extreme fibres of the beam.
Simply (freely) supported beams
See 'End fixity of beams' (page 3).
Slenderness ratio
The slenderness ¡atio of a steel or timber com-
pression member is usually expressed as
Effective length of the compression member .
gy.atr*t t't'-
Least radius of
Tables of permissible stresses for compression
members are usually based upon specified end
conditions of the compression member, e.g. 'res-
trained at both ends in position but not in direc-
tion' (both ends hinged). In this case the effective
length / of the column equals its actual length L.
For other conditions of end restraint allowance is
made for the different load-carrying capacities of
the compression member by using effective lengths
as given in BS 5950 or BS 5268. The effective
height of a reinforced concrete column may be
determined from a table in BS 8110, The Struc-
tural Use of Concrete, which is based upon the
degree of end restraint. In addition, BS 8110
suggests that a more accurate estimate of the
effective height may be obtained by considering
the actual joint stiffness at each end.
The slenderness ratio of a reinforced concrete
column is the effective height divided by the side
of the column about both axes. If the ratios about
both axes are less than 15 (braced) and 10 (un-
braced) the column is considered as short; other-
wise it is slender.
Stress
Stress may be thought of as the internal 'distress'
of a member as a result of the application of
external loads. It is the resistance set up by the
particles of the member in opposition to
breaking tendency of the loads. Stress is expressed
as loadþer unit área wlA, e.g. N/mm2, kN/mm2
or kN/m2. In sìmple bending
Mo
Iy
and hence
as
'=+
where M = bending moment or moment
of resistance,
moment of inertia,
/ : distance from neutral axis to
the extreme fibre, and
o : maximum permissible bending
stress.
Strain
A membe¡ cannot be subjected to a stress without
being deformed, i.e. strained. The most important
strains are elongation (due to tension) and
shortening (due to compression). Such strains are
defined as change in length ð divided by original
unloaded length L of the member:
I :7 ô
Jtraln
i
Yield stress
This applies particularly to mild steel. If a bar of
steel is subjected to a tensile force it behaves
'elastically' until a certain stress (the yield stress)
is reached. The bar then stretches a great deal and
becomes more or less plastic. A greater load
produces increasingly larger extensions until the
bar finally breaks.
Louding 7
1.3 Loading
Minimum imposed floor loads
BS 6399: Part 1 provides information on dead and
imposed loads. All floor slabs are designed to
carry the appropriate distributed or concentrated
imposed loads designated in the British Standard.
Beams are to be designed to carry a distributed
load appropriate to their use. If a value is not
given for a concentrated load it may be assumed
that the distributed load is adequate for design
purposes (Tabie 1.4).
Reduction in total distributed imposed floor
loads
Reductions in imposed loads given in Tables 1.5
the and 1.6 may be taken in designing columns, piers,
walls and beams as well as their supports and
foundations. The reductions given in Table 1.5 do
not apply to roofs. Where the floor is designed for
5 kN/m2 or more the reduction shown in Table 1.6
may be taken providing the loading assumed is not
less than it would have been if all floors had been
designed for 5 kN/m2 with no reductions.
If access, in addition to that needed for cleaning
and repair, is to be provided, the imposed load is
1.5 kN/m2 measured on plan or a 1'8 kN concen-
trated load, whichever produces the greater stress.
If no access is provided other than that required
for cleaning and repair, the imposed load is
0.75 kN/m2 measured on plan or a 0'9 kN concen-
trated load, whichever produces the greater stress.
Sloping roofs
If the slope is greater than 10" with no access
provided other than that needed for cleaning and
repair, the following imposed loads apply:
1 Up to 30' a load of 0'75 kN/m2 measured on
plan or a vertical load of 0'9 kN on a square
with a 300 mm side.
2 No imposed load to be considered if the slope is
greater than 75'. For slopes between 30'and 75'
the imposed load is found by linear interpola-
tion.
See BS 6399: Part l concerning deflection as the
design criterion.
 -r
1
I

ð ending moments, shear force tleflections uttd slrcur properries 9

Table 1,4 Minimum imposed floor loads Table l.ó Reduction in total distributed imposed floor load

Distributed load Concentrated load Area supported (mr) .+( ) 80 r20 200 210
Type of building or structure over a 300 mm square
kN/m'z ksfl^' KN kef Percentage reduction in total distributed imposed load 20

Assembly buildings
with fixed seating Table 1.7 Horizontal loads on parapets and balustrades (not including Public Assembly class)
4.0 408
without fixed seating 5.0 510 3-6 367
Bedrooms Use A horizontal A UDL applied A point load ap-
domestic buildings i.5
UDL (kN/m infill
to the plied to part of
i53 7'4 143 run) (kNlm,) the inrill (kN)
hotels 2.0 204 i.8 184
institutions 1.5 153 1.8 184 Light access stairs, etc. less than 600 mm wide 0.22 N/A N/A
Book stores 2-4 245 7.0 774 Stairs, balconies, ramps, landings or floors within, or 0.36 0.5 0.25
for each metre of storage height
Clubs serving exclusively, one dwelling
assembly areas with fixed seating Stairs in residential buildings not covered by the above 0.36 1.0 0.50
4'0 408
CASCS
assembly areas without fixed seating 5.0 510 3.6 367
Colleges
classrooms 3'0 306 275
dining rooms 2.0 204 275
dormitories 1.5 153 1.8 Horizontal loads on parapets and balustrades XX and YY (mm*)
Zyy and Zyv : section moduli about the axes XX
184
gymnasia 5.0 510 3.6 (not including Public Assembly class)
367
Co¡ridors, etc. and footbridges and YY (mm3)
between buildings See Table 1.7. /'¡¡ and ryy : radius of gyration about axes XX
subject to crowd loadings 4.0 408 4.5 459 and YY (mm)
subject to loads greater than crowds 5.0 s10 4.5
Dance halls 5.0 510 3.6
459
367
Wind loading lr
factories and similar buildings 5.0 510 4.5 459 CP3: Chapter V: Part 2: 1972 provides informa- \A
7.5 or 765 or 6.7 683 tion on wind loads. The treatment of wind loading
10.0 1020 Table 1.8 Mass densities of materials
Garages
9.0 918 is now very much more complicated than in pre-
car parking for vehicles not exceeding 2500 kg vious codes. It is therefore not possible to summa-
2.5 2s5 9.0 918 Material K8/m'
all repair workshops and parking for 5.0 510 9.0
rize the requirements of this code adequately, and
vehicles exceeding 2500 kg
918
reference must be made to the code if such
Aluminium 2771
Hospitals information is required. Asbestos cement 1922-2082
wards, utility rooms 2-0 204 1.8 184 Asphalt 2082
operating theatres 2.0 204 4.5 459 Bitumen roofing felt 593
Hotels
bars and vestibules 5.0 510
1.4 Bending moments, shear force, Brass 8426
Brickwork, commons 2000
kitchens 3.0 306 . 4.5 459 deflections and shear properties heavy pressed brick 2240
Houses 1.5 153 7.4 2400
143
Mass densities of materials engineering
Offices Cement 1447
filing and storage 5.0 s10 4.5 459 See Table 1.8. Concrete, plain 2300
general offices ).\ t{< 275 reinforced 2400
offices with computing equipment, etc. 3.s 357 4.5 459 Copper 8730
Stairs Maximum bending moments, shear forces and Cork 128-240
houses less than three storres 1.5 153 1.8 Felt, roofing 593
all other buildings - the same as the floors to
184 deflections
3.0 to 306 to Fibre building board 160-400
which they give access 5'0 510 See Table 1.9. Floors - hollow-clay blocks with 1600
Stationery stores 4.0 408 9.0 918 concrete ribs between blocks and
for each metre of storage height 40 mm concrete topping
Section properties Glass, plate 2787
In section properties the following symbols are Lead
Plaster, acoustic
11325
800
used:
fibrous 430
A : area of cross section (*m'), gypsum 7920

Table I.5 Reduction in total distributed imposed floor load

) : distance from neutral axis to extreme fibresin Steel, mild
Stone, limestone
7849
2082-2243
(mm). (It is this distance which is also used
ihe expression ult: oly.) sandstone 2r95-2403
Number of floors including roof carried by membcr granite 2595-2931
5-i0 l0+ XX and YY are axes which pass through the
Timber, oak 721-961
Percentage reduction in total distributed imposed load on all floors carried by 0 centroid of the section. pitchpine o/J
l0 30 1¡¡ and 1vv = moments of inertia (i.e. second
the member under consideralion Douglas fir s29
moments of area) about the axes
i0 General Bending moments, sheur Jorce deJlectiotts und sheur properlies ll
Table 1.9 Maximum bending moments, shearing forces Properties of a hollow rectqngle (Figure 1.9) Properties of ø triangle with axis on base or Y
and deflections
A:BD-bd apex (Figure 1.13)
Maximum Maximum Maximum D B .BD
tr=
bending shearing deflection
2 2
momenl 2
force
. BD3 - bd3
I- DB3 - db3 ,tvv : BD3 tuv:
, BD3
,fYY:-
12 t2 lZ 4
WL w wL3
4 2 48EI _
Lvv
BD3 - bd3 7- DB3 - db3
=
6D 6B
-
23WLr t1...
I It"
WL w rxx : r/3I V,
I r-
6 2 t296EI ' A 'õ
.-t J

WL w nwLl
8 2 76881
î
wL w 5WL]
Properties of an l-section (Figure LI|) ,l
L
8 2 38481 A:BD_bd
DB lrr : 'l
WL w wLj
Vr :
-2 '- - 2 X Y.
)
6 60EI
, _ BD3 - bd3 tvy:
, zTB3+ dF Y
'xx - --- 12 n tZ Figure l.l0 Properties of an I-section
wLw wLj D B
82 t92Et Zxx:txx+T Zyv=lvy+T
-r
(at supports

rxx:VI lxx
and at midspan) | 1""
wLW wLl ¿ ,r":1i
n2
at supports
38481

WL Figure 1.8 Propcrtics ol a rectangle

aÀ
at midspan Properties of a ,eìnngle with axis on base
wLw wl3
;-; 1.lI)
(Figure
)LI
A=BD
WL WLJ , _BD,
,uu -
) w 3
881

Figure l. I I Propcrtics of a rectangle with axis on base

Properties of a triøngle with axis through

Properties of a rectøngle (Figure 1.8)

centroid (Figure I.I2)
A: BD
.BD
2
DB 2D
Yt=1 Yr:T v- J^
,
txx: BD3 , :
DB3 - BD3
i- lvv rYY -

t**:+ t*:+
12 JO
- o - BD2
Z-yv:
)A

-ID
'..: l+ = o.2ßer/D, ryv: o-28et/8. rxx=\/-=0'236D
'lð Figure 1.9 Propertics of a hollow rectangle
Figure l.l2 Properties of a triangle with axis through
centroid
 r-
12 General Bending tnoments, shecu' Jtsrce deflection.s untl shear properties l3
/
^r
t_
lXX - R'l+-+l
\ö gTl
:o.1oe3n4 Moments of inertia of unsymmetrical sections: -
'-Y:-
Total first moment 4fi1 * A2x2
build-up of rectangles Total area A1 I A2
| 1""
fxx : V Usually properties such as section modulus, mo- 1¡¡ for the section can be found by the parallel
1 = 0'2643R ment of inertia, etc., are required about axes axis theorem (see Figure 1.18):
which pass through the centroid (neutral axis) of RT3
the section. When considering an unsymmetrical 1¡¡(flange):++BThi
LL
section such as a flanged beam it is usual to apply tr! 3
the parallel axis theorem to calculate the moment 1¡¡ (web) : ]; + dth'1,
Figure l.13 Properties of a triangle with axis on base or of inertia. The first step, therefore, is to position
apex these axes: the moments of inertia can then be Total 1¡¡ : t*-* (Ounr.) + 1¡¡ (web)
found by using the parallel axis theorem.

Parallel axis theorem

Properties of a circle n'ith qxis through centroid
With reference to Figure 1.17,
(Figure 1.14)
Ixx: Ire + Ahz
, Dzr
A where 1¡ç moment of inertia of figure
about XX,
D
'2 /., = moment of inertia about axis
through centroid of section
,,Dat
rxx:lYY: A = area of section,
64 Y å : distance between the parallel axes.
n3- Figure l.l4 Properties of a circle with axis through cen-
Zxx: 2"" : ?5¿ troid
This formula is true for any shape of section. For
rectangles
D pn3
l,xx:l"Yy:;:0.25D
+
Ixx: #I¿ + BDh2
where B is the dimension parallel to the axes cg
and XX.

Properties of a hollow circle (i.e. ring)

(Figure LIS)
. úD2 - d2l
4
D
¿

rxx _r
: /YY r(Da-da)
,f
64

Zvu:Zvw:t(Da-da)
32D
_ ^lço2 +
rxx:ryy:V a2¡
4 Y Figure l.17 Properties of a section remote fronì an axls
Figure l.l5 Propelties of a hollow circle (i.e. ring)
= o.zs t/(o2 + d2)
Figure 1.19 Position of XX axis in a T-section
Example 1
Determine 1¡¡ for the section shown in Figure
Properties of a semi-circle with axis through 1.18. Exømple 2
centroid (Figure 1.16) Divide the section into two portions. Hence Determine 1¡¡ for the section in Figure 1.20.
: Divide the section into three portions, i.e.

^:+ Area of flange

Area of web :
At
Az
Area of top flange : At
r:n(r +) Figure l.16 Properties of a semicircle with axis throuqh
centroid
Find the position of axis XX and take moments
Area of web
Area of bottom flange
= Az
: Á,
about AA (see Figure 1.19). Therefore
 Y-
14 General 15

Find the position. of axis XX and take moments For simple beam design it is usual to use the least Table l IO British Standards and Codes of Practice
about AA (see Figure 1.21). Therefore value of Zyy, which in this case will be (2).
4fi1 *42x2*A3x3 Number Title
A1 I A2-l A3
CP 3: Chapter V: Loading - Wind loads
1¡¡ for the section can be found by the parallel Top ftonge Part 2
axis theorem (see Figure 1.20): cP 102 Protection of buildings against water from the ground
c.g. CP 117: Part 1 Simply supported beams in building
1¡¡ (topflange) :
+ + B¡thi
cP 118 The structural use of aluminium
CP 297 Precast concrete cladding (non-load bearing)
cP Sewerage
1¡¡(web) :$+atni BS
2005
648 Schedule of weights of building materials
BS 4978 Timber s¡ades for structural use
1¡¡ (bottom flange) :
BS 5268: Part 1 Limit stãte design for timber
+ + B2T2h23 BS
BS
5268:
5268:
Part 2
Part 3
Permissible stress design, materials and workmanship
Trussed rafter roofs
Total 1¡¡ = 1¡¡ (top flange) + BS 5268: Part 4 Fire resistance of timber
BS 5268: Part 5 Preservative treatments for constructional timber
1¡¡ (web) + BS 5268: Part 6 Trussed frame wall design
1¡¡ (bottom flange) BS 5400: Part 5 Beams for bridges
BS 5337 Code of practice for the structural use of concrete for retaining
aqueous liquids
BS 5628: Part i Structural use of masonry - Unreinforced masonry
BS 5628: Part 2 Structural use of reinforced and prestressed masonry
BS 5628: Part 3 Materials and components Design and workmanship
BS 6031 Earthworks
c.9 ToP_
BS 6399: Part 1 Loading - Dead and imposed loads
f to nge
c.g. Botiom BS 8004 Foundations
BS 8110: Part 1 Structural use of concrete - Design, materials and constructlon
BS 8110: Part 2 Structural use of concrete - Special circumstances
i=t1 Bottom flonge
BS 8110: Part 3 Structural use of concrete - Design Charts
BS 8301 Building drainage
Figure l.2l Properties of XX axis in an asymmetric
I-section
cg Web

1.5 BrÍtish standards and codes of

practice
A list of useful British Standards and Codes of
Practice is given in Table 1.10.

Figure 1.20 Properties of an asymmetric l-section

Section modulus of unsymmetrical sections

When it is necessary to determine the section
modulus (Zyy) for the unsymmetrical shape as
shown in Figure 1.18 it will be noted that two
values are obtained:
1xx
t. LXy': ano
!t
-Ixx
¿. Lxx
lz

2 Buckling resistance. Limit of force or moment
Structural steelwork
2.7 General
2.2 Beams subject to bending only
2.3 Columns subject to axial load only
2.4 Discontinuous single- and double-angle struts
subject to axial load only
2.5 A cased column subject to axial load only
This chapter deals with the structural design of the
following structural members:
1. Beams subject to bending only;
Case (a) F¡rlly restrained compression flange
Case (b) Partially restrained compression
flange
Case (c) Unrestrained compression flange
Case (d) The conservative method foi unres-
trained or partially unrestrained com-
pression flange
Case (e) Cased member.
2. Columns subject to axial load only
3. Discontinuous single- and double-angle struts
subject to axial load only
4. Cased column subject to axial load only
5. Columns in a simple multi-storey construction
6. Simple tension members
7. Simple connections
8. Column base plate with an axial compressrve
load.
2.1 General
The above design cases follow the recommend-
ations for the design of structural steel elements in
simple construction as described in section 4 of
Part 1 of BS 5950; Structural Use of Steelwork in
Building. When finally completed the code will
consist of nine parts: however, only Parts 1 (1985),
l6
2.6 Columns in simple multi-storey construction
2.7 Simple tension members
2.8 Simple connections
2.9 A column base plate subject to axial
compressive load only
2.10 Section properties
2 (1985),4 (1985) and 5 (1987) had been issued by
the time this book was published. The full list of
Parts 1 to 9 is as follows:
Part 1: Code of practice for design in simple and
continuous construction: hot rolled sec-
tions.
ParL 2: Specification for materials, fabrication and
erection: hot rolled sections.
Part 3: Code of practice for design in composite
construction.
Parf 4: Code of practice for design of floors with
profiled steel sheeting.
Part 5: Code of practice for design in cold formed
sections.
Part 6: Code of practice for design in light gauge
sheeting, decking and cladding.
Part 7: Specification for materials and workman-
ship: cold formed sections.
Part 8: Code of practice for design of fire protec-
tion for structural steelwork.
Part 9: Code of practice for stressed skin design.
Definitions
Listed below are a selection of definitions relativè
to the work covered by this chapter. Symbols are
defined when used in the text.
Beam. Amember predominantly subject to bending.
which a member can withstand without buckling.
Cantilever. A beam which is fixed at one end and
free to deflect at the other.
Capacity. Limit of force or moment which may be
applied without causing failure due to yielding or
ruDture.
Column. A vertical member of a structure carry-
ing axial load and possibly moments.
Comoact cross section. A cross section which can
deveiop the plastic moment capacity of the section
but in which local buckling prevents rotation at
constant moment.
Compound section. Constructed by interconnect-
ing one or more sections or plates and sections to
form a single member.
Dead load. AII loads of constant magnitude and
position that act permanently, including self-
weight.
Design strength. The yield strength of the material
multiplied by the appropriate partial factor.
Edge distance. Distance from the centre of a
fastener hole to the nearest edge of an element.
Effective length. Length between points of effec-
tive restraint of a member multiplied by a factor
to take account of the end conditions and loading.
End distance. Distance from the centre of a
fastener hole to the edge of an element parallel to
the direction in which the fastener bears.
Factored load. Specilied load multiplied by the
relevant partial factor.
Friction grip connection. A bolted connection
which relies on friction to transmit shear between
components.
Imposed load. Load on a structure or member,
other than wind load, produced by the external
environment and intended occupancy or use.
Lateral restraint. For a beam: restraint which pre-
vents lateral movement of the compression flange.
For a compression member: restraint which pre-
vents lateral movement of the member in a par-
ticular olane.
Longitudinal. Along the length of the member.
Pitch. Distance between centres of fasteners lying
in the direction of stress.
Plastic cross section. A cross section which can
develop a plastic hinge with sufficient rotation
capacity to allow redistribution of bending mo-
ments within the structure.
Semïcompact cross section. A cross section in
which the stress in the extreme fibres should be
limited to yield because local buckling would pre-
vent development of the plastic moment capacity
in the section.
Serviceability limit states. Those limit states which,
when exceeded, can lead to the structure being
unfit for its intended use.
Slender cross section. A cross section in which
yield 'of the extreme fibres cannot be attained
Beants sr.bject to bending only l1
because of premature iocal buckling.
Slenderness. The effective length divided by the
radius of gyration.
Slip resistance. Limit of shear that can be applied
before slip occurs in a friction grip connection.
Strength. Resistance to failure by yielding or buck-
ling.
Strut. A member of a structure carrying predomi-
nantly compressive axial load.
Transverse. Direction perpendicular to the stron-
ger of the rectangular axes of the member.
Ultimate limit state. That state which, if exceeded,
can cause collapse of part or whole of the struc-
ture.
2.2 Beams subject to bending only
For this section the following assumptions are
made:
1. The method of construction is 'simple'.
2.'|he beam is not subjected to a destabilizing
load.
3. The design loading is composed of dead and
imposed ìoading only.
4. The beam sections class is plastic or compact
with equal flanges.
The structural design is presented in the following
stages:
1. The design loading and resulting ultimate bend-
ing moment and shearing forces.
2. Obtaining a basic section size and' its classifica-
tion.
-)- Establishing the available lateral and torsional
restraint for the beam.
Design cases;
(a) Full lateral and torsional restraint;
(b) Pa¡tial lateral and torsional restraint;
(c) Unrestrained.
5. Local buckling.
6. Deflection.
7. Cased section.
The above stages as applied to a particular case
are illustrated in Figure 2.1.
Stage I
1. Establish the span L of the beam. This should
be taken as the distance between the effective
points of support (Figure 2.2).
2. Calculate the characteristic dead and imposed
loading the beam is to support (see 'Loading' in
Chapter 1) for appropriate values of dead and
imposed loading. If the beam section is not
known at this stage make an allowance of, say,
5% of the dead load for the beam self-weight.
3. Calculate the design loading as follows:
 l8 Structural steelwork Beurns subject to bencling only l9

@' : yf,@, t yfor¡¿ (kN/m) (a) Design moment and co-existent shear, and section. If a value of, say, 1'25p6 is assumed for Table 2. I Design strength p.
a'='J-.6ø¡*1,-4a;¿ (b) Design shear force and co-existant mo- pr, and for m, the equivalent uniform moment
ment, factor, a value of 1'0 then BS 4360 Tltickttc.s.s Dasigtt
l¡,.0: load factors from Table 2, BS 5950 G rude lass llt¿tn or .ttrcttgth
it is also necessary tocalculate the value of the M : Sx0'8py ec¡uul to P,
4. Calculate the maximum bending moment due shear force, if it exists, at the position of the ( nlnl ) (N fntntt )
to the design loading. (See Table 1.9, Chapter and
design moment M.
1, for typical simple beam toad cases and M l?
maximum bending moment values.) The max- Stage 2
;^
U'óPv A.BandC
275
26_s

imum bending moment is the 'design moment' 21-5

z (in units of kNm).
5. Calculate the maximum shearins force F,.
(again. see Table 1.9 for typical -cases) The
design shear force F, is in kN units. As a
member must be checked for:
Do you wish to use
the conservative method?
Figure 2.1 Flow chart for beam desien
The basic section Using the section tables, choose a basic sectron
whose plastic moduli S¡ is such that
Essentially, the process of the design of a structu- 2. Check that Fv < 0.6Pv. If Fv > 0.6Pv see
ral steel beam is one of checkine a basic section Sx Þ Sx."q¿ clause 4.2.6 of the code.
for adequacy in the appropriate ìimit states. The 3. For the case of Fv < 0'6Pv the moment capac-
basic section may be obtained using one of the S e c tio n c las sific atio n ity of the section is given by
following methods, depending on the restraint The classification of structural steel sections rs M, : p,Sx but < l.2prZy
condition of the beam. (See Stage 3 for guidance based on the ratio of width to thickness of the
on restraint conditions.) section parts as described in Table 7 and Figure 3 where S is the plastic modulus about the axis of
in BS 5950. However, as noted at the beginning of bending.
Compression flange fully restrained laterally this section, it is assumed that the beam is formed 4. Check that M < M. (i.e. the ultimate applied
from a section whose class is plastic or compact. moment) is less than or equal to the moment
In this case the following condition must be met: capacity of the section.
This assumption will be satisfied if the section is
M 1M" chosen from the range of Universal Beam sections
where M : the design moment, and and joists in the section properties tables at the Case (b) Partially restruined member (Figure
M": the moment capacity of the section. end of this chapter. 2.s(b))
Now, assuming the shear load is low: Stage 3 In this form of construction, where between the
M,: points of restraint the beam is possibly subject to
PvS Lateral restraint lateral torsional buckling, the nature of the load-
and Lateral restraint to the compression flange may be ing pattern will dictate the approach to be adopted
M^ provided along its complete length by the sup- to obtain the equivalent uniform moment and
S,eq¿ : (S*od is in cm3 units). ported floor provided that there is a positive slenderness correction factors m and ¡2. The load
-: patterns shown in Figure 2.5(b) are:
connection between the floor and the beam's com-
From the section tables choose a section whose pression flange. Figure 2.3 sho'rvs typical forms of
plastic modulus .l about the maior axis XX is such Case b(i) Membe¡ not loaded in the length be-
construction and their appropriate level of restaint tween adjacent points of restraint; i.e.
that to the beam's compression flange. the beam is supporting its self-weight
Sx 2 S,"q¿ Lateral restraint may also be provided at points only between the points of restraint.
along the beam's length by individual members Case b(ii) Member loaded in the length between
This will now be the basic secrion. supported by the beam as long as the connectlon
adjacent points of restraint. This condi-
is positive with the compression flange. tion is further subdivided into:
Compression ftange not futity restrained b(ii)l The loading on the beam be-
laterally Torsional restraint tween the adjacent points of restraint is
The typical end connections shown in Figure 2.4 substantially concentrated within the
In this case the lateral torsional bucklins of the middle fifth of the unrestrained length;
section before the full moment capacity is reached illustrate the forms of positive connections ¡e-
may occur. Here the following condition must be quired to produce torsional restraint. As with and
lateral restraint, torsional restraint may also occur b(ii)2 The loading is not concentrated
satisfied:
at positions along the length of the beam by within the middle fifth of the unres-
M:mM incoming beams. trained length.
where M is an equivalent uniform moment and ,?? Calculate the equivalent uniform moment A4 and
a factor applied to M to obtain M, and Stage 4 buckling resistance moment M5. The following
Case (q) Fully restrained member (Figure condition is to be satisfied in all three cases:
M=M,
where M5 is the buckling resistance momeht of 2.5(a)) kl:mM<M^
the section. Also 1 Calculate the shea¡ capacity Py for the section where lul : the equivalent uniform moment,
M,o : Sxp6 Py :0'6prAy
m: the equivalent uniform moment
factor,
where p5 is the bending strength of the section. p5 where p, = the design strength from Table 2.1, M: The maximum applied moment in
is now a reduced value of the design strength, py Av: the shear area (: tD), the unrestrained length,
which, at this stage of the calculations, can onlv bé I : the thickness of the web, and Ma= the buckling resistance moment
estimated for the purpose of obtaining a basic D = the depth of the section. of the section,
20

Effective point (a) Effective poini (b)

of support. of suppor t. TYPICAL END TONNECTION DETAIL

Beam tors¡onally
unrestrained (
Compress¡on flange
laterally unrestrained
Both flanges
free 1o rotate
on pran.

FiEtre2.2 Beam connected to (a) column flange and (b)

column web Beam torsionally
unrestrained (
Compression flange
laterally unrestrained
Compress¡on flange
only free to rotate
on pran

Precqst concrete StructuroI grode

ftoor units in-silu conc. fitt. z Brickwork or
vbtockwork.

Compression
restra¡ned
Seoting cteat Tie reinforcement Compress¡on flange
only free to rotate (

Mitd steet ftots wetded f-imber joists

to compression ftonge

Beam torsionally
ln-sifu or precost restrained
Compress¡on flange
concrete floo¡ laterally restrained
Both flanges partially
free to rotate on plan
(¡.e. positive
connections to
Precost concfete both flanges)
Compre ss ion ftonge embedded
ftoor plonk.
in in- situ ftoor slqb.

Beam torsionally
restrained
I
I

lf whole UB encased Compression flange

i.t in reinforced concrete laterally restrained
[-¡1 is desioned as an
t__-__-----_--
Both flanges NOT free
to rotate on plan
encased oeam,
according to clause
(a) 4.'f 4. See also
-f Figure 2.8
(b)

Figure 2.3 Typical examples of (a) fully restrained and

(b) non-restrained compression flanges Figure 2.4 Effective length LE for beams between supports
22 Structuralsteelwork

and Case b(i)

Table2.2 Equivalent moment and slenderness correction factors
Mt: SxPa 1. Reading Table 2.2, m is to be obtained from
"lable 2.3 and n, the slenderness correction D es cr ip tion ( Ioading co ndition Case Equivalent moment Slenderness
where Sx: the plastic modulus about the factor, is equal to 1.0. Each length of beam between adjacent points of restraint) (see Figure 2.5(b)) factor m facbr n
axis of bending, and between adjacent points of restraint should
Member not loaded between b(i) 'Iable 2.3 1'0
now be checked to estab.lish the critical length;
pb = the bending strength based on adjacent points of restraint
the yield stress þr) and the i.e. the largest value of M:
Member loaded between adjacent b(ii)1 1.0 Table 2.4(a)
equivalent slenderness (1,¡1) Length L¡-g points of restraint and concentrated
_
IJ-
Mo o in middle fifth of leneth
p__--:|,
'MsMs Member loaded between adjacent b(ii)2 1.0 Table 2.4(b)
ooints of restraint but not
õoncentrated in middle fifth of
CASE B. Poriiotty resf roined member Compression f tonge length
Wc rest¡oined ontv ot
Noler For cantilevers. a = 1.0 and n = 1 0.

Table 2.3a Slenderness factor D for symmetrical flange sections (from Table 14, BS 5950)
Figure 2.5 (a)
'"4
FI' hlx 0.5 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5'5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5

|
1.0
F-----_FV^
<__ 1.00 0'99 0'97 0.96 0.93 0'91 0.89 0'86 0'84 0'82 0'79 0'77 0'75 0'73 0'72
---ì turl
-l 1...
>l
\-
/M
S F diogrom B M diogrom llx 8.0 8'5 9.0 9.5 10 11 12 l-t 15 t6 t7 18 19 20

CASE A. Futty restroined memben

0.70 0'68 0.67 0.65 0.64 0.61 0.59 0.57 0'55 0'53 0'52 0'50 0'49 0'48 0'47
Futty restroined
compression flonge ,L: the mino¡ axis slenderness (= t.loy).
L" is the effective length of the section between adjacent points of restraint.

'-I-* ry is the radius of gyration about the m¡nor axis.

.ri the torsional index for the secrion obtained f¡om the section prope¡ties table at the end of the chapter.

Table 2.3b Equivalent uniform moment factor, m

X__r¡
,,ù¿å%
Figure 2.5 (b)
Beta positive 10 1.00
0.9 0.95

8B MT-]PM 0.8
0.7
0.90
0.85
v¡q9, q'¡l B M diogram \-l 0.6 0.80

W¡
Points of
restroinf ¡ W¡
l'4 iddte
ll-
,hp, 0.5 0.76
l-llr- W|-
\e \c 0'4 0.72

i-_J
[]--Ï1
L*l 0.3
0.2
0-68
rJ.64

rr--Tr -T---f1 Beta negative

0.1 0'60

tl
iLe I
0.0 0.5'7

t:rk -0.1 0.54

r€t -0-2
-0'3
0.s
0.48
1

Unrestroined tengfh -0'4 0.45

-0.5
Case b(i) Case b(ii)1 Case b(ii)2 44
l--------___ p/,/
to 0.43
Member not loaded between Member loaded between adjacent Member loaded between adjacent - 1.0
adjacent points of restraint points of restraint and concentrated points of restraint but not
in middle fifth of length concentrated in middle fifth of No¡¿ ,1. Thc valucs of ¿¡ in th¡s tilble apply only to end moments applied to beams of artlonrt section with eqûal
flangcs. ln all othcr cascs ,¡ = 1 0.
length No¡c2. Valucsofrrforintermcdiatc valucsofÊmaybeinlerpolatcd.ordeterminedfromthecquation:
¿¡:0 57 + 0.3,1d + 0.10/J2r but not less than 0 43.
24 Struchtralsteelwork Beams sttbject to bending only 25

From Table 2.3b read off the value of m for the where n : slenderness correction factor is satisfied at the Point of: Table 2.5 Bending strength po(N/mm'z)
above B value: (: 1'0, see Table 2.2 for load
(a) The maximum bending moment and co-
Maximum moment on length Lt-n : M ¡-s case i),
existent shear on the whole span, and
Pv' 245 265 275 325 340 355 415 430 4s0
and (b) The maximum shear force and co-existent
: buckling parameter for the Afi
M ¡-s : mMt-a section (this value is obtained moment on the whole span,
30 245 265 275 325 340 355 408 421 438
Length Ls-ç from the section properties as described in case (a), Page 18). 273 316 328 341 390 402
35 245 265 418
tables at the end of the chapter), 238 262 302 313 325 311 382
^MsMc 40 254 397
lJ: _ or;-forB<1.0
tYt c
45 227 242 250 287 298 309 3-s0 361 374
rvl B : a slenderness factor based on Â/.x -50 217 231 238 212 282 292 329 338 3-s0
Read off the lrt value for B from Table 2.3b. and N, where N : 0.5 (see 55 206 219 226 257 266 274 3rJ7 315 325
Maximum moment on length Ls-c: Ms-c Table 2.3a for the appropriate b(ii)1: (Figure 2.5(b)), Calculation of t95 207 2t3 241 249 257 28s 292 300
Case 60
value of u), and (r5 185 196 20t 225 232 239 263 269 276
and bending strength pt for Ma t74 188 210 2t6 222 242 241 253
1t) 184

Mn-c: mMs-c = the minor axis slenderness as The loading is concentrated in the middle fifth of 75 t64 t72 t7ó t95 200 205 223 226 231
used for u in Table 2.3. the span between adjacent points of restraint. u0 154 1(rl l6-5 l8l 186 190 204 208 212
Length Lç-e -lable 2.2, n, the slendernes correction t44 l_sl l-54 168 172 t75 188 190 194
Having obtained values of n, u, o and Â, 1. Reading u5
calculate the equivalent slenderness of the factor, is obtained from Table 2.4(a) and m, 90 t3,s 14t 144 l-56 t59 162 173 t75 178
t'^McMç
: : = l| t26 r3t 134 144 147 t-50 159 161 163
'Mn0" span, i.e.: the equivalent uniform moment factor, is 1'0.
95
- - 'lable 2.4(a) is used to obtain n when the 100 lt8 123 125 134 137 139 147 148 1-50
Read off the z value,for É from Table 2.3b. Ãn = nuú" 2.
loading between the adjacent points of restraint t05 ilr 115 lt7 125 t27 129 136 137 139
Maximum moment on length Lc-o: Mc_o 3. Bending strength pb. The value of p6 is is substantially concentrated on the middle fifth u0 104 107.109 ll(r ll8 l2(\ 126 127 128
obtained from Table 2.5 using the calculated of the span: ll5 9l tOl t02 108 ll0 lu l17 ll8 l19
and
value of ,ÀLr and the appropriate design t20 9l 94 9(r l0l 103 104 108 109 lll
Mr-o: M" t25 89 90 95 96 97 l0l 102 103
mMc-o p, from Table 2.1.
strength of the steel (a) ß : ;;: such that B < 1.0.
86

4. Buckling resistance moment M6. Using the

lVl e 130 8l 83 84 89 90 91 94 95 96
2. It is now necessary to check that M r35 76 78 79 83 84 8-5 88 89 90
appropriate value of p6 for each length of \D) Y: 140 72 74 75 78 79 80 83 84 84
M^
lrL
= Mo beam between adjacent points of restraint, 145 68 70 7t 74 t5 75 78 79 79
for each length of unrestrained beam. M5, the calculate the buckling resistance moment M6 where M is the maximum value of the bending 150 64 66 67 70 70 71 73 74 75
buckling resistance moment for each unre- and check against the equivalent uniform mo- moments at the two points of restraint and Ms 61 62 63 66 66 61 (t9 70 70
l_55
strained length, is calculated as follows: ment M. From the example in Figure 2.5(a) the is the midspan moment on a simply supported 160 58 59 60 62 (r3 63 65 6ó 66
following conditions must be satisfied: span equal io the unrestrained length and the 165 55 56 s7 59 60 60 62 62 63
Ma: Sxpt load supported by that sPan onlY. t70 52 53 54 -5(r 56 57 59 59 59
Mtn-u: SxPun-e
= Mo-u Using the B and y values, read off the value t75 50 sr sr 53 s4 54 56 s6 56
where S¡ is the plastic modulus of the section
about the axis of bending and p6 is the bending Mau-r: SxPun-" > Mr-c for the slenderness correction factor n. 180 41 48 49 51 51 51 53 -53 53
strength from Table 2.5 based on p, and ¡1 3. Equivalent slenderness of sPan 4-5 46 46 48 49 49 -50 50 5l
Mt, ,: SxPu.. o > Mr-o 185
values. Lvr : nuuÀ' t90 43 44 44 46 46 47 48 48 48
Equivalent slenderness of span ¡1 Check that the condition 195 4t 42 42 44 44 44 46 46 46
M<M" Using the value of n obtained from Table 200 39 40 40 42 42 42 43 44 44
tr.r: nuu)" 2.4(a) and u, D and I as calculated for case 2t0 36 37 37 38 39 39 40 40 40
b(i), obtain ¡1. 220 33 34 34 3s 35 36 36 37 37
Table 2.4 Slenderness correction factor. ,l 4. The bending strength p6 and the buckling re- 230 31 31 31 32 33 33 33 34 34
(a) Members with applied loading substantially concen- sistance moment M6 for the span are now 240 29 29 29 30 30 30 31 31 3l
trated in the middle fifth of the unrestrained span (b) Members with applied loading other than as for (a) obtained as shown for case b(i), step 4. 250 27 27 27 28 28 28 29 29 29
B positive þ positive

Y: M/MO 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 Y: M/MO 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0

+50.00 1.00 0.96 b(ii)2: Calculation of bending strength p6 Case 4c: Unrestrained member (Figure 2.6)
0.92 0.87 0.82 0.77 +50.00 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.87 0.83 0.77 Case
+10.00 0.99 0.99 0.94 0.90 0.85 0.80 +10.00 0.99 0.98 0.95 C.91 0.86 0.81 L. Moment capacitY check, i.e.
+5.00 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.89 for M6
0.93 0.84 +5.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.94 0.90 0.85
+2-00 0'96 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.94 +2.00 0.98 0.98 0.97 0'96 0.94 0.92 The beam is loaded between adjacent points of M^*4 M"
+1.50 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.93 0.93 +1.50 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.9s 0.93 restraint. (a) Maximum moment and co-existent shear at
+1.00 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.91 +1.00 0.97 0.97 0-97 0.96 0.96 0.95
+0.50 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.89 0.89 0.89 +0.50 0.96 0.96 0-96 0.96 0.96 0.95
1. Reading Table 2.2, n, the slenderness correc- midspan:
0.00 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.00 0.94 0.94 0-94 0-94 0.94 0'94 tion factor, is obtained from Table 2.4(b) and Shear capacity Pv : 0'6prAy þr; see Table
m, the equivalent uniform moment factor, is 2'L, Au: ¡2t¡
Note: -lhe above tables are exrracrs from Tables 15 and 16 of the code 1.0.
showing n for positive values of B and y only.
2. The procedure now follows that of case b(ii)l' and as Fv at M^^r: 0, Fv < 0'6Pv

?----\.
26 Structural steelu,ork Beans subiect to banding only 27

M,= pySx<l.2prZ axis and P¡, the bending strength from Table Web buckling (Figure 2.7) 7. If Fv > P* then the web will require stiffening.
< Mç.
check M.u* 2.6 based on . and x For details of the design of load-carrying stiff-
3. To obtain P5 two variables need to be calcu- 1. Calculate the stiff bearing length b1. eners see clause 4.5.4 of the code.
(b) Maximum shear and co-existent moment at lated:
2. Calculate the dispersion length through the
support: beam section n 1.
(a) ,1 the slenderness of the section 3. Note t, the web thickness. Web bearing (Figure 2.7)
Shear capacity Py
r
I
"c.D
4. Obtain from Table 2.8(c) the compression 1. Calculate the stiff bearing length å1.
As M¡:0,check Fyo ( Py.
A:- strengthp.. Table 2.8(c) requires the slender- 2. Calculate the dispersion length through the
ry ness i of the unstiffened web and the design
2. Buckling resistance moment check, i.e. beâm SêCtlOn /?2.
where /" is the
effective length of the span strength of the steel pr.
3. Note /, the web thickness.
luI: mM^u^< M,o between the adjacent points of restraint (see Å: If the flange through which the load o¡ 4. Obtain the design strength of the web pr-..
(a) Equivalent moment and slenderness correc- Figure 2.4), n is the slenderness correction reaction is applied is effectively restrained
Take pr_ = pr, the design strength of the steel
tion factors m and n (Table 2.2). F¡om factor (this value may be taken as being equal against; (Table 2.1).
load condition 3: to 1.0 or from Table 2.7, according to the (a) Rotation relative to the \¡/eb,
Calculate the local capacity of the web at its
loading on the span) and ry is the radius of (b) Lateral movement relative to the other connection to the flange:
m :7.0 .. M : M^n* gyration about the minor axis YY, obtained flange:
from the section properties table. : P,,ip:(b7+n)tpr,"
Obtaining ¡r from Table 2.4(b):
(b) x, the torsional index, obtained from the À 2'5d lt; if not,
= 3'46d lt Â
M^
^ -_:-, o. Check that
þ: Mt = 0 ... : 0
section properties table. pr:Obtain the value of the design strength of
M max
13
The bending strength P6 is now read off f¡om the steel from Table 2.1. Using the above Fy S P"r¡o
Table 2.6 using the calculated values of  and values of À and p, read off from Table 2.8(c)
where Fy is the applied load or reaction.
Mo the appropriate value of p., the compressive
Y = -;M¡ M^u^: M¡ :. y: g
Now calculate Mt, : P¡r.l¡ to check that strength.
7. If Fv > P.,¡o then the web will require stiffen-
ing. For details of the design of bearing stiffen-
:0'94. Calculate the web buckling resistance
From Table 2.4(b) n M:M<Mt ers see clause 4.5.4 of the code.
(b) Slenderness factor u (Table 2.3). Calculate P,,: (bt + nl)tpc
Àf x, where 7 : L"f r, and from Figtre 2.4
L" : 1.0(L + 2D) and x is the torsional Stage 5: Buckling and bearing capacity of the
Check that
index for the beam section. Read off u for Fy S P'u
the Af x value from -lable 2.3. web
(c) From the section properties table obtain the where Fy is the applied load or reaction.
At any position on a beam where a load is
buckling parameter ¿¡ for the beam section. transferred through the line of the web the capac-
(d) Calculate the equivalent slenderness i¡1: ity of the web at that position to resist buckling or BUCKLIN 6 BEARIN6
Ltr: nuuL load crushing at its base must be checked. The
two checks are: End End
(e) Bending strength ps. From Table 2.5 read cte q ron ce c Ieoton ce
offp6 for the above values of Ay¡ and pr. 1. Web buckling, and
(f) Buckling resistance moment M6: 2. Web bearing.
Mu : p¡Sx
(g) Check that M < Mt,. Dtt
1 I
-41
W'=üt¡ wi*UfJ wJ
)- n.{
_]-
=
T
TT -T
Case (d) The conservative method for T
calculating M6 I
Clause 4.3.7.7 of the code offers a simolified
method of calculating the buckling resistancè mo- 0.59 rr 0.59 r1
menf M6 of an unrestrained span between points
of restraint. The method is only applicable to Tr
equal-fl anged rolled sectrons.
1. The equivalent uniform moment, ruo* Mr BEARING RESISTANCE OF THE
UNSTIFFENED WEB Pw =[br* nr]tPc
LOCAL CAPACITY OF THE WEB
Pcrip= (br+ nz)t Pyw
M:tnM
aru, where bt =7I+0.59rr-c where br = 2T+0.59rr-c
where m: 1.0 and M is the maximum moment nt = DlZ nz = 2'5(r+T)
between the lateral restraint. Hence M : M. S F diogrom M d iogrom
t = web thickness (oj ond Pyw
t, =web thickness
B
ond
2. -lhe buckling resistance moment, (a) Pc = compressive streng fh = design strength of web
M¡ : P¡SX - YA
B= - IA
Mg=0. [= l'46
=o
Figure 2.7 Buckling (a) and bcaring (b) rcsistance of an
where .S¡ is the plastic modulus about the XX Figure 2.6 Case 4c: unrestrained meml¡er unstilf cncd wct-r
28 29

Table 2.6 Bending strength po (N/mm2) for rolled sections with equal flanges
(a) p, : 265 N/mm2 (b) py : 275 N/mm2

t0 I5 I5 25

30 265 265 265 265 265 26s 265 265 265 265 30 275 275 275 275 275 275 275 275 275 275
35 265 265 265 265 265 265 265 265 265 265 35 275 275 275 275 275 275 275 275 275 275
40 265 265 2(¡5 265 265 264 264 264 263 263 40 275 275 275 275 274 273 272 272 272 272
45 265 265 261 2-s8 256 255 254 254 254 251 45 275 275 269 266 264 263 263 262 262 LOZ
50 265 26t 253 249 247 246 245 244 214 244 50 275 269 261 257 255 253 253 252 252 257
55 265 25s 246 241 238 236 235 235 234 231 55 275 263 254 248 246 244 243 242 24r 247
60 265 250 239 233 229 227 226 225 224 224 60 275 258 246 240 236 234 233 ¿3L 23r 230
65 265 245 232 225 22t 2lB 2t6 215 2t4 2t4 65 275 252 239 232 227 224 223 221 221 220
70 265 240 225 2t7 2t2 209 207 205 204 204 70 274 247 232 223 218 2r5 213 211 210 209
75 263 235 2t9 210 204 200 l9B 196 195 t94 75 271, 242 225 21s 209 206 203 201 200 799
80 260 230 2t3 202 t96 l9r 189 I87 185 t84 80 268 237 219 208 201 796 193 191 190 189
85 257 226 207 195 188 183 180 178 t76 t75 85 265 233 213 200 1,93 188 184 182 180 179
90 254 222 201 188 180 175 l7l t69 t6'7 t6ó 90 262 228 207 193 185 t79 175 173 t1t 169
95 252 217 t96 r82 fl3 167 163 t60 l5tÌ t57 95 260 224 201 186 r77 171 167 164 t62 160
t00 249 213 r90 176 166 160 l -5(r r53 l -50 t49 100 257 21,9 195 180 170 1,64 159 156 153 752
I05 aÁ1 209 185 170 160 153 t48 t45 143 t4l 105 f <.1 2t5 r90 t74 163 156 l5t 148 t16 t44
110 244 206 r80 t64 t54 t47 t42 t38 136 t34 ll0 252 2tl 185 168 t5l 150 t44 t4l r38 t36
115 242 202 176 159 148 l4i) 135 t32 t29 t27 ll5 2s0 207 r80 t62 l-5I I ¿13 138 l -)+ l3t 129
120 240 198 l7l 154 t42 135 t29 t25 123 t2l 120 247 204 r75 l-s7 145 t3l t32 128 125 t23
125 237 195 t67 149 t37 129 t24 r20 It7 u5 t25 l/ < 200 tll t52 r40 132 t26 t22 ilg 116

130 235 l9l 163 t44 132 t24 l19 l4 ul t09 130 242 196 t61 147 135 126 t20 116 rt3 lll
135 233 188 159 140 128 ll9 |4 r09 106 r04 135 240 193 t62 t43 130 t2l I l-5 ut lOu t06
140 231 185 155 t24 t36 I l-5 109 r05 t02 99 140 238 190 159 139 t26 It7 lll 106 103 tOl
145 229 182 152 132 120 lll 105 t0l 97 9-s 145 236 186 155 135 t22 il3 t06 t(\2 99 9(r
l-s0 227 179 148 129 l16 t07 l0l 9l 93 9l 150 233 183 l5t l3l ll8 r09 t02 98 9-5 92
l-s5 225 t76 145 t25 112 103 97 93 89 rì7 155 231 ItiO 148 r27 I14 105 99 94 9t 88
ló0 223 173 142 t22 109 100 94 89 86 fJ3 160 229 Ú1 t44 t24 il l l0l 9-5 90 87 84
165 221 t70 139 ll9 106 97 91 86 83 80 165 227 174 l4t t2l r07 98 92 87 84 8l
170 2t9 t67 136 116 103 94 88 83 tì0 77 t70 225 fll 138 ll8 r04 95 89 84 8t 78
175 2r7 165 l -)-) 113 100 91 85 80 t7 74 t75 223 169 135 It5 l0l 92 86 tì I 7¡ì 75
180 2t5 162 130 ll0 97 88 82 7l 74 1l 180 221 166 133 t12 99 89 83 78 75 72
185 2t3 160 128 r08 95 86 79 75 7t 69 185 2t9 163 130 109 96 87 80 76 '72 70
190 2tl 157 125 105 92 83 7'7 73 69 66 190 2t7 l6l 127 t07 93 84 78 73 70 67
195 209 155 | ¿-) 103 90 81 75 70 67 64 r95 2t5 l-58 t25 104 91 82 76 '71 68 6,5
200 207 153 120 l0l 88 79 73 68 65 62 200 2t3 1-56 t22 r02 89 80 74 69 (r5 63
210 204 148 l16 96 84 75 69 64 (r I
-58 2t0 209 l5l lt8 98 8s 76 70 65 62 -59
220 200 t44 1t2 93 80 71 6-s 6l -5tì ,s5 220 206 I4l n4 94 8l 72 66 62 58 55
230 197 140 108 89 77 68 62 58 54 52 230 202 r43 110 90 78 69 63 ,s8 55 52
240 194 t36 104 86 t4 65 59 ss 52 49 240 199 r39 106 87 74 66 60 56 52 50
250 190 132 101 83 71 63 57 52 49 47 250 195 135 103 tì4 72 63 5'7 53 50 47
30 StrLtcluralsteelwork Colttmns suhject to a,rinl loud only 3l

Stage 6: deflection Stage 7: cased beam

Reinforcement to cosing either:-
1. Calculate the serviceability load to be applied: Figure 2.8 shows the general requirements for an o. SfeeI fobric to B.S. 4483 ref D 98
I-section with equal flanges encased in concrete as where bc < 400mm, or
o -- ffi-, f¡-i- = l'0 stated in clause 4.14.1 of the code. According to b. Steet bors { 5mm dia.
.'. unfactored imposed load used. the restraint conditions, the beam should be
2. Using Table 2.9 (page 34), identify the limiting checked for the moment capacity and buckling
deflection ô¡¡r. resistance moment, as described in Stage 4, for an
3. Calculate the actual deflection'of the beam. ô. uncased section. However, the following variations
(See Table 1.9 for typical load patterns and from Stage 4 should be noted Reinforcement to be otqced
maximum deflection.) The modulus of elasticity equidistont between ftange
1. Radius of gyration ry.
for the steel should be taken as E : For the cased section ry should be taken as
& outside foce of concrete.
205 kN/mm2 and the moment of inertia 1 for the greater of:
the section from the section properties table.
4. Check that the actual deflection is less than the (a) 0.2 (B + 100) or
limiting deflection: (b) The minimum radius of gyration of the
50mm min cover to ftonge
ó ( ó'¡.
uncased section.
NOTE. Mox cover io be
considered fo¡ strucfural
Table2.7 Slenderness correction factor r¡ for the simplified method pufposes is: ?5mm

Beunt unrl louds At't tnl batt d i ng ttntttctr t

\:/ CO NCR ETE

The conoete cosing to be of ordinqry dense roncrete
of qf least grode 20 to B.S 8110
EFFECTIVE LENGTH
The effective tength, L¡, of the cosed secfion is timited to
o-77 the Ieosf of the fottowi¡g:
(i) 40 bc

100 b.2
(¡¡) -;j
0¡
0.(¡5 (iii)250 ¡ where r is the minimum rqdius of gyr-ation
of the steet section.

I*

W
v 0.iÌ6
Figure 2.8 Gcncral rcquirctncnts for casccl scctions

2. 'lhe buckling resistance moment of the cased 2.3 Columns subject to axial load only
ilrl :Z 0.94
section should not exceed one and a half times
that of the uncased one.
3. Deflection. When calculating the actual deflec-
tion the effective moment of inertia of the
For this section the following assumptions
made:
1. The design loading is composed of dead and
are

cased section is calculated as follows:

-
:Z 0.91 T_I
rcs -

where
rs

1"-
L.-

:
dc
I"

second moment of area of the

cased section
3.
imposed loading only.
The column is fo¡med from a Universal Col-
umn, Universal Beam or joist rolled sections.
For the purpose of calculating the
length a nominal value based on standard con-
effective

1. = second moment of area of the ditions at restraint is assumed. For other condi-

F- Y gross concrete sectlon, tions of restraint see Appendices D and E of

: the code.

\;TZ second moment of area of the

1s
steel section and, 4. Grade 43 steel is used.
dc : the modula¡ ratio.
JZ Columns subject to axial Load only 33

Table 2.8 Compressive strength p" for struts (N/mm'z) Table 2.8 (cont.)

(u) (b) (c) (a) (b) (")

Py Pv
225 24s 255 26s 275 225 245 2ss 265 275 22s 245 255 26s 275
" rr, 245 255 265 275 225 245 25s 265 275 225 245 255 265 275

15 225 245 25s 265 275 15 225 245 255 265 275 1s 225 24s 255 265 275 130 99 101 102 103 103 130 89 92 93 94 95 130 80 82 84 85 86
20 225 244 254 264 273 20 224 243 253 263 272 20 224 242 252 261 271 135 93 9s 96 96 97 135 84 86 87 88 89 135 75
'71
78 79
'75
80 81
25 222 24r 251 261. 270 25 220 239 248 258 267 25 2\7 235 245 254 263 i40 87 89 90 90 91 140 79 81 82 83 84 140 74 76 76
30 220 239 248 258 267 30 276 234 243 253 262 30 2r1 228 237 246 255 145 82 84 84 85 85 145 75 77 78 78 79 145 68 70 70 71 12
35 217 236 245 254 264 35 21,1 229 238 247 2s6 35 204 221 230 238 247 150 78 79 79 80 80 150 71 72 73 74 74 150 64 66 67 68 68

40 2t4 233 242 25t 260 40 207 224 233 241 250 40 198 214 222 230 238 155 73 74 75 75 75 155 67 69 69 70 70 155 61 63 63 64 65
42 213 231 240 249 258 42 205 222 237 239 248 42 195 211 219 227 235 160 69 70 70 71, 7t 160 64 65 66 66 66 160 58 59 60 67 61
44 212 230 239 248 257 44 203 220 228 237 245 44 193 208 216 224 231 165 65 66 67 67 67 165 60 61 62 63 63 165 55 56 57 58 58
46 21,0 228 237 246 255 46 20r 2t8 226 234 242 46 190 205 213 220 228 170 62 63 63 63 64 r70 57 58 59 59 60 r70 52 54 54 55 55
48 209 227 236 244 253 48 799 215 223 231 239 48 18'7 202 209 217 224 175 59 59 60 60 60 175 5) )O )O )O 57 77s 50 sl 52 52 53

50 208 225 234 242 251. 50 79'1 2r3 221 229 237 50 184 199 206 2t3 220 180 56 56 57 57 57 180 52 53 53 54 54 180 48 49 49 50 50
s2 206 223 232 247 249 52 195 210 218 226 234 52 181 196 203 2t0 217 185 53 54 54 54 54 185 49 50 51 51 51 185 46 46 47 47 48
54 205 222 230 238 247 54 r92 208 215 223 230 54 179 793 199 206 213 190 51 51 51 51 52 190 47 48 48 48 49 190 43 44 45 45 46
56 203 220 228 236 244 56 190 205 2r3 220 227 56 176 189 1.96 202 209 195 48 49 49 49 49 r95 45 46 46 46 47 195 42 42 43 43 43
58 201 218 226 234 242 58 188 202 210 277 224 58 773 186 192 r99 205 200 46 46 47 47 47 200 43 44 44 44 44 200 40 41 41 41 42

60 200 216 224 232 239 60 185 200 207 214 221 60 170 183 189 195 201
62 198 214 221 229 236 62 183 1.97 204 210 2r7 62 167 179 185 191 197 Le:kXLx.y
64 196 21.1 279 226 234 64 180 794 200 207 213 64 764 176 182 188 193 Design procedure
66 194 209 216 223 230 66 778 1,91 r97 203 210 66 161 173 178 184 189 where k: the effective length factor and
68 r92 206 213 220 227 68 175 188 194 200 206 68 158 169 175 180 185 L. Calculate the ultimatecompressive force due to L: the centre-to-centre distance between the
the axial loading points of effective restraint for the XX and YY
70 189 204 270 2r7 224 70 772 185 190 196 202 70 155 166 r71 176 181
72 187 201. 207 2r4 220 72 769 181 187 193 198 72 152 163 168 172 r77 F": Tf,W¡ + Y¡rW¿ (kN) AXCS.
74 184 198 204 2r0 216 74 1,67 r78 183 189 194 74 t49 159 164 169 173 F": l'6W¡ + I'4Wd
3. Calculate the slenderness Â:
76 182 194 200 206 212 76 1,64 r75 180 185 190 76 146 156 160 165 169 )"v : Le,f rv
78 179 191 1.97 202 208 78 161 r7r 776 181 186 78 143 rs2 1.57 161 165 where W¡.¿: the characteristic imposed and
80 176 188 r93 198 203 80 158 168 172 177 181 80 740 1.49 1s3 1.57 161 dead axial loads and y¡,.0 : the load factors where r : the radius of gyration about the XX
82 r73 184 189 194 r99 82 155 1,64 169 173 177 82 737 1.46 150 154 1s7 from Table 2, BS 5950. and YY axes,
84 r70 181 185 190 r94 84 t52 161 165 1.69 r73 84 134 1.42 146 150 r54 2. Establish the effective length L6 for the col- )'v : LE"f rv
86 167 177 181 186 190 86 149 157 161 165 169 86 732 139 143 746 150 umn about both the XX and YY axes (see
88 164 r73 777 181 185 88 146 154 158 161 165 88 129 136 139 743 146 Figure 2.9 and Table 1.4): The larger of the two values governs.
90 167 169 1t3 777 180 90 r43 150 154 157 161 90 126 133 136 139 142
92 158 166 t69 173 176 92 139 r47 150 153 156 92 723 130 133 136 139
94 154 162 165 168 r71. 94 136 r43 1,47 150 752 94 120 t27 130 133 i35 TOP END
96 151 158 161 1.64 166 96 133 140 143 146 148 96 118 124 127 129 r32
98 147 754 157 159 162 98 130 1,37 139 r42 145 98 115 t21. 123 726 t29 -r '4(Z
r <, + -l- Nof hetd in position.
Noi restcoined in
dicection ( Free )
100 744 150 153 155 157 100 r27 133 136 138 r47 100 rr2 118 r2o 723 125
r02
104
106
14r 146 149 151 r53 r02 r24 130 132 135 137 r02 110 115 118 120 t22
r37 142 145 147 1.49 104 r22 127 129 131 133 104 r07 1.r2 115 117 t19
r34 139 741 143 145 106 119 724 126 728 130 106 105 110 1.12 114 116
t--
'4-
2.0
+ Effectivety hetd in
position. Not restrqined
in direction.(Pin )
108 131 135 137 139 14r 108 116 727 t23 125 126 108 t02 107 109 111 113
110
r12
127 132 133 135 1.37 110 113 118 120 r21 123 110 100 104 106 108 110
t24 t28 130 131 1.33 772 111 115 117 118 120 7t2 98 702 t04 106 107
o
z.
U
'/Í 1.0 0.9? 0.8 5

+ Effectivety hetd in
pos¡tion. Pot'tiotly
festro¡ned in direcfion.
r14 12r t25 126 728 129 1.r4 108 7r2 1.14 115 177 1t4 96 99 101 103 105 = h- 0.9? 0.85 0.78
Effeciivety hetd in
116
118
1r8 121 123 724 125 716 105 109 111 r72 114 116 93 97 99 101 rO2
115 118 r20 721. 722 118 103 106 108 109 111 118 91. 95 96 98 100
l-

h ?.0 0. 85 0. 78 0.70
K position. Effeciivety
restmined in d irec f ion
r20 172 115 L16 118 119 720 100 r04 105 t07 108 120 89 93 94 96 97 ( Fixed )
122 109 112 113 114 115 r22 98 101 103 t04 105 tZ2 87 9L 92 93, 95
r24 107 109 110 111 112 124 96 99 100 101 702 t24 85 88 90 91 92 Figure 2.9 Effective length factor, k (nominal effective or refer to Table 28 of the code. 'When using the above
126 704 106 107 108 109 726 94 96 97 99 100 t26 83 86 88 89 90 length LE = k x L). For stanchions in single storey k factor guide the method should be used for both the
r28 101 104 105 105 106 728 97 94 95 96 97 t28 82 84 86 87 88 buildings of simple construction refer to Appendix D of XX and YY axes in order to identify the critical value of
the code. For discontinuous angle struts see Figure 2.10 L
34 Structural steelwork only
Discontitz¿tous single- and double-angle struts subiect to axial load 35

Check that ,1 < 180. If ,¿ > 180 refer to clause Table 2.10 Compressive strength tables selection STRUT TYPE END CONDITIONS SLENDERNESS ( \)
4.7.3.2 of the code.
Check the section classification. This need only Type of section Thickness Axß of buckling
be carried out for Universal Beam sections, ai XX YY Not less thon
none of the Universal Columns or ioists are i. 0 .85r/rg
slender under axial load only. Calcúlate d/r. Rolled I-section Table 2.8(a) Table 2.8(b) A simpte bott or
Singte ongte (o
where d : the depth of the web between fillets Rolled H-section< 40 mm Table 2.8(b) Table 2.8(c)
)
of eoch end.
ii.0.7 Lr/rss +30
and ¡ : the web thickness. The section is slen- Rolled angle Buckling about
Rolled channel any axis
der if: Rolled T-section (Table 2.8(c))
d Two rolled sections
->39
t back to back
Compound rolled
If the section is slender then the load-carrying sections
capacity will be affected due to the influence of
local buckling. In such cases the code requires I-section: a sect¡on wíth a central web and two equal flanges where
D > t.28.
a reduction in the design strength py calculated H-section: a section with a central web and two eoual flanses whc¡c
as follows: D<t28_ Noi Iess thqn
Two or more bolts in
x 275
392 Singte ongte (b
line olong the ongte i.1.0L/ rru or
r !¡ or equivotent wetd
ii.0.7L/roo
ult)t dt eoch end.
5. Obtain the compressive strength p.. From 2.4 Discontinuous single- and double- Also the compress-
Table 2.10 establish the appropriate column for angle struts subject to axial load ion resistonce:
the critical axis. (Table 2.8 is derived from the Pc Þ0 8AqPc
Perry strut formula, the full details of which are onlY
given in Appendix C of the code.) The com-
pression strength p. depends on the slenderness For this section the following assumptions are
made:
 of the gross section and the design strength
p, as follows: Cõnnected to one side Not less fhon
1. Grade 43 steel is used. of o gusset by one or
(u) dl! < 39, Â*o^ and p."
2. 'fhe requirements of clause 4.7.13.1 for back-
Doub (e ongle (o)
more bolfs on on v- -v i.0.85Lrtryy
(b) dlt > to-back struts are satisfied. equivotent weld.
39, and 1r,
^,u* 3. The strut is discontinuous.
ii.0.8sVtyy
Table2.9 Deflection limit ð,,- on beams due to unfactored Design procedure
loads
Single-angle struts Connecfed to bofh sides iii 0.7 L/r¡ay +30
of o gusset by two or
Member Deflection limit ô1;^ 1. Calculate the ultimate axial compression force, Double ongte (b )
more botts or on
F., to be resisted by the strut. equivalent weld,
Cantilever Lengrh/180 2. Establish the length L of the strut.
Beam carrying Span/360 3. Calculate the slenderness  of the strut (Figure
plaster or other
brittle finish
2.10). An extract from Table 28 of the code
gives the values of  to be calculated according Not I ess thon
All other beams Span/200 X
to the number of fasteners used at the end |l
connections. The greater of the values for ,tr. Connecteddireclty to .,
'ffl
4l i. 1.0Lr,tr¡rra
governs. one or both sides of
4. Check the classification of the section. As with Doubte ongte (c) onother member by one
' -îtl
tql
-v
6. Calculate the compressive resistance P.:
columns under axial loading, if the strut section or mofe botts or qn
XV ii 1.ILr/ryy
P,: A, x P, is slender a reduced design strength, pu. is equivolent wetd.
where -4*: the gross sectional area (refer to used. The angle is slender if iii 0 .7 Lr/r^r+ 30
section properties table) and P" : the com- bd
pressive strength based on ), and p, or pu. -or->
II
15
according to the df t ratio (see Tablei 2.tO and where ö : length of the shorter leg, Figure 2.10 Angle cnd conditions
2.8). d : length of the longer leg,
7. Now check the compressive resistance P ¡ : thickness of the less. i

against the applied axial load F": "

h-r,l* the design strength p, from Table 2.1 is used.
If 19,
If F. < P. the section is satisfactory, but if and" >23
Í
the angle is slender calculate the reduction l")
" (b+d)/t-4
factor based on the least of
F. ) P" choose a larger section and repeat If the above values are less than 15 and 23, 11 11 and the reduced design strength
steps 2-7. respectively, then the section is not slender and \a) -;-;-t ,-----,
' ' (d/t) - 4' \Út
'-' -:-;-
(b/¡) - a' pv,: py x rèduction factor
 36 Structuralsteelwork
Columns in simple multïstorey construction 37

5. Obtain the compressive strength pc. From reduce py from Table 2.1 by the lesser of the 1. The moments applied to the column are due
/.": the 28-day characte¡istic strength
Table 2.8(c) using the appropriate value of Â, followine factors for the reduced design of the concrete (but only to the eccentricity of the connections.
py or py, read off p.. strength, pr,:
f""Þ 40 N/mm2), 2. The design assumptions made for 'Columns
6. Calculate the compressive resistance P.. 11 19 p" : the compressive strength of the subject to axial load only' (see page 31) apply
(a) End connection through one leg by two or \u) (¿lt) o o, (u) (b+d)/r-4 to this section.
more fasteners:
- steel section,
:
the design strength of the steel.
i.e. py,: pv x reduction factor. Pv
Py: Arx p, 5. Obtain the compressive strength, p". From 6. Check the compressive resistance P. and the Design procedure
Table 2.8(c) using the appropriate value of l, short strut capacity P., against F.. The section
where A, : the gross sectional area (refer to is satisfactory if
Clause 4.8.3.3.1 states that the following rela-
section properties table). and p, or pr,
read off p,. tionship is satisfied:
(b) End connection through one leg by Calculate the compressive resistance P". F.sP.orifP">P.,
one F" mM" mMu
fastener: P,: A, X p" Then F" < P..
-j-r _:+----<1.0
Arp" M6 pvZy
P":0'8Ae x p, where -4, : the gross sectional area of the
7. Now check the compressive resistance P" compound section. .F,
I.
against the applied ultimate axial load F.. 7. Check the compressive resistance P" against F". Aep,.
If F. < P. the section is satisfactory, but if F. -where F" : the applied ultimate axial load,
If F" < P" the section is satisfactory, but if F. ) ?" choose a larger section and repeat stages Ae: the gross section area of the
> P. choose a larger section and repeat steps 2.6 Columns in simple multi-storey
section,
3-7. construction P. : the comPressive strength.

2.5 A cased column subject to axial For this section the following assumptions are To calculate F" and p" follow the design proce-
made: dure for 'Columns subiect to axial load only'.
Double-angle compound struts load only
1. Calculate the ultimate axial compression force 1. Check that the section of the cased column e' : eccentricity of load from
F". complies with the general requirements as the face of the'steel column
2. Establish the length L of the strut. shown in Figure 2.8.
3. Calculate the slenderness ,tr which is the sreater 2. Complete steps 1 and 2 as for the uncased e' = the greater of 100 mm or brf2
of section. where b, is the stiff bear¡ng
I 3. Calculate the slenderness  for both axes, i.e. see Figure 2.6.
(a) Kr: rxx L.
(a) XX, Moment due to eccentricity, e
(b),,b: (2^+^7)tt2 ^=-:rX M":F"xe
r¡ : the radius of gyration of the steel
l. : Kt T, and ,1." : aL.
where
where > 50 section about its XX axis, where for 1) beam to column flange connection e= e'
Foce of cotumn + Dl2
I""rv
(c) 0.7-- + 30 Lu
rxx
(b) YY, 2) beam to column web connection e : e'
^: fy 1) Beam to column connect¡on via column web or flange
t12
NoteiKr:0.85 for struts connected to a gusset, where ry :0'2b"Þ0.2(B + 150) mm. Also if
: 1.00 for struts connected to a member. ry for the steel section is greater than ry for
rxç the radius of gyration of the the cased one then ry for the steel section may
compound section about the be used. M.:F'xe
XX axis, 4. Obtain the compressive strength p. of the steel where e: Dl2
section. From Table 2.10 establish the appro-
ry5 the radius of gyration of the priate column ((u), (U) or (c)) for rhe critical
compound section about the axis in Table 2.8.
YY axis, 5. Calculate the compressive resistance P" and the l-n n nln to
short strut capacity P"r:
r, : the minimum radius of lr\ Foce of cotumn
gyration of a single angle, P, =lA,+0.45L¿"1p"
p, -l'-
\ -
L"= L13 (see clause 4.7.13.1(e) of
the code).
/r\
P.,:[Ae- +0.259A"\p"
\ Ðu l^ ' 2\ Beam to column connect¡on v¡a a cap plate
4. Check the classification of the compound sec-
tion. The section is slender if where Ae: thegår, ,""tion.l area of the 3) Roof truss supported on a cap plate
steel section, The eccentricity, e, may be neglected provided simple connect¡ons are used which do not develop significant
b/t or d/t > 75 moments.
á": the gross sectional area of the
where å and d are the leg lengths of a single concrete, i.e. A.:. d" x b" - A, hence M- = 0
angle and ¡ is the leg thickness. If blt or dlt < and d"> D + 150 mm, å" Þ
15 use p, from Table 2.I, or if blt or dlt > 15 Figure 2.ll Moment and eccentricity of beam-to-column
B + 150 mm, connection
38 Strucrural sreelwork Simple tension members 39

mMx of gyration about the YY axis and from Table (a) A flat bar, 2. For single angles connected through one leg
2.
t7l6 pr. pt is now read off
2.1, the design strength (b) A single angle, or only:
(c) Back-to-back double angles. (a) Calculate the applied tensile force Fa.
where m: the equivalent uniform moment from Table 2.5 for the above values of Ârr and
2. Grade 43 steel is used. (b) Calculate the net area of the connected leg
factor 1: 1'g¡, ^**, Ay.
Mx= the applied moment about the ^ (c) Calculate the gross area of the unconnected
XX axis due to eccentric PvZv Design procedure leg a2.
connections,
Mt -- the buckling resistance moment where m : The equivalent moment factor Clause 4.6.L of the code states that the tensile (d) Calculate the effective area A" of the angle
capacity about the XX axis.
(: 1'0), My : fhe ápplied moment about the capacity P, of a member should be taken from l3ot\
YY axis due to eccentric connections (My is Ae:At +4:l-
(a) Calculate the moment M" due to the calculated as shown for M-¡ in 2(a) above),
P¡: A" x pt \Jd1 i 42/|
eccentricity of the connections about the XX pr: the design strength of the steel and where A" : the effective area. (e) Follow steps (d) and (e) of 1 above.
axis. The moment Mx: the algebraic sum of Zv : the elastic modulus about YY. 3. Back-to-back double angles connected to one
the moments M. (see Figure 2.11 for values of 1. For flat bars: side of a gusset or member should be designed
4. Check the ratios of applied axial load and
eccentricity e and M".) The moment M¡ is moments and section capacity: (a) Calculate the applied tensile force F1. as for 2 above or, if compound (see clause
now distributed between the upper and lower (b) Calculate the net area 4,, based on the 4.6.3.2 of the code), as follows.
columns at the connection according to the
F, mMx mMy gross area ,4r, minus the allowance. (For bolt (a) Calculate the applied tensile force F,.
procedure shown in Figure 2.I2. Arp, M,, pvZv - ^ " holes, see Figure 2.13.) (b) Calculate the net area of the two connected
(b) Calculate the buckling resistance moment If the
-T above is greater than 1.0 choose a larger (c) Calculate the effective area A": legs 41 .
Ma: section and repeat steps 1-4. (c) Calculate the gross area of the two uncon-
A": K" x An nected legs a2.
Mv: Sxpt
where K" : 1'2 for Grade 43 steel but (d) Calculate the effective area A" of the two
where S¡ :
plastic modulus about XX and
2.7 Simple tension members A" < 4". angles
pu : the bending strength. For p5, calculate
the equivalent slenderness:
(d) Calculate the
Pr: A"x Pr-
tensile capacity
A.-=at +d"t----a-l
-
lsø\
For this section the following assumptions are \Sat + a2l
" /¡ \ made:
(e) Check F, s P,.
Â'' = 0.51\r./ I (e) Foltow steps (ä) and (e) of 1 above.
1. The member is formed from one of the follow-
where L : Lz in Figure 2.12 and ry : radius ine sections:
1. Parallel bolt holes

I
The net area An is taken as
I

-o-. -@-
A^:
I
I
I
Dire ct ion An - Ztd
-.--__.-->
I
I I
of stress where An = the grcss area, f is the member thickness,
-@-
.l
I I
d is the diameter of the bolt holes.
t- l(- section fon Net Areo A¡
Ml^
M'g-Mg r¡u= /Kt
t-
)t'
t3T
---T--7
Y¡*K ?/ 2. Staggered bolt holes

The net area An is taken as

c2f
V g
A^= A" - )t¿+:r:4g
V
9e,
l" |,z'
-9-
where An, t and d are as above.
¡ I

tl
tl {'o {'o I
Stoggered pitch
u--z
Mi Mr
-T
Mi =(r, Yo 3. Gross area An

L1 $;;-k?/ (a) Flat bars An : b x t

(b) Leg of angle As = t(d
- t/2) \" A'**= {
Rotio of Rotio of where b : width of the bar;
sliff ness S1.5 stiffness >1.5 d : the leg length of the angle;
t = the thickness of the bar or leg of the
angle

Figure 2.12 Distribution of column net moments by relative stiffness Figure 2.13 Gross and net areas of connected rne¡nber
40 Structurûlsteelwork Simple connections 4l

2.8 Simple connections Bearing cøpøcity of the bolt Table 2.ll Bolt and fillet weld capacities
P61o : dtp6,o
4'6 bolts 8'8 bolts
For this section the following assumptions are
made: where d: the nominal diameter of the bolt, DiameterTensile Tensile Shear value P, DiameterTensile Tensile Shear value P,
/ :
the thickness of the connected ply and p^^ for ofbolt s/¡e.tt cap ofboh srr¿ss cap
1. The connection is desiened to transfer direct Grade 4.6 bolts : 460 N/mm2 unO Cruåe- A.S are4 Single Double area Single Double
loads only. bolts : 970 N/mm2.
Áp shear shear A, P, shear shear
2. The bolts are to be one of the following: (mm) (*^') (kN) (kN) (kN) (mm) (m*') (kN) (kN) (kN)
(a) Black hexagonal to BS 4190, Grade 4.6;
(b) Precision hexagonal to BS 3692, Grade 8.8; Bearing capacity of connected ply t2 84-3 16.4 13.5 27.0 12 84.3 37.9 31.6 63-2
or 16 757 30.6 25.1 50-2 r6 157 70-7 58.9 118
P,o,: dtp6r<lrtpo, 47.8 78-4 245 i10
(c) High-strength friction-grip (HSFG) to BS 20 245
59.1
39.2 20 91,.9 184
4395, General Grade. where d and f are as above, p6, for Grade 22 303 48.5 97-0 22 303 136 1r4 227
Welds are formed using Grade E43 electrodes steel : 460 N/mm2 and e : the end distance
43 24 353 68.8 56.5 113 1À 353 1s9 IJL 265
3.
defined in Figure 2.15.
as 27 459 89.5 73'4 147 27 459 207 172 344
to BS 639. 30 561 109 89.8 180 30 561 252 210 427
/1
Connected members, plates and cleats are

fr
formed from Grade 43 steel.
5. All fasteners are in clearance holes (i.e. nomin- 1

al bolt diameter plus 2 mm).

General Grade HSFG bolts

Governing capacity of Grades 4.ó and 8.8 Proof Slip value P 5¡

ordinary bolts in shear D ire ction load

Diameter Tensile
+--
of slress of of bolt czp Single Double
The capacity of an ordinary bolt is the least value bolt P o P, sheai shear
of: (mm) (kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
1. Shear'capacity in single or double shear (see
12 49.4 44.5 24.5 48.9
Figrre 2.I4); 16 92.1 82.9 - 45.6 91.2
2. Bearing capacity of the bolt; Figure 2.15 Rules for spacing of bolts and edge dis- 20 t44 130 71,'3 r43
J. Bearing capacity of the connected ply. tances. (l) Minimum spacing between centres of bolts 22 r77 159 87.6 175
1^ r02
42.5 x the nominal diameter of the bolt: (2) maximum 207 186 205
spacing between centrcs of bolts not exposed to corro- 27 234 21,7 116 ZJL
sive influences Þ14¡. where I is the thickness of the 30 286 257 142 283
thinner ply; (3) minimum edge distance (a) <1.25D for
rolled edges. (b) {1.40D for sheared edges (4) minimum
end distance {1.4D

Fillet weld capacities with Grade 843 electrodes

Governing cåpacity of general grade HSFG Capacity
CaPacitY
lnterfqce n = 1.0
bolts resisting shear Leg Throat at Leg Throat at
The capacity of an HSFG bolt is the lesser value Iength thickness 215 Nfmm2 length thickness 215 Nfmm2
SINGLE SHEAR (mm)
of:
(mm) (mm) (kNlmm) (mm) (kNlmm)

1. Slip resistance, or 3.0 2-l 0.452 1t2.0 8.4 1.81

2. Bearing capacity of the connected ply. 4.0 2.8 0-602 15.0 10.5 2.26
5.0 3.5 0.753 18.0 t2.6 2.71,
6.0 4-2 0.903 20.0 14.0 3.01
SIþ resistance in single or double shear 8.0 5.6 L'L 22.0 15-4 J.JI

(Figure 2.14) r0.0 7.0 1.51 25.0 t7.5 3.76

Interfoce n = 2.0 P5y -- I'Ik,¡.t.P¡n

where Ps : the proof load of the bolt from Table
DOUBLE SHEAR

Figure 2.14 2.II, k"= I'0, p: the slip factor 1= 0'45) and Capacity of Grades 4.6 and 8.8 ordinary bolts Capacity of HSFG bolts in combined tension
n : number of interfaces. in combined tension and shear and shear
The following relationship must be satisfied: The following relationship must be satisfied:
ply
:

Bearing cøpacity of connected F. F, F. F,

P,or: dtp6, < ietpw P"+P,<l'4 p* * 0'8 pt < 1'o
Shear capacity
: where d : nominal diameter of the bolt, t = the *t"r" f, is the applied shear, P. is the shear where F, is the aPPlied shear, Psr is the slip
thickness of the connected ply, e : the end dis- resistance, F, is the applied tension and Pt :0'9
P" PrA"n capacity of the bolt, F, is the applied tension and
where p, and ,4s are obtained from Table 2.11 tance as defined in Figure 2.L5 and pug for Grade P, is the tension capacity (see Table 2.ll for P¡, where Po : the Proof load.
aîd n: number of interfaces. 43 steel : 825 N/mm'. values).
 Fittet wetd a :
throat thickness : 0'7 x S I

S :leg length
Ve¡ticql cenfroid Bolts (1) carry vertical shear only (page 38). Bolts (2) carry vertical
Design strength of a fillet weld +. shear and shear due to eccentricity of P. (Table 2.1 1 aird Figure
P*:0'7SP* kN/mm. P* = 215 N/mm2 Fqce of
of bott holes.
2.18)
suPporl.
Botted
web cteqt

VerticqI centroid Bolts (1) carry vertical shear only (page 38). Weld (2) carries
End return

fir* End return d2s unless impract¡cal

due to configuration -r, of we|d vertical shear and shear due to eccentricitv of P. (Table 2.11 and
Figures 2.16 and 2.18)

T Fittet wetd

Lj:min¡mumlap{4¡
Lop joints
k" t
l-+-l
Il*"7
if the element is only
connected by a longitudinal

tw
fillet weld lhen L"> T*
ll Bolls (1) carry vertical shear only (page 3B). Weld (2) carries
t : the thickness of the vert¡cal shear only. (Tables 2.11 and 2.12)

'l+-- thinner part joined

kr+ Fittet wetd 2

Effective tength s : leg length for run in

Lw v_Effective
rFs>l tenotn and run out
Fs.lÉ
¿s
kiv+ ,l
Bolts (1) carry a shear force

( Ft = MID (Page 38).

Bolts (2) carry vertical shear and shear due to eccentricity of P.
lntermittent f ittef wetds Space between intermittent fillet welds should not exceed (page 38 and Figure 2.18)
300 mm or'16f in compression elements, or 24¡ ¡n tens¡
r-t Normally HSFG bolts are used for this type of connect¡on
Flange cover plate to be checked for tension due to Ft.
1+ Web
++ cover plate to be checked for bending and shear
++
i:rï'r-q--+
Figure 2.1ó General rules for fillet rvelds Figure 2.17 Typical beam connections
44 45

Tal:le2.l2 Recommended back marks

CONNECTI ONS PROPERTIES DESIGN FORCES
H- and I-sections

tIT
Double tine of bolts a) Polar moment of inertia: a) Force on extreme bolt due to
Maximttm
Nominal Spacing of holes dia. of
direct shear
,tl
H
to:2(y?+yB)+4x? flnnge rivet
b) D¡stance from centro¡d to
Fs: P/N kN. tvidtlt si sr s.r sJ or bolt b
lmtn) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) lmm)
extreme bolt: b) Force on extreme bolt due to
r:2(y3 + x1)'' torsional moment, M 419 to 368 t40 140 l5 290 24 362
ô-q | ft--- Fv ! F-:-+ M- Å 330 and 305 140
t40
120 60 240
240
24 312
,^ | ¡r./t¡q\\' c) Cose: kN 330 and 305 120 60 20 300

"l +"ë ll-+'\to

I
r 'p 292 to 203 r40 1À 212

'x+;-lJ\-'
| Y -À+:'-êts :u
d) Torsional moment
M:Pxe
Resultant force on extreme bolt
due to Fs and F.
:
190
t52
to
ro
165 90
90
24
20
20
162
150
130

I'
146 127 70
t-R (t-6 + t-i +
"l e) Number of bolts in group = ¡. 2F.F.. cos d)1'2 kN
102 54 12 98

It
s1
89 50

^K-+ | + 76 40
J+
k++
64
_51 30

v
T' Notc rh¡r thc âcrual flange widrh for a universal scction may bc lcss lhan thc nom¡nal size and that the
dif[ercncc nìây be significant in dctcrmining the maximum diamctc¡.
Thc dimensions S¡ and 52 havc becn selccted for nornral conditions but adjustmcnts may be necessary
for rclativcly largc-diamctcr fastcnings or particularly heavy masses of scrial size.

Singte tine of botts pl a) Moment of inert¡a of bolt group a) Force on extreme bolt due to

k.+
,F- -ft-*rv
b)
t:2(y1 + yâ)
Distance from centroid to
extreme bolt = yz
c) Torsional moment
b)
d¡rect shear
Fs : P/N kN
Force on extreme bolt due to
tors¡onal moment Standard Angles
o" |I tñur-!rtt. ro
M=Pxe F^: ---:-2Mv-
kN
'lhc\c ¡nglcs ¡rc lhosc nìclric sizcs sclcctccl. lronr thc lilll lisl r.'conr-
rDcD(lc(l [ìv rhc ISO. lrs Brilish Sriln(lirr(l irfctric Anglcs.'lhcv rcplilcc(l thc
- -lC¡çt- d) Number of bolts in group : ¡. c)
I
Resultant force on extreme bolt
Inrpcriill sizcs com¡rlctclv front ¡ .lrilurr! l()7-ì.

-'ll| -!¿'b- -x
Notc thrl IISFCì l.olts nrlv rcqtrirc acljustnrcnls to lhc b¡ck nl¡rks sho$n
q^
due to F, and F. (itlc trì tlìc lirrlcr rìul ilt(l srsllcr rlinlensions.
| IDilcr gâu{c li¡cs:rrc lirr nornral conrlitrons ancl ntav rcquirc ildjustntcnl
FB = (FE + F2ì1t2 kN lìrr largc clirnrctcrs ol faslclrcrs or thick ntcnrlrcrs.

var ()rrtcr glugc lincs nr¡rr.rcquirc considcratir)n in fcliltioil l() ¡r sl)ccificd

cdgc (listilncc.

M as'i tttuttt tliutnalc r

a) Force per unit length due to Spncittg o.l'ltoles of ltolt or rivet
Three side wetd a) Unit leg length : 1 mm Effective direct force P. Nrnniul
length, L:2x+y Ieg Icttgtlt .t / .t_, 5.ì sr .ç. sr, 5/ S. rllrl S.; .S1S5 arlrl .S,,

b) Effective area of weld per unit

Fs = P/L kN/mm lnlnt ) (tttttt) (uttn) (tntÌ1) (rntn) (tnrn) (nttn) (ttutt) (tntn) (tnm)
leg length b) Torsional moment
FM.Ai 200 75 75 55 .s5 5-s 30 20
A:2x+y M:Pxe kN/mm l-s0 -s5 5.s 20
Fpl Fs
c) Position of vertical axis y-y c) Force at corner of weld due to M
125 1< 50 20
X 120 50 I6
relative to vertical weld M, 11
x: x2lA
F. : _,_ kN/mm
100 -5-5

rp fl
d) :
lx y3llZ + 2(xly, + xyl) 90 50
el ly: (y112 + yxx2) + ... d) Resultant force at corner of weld 80 4-s 20
fun due to Fs and F 75 45 20
S= tn 2/3( x3 + xf)
qnd run out 70 40 20
0lo:¡¡1¡t F*: (FE + Få + 2FsF,cos0)1/2 6-5 3-s 20

fi) 35 l6
50 28 l2
45 25
40 !-)
30 20
Figure 2.18 Eccentrically loaded connections 25 l5
46 Structural steelwork Section properlies 47

Safe load tables As the calculated value of Bo and Do is rarely

The actual values for the capacity in shear of 4.6, an exact number, they should now be rounded
8.8 and HSFG bolts may be directly read off the
up to practical dimensions. If, for example,
Ap*u¡ : 684000 mmi then Bp: Dp:827 mm.
safe load tables shown in Table 2.71. as mav their
tensile capacity P,.
Therefore use 850 x 850 mm olate: vl x sr ôóh€ ôrÉ io€ rrøo s€o æcso
Ap : 850 x 850 = 722500 mm2. âó
t*
€N@h
--NN
æSN
ôtdN
ñNæ
Nõli
ÊOT€
ô¡-:F
ÕNÔ
oN=
T€TN
å*Ê-

6. Calculate the pressure on the underside of the t- çrN hr- rãô€ Ø-O rnNr
q¡

Design plate: òõ==

ñàÈã-Y F rÊ
-â
õINNÔ
Ô€9N
;cN
6ÓN
oa€
<Nd
c-Q.<
úNÈ:
æso
TON -6Êr
NÊÊ

F
It is not possible to give a useful step-by-step w: æi
f-,TY ÊNNÔ O OhOÊ
guide for the design of simple connections as the , ìì IY?Y T1? YYIì ç-ç ?Y9!?
required checks depend on the configuration of
Srsç"S æh
æT
+aN€
-NNÊ
ôhó -âr rçhs sQæ óóNN

the connection. However, certain general rules can

7. Calculaie the minimum thickness of the base qlT09 .):.: 09llf iv?Y'1?9?
plate: * l:ço Êarç ç9v]
hr€ óæh Èhæó Êrd ovro
be given to aid the initial layout of the connection: È'ù=*ì r ôt- óosv ú,ss óóÉ óo-s NNo óóóV
[r.< ]r/: Éó r€:o
r.¡n : 11 w(a2 -
NA
rsh Ô$T
@çh NÊæN €QQ hÓ Ó
1. Bolts used for structural connections should not 0.3å2)l È st ææ a€€h
0909? o9o909 rr9€
09090909 æææ rrr€
09o9o909
be less than l6 mm diameter. LPv" .J
aÊ ùF ¡
È
ÁÁ Å:ÅÅ ?0909

2. Fillet welds used for structural connections If /.¡n ) 40 mm reduce p,,:245 N/mm2 and ;- CO
+ô OOOÓ
orçæ OSN
Êr+ OTO
6ot OOæN OOT
rro N€OQ
should not be less than 6 mm. recalculate /.¡n. The actual f should not be less óæ çoÈø Nôæ ôæ@ ---t
ær€h hio -óro
€hsç
> !g ON ÊÊ-
3. All bolts in a connection should be one size in practice than the thickness of the flange of .! -s ;- CO OOOO
@hJ TOT NOçO €NT hæ6æ
the supported member and must be a multiple è-Ë rh €ôho r€æ :N* €OhA SÐh Ê€Næ
and grade. ss
\ì <iì
< ü: rh NCÔæ ôr€ rQh hhst rhs sóóN
4. All welds in a connection should be one size of 5.
and grade. OO ONæÊ OOÉ OON
ÉÊ- æsæ@
ihÔr oóo
N<Ê
Nsʀ
6soh
!.= gF @r rNó
5. Both bolt and weld configurations should be r e
Èø -róN
ôær€ r@h €hV n+çó orç ooóN

symmetrical. 2.10 Section properties :* oO

@T
O-Q-
ôNNN
ôho
Ô9æ
oO@
NÓÉ
Êrô@
ôóô+
e:6
h60
óN@Ê
çNøh
6. The initial sizing of plates and angles through sÈ
{t
<i=
\ õg
nó oôær rçh €ns +çóó avs oóNN
which bolts pass may be achieved by using the
rules given in Figure 2.1.5 andTable 2.12.
Tables 2.13-2.19 give the properties of some steel
sections. Full details and safe load tables may be t^ æ9 ÊNr€ r€O Èrô O€ø{
?Y9$
NæÔ
t?q
ÓQæh
?qo9r
Figure 2.17 shows typical simple connections
obtained from BSC General Steels Grouo. Ë I ì iè hs hsNO I ? ? t,r.?
þ€h hhn Ðhhh rr€ hssr
¡|l
identifying the checks to be carried out on the Êæ oæo9 ó€Ê ôho oøçN iæa aoaN

various elements. ;*l x:S cbÉ

óó r€.óh
oóóó
+óó
óóO
ooo
ÓÓÓ
€rrr
NNNN
€hh
NNN
hst9
NNNN

O16 rhr NØææ OOO -óS-

$N €ÔNS +or çrÈo æsó ho$o
Ë t I I ¡s hô
vó hoÊo
ÊÊÊ Êôr -æs
æçh thhs hÊo roóN

ì51 -. oh
ÊN hr€ç
OórN
OOO
OOO
oô9
+rç
OOO
OAO
oho
*O€
OOOO
AOOO
ooeæ
rhói
OOO
OOO
æNh
OhN
OOOO
O€ST
Nørh
å F I T Eè r€ hsoó ÓNN NNÈ ÈÊÊÊ N -Oær

2.9 A column base plate subject to al

.Sls dN ÊTON óæs ÕÕN sa9€ oÈÊ ØoÔç
rÈ Nrêt É:+ +oòó ñad,ñ cöcöh *@obå
axial compressive load only Àil
ö- |
ÈË ó$ çshh +hh v$h sv+h NóË çssh

(Figure 2.19) 10
$s
l1
Êr€Ê Ø+€
09Y.1'f) +TT æræ
NÈh o€øÊ
+O€@ eos
øhT
Êvoa
N怀
U)
eÈl ÈS he sh9r h€Ë heÉ ó€aÉ +öÊ óh€É
1. Establish the factored axial compressive load, ù?t??v] ltì ?0909 .iffi lcJ$ 9999
ôÔ NNNN ÈF- hÐh hhhh f f f f rrr
F á $å=S rr €øæØ €@a rrr
@€@
9€€ -FrÈ
€a€ç
óoo
hnh
sslv
hhhh
2. Establish the design strength of the plate pr"
x.S o90909 v]v?v? l.JcJl lllì
þro is obtained from Table 2.1). It is unlikely À\
.;È ñ
NõI
d.d'òd. rrr €ç9 6hhh "?Y)vl
99€ NdNN
that the thickness of the Dlate will be less than
16 mm; therefore assumé an initial value for L
YC AN NTÓO
€rØ
€:ob
Ë9h
h:Ë
rooN
ó:ó€
s€r
åôct
Ê9óæ
ñôË+
Pr,:265 N/mm2' qF: OÓ ÓNNN NNÈ NNÉ NNÊÊ ÓNã NÊÊÊ

It is assumed that the base plate is supported Þ

*ìì h{ 9óÔN ÊTO çÓø ÐNVT çÊø ÊôN€
on a concrete base and the bearing strength of s_s Êo ør6h çss hsN tóNÊ ob+: óååo
the concrete is taken as 40o/o of the characteris- E
tic 28-day cube strength (i.e. 0'4l.,). \S: 9Ê
hh
ocô
N-
æhÊs
ñn+-
ôÕOO
€*a
oñ:
ôôÔ
oró
ob€h
€çú
øQro
h+óó
hhhh
hOæ
:É+
aaÕ
ÓÓO
ÊONç
oct\æÉ
ôNNN
NNNN
4. Calculate the area of base plate required: +S óÓÑÓ NNN NNN NNNN
L

F, s = ht €hóo ôro eoã Ôaho 999 ?9TcJ

. o: öcõóó oò+ d'ñó ñÈcäÉ órô rÊrN
Ap,"uo = ;-;"
u'+"/ cu
U)
_
--il
r-fll___:l___ljl_
^ù\ ù^ t
I
I
N-
âô
øó
N--ô
ôôôô
ôú+Ê
6Só
Øææ
€s9
QQh
rrr
16r
øæøf
€9ça
oNOh
óÈÕ

æÔÔ
È*OO

Oho-
Assuming the sides of the base plate are equal,
then:
Bp: Dp: (Ar*")'/t Figure 2.19 ¿ = the greater projection and å : the
N LtITT=frl
tl
-l
ol
gl
.:9
-s:õ9p
è ú!5 ø+
oo

+ÕNNNÉN
oohño
NNNN
a3sÈfi3R
XXXXXXX
ñôr
N
ôrs rhËN
*ÊÈ ors
N
sNÊo

ùl 'Èc!
|
lesser projection of the plate beyond the column
E- r^ al ù;s +SøN€OA
:ÊÕ@ú
ôaoora9€
Table 2.13 (cont.')

Designation Deprh Width Tltickness Root Depth Ratios for Second mo- Radius Elustic Plustic Buck- Tor- Wurp- Tor- Arru of a4

of radius bel- local buckling ment of aret of Ð,ration ntodultts modulus Iing sionul inç sit¡ttal set'Íittt
Serial Mass section section Web Flunge r weetl pûrl- indet con- cott- A
S¡ze perDBtT(mm) fillets Flange Web XX YY XX XX YY YY nleler .t sl(nl slunl (on:) {
(mtn) metre (mm) (tnn) (tnm) (tnn) d b/T d/t axß axß axts ûxts axß ¿l-rô ar¡ ø,vs LI HJ
(ks) ltntn) (cmr) (cmt) (cm) (ctn) (cm3) ¡on3¡ lcnr'¡ ¡cnrtl (tlnt") (trttt )

533x210 122 544.6 211-9 12.8 2t.3 12.7 416 5 4.97 37 2 76200 3390 221 4.6'7 2800 320 3200 501 0.876 276 2.32 ¡10 l5(r I
109 539.5 210.7 1t.6 18.8 12.7 476 5 5.60 4t.l 66700 2940 21.9 4'60 2470 279 2820 435 0'875 30.9 1.99 t26 139
101 536.7 210.t 10.9 t7.4 12.7 476.5 6.04 43.7 6t700 2690 21.8 4'56 2300 257 2620 400 0.874 33.1 1.82 102 tzt)
92 533.1 209'3 10.2 15.6 12'7 476.5 6.71 46.7 55400 2390 21'7 4.51 2080 229 2370 356 0.872 36.4 r.60 76.2 l l8
82 528'3 208'7 9.6 13.2 12.7 476.5 7.9r 49'6 47 500 2010 21'3 4.38 1 800 192 2060 300 0.865 41.6 1.33 51.3 r04
457xt91 98 46'7.4 192.8 r1.4 19.6 10.2 407.9 4'92 35.8 45700 2340 19.r 4.33 1 960 243 2230 378 0.88 25.8 l t7 tzl 125
89 463.6 192-0 r0.ó 17.7 r0.2 407.9 5 42 38.5 41000 2090 r9.0 4'28 1770 217 2010 338 0.879 28.3 1.04 90.5 t4
82 460.2 191.3 99 16.0 10 2 407.9 5.98 41 2 37100 1870 i8.8 4.23 1610 196 I 830 304 0.877 30.9 0.923 69.2 I05
457 2 190'5 9.1 14.5 102 407.9 6.57 44'8 33400 1670 t8'7 4.r9 1460 r75 1 660 272 0.876 33.9 0.819 52 0 95.0
67 453'6 189.9 8.5 12.'7 10.2 407.9 7.48 48.0 29400 1450 r8.s 4-r2 1300 153 1410 237 0.873 3'7 9 0.706 37.1 85.4

45'1x152 82 465.1 153.5 t07 18 9 02 407.0 406 38.0 36200 1 r40 18.6 3.31 I 560 149 I 800 235 0.812 21.3 0.569 u93 104
't4 461.3 152.7 9.9 1'7.0 02 407.0 4.49 41.1 32400 1010 18.5 326 1 410 133 r 620 209 0.87 30.0 0.499 66.6 95.0
67 457'2 15 1.9 9.1 r5.0 0.2 407.0 5.06 44'1 28600 878 18.3 32t 1250 l 16 440 182 r 0.867 33.6 0.42() 47.5 ¡J5.4
60 454'7 152.9 8.0 13.3 0.2 407.7 5.75 51.0 25500 794 18.3 3.23 1 120 104 I 280 163 0.869 37.5 0.387 33.6 159
52 449.8 152-4 7.6 10.9 0.2 407.7 6.99 53.6 21300 645 t7.9 3.1 I 949 84.6 l 090 i33 0.859 43.9 0.31 | 2t.3 (ú.5
406x 178 14 412.8 t79.7 9"7 16.0 0'2 360.5 5.62 37'2 27 300 I 540 17.0 4.03 I 320 t72 I 50rl 267 0.881 27.6 0.6()8 63.0 9.5.0
67 409.4 178.8 8.8 t4'3 0.2 360.5 6.25 41.0 24300 l 360 16.9 4.00 l 190 153 I 350 237 0.88 305 0.533 46.0 tì5.5
60 406'4 t'17.8 7.8 12'8 0.2 360.5 6.95 46'2 21 500 l 200 16.8 3 97 l 060 135 l 190 208 0.8rì 339 0.464 329 76.0
54 402.6 1.77 6 7.6 t0.9 0.2 360.5 8'15 47 4 l8 600 r 020 16.5 3.85 925 114 I 050 t7'7 0'872 3tì.5 0.39 22.7 6tì.4

406x140 46 402.3 142.4 6'9 I)..2 0.2 359.'t 6'36 52.1 15 600 539 16-3 3.02 778 75.1 8U8 I l[ì 0.87 3[ì.8 0.206 t9.2 59.0
39 397.3 141.8 6'3 8.6 0'2 359.'Ì 8.24 57.1 12 500 411 15.9 2.89 627 58.0 121 9r.l 0..959 41.4 0.1-55 10.6 49.4

356x111 67 364 0 173.2 9.1 15.'7 r0.2 3t2.3 t.i ¿ 34.3 19500 l 360 15.1 3 99 l 070 t57 1210 243 0.887 24.4 0.413 55.5 tì5.4
57 358.6 r72.1 8.0 13.0 10.2 312-3 662 39'0 16100 I 110 t4 9 3.92 896 r29 I 0r0 199 0.884 28.9 0.-13r 33.l 12.2
51 355.6 171.5 7.3 11.5 10.2 312.3 146 42.8 14200 968 14.8 3.87 196 n3 tì95 t74 0.882 32.2 0.2tì6 23.6 64.6
45 352.0 171.0 69 9.1 10.2 312.3 8.81 45.3 t2 100 812 14.6 3.78 687 95 0 714 147 0.87-5 3(r.9 0.238 t-s.7 57.0
356x127 39 352.8 126'0 6.5 1.0.'t 10.2 3rr'2 5.89 41.9 l0 100 357 14.3 2 69 572 56.6 654 88.7 0.872 35.3 0.104 14.9 49.4
33 348.5 125-4 5.9 8.5 10.2 311.2 7.38 52.1 8 200 280 r4.0 2.59 411 44.7 -540 70.2 0.864 42.2 0.08t ti.6tì 41.8

305x 165 54 310.9 7.7 13.7 8.9 265.7 6.09 34'5 11700 l 060 l3.t 3 94 153 t27 84-5 195 0.89 23.7 0.234 34.5 61.ì.4
46 307.1 t65.'l 6.7 11.8 8.9 265.7 7.02 397 9 950 897 13.0 3.90 648 108 723 l(16 0.89 21.2 0.196 22.3 58.9
40 303.8 165.1 ô.1 t0.2 8.9 265.7 8.09 436 8 520 763 12.9 3.85 561 92.4 624 141 0.888 3 I . I 0. 164 t,+.7 5t.5
305x121 48 310.4 r25.2 8.9 r4.0 8.9 264.6 4.47 297 9 500 460 125 2.75 612 73.5 706 I l(r 0.874 23.3 0.101 3t.4 60.rÌ
42 306.6 124.3 8.0 t2.1 8.9 264.6 5.14 33.1 8 140 388 12.4 2-70 531 62.5 (rl0 98.2 0.872 2(r.5 0.0842 21.0 53.2
37 303.8 123.5 7.2 10.7 8.9 264.6 5"77 36.7 7 160 337 t2-3 2.6'1 412 54 6 540 r,ì5.7 0.871 29.6 0.\t724 14.9 47.5

305x 102 33 312.7 102 4 o.o 10.8 '7 6 275.9 4.'74 41.8 6490 193 t2.5 2.15 415 37.8 4tì0 -s9.u 0.8u6 3l .7 0.0041 Il. I ,+l.tì
28 308.9 101.9 6.1 8.9 '7.6 2'15'9 5.72 45.2 5420 157 112 2 2.08 351 30 8 407 48.9 0.8-s8 37.0 0.0353 7.ó3 .-tó.3
25 304.8 101.6 5.8 6.8 7.6 275 9 7.47 47.6 4390 120 11.8 1.96 288 23.6 338 38.0 0.844 43.8 0.02ó6 4.ó5 | .4 .1

Table 2.13 (cont.)

Designation DepthWiclth Tltitkness Root Depth Ratios for Second mo- Radius Elustic Plustic Btttk- Tin - Wtrp- 'litr- Arat oJ
.f bet- Iocal buckling
ratlius metú of arca of gvration tnodulus tttotlultts ling sionul irtg ,siotutl sct tit¡tt
Serial Mßs seclioÌt section Web Flunge r ween intlts tltn- (ott- A
sizeperDBl T (tntn) fillets Flange Web XX YY XX YY XX YY XX YY nrcl(r r stutt st(ut! (un: )
(rnn) tnerre (tntn) þnrn) (tnm) ltntn ) d blr ,tlt rrr ¿rro ¿.tro ¿ru arÀ a.us ø.tu a.tls u HJ
(ks) (tntn) (cmt) (ctrtl) (on) (cnt) (cnf) ¡ctttr) (cnf) ftnt'¡ (dtn") (unJ)

254x146 43 259'6 14'7.37.3 12-1 7.6 218.9 5.80 30.0 6560 677 101) l
3.-s 505 92.0 5ótì l4l 0.titig 21.1 0. 103 2+. I 5.5.1
37 256.0 146-4 6.4 r0.9 't 6 218.9 6-tZ 34.2 5 560 571 10.8 3.11 434 78. I 4r,ì5 r20 0.8u9 2.+..3 0.01i5u 15.5 ,17 5
31 251.5 146-t 6.1 8.ó 7.6 218.9 8.49 35 9 4440 449 10.5 3 35 353 61 5 396 9,r.5 0.879 29.4 0.0(ú2 s.7-1 .10 0

254x102 28 260-4 102-t 6.4 10.0 '7.6 225 r 5.10 35 2 .1010 178 10.5 2 22 308 3,1.9 353 0.873
5.+.rì 27 -s 0.0279 9.6-l ..ì6.1
25 257.0 101.9 6.1 8.4 7.6 225 r 6.0'7 36.9 3410 148 10.3 2 t4 2ó5 29.0 306 0.864
4-5.tiì 31.4 0.0228 6.-15 .ì1 2
22 254.0 101.6 5.8 6.8 7.6 225.1 7.47 -18.8 2870 120 10.0 2.05 226 23.6 262 37.5 0.854 -3-5.9 0.0 I ¡ì3 4.3| lli.-l
203x 133 30 206.8 133.8 6.3 9.6 7.6 172.3 6.97 27.3 2890 384 8'12 3 18 279 57.4 3l3 88.1 0.tÌ82 2t.-5 0.0.173 10 2 3ti.0
25 203.2 133.4 5.8 7.8 76 172.3 8.55 29-1 2360 310 8.54 3.r0 232 46 4 260 71 4 0r,ì76 25.4 0 019-5 6.l] 3]..1

z03xl02 23 203.2 101.6 5.2 9.3 76 t69-4 5.46 32.6 2090 t63 849 237 20(r 32.1 232 49.5 0.89 22.6 0.0153 (r'ti7 29.0
l7tìx 102 19 177.8 101.6 4-7 1-9 /.o l4ó.8 6.43 3r.2 1 360 138 7.19 2.39 l)-i 21 2 tll 41.9 0.889 22.ó 0.0099tÌ 4 37 21.2
r52x89 16 152.4 88.9 4.6 7.7 7.6 12r.8 5.7'7 26 5 838 90.4 6.40 2.1t) 110 ztJ.3 tz4 3l .4 0.8rì9 r 9.5 0.00,+73 -3.6 1 10.5
127x76 13 127.0 16.2 4.2 7.6 76 96.6 5.01 23.0 477 56.2 5.33 1.ri3 75. I t4 l ti5 22.7 0.893 t6.2 0.(x)2 2.91 16.8

aa

{
50 Structuralsteelwork Section properties 5i

Table 2.14 Section properties of Universal Colurnns to BS4: Part I

Designation Depth Width Thickness Root Depth Ratios for Second mo- Radius Elastic Plastic Buck- Tor- Warp- Tor- Area of
of tf radius bet- local buckling ment of area of gyration modulus modulus sional ing sional seclion
Serial Mass section section Web Flange r ween para- index con- con- A
slze per DBtT(mm) fillets Flange Web XX vv XX YY XX YY XX YY meter stant stant (r^')
(mm) melre (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) d blr dlt 4XtS axts axis axis axis axß axis axß u H l
(ke) lmm) (cm') (cmo ) (cm) (cm) (c^t) (c^t) (r*t) (cmt) (dmo) lcm )
356x406 634 474.7 424.1 -47.6 77.0 15.2 290.2 2.75 6.10 275 00 98 200 18.5 11.0 11 600 4630 14200 7110 0'843 5.46 38.8 13 700 808
551 455.7 418.5 42.0 67.5 15.2 290.2 3.10 6.91 227000 82700 18.0 10.9 9 960 3950 12100 6060 0.841 6'05 31'1 9240 702
467 436.6 412-4 35.9 58.0 15.2 290.2 3.56 8-08 183 000 67 900 t7.5 10.7 8 390 3290 10 000 5040 0.839 6.86 24.3 5 820 59s
393 491.1 407-0 30.6 49.2 15.2 290.2 4-14 9.48 i47000 55 400 17.r 10.5 700 2720 8230 4160 0.837 7.86 19'0 3 550 501
340 406.4 403.0 26.5 42.9 15.2 290.2 4.70 1.0 122000
1 46 800 16.8 r0.4 6 030 2320 6 990 3540 0.836 8.85 15.5 2340 4JJ
287 393.7 399.0 22.6 36.5 15-2 290.2 5.41 12.8 100000 38 700 i6'5 10.3 5 080 1940 5820 2950 0.835 r0.2 r2.3 1440 366
235 381.0 395.0 18.5 30.2 15.2 290.2 6.s4 15.7 79 100 31 000 16-2 10.2 4 150 1570 4690 2380 0.834 tz.r 9.54 812 300
COLCORE 477 427.0 424.4 48.0 53.2 15.2 290.2 3.99 6.05 t72000 ó8 100 16.8 10.6 8 080 3210 9700 4980 0'815 6.91 23.8 5 700 607
356 x 368 202 374.7 374-4 16.8 27.0 r5.2 290.2 6.93 17.3 66 300 23600 16.0 9.51 3 540 1260 3 980 1920 0.844 t3.3 7.r4 560 258
177 368.3 372.1 14.5 23.8 15.2 290.2 7'82 20.0 51200 20 500 15.9 9.52 3 100 I 100 3 460 t670 0.844 1s.0 6-07 383 226
153 362.0 370.2 t2.6 20.7 15.2 290.2 8.94 23.0 48 500 17 500 15'8 9.46 2680 944 2960 1430 0'844 t7.0 5.09 25r 195
129 355.6 368.3 r0.7 17.s 15.2 290.2 rO.s 27.1 40200 14 600 is'6 9.39 2260 790 2480 1200 0.843 t9.9 4.16 153 165

305 x 305 283 365.3 321.8 26.9 44.1 15.2 246.6 3.65 9.17 78800 24500 14.8 8.25 43t0 1530 5 100 2340 0.855 7.65 6.33 2 030 360
240 352.6 317.9 23.0 37.7 r5.2 246.6 4.22 10.7 64200 20200 t4.5 8.14 3 640 1270 4250 1950 0.854 8.73 5.01 t270 306
198 339.9 314.r r9.2 3t.4 15.2 246.6 5.00 12.8 50 800 16200 14.2 8.02 2990 i030 3 440 1580 0'854 10.2 3.86 734 252
158 327.2 310.6 t5.7 25.0 15-2 246.6 6.21 15.1 38 700 12 500 t3-9 7-89 2370 806 2680 1230 0.852 12.5 2.86 379 201
137 320.s 308.7 13.8 21.7 15.2 246.6 7.11 17.9 32800 10 700 13.7 7-82 2050 69r 2300 1050 0.85 I r4.r 2-38 250 115
118 314.5 306.8 11 .9 L8.7 15.2 246.6 8.20 20-7 27 600 9 010 13.6 7.'75 t760 587 1 950 892 0'85 r 16'2 1.97 160 150
97 307.8 304.8 9.9 15.4 15.2 246.6 9.90 24.9 22200 7 270 13.4 7.68 1 440 477 l 590 723 0.85 t9.3 1'55 9i 150 .1

254x254 167 289-1 264.5 19.2 3r.7 12.7 200.3 4.t7 10.4 29900 9 800 I 1.9 6.19 2070 74r 2420 r 130 0.852 8.49 1.62 625 t23
r32 276.4 261.0 i5.6 25.3 12.7 200.3 5.16 2.8 22600 7 520 11.6 6.67 1630 516 I 870 879 0.85 10.3 1.18 322 t69
r07 266.7 258.3 13.0 20.5 r2-7 200.3 6.30 15.4 17 500 5 900 11.3 6.57 1310 457 r 490 695 0.848 12.4 0.894 r73 137
89 260.4 255.9 10.5 17.3 r2.'7 200.3 7.40 19-1 14 300 4 850 tr'2 6.52 I 100 379 t230 575 0.849 14.4 0.716 104 114
t) 254.0 254.0 8.6 14.2 t2.7 200.3 8.94 23.3 11400 3870 1l'1 6.46 894 305 989 462 0-849 1'7.3 0.557 57.3 92.9
203x203 86 222.3 208.8 13.0 20.5 r0.2 160.9 5.09 12.4 9 460 3 r20 9.27 5.32 851 299 979 456 0.85 10.2 0.311 138 110
71 215.9 206.2 10.3 17.3 r0.2 160.9 5.96 15.6 7 6s0 2540 9-16 5-28 708 246 802 3'74 0.852 11.9 0.25 81.5 91.1
60 209.6 205.2 9.3 14.2 r0.2 160.9 t.¿J tt.5 6 090 2040 8.96 5.19 581 199 652 303 0.841 14't 0.195 46.6 75.8
52 206.2 203.9 8.0 12.s t0-2 160'9 8.16 20.1 5260 1770 8.90 s.16 510 174 568 264 0.848 15-8 0.166 32.0 66.4
46 203.2 203.2 7.3 11.0 r0.2 160.9 9.24 22.0 4560 1 540 8.81 5.11 449 151 491 230 0.846 l7'1 0.142 22.2 58.8
152x152 37 161 .8 154.4 8.1 1 1 .5 7.6 123.5 6.71 15.2 2220 709 6.84 3.87 274 91'8 3i0 t40 0.848 13.3 0.04 19.5 47.4
30 157.5 152.9 6.6 9.4 7.6 123.5 8.13 18.7 r740 558 6-75 3.82 221 73.1 aÁa 111 0.848 1ó.0 0.0306 10.5 38.2
23 152-4 152.4 6.1 6.8 7.6 123.5 1r.2 20.2 r260 403 6.51 3.68 r66 52.9 184 80.9 0'837 20.4 0.02t4 4.87 29.8
 Table 2.15 Section properties ofjoists to BS4: part I Sectiort ¡tropcrtie.s

Designation Depth Width Thickness Ror¡t Toe Depth Ratios for Second mo- Radius Ektstic Plastic Buck- Tor- Warp- Tor- Area of
of of radius radius bet- Iocal buckling ment of area of gyration modLtlus modulus ling sional ittg .sionul .teclion
Serial lWASS seclion sectiotl Web Flange rl rz para- inde¡ cotl- con- A
size per DB I T (mm) (mm) fillets Flange Web XX XX YY XX YY XX meler x slanl statll (cm2 )
(mm) melre
(l¿ol
(mm) (mm) (ntm) (mm) d blr dft A.XIS uxis axis axis axß axts axß ú.X ß II HJ
(mm) (cmt ) (cm') (cm) (cm) (c^3 ) (c^') (cm') (r*') (dm") (cnt')
254x203 81.85 254'0 203.2 -10.2 19.9 19.6 9.7 166.7 5 11 16.3 12000 2280 t0-7 4.67 946 224 1080 370 0.89 11'0 0.312 153 104
254x114 31.20 254.0 n4.3 1.6 12'8 12.4 6.1 199.2 4.46 26-2 s 090 210 10.4 2.39 40r 47.2 460 79.3 0.885 18.6 0'0393 2s.s 47.4
203x152 52'09 203.2 152.4 tì'9 16-5 15.5 7.6 133.3 4.62 15.0 4'790 813 8.49 3.50 471 107 540 t76 0.891 t0.7 0.0709 64.9 66.4
752x127 37-20 t52.4 127-0 10-4 13.2 13.5 6-6 94-4 4.81 9.08 r 820 379 6.19 2.82 239 59.6 279 99.8 0.866 9-29 0 0183 34.2 47.5
127x114 29.76 127.0 114.3 yJ.z 11.5 9.9 4-8 79-4 4.9'7 1.78 979 242 5.12 2-55 154 42-3 181 70.8 0.853 8-74 0 00807 20.9 37-2
26-79 127.0 114'3 7.4 n.4 9-9 5.0 79.s 5.01 r0.7 945 235 5.26 2-63 149 41.2 172 68.1 0.869 9.i0 0.00787 16.9 34-I
72'7 x76 16.31 127.0 5.6 9.4 8ó.6 15.5 569 0.00209 6.69
76.2 9.6 4.6 3.91 60's 5-21 r.'70 89-7 15.9 104 26.3 0.891 I 1.8 21.0
i 14x 114 26.19 114.3 114'3 9.-5 t0.7 t4.2 3.2 60.9 5.34 6.4t 735 223 4.62 2.5s r29 39.1 151 65.6 0 841 7.90 0.00-599 19.0 34.4
702x102 23.07 101.6 101.6 9.5 lu.3 I 1.1 3.2 55.2 4.93 5.81 486 i54 4.07 2.29 95.7 30.4 113 50.7 0'836 7-39 0.00321 14.4 29.4
102x44 7.44' 101.6 44.5 4.3 (r-1 6.9 3.3 74.7 3.65 11.4 153 '7.'74
4.01 0.904 30.0 3.48 35.3 5.99 0'871 14.9 0.000177 t.25 9'48
89x89 19.35 88 9 88.9 9'5 9-9 I 1.1 3-2 44.2 4.49 4.65 301 101 3.51 2-02 69.0 22.8 82.8 38'0 0.83 6.54 0.00158 11.ó 24.9
16x76 14.6'7" 76 2 80.0 8-9 fr.4 9.4 4.6 38.1 4.76 4.28 1t2 60.8 3.00 1.78 45.1 15.2 54.2 25-7 0.82 6.42 0.000699 6.83 19.1
12-65 7(¡ 2 76-2 5' i 8.4 9.4 4.(t 38 0 4.54 '7.45 1-58 52.0 3.12 1.79 41-6 t3.7 48.8 22.5 0.852 7.16 0.000597 4-67 16.3

',Thesc scctions arc ()nly rollcd to speci[¡c ordcr

Table 2.16 Section properties of universal bearing piles to BS4: part I

Designation Depth Width Thickness Root Depth Ratios for Second mo- Radius Elastic Plastic Bttck- Tor- Warp- Tor- Area of
of of radius bet- Iocal buckling ment of area of gyration modulus modulus lirtg sionul irtg sional scc[ion
Serial Mass sec¡ion section Web Flange r ween p(r0- index con- cotl- A
size per DBtT(mm) fillets Flange Web XX YY XX YY XX XX rnelcr ,t slant slut'tt (cm2 )
lmm) metre (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) d blr d/t axis axis tuxis axis axis axis r¿-tis ¿-r¡s II HJ
(ks) (mm) (cm') (cm ) (cm) (cm) (r*') (c^') (cm') (oni) (dmó) (ottr)
356 x 368 174 361.s 378.1 -20.4 20.4 15.2
290.2 9.27 14.2 s1 100 18 400 I5-2 9 11 2830 976 3 190 1 500 0.82 l 15.7 334
-5'3(r 222
152 356.4 375.s 17.9 17.9 15-2
290.2 10.5 16.2 43 900 15 800 15r 9'03 2460 841 2760 r290 0 821 17.8 224
4'-53 194
i53 351'9 373.3 15.6 15.6 15.2
290.2 12.0 18.6 37 800 13 600 r5.0 8.96 2i-50 127 2400 l1 10 0.822 202 r-sl
3.84 169
109 346.4 370.5 r2.9 12.9 15.2
290.2 14.4 22.5 30 500 10 900 14.8 8.87 1760 588 19-50 89'7 0.823 24.? 3.03
tì4.3 138

305 x 305 223 338.0 325.4 30.5 30.5 t5.2

246.6 5.33 8.09 s2 800 17 600 13.6 7'85 3130 1080 3660 r680 0.826 9..51 4.15 9s3 285
186 328.3 320.5 25.6 25.6 r5-2
246.6 6.26 9.63 42600 14 100 r3l4 7 .7 | 2600 880 3010 r 370 0-827 l r.l 3.23 -5(r4 237
149 318's 315.6 20.7 20.7 15.2
246.6 7.62 11.9 33 000 10 900 13-2 7-56 2080 689 2370 r060 0.828 13 -s 2.41 291 190
126 312.6 312.7 17.8 17.8 15.2
246.6 8.78 13.9 27700 9 070 13.1 7.4'7 n10 -580 20 10 893 0 829 5'5 t-97 188
r 162
110 307.9 310.3 15.4 15.4 15.2
246.6 10.1 16.0 23600 7 690 13.0 7-40 1530 496 t720 161 0.83 17-7 1.64 123 140
95 303.8 308.3 1.3.4 13.4 r5-2
246.6 11.5 18.4 20 100 6 s30 t2.9 7.33 1320 424 1480 649 0.831 20.t I .38 8l .0 t2l
88 301.7 307.2 12.3 12.3 t5-2
246.6 12.s 20.0 i8 400 5 960 r2-8 7-30 1220 388 r360 s94 0.831 21.7 t.25 (r3.9 112
79 299.2 306.0 11 .1 .1
1 1 15.2
246.6 i3.8 22.2 16 400 5290 12.8 7-26 1t00 346 1220 s29 0.832 238 1 l0 47.0 100.0
254x254 85 254.3 259.7 14-3 14.3 r2.7 200.3 9.08 14.0 12300 41,90 10.7 6.22 965 323 1090 496 0'826 15'6 0'm3 81.6 108
71 249.9 257.s 12-1 12.1 12.7 200.3 10.6 16.6 10200 3 450 10.6 6.15 813 268 911 411 0'827 18.2 0.488 49-7 91.1
63 246.9 256.0 10.6 10.6 12.7 200.3 12.1 18.9 8970 2970 10'5 6'1 I 7r1 232 793 35s 0-827 20.5 0.415 33.8 79.1
203x203 54 203.9 207.2 11.3 11.3 r0.2 160.9 9.17 14.2 4990 1 680 8.54 4.96 489 162 -s53 250 0.827 1-s.9 0.156 32.3 68.4
45 200.2 205.4 9.5 9.5 10.2 160.9 10.8 16.9 4 080 1370 8.46 4.90 408 133 457 204 0.828 18.7 0.124 19.0 -57.0
 r-i

54 Structuralsteelwork Section properties 55

Table2.l7 Section properties of channels to BS4: part I

Designation Depth Width Thickness Root Toe Depth Ratios for Second mo-
Radius Elastic Plastic Buck- Tor- Warp- Tor- Area of
of of radius radius bet- local buckling ment of area
of gyration modulus modulus sional ing sional section
Serial Mass sectrcn section Web Flange rI r2 ween p4ra- index con- con- A
l,
stze per D BtT(mm) (mm) fillets Flange Web XX YY XX YY XX XX YY mercr STANI stanl (cmt )
{ (mm) metre (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) d b/T d/t axis axis
axis axis axis axß axis axis u H J
(ks) (mm) (cm') (cm')
(cm) (c^) (r*t) (r*t) (r^t) (c-t ) (d-o) (cm" )

432x102 65.54 431.8 101 .6 -r2.2 16.8 r5.2 4.8 362.4 ó.05 29.7 21 400 629
16.0 2.14 991 80'1 t210 153 0-876 24.6 0.2r'7 61.0 83.5
381x102 55.10 381.0 101.6 10.4 16.3 r5.2 4.8 312.4 6.23 30.0 14900 580
14-6 2.87 782 75.9 933 144 0.89s 22.7 0'153 46-0 70.2
305x102 46.i8 304.8 101.6 10-2 14.8 t5-2 4.8 239.2 6.86 23.5 8 210 499
11.8 2.91 539 66-6 638 128 0.9 18'9 0.0842 35.4 58.8
305x89 41.69 304'8 88.9 10.2 r3.7 r3.7 3.2 245.4 6.49 24.1 7060 325
11.5 2.48 463 48.5 557 92.6 0.887 20.4 0.0s5t 27.6 53.1
254x89 35.74 254.0 88.9 9.i 13.6 r3.7 3.2 194.7 6.54 21.4 4450 302
9.88 2.58 350 46.7 4r4 89'6 0.906 17.r 0.034'7 22.9 45.5
254x'76 28.29 254-0 76.2 8.1 10'9 t2.2 3-2 203.8 6.99 25.2 3310 t63 9.61 2.12 265 28-2 317 54.1 0.886 2r.2 0.0194 r2.3 36.0
229x89 32.76 228.6 88.9 8.6 13-3 t3-7 3.2 169.8 6.ó8 19-7 3 390 285
9.01 2.6r 296 44.8 348 86.4 0-912 15.5 0.0263 20.4 4r.'t
229x76 26.06 228.6 76.2 7.6 11.2 t2.2 3-2 178.0 6.80 23.4 2610 159
8.87 2.19 228 28.2 2'10 54.2 0.9 18.8 0.0151 1t.4 33.2
203 x 89 29.78 203.2 88.9 8.1 12.9 t3.7 3.2 145-2 6.89 17.9 2490 264
8.10 2.64 245 J2'3 287 81.6 0'915 14.l 0.0192 17.8 37.9
203x76 23.82 203.2 76.2 7.1 1r.2 12.2 3.2 r52.5 6.80 21-5 1 9s0 151
8.02 2.23 192 21.6 225 53.3 0'911 t6.7 0.0112 t0.4 30.3
178x89 26.81 t77.8 88.9 7.6 12.3 t37 3.2 121.0 '7.23 l5'9 1750 241
7-16 2.66 197 39.3 230 75.4 0.915 12.7 0'0134 15.1 .34.2
178x76 20.84 117.8 76.2 6.6 10.3 12.2 3.2 128.8 7.40 19.5 l 340 t34
7.r0 2.25 150 115 48.1 0.911 15.5 0.00764 8.13 26.5
152x89 23.84 152.4 88.9 7.1 1 1.6 t3.7 3.2 9'7.0 1.66 13.7 r 1,10 215
6.20 2.66 153 35.7 178 68.1 0.909 11'3 0.00881 12.4 30.4
152x76 17.88 152.4 76.2 6.4 9.0 12.2 2.4 105.9 8.4'7 16.5 852 114
6.11 2.24 It2 2t.0 130 4t.3 0-902 t4.5 0.00486 s.94 22.8
x64 14'90
127 127.0 ó3.5 6.4 9.2 t0.7 2.4 84.0 6.90 i3.1 483 61.2
5.04 1.88 76.0 15.3 89.4 29.3 0'91 tI.l 0-00181 4.92 19.0
102x5110.42 101.6 50.8 6.1 1.6 9'1 2-4 6s.7 6 68 10.8 208 29.1
3.96 1.48 40-9 8.160 48.8 15-7 0.9 10.8 0.000s13 2.55 13.3
76x38 6.70 76.2 38.1 5.1 6'8 7-6 2.4 45.8 s.60 8.98 74.1 10.7
2.95 t.12 19.5 4.070 ZJ. + l.16 0.908 9.170 0.000101 1.23 8.53

Table 2.18 Section properties of equal angles to BS 4848: Part 4

Desigttation Moss RadiLts Area Distance of Second rnornen! of area Radius of gyration Elastic
per cenlre of tnodulus
Size Thick- tìIelre Root Toe secÍion grav¡ry XX, YY UU VV XX, YY UU VV XX, YY
AA [¿sJ (ke) rl 12 (cni1 C, anrt C,. n-rn uxis axß 4Jrs aJ6 ¿t-ru aris
(mtn) I (tnrn) (tnrn) (un) (crttr) (cnu) (crna) (ctn) (ctn) (cm) (ctnt)

250x250 35 128 20-0 4.8 150 7.49 92s0 14 600 3860 7-53 9.47 4.86 529
J¿ 118 20.0 4.8 150 7.38 8600 13 600 3560 7.s7 9.53 4.87 488
28 104 20.0 4.8 133 7.23 7690 12200 3170 7.6t 9.59 4.89 433
25 93.6 20.0 4.8 119 7.12 6970 11 100 2860 7-65 9.64 4.9 390
200x200 24 7t.1 18.0 4.8 90.6 5.84 3330 5 280 1380 6.06 7.64 3.9 235
20 59.9 18.0 4.8 76-3 5.68 2850 4 530 1170 6.11 7.'t 3.92 r99
18 54.2 18.0 4.8 69-t 5.6 2600 4 130 1070 6.13 7.13 3.93 181
16 48.5 18'0 4.8 6i.8 5.52 2340 3720 960 6-16 7.76 3-94 t62
 fY
il I
ll
ll

56 Structuralsteelwork

Table2.l8 (cont.)
Table 2.19 Section properties of unequal angles to BS 4848: Part 4
Designation Area Distance of Secontl moment of area Ratlius of gyration Elilstic r2
per centre of tnodulus
Size
AA
Thick-
ness
metre Root Toe
rl 12
sect¡on gravity XX,W UU VV XX, YY UU w XX, YY
(kS) (cmz ) C, and C,. axis axis axis axis axis ¿-rr axis
(mm) I (mm) (mm) (cm) (cmu) (ctnt) (cmt ) (cm) (cm) (on) (oni ¡

150x150 18 40.1 16.0 4-8 51.0 4.37 1050 1 660 435 4.54 5.7r 2.92 98.7
15 33.8 i6.0 4.8 43.0 4.25 898 1 430 370 4.57 5.16 2.93 83.5
12 27.3 16.0 4.8 34.8 4.12 737 4-6 5.8
10 23.0 16.0 4.8 29.3 4.03 624
1 170
991
303
258 4-62 s.82
2.95
2.97
67.7
56.9
tv
120x120 15 26.6 i3.0 4.8 33.9 3.51 445 70s 185 3.62 4.56 2.33 52.4
T2 21.6 13.0 4.8 27.5 3.4 368 584 152 3.6s 4-6 2.35 Designation Mass Radius Areû Distance Second moment of area Radius of gyration Elastic Angle
10 18.2 13.0 4.8 ¿J'Z J'lJ 313 497 129 3.67 4.63 2.36 36.0 per cerure oi tnodulus XX
I 14-7 13.0 4.8 18.7 3.23 255 405 105 3.69 4.65 2.37 29.1 Size Thick metre Root Toe sectio,l gravity XX YY UU VV XX YY UU VV axis
100x100 15 21-9 12.0 4.8 27.9 3.02 249 393 104 Z.g8 3.15 1.93 35.6 AB ne.rs rl 12 ax¡s axis axis axis axis axis axis axis XX YY to UU
12 17.8 12.0 4.8 22.7 2-9 207 328 85.7 3.02 3'8 I CX CY axis a-ris axis
r.94 29.r (tnrn) (mrn) (kÐ (mm) (nm) (cm2) -
(cn) -
(cm) (cmu) (cmu¡ (cmu¡ (cmr) (cn) (cm) (ctn) (cm) (cmi) (crn3) (tan)
8 12.2 12.0 4.8 15.5 2.74 145 230 59.9 3.06 3.85 r.96 19.9
15.9 1.0 -200x 150 18 -174
90x90 12 i 4.8 20.3 2.66 148 234 61.7 2.7 3.4 r.74 23-3 47.1 15.0 4.8 60.0 6 33 3.85 2380 1 150 2900 618 6.29 4.37 6.96 3 21. r03 0.548
10 13.4 11.0 4.8 17-1 2.58 127 201 s2.6 2.72 3.43 1.75 19.8 15 39.6 15.0 4.8 50.5 6.21 3.73 2020 919 2480 526 6.33 4.4 7.0 3 23 147 86.9 0.551
8 10.9 11.0 4.8 13.9 2.5 104 166 43.1 2.74 3.45 1.76 l6'1
12 32.0 15.0 4.8 40.8 6.08 3.61 1650 803 2030 430 6.36 444 7-04 3.25 ll9 70.5 0.552
7 9.61 11.0 4.8 72.2 2.45 92.5 147 38.3 2.75 3-46 I.77 14.l 200x 100 15 337 15.0 4.8 43.0 7 16 2.22 t760 299 l 860 6.4 194
2.64 6.58 2.12 t37 38.4 0-26
o 8.3 11.0 4.8 10.6 2.41 80.3 127 33.3 2.16 3.47 1.78 12.2 1.2 21 3 15.0 4.8 34.8 7.03 2.1 1440 241 1530 6.43 159
2.67 6.63 2.14 111 31.3 0'262
80x80 10 230 15.0 4.8 29.2 6 93 2-?1 1220 210 1290 135
6.46 2.68 6-65 2.15 932 26.3 0-263
10 1,1.9 10.0 4.8 15'1 2.34 87.5 139 36.4 2.41 3.03 1'55 15.4
8 9.63 10.0 4.8 \L.J L.ZO 72.2 115 29.9 2.43 3.06 1.56 12.6 150x90 15 26.6 t2.0 4.8 33 9 5.21 761 205 841 126
4.74 2.46 4.98 1.93 77.7 30.4 0.354
6 r0.0
7.34 4.8 9.35 2.17 5s.8 88.5 23.1 2.44 3.08 1.57 9.57
2 21.6 12.0 4.8 27-5 5'08 2.12 627 171 694 104
4 17 2.49 5.02 r.94 63.3 24.8 0.358
10 182 12.0 4.8 23'2 5.0 2-04 533 t46 591 88.3 4.8 2 51, 5.05' 1.95 s3.3 21.0 0.36
70x70 10 10.3 9.0 2.4 13.1 2.09 57.2 90.5 24.0 2.09 2-63 1.35 l1-7 15 11.0
*31
6 713 t20 754 78.8 4'75 1.94 4.88 1.58 75 3 21.0 0.254
a 8.36 9'0 2.4 10.6 2.01 47-5 75.3 19.7 2.11 2.66 1.36 9.52
150x75
12
24.8
20.1 I r.0
4.8
4.8 25.7 5.4r
5.53 181
169 589 99-9 624 64.9 4.79 r.97 . 4.93 1.59 61 4 17.2 0.259
o 6.38 9.0 2.4 8.13 1 .93 36.9 58.s 15.3 2.13 2-68 1.37 7.27 10 17'0 I r'0 4.8 21.6 5.32 1.61 501 85.8 532 55.3 4.81 1.99 4.96 1.6 51 8 14'6 0.26r
60x60 10 8.69 8'0 2.4 lf i 1.85 34.9 55.1 14.8 1.78 2.23 1.16 8.41 lz5x75 12 17.8 I 1.0 4.8 22.7 4.31 1.84 354 95.5 391 58.5 3.95 2.05 4.15 1.61 43 2 16.9 0.354
8 7.09 8'0 2.4 9.03 1.77 29.2 46.1 12-2 1.8 2.26 1.16 6.89 10 15.0 I1'0 4.8 19.1 4.23 176 302 82.1 334 49.9 387 2 07 4.18 1.61 36.5 14 3 0.357
6 5.42 8.0 2.4 6-91 1.69 22.8 36.1 9.44 1.82 2-29 r.17 5-29 8 12.2 I1.0 4.8 15.5 4.14 1.68 247 61'6 274 40.9 4.0 2.09 4.21 \.63 29 6 11.6 0.36
4.57 8'0 2.4 5.82 1.64 19.4 30.7 8.03 t.82 2-3 1.17 4.45 'Ì5 12 15.4 10.0 4.8 19 7 3.27 2'03 189 902 230 49.5 J.l 2.74 3.42 1.59 2tì.0 16.5 0.54
50x50 8 s.82 7.0 2.4 7.41 1-52 16.3 25.7 6.87 1.48 1.86 0.963 4.68
10 13.0 10.0 4.8 16 6 3.19 1.95 162 77'6 \97 42.2 3.r2 2.16 3.45 1.59 23.8 14.0 0.544
6 4.47 7.0 2.4 5.69 r.45 12.8 20.3 5.34 1.5 1.89 0.968
8 10.6 10.0 4.8 13.5 3.1 1'87 133 64'1 162 34.6 3t4 2.18 3.47 1.6 19.3 ll.4 0.547
3.61
5 3.77 1.0 2.4 4'8 t.4 11.0 17.4 4.55 1.51 r.9 0.973 3.05 100x65 10 12.3 10.0 4.8 15.6 3.36 1.63 154 51.0 17s 30.1 3t4 1.81 3.35 1.39 23.2 10.5 0.41
4 3.06 7.0 2.4 3.89 t.36 8.97 14.2 3.73 1.52 1.91 0.979 2-46 I 9.94 10.0 4.8 t2.7 3'27 1.55 127 42.2 144 24.8 316 1.83 3.37 t-+ 18.9 8.54 0.413
3 2.33 7-0 2.4 2.96 1.31 6.86 10.8 2.88 1.52 1.91 '7 877 10.0 4.8 r1.2 3'23 1.51 113 37.6 128 22.0 317 1.83 3.39 r-+ 16-6 7.53 0.415
0.986 1.86
45x45 6 4.0 7.0 2.4 5.09 1-32 9.16 14.5 3.83 1.34 1-69 0.867 2.88
80x60 I 8.34 8.0 4.8 10.6 2.55 1.56 66.3 31.8 80.0 17.3 2.5 1..73 2.76 t.27 LZ.2 7'16 0.544
5 3.38 7-0 2.4 4.3 1.28 7.84 12.4 J.¿O l.JJ t.7 0.871
1 136 8.0 4.8 9.38 2 51 1.52 59.0 28'4 72.0 15.4 2 5t r.74 2.77 1.28 t0.7 6.34 0.546
2.43 6 8.11 2 47 1.48 51.4 24.8 62.8 13.4 2.52 1..75 2.78 r'29 9.2 5'49 0.547
Á 2.74 7.0 2.4 3.49 1.23 6.43 10.2 2.68 1.36 r.1t 0.876 1.97
637 8.0 4.8
3 2.09 7-0 2.4 2.66 1.18 4.93 7.78 2.07 1.36 1.7t 0.882 1-49 75x50 7'39 '7 0 2-4 9-41 2.52 r.29 52.0 18.4 59.6 10.8 2.35 14 2'52 1.07 t0.4 4.95 0-43

3.52 6.0 5.65 70 2-4 7.19 2'44 t.21 40.5 't4 4 46.6 8.36 2 37 1..42 2.55 1.08 8.0 3.81 0.435
40x40 o 2.4 4-48 1.2 6.31 9.98 2.65 r.19 1.49 0.77 2.26
r'44 2.23
5 2.97 ó.0 2.4 3.79 1.16 5.43 8.59 2-26 r.2 1.51 0.773 1.91
ó5x50 6.75 ó.0 2.4 8.6 2.11 1-37 34.8 t7.7 43.0 9-57 Z.0l 1.05 7.9 4.89 0.56q
Á
2.42 6.0 2.4 3.08 .12 4.47 7.09 i.86 r-52 5.16 6.0 z4 6.58 2.04 r-29 27.2 14'0 33.8 7-43 2.03 r.46 2.27 1.06 6.t 3'77 0.575
1.84 6.0
1

3.45 5.45
1.21 0.777 1.55 4.35 ó.0 2'4 5.54 1.99 1.25 11.9 28.8 6-32 2.05 t'47 2.28 1.0'7 5.1 3't9 0.5'17
3 2.4 2.35 1.07 t.44 1.21 r.52 0.783 1.18
2.1.8 5.0 60x30 3.99 6.0 z4 5.08 2.2 0.72 182 3'0 19.2 1.99 1.89 0.771 1.9s 0.626 4.7 t.3z 0.252
30x30 5 2.4 2-78 0.918 2.16 3.41 0.917 0.883 1'11 0.575 1.04 3.37 6-0 z4 4.29 2.75 0.68 15.6 2.6 16.5 r.7 L.9 0-779 r.96 0.629 4.0 t.1z 0-256
4 1.78 5.0 2.4 2.27 0.878 1.8 2.85 0.754 0.892 I.t2 0.57'7 0.85
3 r.36 5.0 2.4 1.74 0.835 1.4 2.22 0.585 0.899 1'13 0.581 0.649
40x25 1.-93 4.0 2'4 2'46 1-36 0-62 3.8 1.1 4.3 0-70 1.26 0'688 1.33 0.534 t.4 0.61 0.38

25x25 5 t.77 3.5 2-4 2.26 0.799 1.21 7.9 0.524 0.731 0.9ls 0.481 0.7 tl Nole: Addirional non-standard sizes may be available, especialiy othe¡ thicknesses of the standard range and ce¡tain sizes in the old imperial ¡ange, namely
Á
r.45 3.5 2.4 1.85 0.762 1'02 1.61 0.43 0.741 0.931 0.482 0'586 125 x 75 x 6.5 and 137 102 x 9.5.'7.9 and64 (purlin angles) and 100 x 75 x 6.5. Enquiries should be made to BSC General Steels Group BSC Sections.
3 1.11 3'5 2.4 1.42 0.723 0.803 1.27 0.334 0.751 0'945 0.484 0.452

No¡¿i A_100 x 100 x l0mm angle is also frequently rolled; as an ISO size its propeflies are given in Appendix A (Table Al) to BS 4g4g: parr 4. dthcr
n*standard sections, particularly other thicknesscs of the standard range. may also be available. Enquiries should be made to BSC Gcnc¡al Slecls Group
BSC Sections.
T-sections: Ts cut f¡om Unviersal Beams and Columns listed in this publication are availablc in all sizes. Enquiries should be made ro BSC Gene¡al Stecls
Group BSC scctions. Properties are listed in Volume 1 of the Steelwo¡k Design Guitle to BS 5950: Paí.¡ a p;blication produced by the Steel Conslrucrion
Institure.
Bulb flats: These are now produced in metric sizes and are listed in BS 4848: Part 5. Enquiries should be madc ro BSC General Sreels GrouÞ BSC Secrions.
 Designrequirements 59

Table 3.1 Softwood species/grade" combinations which satisfy the requirement for
3 strength classes: graded to BS 4978

Standard name Strength class

Structural timber SCl SC2 SCJ SC4 sc5

Imported
Parana pine GS SS
Pitch pine (Caribbean) GS SS
Redwood GS/M50 SS M75
Whitewood cs/Mso SS M75
Western red cedar GS SS
Douglas firlarch (Canada) GS SS
Douglas fir-larch (USA) GS SS
Hem-fir (Canada) GS/M5o SS M75
Hem-fir (USA) GS SS
Spruce-pine-fir (Canada) GS/Ms0 ss/M7s
Western whitewoods (USA) GS SS
Southern pine (USA) GS SS

British grown
Douglas fir GS Mso/SS M75
3.1 Design requirements 3.3 A solid rectangular timber section in axial Larch GS SS
3.2 A solid rectangular timber section in bending compression Scots pine GS/Ms0 SS M75
Corsican pine GS M5O SS M75
European spruce GS Ms0/ss M7s
Sitka spruce GS Ms0/ss M7s
The relevant British Standard is BS 5268, Structu- strength classes. Table 3.1 gives the grade stresses
ral Use of Timber, Part 2: 1988, Code of practice and moduli of elasticity for the nine strength ! Machine grades MGS and MSS are inteìhangeablc with GS and SS grades, respectively.
for permissible stress design, materials and work- classes and Table 3.2 relates the commoner soft- Thc 56. S8. MS6 and MS8 grades of the ECE Recotnme¡tded Stattdard for Stress Grading of Coniferous
Sawn Tinber ( 1982) may be subst¡tuted for GS. SS. MGS and MSS. respectively.
manship. This chapter deals with the structural wood species and stress grade combinations with
design of flexural and compression solid timber their relevant strength class. The advantage to
members in accordance with the orocedures de- both the designer and the client is that by specify- Table 3.2 Grade stress and moduli of elasticity for strength classes: for the dry exposure condition
scribed in Section 2 of BS 5268: Pait 2. ing the timbe¡ by strength class, rather than by the
It is intended to publish BS 5268 in seven parts more specific method of species and grade, the Strength Bending Tension Compres Compres- Shear Modulus of Approximate
with Part 2 replacing CPll2: Part 2: 1971, which supplier is able to supply a species of timber on class parallel parallel sion sion parallel elasticity densityb
has noll' been withdrawn. The full list is as fol- the basis of cost and availabilitv for a oarticular to grain to grain parallel perpendicular to grain
lows: strength class. lo Srain to grain' Mean Minimum
(Nlmm')) (Nlmm'1) (Nlmm2) (Nlmm'1) (Nlmm'z) (Nlmm'z) (Nfmm'1) (Nlmm')) (kelm')
Part 1: Limit state design, materials and workman-
ship. SC1 2.8 2.2' 3.5 t'¿ 0.46 6 800 4500 540
Part 2: Permissible stress design, materials and sc2 4.1 2.5' 5.3 1.6 0.66 8 000 5 000 540
Stress-graded timber 5 800 540
workmanship. SC3 5.3 J. Z- 6.8 2.2 1.7 0.67 8 800
Part 3: Code of practice for trussed rafter roofs. The grading system used in Table 3.2 is derived sc4 7.5 4.5" 7.9 2.4 1.9 0.71 9 900 6600 590
Part 4: Fire resistance of timber structures. from BS 4987: 1973, SpecificaÍion for Timber SC5 10.0 6.0' 8.7 2.8 2.4 1-00 10 700 7100 s90n60
SC6U 12.5 7.5 12.5 3.8 2.8 i.50 14 100 11 800 840
Part 5: Preservation treatments for constructional Grades for Structural Use. BS 4987 defines two
timber. visual and four machine grades. Visual stress grad- SCTU 15.0 9.0 14.5 +.4 3.3 1-75 16200 13600 960
scSd r7.5 10.5 16.5 5.2 3.9 2-00 18 700 15600 1 080
Part 6: Code of practice for timber frame wall ing is based on certain physical characteristics of SC9U 20.5 12.3 i9.5 6.1 4.6 2.25 21 600 18000 1 200
design. the timber (for example, the number and size of
PartT: Recommendations for the calculation basis knots and the slope of the grain). The two grades i' When ihc spccificarion specifically proh¡b¡ts wanc at bearing areas. the higher values of compression perpendicular to thc grain strcss may be used. otheru¡se
for span tables. are: the lowcr values apply.
b Sincc many spccies may contr¡bute to any of thc suength classes, the values of density given in this table may be considered only crude approximations.
Parts 1 and 7 are still in the process of prepara- 1. General structural (GS), and Whcn a morc accuratc valuc is required it may be neccssary to identify individual species. The higher value fo¡ SC5 ¡s morc apProPr¡ate for hardwoods.
c Notc rhar rhc Lighr Framing. Stud, Structural Light Framing No.3 and Joist and Plank No. 3 grades should not be used ¡n tcnsion.
tlon. 2. Special structural (SS). d Classcs SC6. SC7. SC8 and SC9 will usuallv comDrise lhe denser hardwoods.

Mechanical stress grading is based on a non-

destructive test that assesses the modulus of elas-
3.1 Design requirements ticity of the timber, and the four grades are:
In order to allow a greater flexibility of choice of 1. General structural (MGS); Moisture content structural capacity and of its durability. Section 1

timber suitable for structural applications the code 2. Special structural (MSS); The moisture content of timber, measured as a (5'4)drarvs the attention of the designer'
has introduced a method of classifying each spe- 3. M50; and percentage of its oven-dried weight, l. un i*pàrl among other -to
points' the following
cies of hardwood and softwood under one of nine 4. l'l75. tant factor both from the point of view of its 1. At a moisture content below about 30% timber
5R
 60 Slructural titnber
Design requirements 61

shrinks or swells, and its strength properties Table 3.5) to obtain the appropriate wet stress K2 (Table 3.5) for stresses and moduli in wet K12 (Table 3.8) for members subject to axial
increase or decrease according to its moisture values. exposure conditions. compression.
content. K3 (Table 3.6) for duration of loading.
2. Wood is less prone to decay if its moisture Ka (Table 3.7 and Figure 3.1) for bearing stresses.
content is below 25"/" and may be considered Symbols and subscripts K5 (Figure 3.2) tor notched ends.
Effective span
immune below 20"/". K7 (Figure 3.3) for bending parallel to the grain.
The symbols used in this chapter are as listed in The effective span of a flexural member should be
3. All timber, whether imported or British grown, Ks for load sharing (see 'Load sharing' below). taken as the
which is thoroughly air dried in the UK nor- Section 1, Part 3 of the code, but will also be distance between the centres of
identified when used in the text. However, the bearing.
mally attains a moisture content between 177o
and 23"/", depending upon weather conditions code also uses subscripts with the symbols which,
at the end of the drying period. for the sake of space, will only be identified here.
The subscripts used are: Table 3.4 Modification factor rK, by which the geometric- Table 3.6 Modification factor rK. for duration of loading
4. Ideally, timber should have a moisture content, ål propert¡es of timber for the dry exposure condition
when installed, close to the content it wiil 1. Type of force, stress, etc: should be multiplied to obtain values for the wet exposure Duration of loading
' Value of K3
attain in service. Table 3.3 gives average values c: compression condition
for softwoods and hardwoods for selecled cate- m: bending Long term 1.00
gories of end use. However, this should onlv be t: tension Geometrical property Value of K ¡
(e.g. dead + permanent ímposed")
seen as a general guide, s: shear Medium term (e.g. dead * snow, dead, 7.25
5. Care should be taken on site to ensure that 2. Significance: Thickness, width, radius of gyration 1-02 + temporary imposed)
material supplied in a dry condition is ade- a: applied
Cross-sectional area 1.04 Short term (e.g. dead imposed * * 1.50
First moment of area, section modulus 1.06 windÞ, dead + imposed + snow +
quately protected from the weather. adm: permissible Second moment of area 1'08 windo)
e: effective Very short term 1.75
Service exlÐsure conditions mean: arithmetic mean *
(e.g. dead imposed + wind")
3. Geometry:
Because of the effect of moisture content on
ll: parallel (to the grain) Table 3.5 Modification factor I(, by which dry stresses
¿ For imposed floor loads K¡
= 1.00.
strength properties the permissible stresses used in _L: perpendicular (to the grain) b For wind, short-term caregory applies ¡o class C (15 s gust) as defined
in
design should be those corresponding to the mois- and moduli should be multiplied to obtain wet stresses CP3: Chapte¡ V: Part 2.
c Fo¡ wind, very short-te¡m ca¡egory applies to classes A
ture content that the particular member will attain As an example, o..u¿..1¡ would be the permissible and moduli applicable to wet exposgre conditions
gust) as defined in CP3r Chapter V: Pan 2.
and B (3 s or 5 s

in service. The code recognizes that it is not grade compression stress, parallel to the grarn.
possible to cover all service conditions but defines (Note that the subscripts are separated by alom- Property Value of K.
the following two exposure conditions: ma.)
Bending parallel to grain 0.8 Table 3.7 Modification Íactor Ka for bearing stress
l. Dry exposure. All service conditions where the Tension parallel to grain 0.8
air temperature and humidity would result in Modification factors
Compression parallel to grain 0.6 Length of 10 15 25 40 50 75 100 150
Compression perpendicular to grain 0.6 bearing" or
solid timber attaining an equilibrium moisture Shear parallel to grain (in mm)
Table 3.1 gives the grade stresses and modulus of 0'9 mofe
content not exceeding 18% for any significant Mean and minimum modulus of elasticity 0.8 Value of K¡ 1'74 167 1.53 1.33 1.20 1.14 1.10 1.00
period. This condition would include most cov- elasticity for the strength classes SC1 to SC9. The
ered buildings and internal uses. Such stresses values given should be considered as basic ones a Inþrpolation is permittcd.
are identified as'dry stresses' (see Table 3.1). which, whe^l applied to a particular case, are
2. Wet exposure. All service conditions, either ín factored to account for the difference between the Table 3.8 Modification factor K,, for compression members
contact with water or where the air tempera- basic case and the actual case in hand. The code
ture and humidity would result in solid timber lists over 90 K factors. However, for the purposes Value of K,,
attaining an equilibrium moisture content ex- of this chapter the following K factors need only I (= L./i)
Values of slenderness rutio
be considered: E/þ,.t < s 5 l0 20 30 40 s0 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 250
ceeding 18% for any significant period. The Equivalent L.lb (for rectangular sections)
permissible stress values given in Table 3.1 K1 (Table 3.4) for geometric properties in wet < 1.4 1.4 2.9 5.8 8.7 11.6 14.5 r7.3 20-2 23.1 26.0 28.9 34.7 40.5 46.2 52.0 57-8 63.6 69.4 72.3
should be multiplied by the factor K2 (see exposure conditions.
400 1.000 0'975 0.95i 0.896 0-827 0'735 0.621 0.506 0.408 0.330 0'271 0.225 0-162 0.121 0.094 0.075 0'061 0.051 0.043 0.0,tO
500 1.000 0.975 0.9s1 0.899 0.837 0.759 0.664 0'562 0'466 0.385 0.320 0.269 0.195 0.148 0.115 0.092 0.076 0.063 0.053 0.049
Table 3.3 Moisture content of timber for categories of end use 600 1.000 0.975 0.951 0.901 0.843 0.774 0.692 0.601 0.511 0.430 0.363 0.307 0.226 0.172 0.135 0.109 0.089 0.074 0.063 0.058
700 1.000 0.975 0.951 0.902 0.848 0.784 0.711 0.629 0.545 0.467 0.399 0.341 0.254 0.195 0.154 0.124 0.102 0.085 0.072 0.067
Position of timber in Average moisture content 800 1.000 0.975 0.9s2 0.903 0.851 0.792 0.724 0.649 0.572 0.497 0.430 0.371 0.280 0.217 0.172 0.139 0.115 0.096 0.082 0.076
Moisture content which
building 900 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.904 0.853 0.797 0.734 0.665 0.593 0.522 0.456 0.397 0.304 0.237 0.i88 0.153 0.t27 0.106 0.091 0.0M
attained in service should not be exceeded at
conditions (%o) time of erection (o/") 1000 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.904 0 855 0.801 0.742 0-677 0-609 0.542 0.478 0.420 0.325 0.255 0.204 0.167 0.138 0.116 0.099 0.092
I 100 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.905 0.856 0.804 0.748 0.687 0-623 0'559 0.497 0.440 0.344 0.272 0.2t9 0.179 0.149 0.126 0.107 0.100
External uses fully ex- 18 or more 1200 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.905 0.857 0.807 0.753 0.695 0.634 0.573 0.513 0.457 0.362 0.288 0.233 0.192 0.160 0.135 0.116 0.107
posed 1300 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.905 0.858 0.809 0.757 0.701 0.643 0.584 0.527 0.472 0.378 0.303 0.247 0.203 0.170 0.144 0.123 0.115
1400 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.906 0.859 0.811 0.760 0.707 0.651 0.595 0.539 0.486 0.392 0.317 0.259 0.214 0.180 0.i53 0.131 0.122
Covered and generally 18 aÁ
1500 1.000 0'976 0.952 0'906 0.860 0.813 0.763 0.712 0-658 0.603 0.550 0.498 0..m5 0-330 0.27L 0.225 0.189 0.161 0'138 0.129
unheated
Covered and generally 16 21 1600 1.000 0.976 0.952 0'906 0'861 0.814 0-766 0.716 0.664 0.611 0.559 0.508 0.417 0.342 0.282 0.235 0.198 0.169 0.145 0.135
heated 1700 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.906 0.861 0'8ls 0'7ó8 0.719 0.669 0.618 0.567 0.518 0.428 0.353 0.292 0.245 0.207 0.177 0.t52 0.142
Internal in continuously t+ 1800 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.906 0.862 0.816 0.770 0-722 0-6'73 0.624 0.574 0.526 0.438 0.363 0.302 0.254 0.215 0.184 0.159 0.148
t9
heated buildins 1900 1.000 0.976 0.952 0-907 0.862 0.817 0'772 0-725 0.677 0.629 0.581 0.534 0.447 0.373 0.312 0.262 0.223 0.r9r 0.165 0.154
2000 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.907 0.863 0.818 0.773 0'728 0.681 0.ó34 0.587 0.541 0.455 0.382 0.320 0.271 0.230 0.i98 0.172 0.160
 l-Illi
!:

62 Structural timber A solid rectangular timber section in bending 63

(o) 6. Select a softwood species from Table 3.2 and

Lateral support
note the appropriate strength class (SC) to

ffil
0ve rhang Table 3.9 gives the maximum depth-to-breadth obtain grade stresses from Table 3.1.
of beofing K4. From ratios for rectangular sections in bending. Mem- 7. Bending. From Table 3.1. note the following
tobte 3.7 bers with ratios greater than those listed must be grade stresses:
checked for buckling under design load. (a) Bending parallel to grain: o,.¡
75 mm Beori ng
Figure 3.3 Modification factor K7. The modification fac- (b) Shear parallel to grain: o¡¡
0r mofe tor. K7 for depth is to be taken as follows: 8. Calculate the section modulus Zy requfted
[ess thqn
(a) Kr:1'17 for h <72mm
3.2 L solid rectangular timber section from:
150mm
/?ot)\"rl in bending M: Zyo^,u6^,¡
(b) (b) ,(, = l=l for h > 72 mm but <
\nt 300 mm
where ø.."¿r.lj : om.ll x appropriate modifica-
rhong 1. Obtain the imposed and dead loading for the tion factors from above excluding K1 in 4, and
No ove
(c) Kt : l'0 for /¡ > 300 mm member (see Section 1.3, Chapter 1).

r--l--
[=K4=]o
ot beo ri ng
2. Calculate the maximum bending moment M M
Z"
and shearing force Fy values.
| À-l t
Load sharing J. Establish whether it is part of a load-sharing
Om,adm,ll

From Table 3.10 choose a section such that

I I Bnnrinn
Vy'here four or more members such as joists in system. If so, note that modification factor Ks
i4-$-;'v"ilist'"' floors or compression members in stud walls,
which share the applied loading and are not
is to be used (i.e. Ks : 1'1).
Establish the service exposure condition. If
Z")2"
(c) (a starting point for floor joists would be
spaced further apart than 610 mm, with the load wet, note modification factors K1 and K2
b: 47 mm).
Beoring in distributed by boarding, purlins, etc, the grade (Tables 3.4 and 3.5).
tength of
me mber
--r--l-
L--+l
stresses in Table 3.1 should be multiplied by the
load-sharing modification factor Ks

Deflection
: 1.1.
5. Establish duration of loading and note
appropriate modification factor K3 (Table
3.6).
Remember: if there IS a wet exposure condi-
tion then
3.4).
Table 3.10 Geometrical properties of planed all round softwoods: constructional timber
Z¡ should be factored by K1 (Table

I I Beoring

l4_-=.Ç-onYtensth For most general purposes, including domestic Finished size Area -Section modulus, Z Second moment of area, I Radius of gyration, i
flooring, the deflection of the member when fully
iì Figure 3.I Application of nrodification factor K, loaded should not exceed 0.003 of the soan. For About XX About YY About XX AboLtt YY XX
About About YY
-K4=1'o longer-span (L > 4.5 m), domestic floors ìt should lmm) (103 mm2) (103 mmr) 103 mmi) (10ó mma) (10ó mma) (mm) (mm)
not exceed 14 mm. When calculating the actual
deflection the following modulus of elasticity 33 x12 2.38 28-5 13' 1 1.03 0.216 20.8 9.53
should be used: 33 x97 3.20 5r.7 17.6 2.51 0.260 28.0 9.53
33 x 120 3-96 79.2 21.8 4.75 0.359 34.6 9.53
i. Solid timber member acting alone; E,¡n 33 x 145 4.'19 116 26.3 8.38 0.434 4t.9 9.53
2. Load-sharing members; Er"un 35 x72 2'52 30.2 t4.7 1.09 0.257 20.8 10.1
3. Load sharing but subject to vibration; E.¡n. 35 x97 3.40 54-9 19.8 2.66 0.347 28'0 10.1
35 x 120 4.20 84'0 24-5 5.04 0.429 34.6 10.1
Table 3.9 Maximum depth-to-breadth ratios (solid and 35 x 145 5.08 t23 29.6 8.89 0.518 41.9 10.1
laminated members) 35 x 169 5.92 t67 34.5 14.1 0.604 48.8 10.1
35 x 194 6.79 220 39.6 ¿t.) 0.693 56.0 10'1
on the top edge Degree o.f laterul su¡t¡tort Muxirrunt depth-
35 x 219 7.67 280 44.7 30.6 0.782 63.2 10'1
to-breudth ratio 41 x'/2 2.95 35'4 20.2 t.28 0.414 20'8 11'8
+l x97 3.98 64.3 27.2 3.12 0.557 28.0 11.8

h,T-[------l-¡\
-_\z_r ì h
No lateral support
Ends held in position
2
3
41
41
x
x
x
120
145
4-92
5.95
98.4
144
33-6
40.6
5.90
10.4
0.689
0.833
34.6
41-9
11.8
11.8

Ur
Ends held in position and membcr
i+ i6.5 0.971
/1
I
41 169 6.93 195 47-3 48-8 11.8
held in line, as by purlins and tie 41 x 194 7.95 257 54.4 24.9 1'11 56.0 11.8
rods 41 x 219 8.98 328 61-4 35.9 1.26 63.2 11-8
Beqm with notch on fhe undensroe
Ends held in position and comprcss- 41 x 244 10.0 407 68.4 49-6 1.40 70.4 11.8
ion edge held in line. as by direct 41 x 294 12.r 591 82.4 86'8 t.69 84-9 11.8
Figure 3.2 Modification factor Kr. The value of rhe connection of sheathing. deck or
modification factor, Ks, depends on the relative values J olsts 44x72 3.t7 38.0 ¿J. L 1.37 0.511 20.8 12.7
of a and /r" for case (a) above and the ratio of h" and h Ends held in position and compress- 44x97 4.27 69.0 31.3 3'35 0'689 28.0 12.7
for case (b) above, as follows: ion edge held in line, as by direct 44 x 120 5.28 106 38.7 6.34 0.852 34.6 12-7
lt(|t,.-a)+nh.. connection of sheathing. deck or 44 x 145 6.38 154 46.8 11.2 1.03 4r.9 12.7
(a) Ks"h= -- for a < ,fr. joists, together with adequate bridg- 44 x 169 '7-44 209 54.5 17-7 1.20 48.8 12.7
ing or blocking spaced at intervals 44 x 194 8.54 276 62.6 26.8 1.38 56.0 12.7
Ks:1'0 loralh. not exceeding six times the depth 44 x 219 9.64 352 70.7 38.5 1.55 63.2 12.7
Ends held in position and both edges 44 x 244 t0.7 437 78.7 53.3 1.73 70.4 tz. I
lb) ,<. = & held firmly in line 44 x 294 12.9 634 94.9 93.2 2.09 84.9 12.7
n
 -.1r

64 Structural timher A solid recmngular timber section in axial compressiott 65

Table 3.10 (cozf.) (b) Long span, ¿ > 5'6 m: where å : the least lateral dimension.
4. From Table 3.1 read off the appropriate grade
Finished size Area Section modulus. Z Second moment of area, I Radius of gyration, i ðu., : ô. * ô' < 0'003¿ < 14 mnl
stress for compression parallel to the grain oc.ll
t2 Shear. Caloulate the actual shear stress vacr: and calculate the permissible stress:
About XX About YY About XX About YY XX
Abotu About YY
(mm) (l0t mm2) (103 mmi) 103 mm3¡ (10ó mma) (106 mml) (tnm) (mm) /Fr\ : o".¡ x modification factors K2, K3,
u,,.,:l,il
\Dn/
l'5
oc.atrn¡.jl
Ks and K12 as appropriate
47 x72 3.38 40.6 26.5 1.46 0.623 20.8 13-6
47 x97 4-56 73.7 3s.7 3-57 0'839 28.0 13.6 Note: see Figure 3.2 if the position being Note: Modification factor Kp is used if
47 x 120 5.64 1r3 44.2 6-77 1.04 34-6 13'6 checked is notched. I> 1.4.
47 x 145 6-82 165 53-4 1 1.9 r.25 4t-9 13.6 lJ. Calculate the permissible shear stress parallel From Table 3.8 calculate:
41 x 769 7.94 1)t 62.2 l8-9 1.46 48.8 13.6 to the grain: E.¡t
47 x 794 9.12 71-4
47 x 219
47 x 244
i0'3
11 .5
295
316
466
80.6
89'8
28.6
41.1
56'9
1.ó8
1.89
2-1r
56.0
63.2
70.4
13.6
13.6
13'6
uadm.Jl : r¡ x modification factors K2, K3, K5
and KB where appropriate
@ and Ks as apProPriate
47 x 294 13.8 677 108 99'-5 2.54 84.9 13.6 and using  as calculated in 3, read off value of
and check that ur., { rt¡<rm.ll.
60x97 5.82 94.1 -5{ì.2 4.s6 1.75 28.0 11.3 IJ Bearing. Establish the length and position of
Kr:.
60 x 120 7.20 144 72.0 8'64 j.lo 34-6 17.3 the bearing relative to the end of the member 5. Calculate the actual comPressive stress:
60 x 145 8.70 210 87.0 15.2 2.6r 4t-9 t7.3 (refer to Figure 3.1 for guidance). From Table F
60 x 169 t0.l 286 10r 24-1 3.04 48.8 t7.3 o".ort:
60 x 194 11.6 376 116 36.5 3.49 s6.0 17-3
3.1 read off appropriate grade stress for com- Ã
x 219 l3l pression perpendicular to the grain, oç.1 âftd á:
60 13.1 480 52.5 3.94 o). / 17-3
calculate the permissible stress
where F: the applied axial load and the
72x97 6.98 l13 83.8 5.48 3.02 28.0 20.8 sectional area, and check that
72 x 120 8.64 173 104 10.4 3.73 34.6 20.8 oc.adm.-L : (rc.t x modification factors, K2'
x d..o.t { oc.a<ln.ll
72 145 10.4 252 125 18.3 4.51 4t.9 20.8 Kt, Kq and K¡ where
72 x 769 12.2 -)4-t 146 29.0 5.26 48.8 20.8 appropriate
72 x 194 14.0 452 168 43.8 6.03 56.0 20'8
72 x 219 15.8 576 189 63.0 6.81 63.2 20'8 14. Calculate the actual bearing stress
72 x 244 17.6 714 211 87.2 1.59 70.4 20.8 F"
72 x 294 21-2 I 040 254 152 9.14 84.9 20.8
DLs Table 3.ll Effective length of compression members
97 x97 9-41 r52 152 7.38 7.38 28'0
breadth of section and Ls : length
28.0
97 x 145 14.1 340 22'7 24.6 11'0 41.9 28.0
where ó :
Effective length
9'7 x 194 18.8 608 304 59.0 14.8 56.0 28.0 of bearing, and check that oacr { oc.adm.r. End conditions
tenstn
97 x 244 23.'7 962 383 117 18'6 70.4 28'0 ilft¡at :

97 x 294 28.5 r 400 461 205 22.4 84.9 28.0

145 x 145 21.0 508 508 36.8 36.8 4t.9 41.9
3.3 A solid rectangular timber section Restrained at both ends in position 0'7 I

145 x 194 28.1 910 680 88.2 49.3 56.0 41.9 in axial compression and in direction
145 x 294 42.6 2 090 1 030 307 74.7 84.9 4t.9 Restrained at both ends in position 0'85
and one end in direction
194 x 194 37-6 1220 122rJ l18 118 56.0 56'0 1. Follow the steps 1-6 (excluding 2) as for a
Restrained at both ends in position l'0
section in bending. but not in direction
244 x 244 59.-s 2420 2420 295 295 70.4 10.4 2. Establish the effective length L¡ (see Table Restrained at one end in position and 1'5
294 x 294 86.4 4240 4240 623 oz-) 84.9 84-9 3.1 1). in direction and at the other end in
3. Calculate the slenderness ratio ,t from either direction but not in position
il Mcasurcd at 2070 moisturc contert. A tolcrancc of a 0 5 mm ¡s permìttcd
L" Restrained at one end in position and 2-0

9. Using Figure 3.3, calculate the appropriate K7 ôM

),:-.:<52 in direction and free at the other end
b
modification factor value for the deoth of the ôu:
AG
section n and adjust om,adm.il value.
10. Recalculate Zy*"u for the new permissible
where .S : a shape factor, for a rectangular
bending stress and check that section (S : 1.2), M : fhe maximum bending
moment, ,4 = the cross-sectional area (= bh)
Zx à Zx*"u and G : the shear modulus : 0.06258, where
If so, the section is satisfactory for bending. E : the appropriate elastic modulus.
l1 Deflection. Calculate the actual deflection ôo",.
For a rectangular section ôu may be rewrit-
The actual deflection will be the sum of the ten as
deflection due to bending plus the deflection ^ 19.2M
due to shear, i.e. Ò.,:-
'AE
ðr",:ô*+ôu Check:
ð*: (a) Short span, L < 5.6 m:
see Table 1.9, Chapter 1, for typical load
cases and ô.u*. ô".t:ô,*ôus0.003¿
 Design requirements from BS 8110, The structural use of concrete 67

effective height for bending about the 7. Dead loads. 'I.he weight of the structure
4 ley
minor axis plete with finishes, partitions, etc.
com-

Io clear height of column between and 2. Imposed loads. -lhe weight due to furniture,
restralnts occuDants. etc.
l" length of shorter side of a rectangular 3. Winà loads.
Reinforced concrete ly
slab
iength of lpnger side of a rectangular The following publications can be used to com-
slab
pute the loads on the structure:
M bending moment due to ultimate loads BS 648, Schedule of Weighrc of Building
M¡ maximum initial moment in a column Materials.
due to ultimate loads BS 6399, Dead Loads and Imposed Loads.
Mu ultimate resistance moment
ultimate axial load at section CP3: Chapter V: Part 2, Wind loads
considered
Nuur axial load on a column corresponding Characteristic strength
to the balanced condition
Nu, axial load capacity of a column This term is defined by BS 5328 as that value of
ignoring all bending the cube strength of concrete or the yield or proof
stress of reinforcement below which not more than
n total ultimate load per unit area 5"/o of the test results fail. The
4.r Design requirements (l'4g¡ + l'6q¡) characteristic
Áa Basic principles strength is usually represented by the 28-day cube
for the design of solid slabs Qr characteristic imposed load strength of the concrete and the yield of 0.21"
and rectangular beams Qx characteristic imposed load per unit proof stress of the reinforcement. Typical values
4.3 Simple slab design area
4.4 Simple beam design 4.6 Simple flanged beam design r internal radius of bend of characteristic strength are given in Tables 4.1
and 4.2.
Basic principles for the design of simply sup- 4.7 Simply supported hollow block slab design s6 spacing of bars
ported flanged beams with tension reinforce- 4.8 Simple column base design sv spacing of links along the member Table 4.1 Characteristic strength of reinforcement
ment only 4.9 Axially loaded columns V shear force due to ultimate loads
u shear stress Designation Nominal sizes f,
Dc ultimate shear stress in concrete (mm) (N/mmi)
4.1 Design requirements from BS b* breadth of web or rib of a member x neutral axis depth
d effective depth of tension z lever arm Hot-rolled mild steel All sizes 250
81.10, The structural use of reinforcement T¡ partial safety factor for load High-yield steel AII sizes 460
concrete d' depth to compression reinforcement y^ partial safety factor for strength
d2 depth to reinforcement 2 4", area of shear reinforcement Thc design nray be based on
dcflection or control cracking.
/, or a lower value if necessary to ¡educe

E, modulus of elasticity of steel X ¿¿, sum of the effective perimeters of the

Many of the requirements of BS 8110 are too e eccentricity tension reinforcement Table 4.2 Characteristic strength of concrete
complicated to be summarized in a book of this F ultimate load o bar size
description. Apart from the design of the more F¡ characteristic load Concrete grade C ha racte r is tic co mp ress ive

simple elements, reference should be made to the strength at 28 days (Nf m2)
fi bond stress Not alt symbols associated with structural concrete
code itself. f"u characteristic concrete cube strength are listed above. For a complete list reference c2.5 2.5
characteristic strength
"fr should be made to BS 8110. c-5 5.0
Symbols f, service stress c].5 7-5
fy characteristic strength of
Limit state cl0 10.0
Ac area ol concrete reinforcement cl2.-s t2.5
AI area of compression reinforcement f* characteristic strength of link BS 8110 defines limit state desisn as the achieve- cl-5 r -5.0
lsr area of compression in the more reinforcement ment of acceptable probabilities-that the structure c20 20.0
highly compressed face Gr characteristic dead load being designed will not become unfit for the use c25 25-0
area of tension reinforcement c30 30'0
As Br. characteristic dead load per unit area for which it is required, i.e. that it will not reach a
lsz area of reinforcement in other face y'¡ overall depth of section in plane of limit state. No attempt has been made in this book
c3s 35'0
c40 40.0
4,, area of longitudinal reinforcement (for bendins to derive the standard formulae used. The ex- c45 45.0
columns) 11¡ thickness of flange planation of concepts inherent in limit state design
Aru cross-sectional area of the two lees of k a constant (with appropriate can be found in many publications dealing with
a link subscripts) reinforced concrete design.
distance between bars
Partial safety factors
Ab I distance from face of support at end of
b" breadth of compression face midway a cantilever or effective soan of a 1,. Loads. In this case partial safety factors are
between restraints simply supported beam oi slab Characteristic loads introduced to take account of unforeseen varia-
b, breadth of section at level of tension l" effective height of a column or wall Since it is not yet possible to express loads in tions in the characteristic loads. The oartial
reinforcement lex effective height for bending about the statistical terms, the following characteristic loads safety factors differ for dead, imposed and
bu width of section maior axis should be used in desisn: wind loads and are set out in Table 4.3.
66
6lÌ llaitt.lortcd u)n( r(t( [)t'.sigrt rct¡uircrrtt'ttt.s R.S 3110, '['ltt struitural use oJ tottcrete
liortr 69

Tablc 4.3 frltimatc linrit state Table 4.,5 lJltimate sheâr stresses for beams of various eflt'ctive depths

Loud cc¡ntbinutiott I nud tv¡tc [-,n rt lt \4! i tttl E.l.[ectirc dt' ¡ttlt ( r n rn )
[)cuil un(l I (X),.1
.
tl ul( | h,¿
Atlt cr:c ßt'tt¿'lit'iul ,1dt t r.st Iltttcliciul 150 17.i 200 225 1.50 300 > 400

(l) Dcacl and irnposccÌ (and carth and l.-1 I.0 l6 I.l < 0.1-5 0.J6 0.tJ 0.13 ( )..+ I ( )-:1( ) ()..'ì8 0.36
atcr prcssrrrc)
u 0.15 ().5+ 0.-sl 050 0.19 ().+tì t).-t6 042
(2) Dcad anrl rvind (irntì cirr'th ancl l.+ I.() Iì I .:l 0.-s0 0.68 0.66 0.6-i 0.(ìl 0..i9 0.57 0 5-.ì
rvalcr prcssurc) 0.75 (1.'/ (¡ 0 7.5 o-72 0.70 0.69 ().64 0.6t
(3) Dcacl. rvind ancl int¡roscrl (irn<l l l l-l l.l 1.2 1.2 t.l l.()() ().1Ì(r 0.tii ().1J0 0.78 0. 75 t\.72 0.6-/
carth and $'atcr prcssurc) l.-s0 0.9tÌ 0.95 0.9I 0.slì 0.fi6 ( ). ¡ì-l 0.16
2.(X) 1.08 l.0l l .0l 0.97 0.95 0.9I 0.8-s
> 3'(X) l.13 I t9 I l5 t.ll I.OlJ I .( ):l 0.91

/.,, . iilN ililìl

For /.,, = l-i N îl¡l thc t¡rbtrl¡rtutl r'¡rlucs \h()ul(l l)c (h\r(lc(ì h\ I 0lìl
2. Materials. Such partial safety f¿ctors arr: intro- sul)polt. The clear clistance fronr the encl of the Fr¡r /..r, = j5 N'n¡rnl lhu ralrll¡rrc,l rirlL¡cs shoul(l l)!'ntullil)lic(l bv I {)j-ì
duced to allow for possible differences between tìrr /.,, . J0 N/nrnrl thc tabul¡rtcel r¡rlus sh()ul(l bc ilìuitil)licd bv l l0.
cantilcver to the face of the suDDOrt should not
the characteristic strength ancl the actual exce cd 151>. or l00b,l(t. whichevei is the lesser'.
'I'able 4.6 Mininlunr provision of links in beam
structural strength. The appropriate values of
these factors are generally taken trom Tablc
4.4. Shear resistance of beams Vultre o.[ r (Nftnttt:) A rcu rt l .: tear rc
I i n I rtr<'ctttcttl

l Shcar strcss p : V ll¡,rl. [-css than 0 -5r'. (ìratlc 250 (miltl stccl) links cc¡ual to 0'lll'Z' ol the horizontal section throuqhot¡t the
2. If ¿r is greater than r)c the whole of the shearing l)ùanr, cxccpt in nrcnrtrcls of'nrint¡r structural inrport:rncc such as lintcls
Table 4.4 Valucs of fi)r thc ultinratc linìif sttte force shorrld bc proviclcd by shear reinforce-
-y,,, 0.-5o.(¿r<(rr.t0.-1) Mininrum links for wholc lcngth ol hcurn ,4,, t
ment. In ¿tll cases ¿) sh()uld not excced 0.tìVÍ,, TH
Mutariul þ utlt¡ t or 5 N/mm2. whichever is the lesser. The shear (rr.+0.,1)<r; iinks only providcd ¡,, t ¡,,I]5Q
0.82'",.
stress (¿,c) which the concretc on its own can be
Rcinforccmcnt .t5 allowed to resist is given in Table 4.5 for
Concrctc in floxurc r¡r axial loatl ..s0
various percentages of bending reinforcement Table 4.7 Shear resistance of links with /,, - 250 N/mm'¿ Table 4.{l Shear resistance ol'links with /,,. - 460 N/rnnrr
Shcar strength rvithout slrc¿u' rcin lirrccnrclll
and various effective depths for 30 Ny'nm2 con- and u ) (r" + 0'4). (Values in N/mm depth of beam) and ¿¡ ) (u" + 0 4). (Values in N/mm depth of beam)
Bond strcnsth Iir
C)thc rs >l .50 crete.
Diameters Diuntetars
3. If is less than rr., norninal shear reinforce-
¿r
sv

ment should be provided throughout the span 10 I2 I6 t0 t2 t6

of the beanr as noted in Table 4.6.
4. Where u is greater than ¿)c, shear reinforcentent 75 164 293 456 657 I 168 15 302 -s39 839 1209 2149
Design loads shoulcl be provided throughout the span of the r00 t23 220 342 492 876 l(x) 226 40-5 629 90,5 l6t2
The design load can be clefined as the cllaracter.is- beam as noted ilr Table 4.6. Tablcs 4.7 anci 4.tì 125 98 t76 273 394 102 l2-s I tì() 324 502 725 1292
tic load times the partial safety factor. As pre- tai¡ulate values that, wlren ntultipliecl by the 150 82 t46 228 32fì 584 1-s0 l-5I 269 420 fi)4 1075

viously mentioned. the partial safety factors vary clepth of the beam (rnnr), give the shear resist- 175 70 t25 r95 281 501 175 129 230 359 -517 922
ance for particular values of ,4.,. ancl .s,,. 200 ó1 110 17l 246 438 2(X) l2 202 3l-s 4-s3 fl06
according to the circumst¿ìnces unc'lcr which 1ne 2-s0 49 88 r36 197 351 250 90 t62 250 362 646
loads are considered. -5. The spacing of vertical links in thc direction of 302
300 Á1
114 t64 292 3(X) 75 134 2l0 -s37
span (.r\.) and at right angles to the span shcluld t4l 250 3,s0 u6 I80 259 4fi)
350 35 63 98 ó.+
not exceed 0-75¿l. 400 3l .s5 85 l13 2t9 +(x) 57 t0t l-5(r 22(t
Effective span of beam '103
It is not necessary to provide shear reinforce- 450 ¿o 49 l6 I09 195 +50 4r.i 90 l4() 201 359
The effective sparl of a simply supportecl nrenrber nlent in slabs, bases, pile caps ancl silnilar .s00 25 44 68 9fì 175 5(X) 46 ¡it t2-s lr.ì0 322
should be taken as the smaller of: nrembers if p docs llot exceed ¿r". -s50 22 40 62 89 159 ,s50 40 1,1
lt4 l(r4 293
LJp to -50'X, of shear rcinfo¡ce nle nt rnav bc in 600 2l 3'7 51 82 146 dx) 39 6u I0-5 151 269
1. The distance between the ceutres of bearings, the folrn of included bars (see BS fì110: Part 700 18 31 49 70 125 7(X) .13 57 90 129 230
OI I ).
2. ^[he clear distance between supports plr.ls üìe
Table 4.9 Basic span/effective depth ratios for rectangular
effective depth. calculations relating to beams with a span of more
Deflection of rectangular beams or flanged beams
than 10 m if the deflection is acceptable. Other-
Slender beams For all normal cases the deflection of a beant will wise it is necessary to use the valuès from Table Support Rectangular Flanged beams
not be excessive if the ratio of its srran to its 4.9 multiplied by 1O/span except for cantilevers, conditions beams with b*lb <0'3
The clear distance between lateral restraints for a effective depth is not greater than the appro¡rriate when the design should be justified by calculation.
simply supported beam should not exceed 60ó. or ratio obtained from Table 4.9. The use of Table Values of span/effective depth ratio should be Cantilever 7 5.6
250b;ld, whichever is the lesser, for a cantilever 4.9 will restrict the deflection to approxiniately multiplied by the appropriate factor obtained from Simply supported 20 16.0
beanl with lateral restraint provicled onlv at the 11250 of the span. The table ntay be usecl for thô Tables 4.10 or 4.11. Continuous 26 20.8
70 Reinforced concrete
Design requiremenîs from BS 8110, The structural use of concrete 7l
Table 4.10 Modification factor for tension reinforcement
Table4.l2 Ultimate ânchorâge bond and lap lengths
Service stress M /bd¿
f,,, (Nlmm'z) 25 40 or over
0.50 0.75 1.00 1.50 2'00 3-00 5-00 6-00
Reinforcement type 250 460^ FabricÞ 2s0 460^ Fabrico 2s0 460^ Fabrico
100 2.00 2.00 2.00 1'86 r.63 1.36 1. 19 1.08 I.0t Tension anchorage 39 41 31 36 3l 29 31 32 25
150 2.00 2.00 1'98 1.69 t-49 t.25 1.11 1.01 0.94 and lap lengths
0f, : 2s0) 156 2.00 2.00 1.96 1-66 t.47 1.24 1.10 1.00 0.94 1'4 x tension lap 55 51 44 50 52 40 43 45 35
200 2.00 1.95 1-76 1 '51 1.35 l.l4 r.02 0.94 0.88 2.0 x tension lap 78 8i 62 tI 74 57 62 64 49

:
250 1'90 1.70 1.55 1-34 1.20 1.04 0.94 0.87 0.82 Compression anchorage )¿ 32 2s 29 29 23 25 26 20
cf_ 460) 288 1.68 1.50 1.38 1-21 r.09 0.95 0.87 0.82 0.78 length
300 1.60 t.44 1.33 1 '16 1.06 0.93 0'8s 0.80 0.76 Compression lap length 39 40 31 36 37 29 31 32 25

Norc: The design service stress may bc estimatcd from the equation obtained from BSllll0: Part I ¡ Deformed bars rype 2.
b lVelded fabric complying with BS 4483.

Table 4.ll Modification factor for compression reinforce- linear interpolation between the values given in
Hooks and bends Effective anchorage equivalent to 12 bar sizes
ment Table 4.9 for rectangular beams and for flanged
pltrs d/2 from the face of the support. (No
beams with b,,1b,0.3 may be used. The effective anchorage length of a hook or bend
bend should begin dlZ from the face of the
100,41 (prov) should be measured from the start of the bend to
support. )
a point four times the bar size beyond the end of
bd Anchorage bond stress
the bend. This may be taken as the lesser of 24
3. For slabs, if the design ultimate shear stress at
Recommendations for the design of anchorage times the bar size, or
the face of the support is less than half the
0.00 1.00 appropriate value u. recommended in Table 4.5
bond stresses are shown in BS 8110: Part 1.
0.15 1.05 1. For a hook - eight times the internal radius of a straight length of bar beyond the centre-line
0.2s 1.08 the hook or the active length of the bar in the of the support equal to either one third of the
0.35 1.10 Local bond stress hook, including the straight portion whichever support width, or 30 mm, whichever is greater.
0.50 t.t4
is greater.
0.75 1.20 Providing that the force in a bar can be developed
2. For a bend - four times the internal radius of Simplified rules for the curtailment of bars are
1.00 1.25 by the appropriate anchorage length, local bond given in BS 8110: Part 1.
1.50 1.33 stress may be ignored.
the bend with a maximum of 12 times the bar
2.00 1.40 size, or the actual length of the bar whichever
2.50 1.45 ls greater.
> 3.00 r.50 Cover
Laps in bars
Not¿: Thc arca of comprcssion rcinforccnìcnt ,4{ (prov) uscd in tlì¡s t¡l)lc The length should be at least equal to the design General rules for reinforcement covers are given
Curtailment of bars
mry includc all bars in thc comp¡cssion zoDc. evcn thosc Dot cffcctivcly licd
wirh links. anchorage length necessary to develop the re- in BS 8110: Part 1. Table 4.13 gives the normal
quired stress in the tension reinforcement, but in In any member subject to bending, every curtailed range of conditions of exposure and the required
the case of compression reinforcement it should be bar should extend (except at end supports) beyond nominal cover to the reinforcement.
at least 25"/o greater than the design anchorage the calculated cut-off point for a distance equal to In the above context bar size can be defined as
compression length. In both cases lap lengths for the effective depth of the member or 12 times the follows:
The minimum effective depth d of a rectangular
bars of unequal size (or wires in fabric) may be bar size, whichever is greater. In addition, bars
beam with tension reinforcement only that will should not be stopped off in a tension zone, unless
1. Individual bars - not less than the diameter of
comply with the requirements of BS 8110 may be based upon the smaller bar. the bar.
The following points should also be noted. one of the following conditions is satisfied:
written as: 2. Pairs or bundles of bars - not less than the
1. The bars extend an anchorage length appropri- diameter of a single bar of equivalent area.
)- Effective span 1. Where a lap occurs at the top of a section as
cast and the minimum cover is less than twice ate to their design strengrh (0.8ïy) from rhe
(factor, Table 4.9) x (factor, Table 4.10) point at which it is no longer required to assist
the size of the lapped reinforcement, the lap
The minimum effective depth d of a rectangular tength should be increased by a factor of 1.4. in resisting the bending moment.
beam with tension and compression ¡einforcement 2. The shear capacity of the section, where the Minimum distance between bars
2. Where a lap occurs at the corner of a section
that will comply with the requirements of BS 8110 and the minimum cover to either face is less reinforcement stops, provide double the area The lateral dimension between bars should be the
may be written as: than twice the size of the lapped reinforcement, required for the moment at such points. maximum-sized aggregate plus 5 mm or the bar
Effective span or where the clear distance between adiacent size, whichever is greater. Vertical dimension be-
,t-
(factor, Table 4.9) x (factor, Table 4.10) laps is less than 75 mm or six times the size of tween ba¡s should be two-thirds of the maximum-
the lapped reinforcement, whichever is Anchorage of bars sized aggregate.
x (factor, Table 4.11) greater, the lap length should be increased by,a
the
At a simply supported end of a member one of
factor of 1.4. the following requirements should be fulfilled:
Deflection of flanged beams
3. In cases where conditions 1 and 2 both apply Maximum distance between bars in tension
For a flanged beam the span/effective depth ratio the lap length should be increased by a factor 1. Effective anchorage equivalent to 12 bar sizes
may be determined as for rectangular beams. of 2-0. Values for lap lengths are given in beyond the centre line of support. (No hook or General rules for establishing the maximum dis-
However, for values of b*f b gr"ui"r than 0.3, Table 4.12 as multiples of bar size. bend should begin before the centre of the tance between bars in tension are siven in BS
support.) 8110: Part 1.
 T.l

72 Reinforced concrete Iltt.rit prittciple.s lor tlte tlc.rig,n o.l solitl .çlults ut¡d recluttgulur lseants 73

Table 4.13 Nominal cover to all reinforcement (including links) Tahle 4.15 Areas of reinf<lrcement for slabs and walls

Conditions of exposure Nominal cover (mm) Diu. Areas in mm: .[or cetilres itl tnm Perineler
lrnnt )
(nun)
Mild t: 20 zrJ' 20" 20, 50 75 I (X) l2-s 150 l7-5 200 250 3(X)
Moderate 35 30 25 20
Severe 40 30 25 6 5(16 377 2,93 226 189 162 142 ll3 94 l8'9
Very severe 50b 400 30 ò l cr10 671 -s03 402 335 2,37 252 201 168 25-2
Extreme 60Þ 50 1i) I 570 I 0-50 7u-s 62rJ 523 449 393 3t4 262 3l .4
Maximum free water/cement ratio 0.ó5 060 0.55 0.50 0.45
12 2260 l -510 t13(i 90-s 745 646 566 452 377 37-6
Minimum cement content (kg/mr) 300 325
l6 4020 2 6{J0 2010 IóIO I -340 r r-s0 l0l0 u04 610 _s0.3

Lowest grade of concrete

275
c30 c35 c40
350
c45
400
cs0
2() (r 2[30 4 190 3 140 2-sl0 2090 I 800 1 -570 | 26(l 1050 62.8
1.) 9 820 6 5-50 4 910 3 9-30 3270 2 fl I0 2 4-50 19fi) I 640 78.-s
32 l(r 100 107(X) ¡Ì 040 ó 430 -s -3í) 4 (r00 4020 3220 2 680 100.0
7 180 6280 4 190
u These covers ma-r' be rcduccd to 15 mm provided that the nominal s¡ze of aggregate docs not exceed 15 mm
b Where concrete is subject 40 2-5 100 r6 ä(X) l2 6()0 l0 100 8.180 5 030 125-6
to frcezing while wet. âir enlrâinûrenr should be used.
I l 200 98(X) (r 5-50
-s0 39200 26200 t9 íx) I5 700 13 1(X) 7 850 l-57'0

Minimum and maximum percentages of seem appropriate, as their total cross-sectional

reinforcement in members area is 646 mmz/m width. 0'45 fcu
The minimum and maximum percentages of rein- i

forcement appropriate fo¡ various conditions of

loading and types of membe¡ are given in BS 4.2 Basic pr¡nciples for the design of I

8110: Part 1. solid slabs and rectangular beams :ii

iì

Assumptions :iÌ
Reinforcement area tables
1. Plane sections remain plane in bending. lii.
Reinforced concrete design calculations usually 2. 'the tensile strength of concrete is ignored. fì
end with an area of reinforcement required. 3. The stress distribution in the concrete in com- iil
For columns, beams and other similar structural pression is derived from the stress-strain curve Tensi Ie
members, the reinforcement r^equired at any sec- shown in BS 8110: Part
lil,.
1.
tion will be quoted in mmr. This has to be 4. The stress in the reinforcement is derived from
;i

translated into a certain number of bars of given the stress-strain curve shown in BS 8110: Part
ii,

diameter.If, for example, a column required il'

2500 mm2 of reinforcement then it can be seen CROSS SECTION STRAI N SIM PLI FIED STRTSS iirì

from Table 4.'14 that eight 25 mm bars would be THROUGH BEAM. DIAGRAM BLOCK FOR CONCRETE iti
i,i
suitable, as their total cross-sectional area is Ultimate moments of resistance (based on Figure 4.1 ßcanr pro¡lcrtics
2510 mm2. lil
tension reinforcement only) ri'
In the case of slabs and other similar structural
forms, required reinforcement will be specified Mu (concrete): K'f""bd2 (where K' : 0.156)
I'

using the simplified stress block as shown in Fig-

ri
^the
in mm' per metre width. For example, if a slab
required 600 mm2/m then, from Table 4.15, Mu (tension reinforcement): (0.87fr) A,z ure 4.1. The maximum value of z is 0'77-5¿l in this
12mm bars at 175 mm centre to centre would case. The moment of resistance of the section at
These moments of resistance have been prepared ¡4
the ultimate limit state must be equal to or greater'
than the ultimate applied bending moment. E
z1
Table 4.14 Areas of reinforcement for beams and columns J

Dia. Mass Arcas in mnt: .[or groups o.f burs Basis of design !^
(mm) (kglm) t
To find the amount of tension reinforcement in a
l0 12
beam the following methods can be used: 'l

6 0.222 28 57 8-5 13 142

1 n0 198 226 255 283 3t I 340 1. Design charts.
I 0.395 50 101 l5l 201 252 302 352 402 453 -s03 -5-s3 m4 2. Design formulae.
l0 0.616 79 157 236 3t4 392 471 550 (r2fi 707 7ti5 fi64 942 0 0.5 1.0
t2 0.888 113 226 339 452 .566 6'79 792 905 1020 I 130 1240 l3m Design charts have been prepared using the stress- 100 As/bd
16 1-579 201 402 ff)3 804 I 010 1210 l4l0 I(rl0 lfÌ10 2010 22t0 24t:(l strain curves for concrete and steel as shown in BS
20 2.466 3t4 628 943 1260 1 570 I 890 2200 25t0 2830 3 r40 3 4í) 3770 8110: Part i. These charts, which are to be found Churqclerislic stfength
25 3.854 491 982 1 4t0 1 960 2450 2950 3440 3930 4420 4910 -54(X) 890 in BS 8110: Part 3, are prepared for a particular of reinforcement fY = 460 N/mmz
4 830 5 (r30 (r 430
-5
32 6.313 804 1610 2410 3220 4020 7240 8040 8 850 9 650 grade of concrete and strength of reinforcement Chorocteristic strength
40 9.864 1260 2510 3tt0 5030 6280 7 540 8800 t0 100 tI 300 l2 (r00 13 t300 l5 100
and a typical chart is shown in Figure 4.2. of concrefe fcu =30 N/mm'
5? 15.413 1960 3 930 5 890 7850 9820 1 l 800 l3 700 15 700 Il 700 l9 (r00 2l 600 23 (r00
If M < ntu for the concrete, the area of tenslon Figure 4.2 Typical clcsign chart for beams
74 Reinforced concrete .
,Simple beam design 75

Table-4..16 Lriver arm and neutral axis depth factors for beams M,"and = the moments at midspan 13. The bar spacing (maximum) is to bë'in accord-
þlsy on strips of unit width and , ance with BS 8100: Part 1.
M spans /x and /y.
/1 = -;-:l=; 0'0-5 0.0(r 0.07 0'08 0 09 0. 1(X) 0. 1 l0 0.120 0.130 0. 110 0.1-50 0. 1-5(r
.1 ,{trd- 6. Choose the appropriate concrete cover from 1
z
0.94 0.93 0'9t Table 4.13 and determine d.
fl
0 90 0.89 0.tì7 0.tÌ6 0.u4 0 82 0.r,ì0 0'79 0-775
7. Check the cover is appropriate for fire resist- 4.4 Simple beam design
.r ance if necessary (see BS 8100: Part 1).
'' 0.13 l(r 0'19 0'22 0.25 {1.29 0.32 0.35 0.39 0.13 0.47 Simply supported rectangular beam with
rl
0. 0.-s0
8. Determine the ultimate resistance momenl
based on the concrete section for the short tension reinforcement only
span (this must be equal to or greater than the 1. Decide on the material stresses to be used,
reinforcement á. can be calculated from: (a) Usê of design charts: in which case, calcu- ultimate bending moment for the short span i.e.
/." and /r.
A, = M lQ.87fy)z late Mf bd2 and determine 100A,f bd from or a larger section must be considered). 2. Assume beám size (d : effective spanflz,
Figure 4.2 or appropriate design chart in 9. Check the span/depth ratio: b: d/2).
where z is obtained from Table 4.76 for various BS 8100: Part 3; or (a) Calculate Mlbd2 and obtain modification 3. Estimate the ôharacteristic loads g¡ and 4¡ per
values of K. (b) Use of design formula: in which case, factor from Table 4.10; unit length of beam.
calculate A, : M lQ'87f ,)2. (b) Select the basic ratio from Table 4.9; 4. Calculate the design loads 1'49¡ and 1'6q¡ per
11. Select the reinforcement required from Table (c) Calculate the allowable ratio f¡om basic unit length of beam.
4.3 Simple slab design 4.15. x modification factor;
ratio 5. Determine the ultimate bending moment M.
12. Check the minimum area of reinforcement in (d) Actual ratio : effective short span/ 6. Choose the appropriate concrete cover from
Simply supported slab spanning in one either di¡ection, which should not be less than effective depth; Table 4.13 and determine the overall depth of
direction the following: 0.0013bh for high-yield steel; (e) Actual ratio ( allowable ¡atio. beam.
0'0024bh for mild steel, where b : 1000 mm 10. Calculate the reinforcement areas by either: 7. Check the cover is appropriate for fire resist-
1. Decide on the material stresses to be used, and h : overall depth of slab (mm). (a) Use of design charts: in which case, calcu- ance if necessary (see BS 8100: Part 1).
i.". /.u and /r. 13. The bar spacing (maximum) is to be in accord-
2. Assume overall thickness ft of slab.
late M."f bd2 and M,rf bd2, and determine 8. Determine the ultimate resistance moment
ance with BS 8100: Part 1. l00A.lbd from Figurê 4.2 or the appropri- based on the concrete section (this must be
3. Estimate the characteristic loads gk and qk per ate design chart in BS$100: Part 3; or equal to or greater than the ultimate bending
unlt area. (b) Use of design formula: in which case
4. Calculate the design loads 1'49¡ and 1'6q¡ per
moment, otherwise a larger section or com-
Simply supported slab spanning in two calculare A. : M.-lQ.87f y)z and A, : pression reinforcement must be considered).
unit area.
5. Determine the ultimate bending moment M. directions M,\fQ.87f ,)2. 9. Check the span/depth ratio:
(Note: Care should be taken to use the value (a) Calculate mfbd2 and obtain the modifica-
6. Choose the appropriate concrete cover from 1. Decide on the material stresses to be used. of rd appropriate to the direction of the rein- tion factor from Table 4.10;
Table 4.13 and determine d. i.e. /." and /r. forcement (see Figure 4.3).) (b) Select the basic ratio from Table 4.9;
7. Check the cover is appropriate for fire resist- 2. Assume overall thickness /r of slab. 11. Select the reinforcement required from Table (c) Calculate the allowable ratio from basic
ance if necessary (see BS 8100: Part 1). Estimate the characteristic loads gk and 4k per 4.t5.
Determine the ultimate resistance moment
3. ratio x modification factor.
8. unit area. 12. Check the minimum area of reinforcement in (d) Actual ratio : effective span/effective
based on the concrete section (this must be ,1
Calculate design load n l-6qy. : l.4g¡ + either direction should not be less than the depth.
equal to or greater than the ultimate bending
moment or a larger section must be consi-
Determine the ultimate bending moments in following: 0.0013bh for high-yield steel; le) Actual ratio ( allowable ratio.
the short and long spans fror¡: 0.0024bh for mild steel, where ó = 1000 mm 10. Calculate the reinforcement area by either:
dered). Short span: M, = u.,nll and /z = overall depth of slab(mm). (a) Use of desjgn charts: in which case, calcu-
o Check the span/depth ratio: Long span: M., -- urrnll late Mf bd2 and determine 100A,f bd ftom
(a) Calculate Mlbd' and obtain modification
factor from Table 4.10; where n : the total ultimate load per Figure 4.2 or appropriate design chart in
(b) Select the basic ratio from Table 4.9; unit area (1.49¡ + l.6qi), BS 8100: Part 3; or
(c) Calculate the allowable ratio from basic I, : the length of the longer (b) Use of design formula: in which case,
calculate A" : M lQ.87f y)z.
ratio x modification factor; side,
(d) Actual ratio : effective span/effective l* : the length of the shorter 11. Select the tension reinforcement required from
-lable 4.14.
depth; side.
(e) Actual ratio ( allowable ratio. ø,* and a,_" : the moment coefficients 12. Check the minimum and maximum reinforce-
from Table 4.i7. ment areas from BS 8100: Part 1.
10. Calculate the reinforcement area by either:
13. Calculate the shear reinforcement:
(a) Calculate the maximum shear force 7;
Table4.17 Bending moment coefficients for slabs spanning in two directions, ât right angles, simply supported on four fb) Calculate the actual shea¡ stress u from
sides v lb,ct;
(c) Determine l00A,f bd (Á, = minimum ten-
/"
1.0 I'l t'¿ 1.3 1.4 1-75 2.0 2.5 3.0 sion reinforcement allowing for curtail-
1,
ments);
d.* 0.062 0.074 0.084 0.093 0-099 0.104 0.1 13 0.1 18 0.t22 0.124
d." 0.062 0'061 0.059 0.05s 0.051 0.046 0.037 0.029 0.020 0.014
d = Effective depth. ( Short spon ) (d) Select u. from Table 4.5. If u. * 0'4 < u,
dr = Effeclive depth. ( Long spqn ) provide shear reinforcement;
At lcasl 5070 of thc tcnsion rcinforccmcnt providcd at midspan should cxtcnd to the supports. Thc remaining 50% should cxtcnd to wilhin 0.1 or 0 l of thc
h = OverotI depth. (e) Determine the bar size and spacing for
support. as appropriate. Figure 4.3 Trvo-wav spanning slat.r nominal links from Table 4.6;
\

ì

Reirtlorted cotr(;rcte
(f) Shear resistance of beam : shear resist-
ance of concrete * shear resistance of
nominal links: u,bud + value from Table
4.7 or 4.8 x effective depth of beam:
(g) If the shear resistance of the beam is less
than the ultimate applied shearing force
7, draw a shear force diagram and work
out stopping of points for shear links (see
Figure 4.4);
(h) Calculate b,,(u - u") and select from
Tables 4.7 or 4.8 a suitable bar size and
spacing of links.
t4 Recommendations for the design of anchorage
bond stress and local bond stress are siven in
BS 8100: Part 1.
Shear links
I requ rred
Sheor resistonce nomina[ [inks
Figure 4.4 Shcar Iìlrcc dia_qrarn
4.5 Basic principles for the design of
simply supported flanged beams
with tension reinforcement only
Introduction
Most beams form part of a floor arrangement tn
which the reinforced concrete floor is monolithic
with the beam. The floo¡ acts as the compression
zone for the beam, thus increasing the load capac-
ity of the member. Details of the two most com-
mon types of flanged beams are shown in Figure
4.5.
Effective width of flange
For a T-beam it is the lesser of:
1. The width of the rib + 0-2 x the distance be-
tween Doints of zero moment.
2. The actual width of the flange.
For an L-beam it is the lesse¡ of:
1. The width of the rib + 0.1 x the distance
t',veen points of zero moment.
2. -|he actual width of the flanse.
T' -l1T
.\itn¡tl_r'.stt¡t¡tortt'rl ltollt¡t blotk slult dt:.sigtt 77
flanged beams providing the depth to the neutral i4. Check the minimurn and nlaxillunr reinforcc-
axis lies within the thickness of the flange. When nrent areas fronr BS lì100: Part l.
the neutral axis lies outside the thickness of the 15. Calculate shear ancl non-rin¿rl links (see Sectioll
flange the design formula method should be used. 4.4). The beam breacìth in this case is taken as
the breadth of rveb å,..
16. Recommendations for the design of anchoraqe
4.6 Simple flanged beam design bond stress and local boncl stress ¿rre given in
Simply supported flanged beam with tension BS 8100: Part l.
reinforcement only
1. Decide on the material stresses to be
used, 4.7 Simply supported hollow block
i.e. /"u and fr.
2. Assume an overall depth and breadth of web. slab design
Estimate the characteristic loads g¡ and q¡ per
Introduction
unit length of beam.
4. Calculate the design loads l'49¡ ancl l.6r¡¡ per BS 8100 defines this tvÞe of slab as a series of
unit length of the beam. concrete ribs, cast in iìiu, between blocks which
5. Determine the ultimate bending moment M. rernain part of the cornplete structure (Figure 4.6).
6. Calculate the maximum permissible width of The tops of the ribs are usually connected by a
concrete topping of the same strength as that used
the flange.
in the ribs. Although it is suggested that under
7. Choose the appropriate concrete cover from
Table 4. 13 and determine ¿/. certain stated conditions the blocks contribute to
8. Check the position of the neutral axis by the thickness of the structural topping and breadth
determining K: Mff,,,bd2, where b : width of the rib, in the treatment given here the hollow
of flange. blocks are not regardecl as contributing to the
9. Select values of ¡r and z from Table 4.16 and structural strength and slip tiles are not consi-
calculate x. dered. As the size and weight of the blocks vary,
10. (a) If 0'9x > å¡ then tñe neutral axis hes the accurate weight of floor should be worked out
| 5ecn0n from the trade literature.
within the flange and ,4, can be deter-
mined as for a rectangular beam. Concre te Holtow
(b) If 0.9x ( å¡ then the neutral axis lies bto ck
h = outside the flange: Calculate the ultimate
Overott depth
resistance moment of the flange M,,¡ lrom
= Breodth of rib ( or web)
bw
b = E f fec tive widf h
Mur: 0'45f,,(b - b,")hr@ - 0'5år),
where ö* : breadth of the web.
1-
hf = 0vero[[ depth of slqb(or ftange) Kt: M - M,,¡f¡"ub*dr. If
(c) Catculate
K,< K'
¿
F'igure 4.5 Flanged lrcarns obtained from Table 4.16 then
select the value of ¿ from the table. If
K, > K' , redesign the section or consult
Assumptions BS 8100 for the design of compression I'igure 4.6 [Jollorv hlock slab
These are stated in Section 4.2 but are reoeated steel.
here. 11. Check span/depth ratio: Design
(a) Calculate M lbd2 and obtain the modifica-
1. Plane sections remain plane in bending. tion factor from Table 4.10 (ó is the
1. Decide on the material stresses to be used,
2. ^lhe tensile strength of the concrete is ignored. effective width of the flange).
i.e. /",, and /u.
3. The stress distribution in the concrete in com- (b) Select the basic ratio from Table 4.9. 2. Assume a size of block, thickness of structural
pression is derived from the stress-strain curve (c) Calculate the allowable ratio from basic topping and breadth of rib.
shown in BS 8100: Part 1. ratio x modification facto¡. 3. Calculate the maximum permissible width of
4. The stress in the reinforcement is derived from (d) Actuâl ratio : effective span/effective flange (usually taken as the centres of the
the stress-strain curve shown in BS 8100: Part depth.
ribs).
(e) Actual ratio (
allowable ratio. Calculate the characteristic loads gk and 4k
per unit length of slab per width of flange.
12. Calculate the reinforcement area by either:
5. Calculate the design loads 1.49¡ and 1.6q¡ per
Basis of design A, : M lp.87f ,)z; or unit length of slab per width of flange.
To find the amount of reinforcement in a flanged A,: o. Determine the ultirnate bending moment M.
beam one of the followins methods can be used: M,f l0.87fy (d - 0.5hò + M - M,,f f(0.87f y)z 7. Choose the appropriate concrete cover from
Table 4. l3 and deternine d.
1. Design charts. depending on the position of the neutral axis.
be-
2. Design formulae.
8. Check the overall thickness is appropriate for
13. Select the tension reinforcement reoui¡ed f¡om fire ¡esistance if necessarv lsee BS 8100: Part
Design charts may be used for the design of Table 4.14. 1).
 r' 'l
I

78 Reinforced concrate Axiallv louded colunuts 79

9. Check the position of the neutral axis (see h : overall thickness of base t. Convert 'design' column load to 'service' con- and 10 (unbraced) (Figure 4.8). It should other- j

Section 4.6). N, : axial column load (service) dition (1.0G¡ + l.0Ok). wise be considered as slender.
10. Select values of n and z from Table 4.16 and Nd : axial column load (design) 2. Assume a thickness of base and determine the
calculate x. N1 : load under transverse shear weight per square metre (kN/m2).
11. Calculate the ultimate resistance moment of N2 : load within area of critical 3. Determine the net allowable bearine Braced and unbraced columns
the section (see Section 4.6). perimeter pressure : Q, - weight of base (kN/m'?). A column may be considered braced in a given
12. Check span/depth ratio (see Section 4.6). N-l : load against punching Calculate the area of base re^quired : N./net
13. Calculate the reinforcement area by either: M : ultimate bending moment
4. plane if lateral stability to the structure as a whole
allowable bearing pressure (m'). is provided by a wall, bracing or buttressing de-
: critical shear perimeter
A, : M lQ'87f ,)z; or
A, = M tl9'\7f y) r
: allowable bearing pressure of soil
5. Determine side Llm). signed to resist all lateral forces in that plane. It
(d-0-5hr)+ M - M"¡l(0.87fr)2, depending Q, o. Calculate q,: N"lA (kN/m'?). should otherwise be considered as unbraced.
(service)
upon the position of the neutral axis. 7. Choose the appropriate concrete cover from
14. Select the tension reinforcement reouired from Qu : actual bearing pressure (uttimate) Table 4.13 and determine d: h - (cover *
Table 4.14.
Dy : actual transverse shear 0.5 bar diameter). Effective height of a column
15. Check the minimum and maximum reinforce-
u2 : actual punching shear 8. Calculate Nt: Qu x L x Lt (kN/m'?).
9. Choose the material stresses to be used (if not The effective height /" of a column in a given
ment areas from BS 8100: Part 1. plane may be obtained from the following equa-
16. Check the shear stress. The critical ooint for already decided).
10. Determin€ D¡ : N1 - rJ'5Ndf Lø (N/mm2). tion:
shear is usually at the edge of ttrè hollow
block and solid concrete section- The shear 11. Calculate p :41 + 12d (mm). Le
- tO
will be taken on the rib only. BS 8100 recom- 12. Calculate At: 12 + 67d + 9d2 (mm2).
13. Derermine Nr : Qu x A, (kN). Values of B are given for braced columns in Table
mends that shear reinforcement is not oro- 4.18. BS 8100 should be consulted for a more
Determine Nj : N" - N2 (kN).
l

vided in slabs. 14.

15. Calculate u: NtlPd (N/mm2). rigorous assessment of the effectiveness of braced l

(a) Calculate the shear force V at the edge of and unbraced columns.
the hollow block section. 16. Calculate M,: N,l8L(¿ - l)t (kNmm).
(b) Determine the actual shear stress u. 17. Determine the reinforcement area from .4, : It should be noted from Figure 4.8 that the ii
(c) Determine the allowable shear stress rrc. M,lQ.87f y)z. effective height of a column in the rwo plan li
directions may be different. tÌt
(d) If u. ) u, then the slab is suitable. 18. Select the reinforcement required from Table
(e) If u. < u, it may be necessary to adjust 4.14 (same in both directions).
the critical point for shear so that the 19. Determine l}}A,fbd and select the value of ì

value of u is decreased below that of u". u. from Table 4.12. Table 4.18 Column end conditions fbr braced columns
17. Recommendations for the design of anchorage 20. Check that u. ) ur and u2. If not, redesign
bond stress and local bond stress are siven in with increased base thickness. En¿l condition End condition at bottc¡m
BS 8100: Part 1. K.fì 21. Recommendations for the design of anchorage
bond stress and local bond stress are siven in
or top

lrf'Ti-î
IEl,-
l

BS 8100: Part 1.
I 0'75 0.80 0'90
4.8 Simpte column base design 2 0.80 0'8-5 0.95 ;.1
il
l

Introduction 3 090 0.95 100 ,t

The thickness of the base must be sufficient to
resist the shearing forces and bending moments
safely. The allowable bearing pressure of the soil
under the base is normally determined from tests
on soil samples. However, BS 8004 provides a
guide to the allowable pressures which can be used
for the preliminary design of the base. The size of
the base should be determined usins the column
'serviceability' loading. The design of the re-
4.9 Axially loaded columns
Introduction
A column may be defined as a compression mem-
ber whose greater overall cross-sectional dimen-
sion does not exceed four times its smaller dimen-
sion. Where provisions relate primarily to rec-
tangular cross sections, the principles involved
may be applied to other shapes where appropriate.
1.5 d
'1
Valuts ol l) Jor bruccd colu¡nls
lir\ Conlirion 1. The cnd of thc colunrn is conncctcd monol¡th¡cally to i
bcilnrs on eirhcr side which rrc ¡l lcast as dccp as thc ovcrall dinrcnsion of
thc column in thc planc considercd- Whcrc thc colu¡¡n is conncctcd t<¡ a
loundation structurc. rhis sheuld bc of a lorrn spccifically dcs¡gncd to carry
montcnl.
(6) Conttition ?. Thc cnd of thc column is conncctcd monolithically lo
bcams or slabs on cithcr sidc which arc shallorvcr than lhc ovcrall
dinÌcnsion of thc colunn in thc Dlanc considcred.
(c\ (onlition.Ì. Thc cnd o[ thc column is conncctcd to mcmbcrs rvhich.
wh¡lc nol spccifically designcd to provide rcstraint 1o rotatiorÌ of thc colunìn
w¡ll. ncvcrthclcss. providc sonre nominal rcstrainl.

inforcement for the base should be carried out Size of columns

using ultimate limit state.
The size of a column and the oosition of the
reinforcement in it may be affected by the require- Axial loads and moments
Design of a square base with concentric ments for durability and fire resistance, and these The minimum design moment for any column in
column load only (Figure 4.7) 1.5 d should be considered before the design is com- any plane should be obtained by multiplying the
Symbols used in the design menced. However, the least dimension for a rec- ultimate design axial load by an eccentricity which
tangular column should not be less than 200 mm. should be taken as 0.05 times the overall column
A : plan area of base (¿ x ¿) dimension in the relevant plane, but not exceeding
At =area within the critical shear 20mm. Alternatively, the moments in columns
perimeter Short and slender columns
may be obtained using the methods outlined in BS
d : effective depth of tension A column may be considered as short when both 8100: Part 1, subject to the minimum design
reinforcement Figure 4.7 Column basc
the ratios l".fh and l"rfb are less than 15 (braced) moments above.
 l-I
80 Reinforcedcotrcrete
De.sign requirernents Jrom BS 8110, the srructural use of concrele 8l

35
is considered as short; otherwise it is consi-
dered as slender and reference should be
30
made to BS 8100: Part 1 for the method of
design.
t>
7. Decide on material stresses to be used, i.". ,f"u

"e 2o
Yh 8.
and /r.
Calculate the reinforcement area by either:
E (a) Use of design charts: in which case, calcu-
z.-t) S: f..
N late N lbh and M /bh2 and determine
.Ñ F I}lA,,lbh from Figure 4.9 or the
N appropriate design chart in BS 8100: Part
2tu
3; or
) ) (b) Use of design formulae: in which case,
calculate Á,.:N -0'4f""A,f0'75fv or
A,, : N - 0.35Â",4 ,10.67f y, depending
31 56789 upon the loading condition on the column.
M/ bh' N/mm' 9. Select the reinforcement from Table 4.14.
10. Check the minimum and maximum reinforce-
ment areas from BS 8100: Part 1, including
the size and position of links.

fHll
-.r.-1.-r.l_J
M o.¡o r fcu 30
L+¡ fy 250
d /h 0.80
Figure 4.8 Effective column heieht
Figure 4.9 Typical design chart for columns \.

ii
Basis of design adjacent spans do not differ by more than
To find the amount of reinforcement in a column 15%) subject to uniformly distributed loads,
the following methods can be used: the column may be designed so that the desrgn
ultimate axial load does not exceed the value of
1. Design charts. N given by:
2. Design formulae.
N: 0.35/"",4 c + 0.6'lfvA,"
Design charts have been prepared using the stress-
strain curves for concrete and steel as shown in BS
8100: Part L. These charts, which are to be found Design of an axially loaded column
in BS 8100: Part 3, are prepared for a particular
grade of concrete and strength of reinforcement. 1. Calculate the ultimate desisn axial load N on
A typical chart is shown in Figure 4.9. the column section.
Columns should normally be designed using the 2. Determine a cross section for the column
charts in BS 8100: Part 3 or one of the followlns (mm x mm) with a least dimension of
simplified methods can be adopted: 200 mm.
3. Check the dimensions are adequate for dura-
1. In the case where, due to the nature of the bility and fire resistance.
structure, a column cannot be subjected to 4. Determine the end column condition from
significant moments it may be designed so that Table 4.18 and calculate the effective heieht of
the design ultimate axial load does not exceed the column. - j

the value of N given by: 5. Decide whether the column is braced or un-
N:0.4f"uA"+0-75fyAs" braced.
6. Calculate the slenderness ratios /"*/fr and
2. When a column supports an approximately l"rfbf.or the column. If both ratioJ'äre less
symmetrical arrangement of beams (i.e. where than 15 (braced) or 10 (unbraced) the column
 -r'l

Design reqnirements from BS 81 10, The slructural use of concrete 83

F
values given in Table 5.1. The allowable compress-
5 ive strength of the concrete at transfer of stiess is
Table 5.3 Specified characteristic strengths of prestressing
wire
usually greater than the concrete strength in ser-
vice (see also 'Loss of prestress' below). Values of Nominal size Specified Nominal cross-
allowable compressive strengths at transfer are characteristic sectional area
Prestressed concrete given in Table 5.2. In some casees tensile stresses (mm)
strength
(kN) (mmt)
in flexure are permitted. Reference, however,
should be made to the ¡elevant section of BS 2 6-34 3.t4
8110: Part 1. 2-65 10'3 5.5
3 12.2 7-1
3.25 t4.3 8.3
4 21-7 12.6
Table 5.1 Compressive stresses for concrete in service
4.5 25.7 15'9
f.") 5 30.8 19.6
Nature of louding A I Iowab le co m¡t ress iv e
l 60.4 38.5
STTeSSeS

Design load in bending 0.33 /.,, (for simply sup- Table 5.4 Specified characteristic strengths of prestressing
ported beams)
strands
Design load in direct com- 0.2sf ,,,
presston
Number of Nominal Specified Nominal
5.1 Introduction 5.3 Design of a rectangular simply supported pre- wtres srze characteristic cross-sectional
5.2 Design requirements tensioned beam Charactcristic concrctc cubc strcngth.
strength area
^ù: (mtn) (kN) (mmz)

5.1 Introduction stress in the concrete through the bond between Table 5.2 Allowable compressive stresses at transfer /.¡ 6.4 44-5 24.5
the tendons and the concrete this form of 7'9 69.0 37.4
The design procedures for all but the simplest of prestressing is often used in the production of Nature of stress A llow ab Ie compres.sive
9-3 93.5 52.3
factory-made units such as floor beams. With 10.9 125 71.0
prestressed concrete members do not lend them- distribution S ITCSS
12.5 165 94.2
selves, for the purpose of this book, to a simpli- post-tensioning, ducts are cast in the concrete
t5-2 227 138.7
element through which the tendons are passed. Triangular or near-triangular o'5Â'
fied approach. The underlying structural principle distribution of prestress l8 370 2t0
of prestressing is in itself relatively simple. To After the concrete has reached a specified sirength ¿J.4 659 423
the tendons are stressed and anchored at their Near-uniform distribution of 0.4f ,,
illustrate this point an abbreviated design example prestress 28.6 823 535
for a simply supported beam of rectangular cross ends to the member, which has the effect of 31.8 979 660 I

section will be used here. setting up a compressive stress in the concrete. rt

.f.i is lhc corrcrclc strcntth lr¡rnslcr.
In the context of structural concrete, prestress- This method is normally used for larger structures i

ing is a term applied to those methods of construc- such as bridges, deck beams, etc. In both cases the
tion where the flexural tension stresses due to force in the tendons is produced by using a Table 5.5 SpecifTed characteristic strengths of prestressing
hydraulic jack. When this force is applied to the Steel bars
dead and imposed loads are balanced, or signifi-
cantly reduced by the application of a compressive concrete it is termed the 'transfer of stress'. Fo¡ The steel used in prestressing work is usually in
pre-tensioned members this takes place when the
Nominal size Specified Nominal cross-
force. This force is induced through high-strength the form of high-tensile wires or alloy steel bars. characteristic sectional area
steel or alloy tendons running through the length tendons are severed. In post-teniioned work it slrenglh
of the member. The advantage of this system over occurs as soon as the tendons are stressed. (tnrtt) (kN) (mrn2)
Definition of terms
normal reinforced concrete is that the full com-
pressive strength of the concrete is utilized unde¡ Tendon. A stretched element used in a concrete 20^ 32s 314
working conditions across most of the cross section member to impart prestress to the concrete. It can 22 375 380
consist of individual steel wires, bars or strands. 25^ 500 491
of the member. The deflection of the member is 5.2 Design requirements from BS 28 625 615
also minimized. It is though, in comparison, a Cable. A group of tendons.
costly method of construction and tends therefore 8110, The structural use of I4¡irø. Reinforcement of solid cross section uo to
32^ 800 804
35 950 961
to be used in certain specialized cases only. concrete 7 mm in diameter complying with the require- 40" 1250 1257
In specific terms there are two methods of ments of BS 2691: 1969.
achieving the prestressing effect: pre-tensioning Concrete Strands. A group of either seven or 19 wires " P¡cfcrred sizcs.
and post-tensioning. In the case of pre-tensioning, In order to take full advantage of prestressing, wound in helical form complying with the require-
the tendons are first stressed by the application of high-strength concrete should be used. The mini- ments of BS 3617: 1977 and BS 4757: 1971.
a tensioning force. The concrete is then cast mum characteristic strensths recommended are Bars. Reinforcement of solid cross section uD to
40 mm in diameter complying with the require-
Loss of prestress
around the tendons. When the concrete has 30 N/mm2 and 40 N/mm2-for post-tensioning and
achieved the required strength the tendons are pre-tensioning, respectively. When prestressed ments of BS 4456: 1969. There are a number of ways in which the initial
severed at the ends of the member. As the tensile concrete members are in service the comoressive Values of characteristic strength for wires, prestressing force exerted by the jack is not effec-
stress in the tendons is resisted bv a comoressive strength of the concrete should not excèed the strands or bars are siven in Tables 5.3-5.5. tively retained after transfer. This is known as loss
82
84 Preslre.ssedcotrcrcte
85

of prestress. The causes can be summarized as Procedure for preliminary calculations to

follows: determine the minimum required prestress P_Pe
l Shrinkage of concrete. force p(min) and the maximum eccentricity
AZt
2. Elastic deformation of concrete. e(max) for a Class I rectangular simply
3. Creep of concrete. supported prestressed concrete beam
4. Relaxation of steel.
5. Steam curing. 1. Calculate the maximum bendine moment due
6. Friction. to the superimposed live Ioad:
wt-
Maximum initial prestress Mt : -i- (N mm)
ð
The jacking force should not normally exceed 75"/" where w : the superimposed live load per
of the characteristic strength of the tendon. In metre run of beam and / : the effective span.
some cases the force can be increased to 80% but z. Assume a value for the maximum bending
reference should be made to BS 8110: Part 1. It moment due to the self-weight of the beam, i.e.
should be noted that the initial prestress at trans- :+ '-
fer should not exceed '70"/" of the characteristic 35"/" of M 1

^
7h
strength of the tendons and in no case should it Hence M,1 : 0.35Mt (N mm). P Þo Mi
exceed 75"/o. A L'T L'T
Calculate the total service moment

Cover M,: M¿+ Mt

General rules for the cover to prestressing tendons Calculate the minimum section modulus Z,
are given in BS 8110: Part 1. required to keep within the allowable com-
pression stress in the top fibre of the concrete
in service:
Effective span M"
The effective span of a simply supported member zt:;
should be taken as the smaller of:
'/"
For values ofl". see Table 5.1.
1. The distance between the centres of bearings, Calculate the minimum section modulus Z6
or required to keep within the allowable com- (c)
2. -lhe clear distance between supports, plus the pression stress in the bottom fibre of the con-
effective depth. crete due to the initial prestress:
Mi P Pe Mi
zb A- zb- zb
--M'
Lh-
Figure 5.1 Critical stress distribution in a concrete beam bined direct and bending stress due to initial prestress;
(I "c¡ at moment of transfer. (a) Cross_section through beam (c) bending stress due tõ initial moment; (d) iransfer
5.3 Design of a rectangular simply For ¿r assume a value of 0.8 and for values of
showing assumed position of cable force p; (bj com- (initial) co-ndition
supported pre-tens¡oned beam (no /"¡ see Table -5.2. lp -tti
pe\
tension develops) A section for the beam must now be ch<¡sen *\o Ms
* /¿ - re\* N, s fcs
Symbols
based on the requirements of Z, and Z¡. lT is
also necessary to check that the actual dead
7+
\A /'zt zt

A cross-sectional area of beam lmm') load monrent M¿ is less than or equal to the
eccentricity of prestressing force (mm) assumed value of 0.35Mt. If the section chosen
allowable compressive stress for satisfies these conditions then:
f"¡
concrete at transfer (N/mm2) 7. Calculate the minimum required prestressing
r allowable compressive stress for force
-/ cs
concrete in service (N/mm2) (M. - aM,,l
:
M¿ bending moment due to deadweight of P(min)
u(2, =-' A (N)
:= + Z¡,)
beam (Nmm)
Ml bending moment due to additional 8. Calculate the maximum allowable eccentricity
dead and live loads (N mm) of the prestressing force:
M, total service moment at any section 2,, M¿
e(max)=-----+
M¿ r My (Nmm) A P(min) fmmì
\"""/ lp P"\
P prestressing force in tension (N). ql:+:-:-l
\A zbl
Ms
* ê*r.\_ ¡u > o
\A zh/ zb
Z section modulus (mm') Figure 5.1 shows the critical stress distributions Zb
in the beam at the moment of transfer, and Figure Figure 5.2 Critical stress distribution in a concrete beam
Effective force in tendon after losses 5.2 shows the critical stress distributions in the stress due to service moment; (c) stress condition in
under service conditions. (a) Combined direct and service
F"ra" in ta"d"" t."*f* beam under service conditions. bending stress due to prestress in service; (b) bending
"t
86 Prestressedconcrete
It is
values
advisable to check with the calculated
of P(min) and e(max) that the above
conditions are satisfied.
It should be noted that these results are only
preliminary, and further calculations would be
required to determine the actual loss of prestress
(an assumption has been made at this stage). The
6
requirements of ultimate limit state and deflection
should also be satisfied.
Loadbearing brickwork
and blockwork
6.1 Design requirements
6.2 Examples of determining the effective thick-
ness of brick and block walls
6.1 Design requirements
BS 5628: Parts 1-3 gives recommendations for the
design of structural brickwork and blockwork
well as the requirements of good workmanship.
Limit state
This can be defined as the achievement of acceot-
able probabilities that the brick or block wall
being designed will not become unfit for the use
for which it is required.
Characteristic loads
Since it is not, at present, possible to express loads
in statistical terms, the following characteristic
loads should be included in the design:
1. Dead loads G¡. The weight of the structure
complete with finishes, partitions, etc.
2. Imposed loads Q¡. Weight due to furniture,
occupants, etc.
3. Wind loads I4u¡.
The following publications should be used to
compute the loads on the structure:
BS 648: 1964, Schedule of Weighx of Building
Materials.
BS 6399: Part 1, Dead and Imposed loads.
CP3:Chapter V: Part 2: 1972 Wind Loads.
6.3 Design of a simple single-leaf wall
Characteristic strength of masonry
The value of the strength of masonry below which
as the probability of test results failing is not more
than 5%. The characteristic compressive strength
may be based on the results of laboratory tests or
on information given in BS 5628: Part 1: 1978.
Typical values of characteristic strength are given
in Tables 6.L-6.3.
It should be noted that where the horizontal
cross-sectional area of a loaded wall or column is
less than 0.2 m2 the characteristic comDresstve
strength should be multiplied by the factor
(0.70 + 1.5á), where A : horizontal loaded cross-
sectional area of the wall or column.
Partial safety factors
Loads
In this case partial safety factors are introduced to
take account of unforeseen variations in the
characteristic loads. These factors differ for dead,
imposed and wind loads and are set out in Table
6.4.
Materials
Such safety factors are introduced to allow for
possible differences between the characteristic
strength and the actual structural strength. The
value of these factors are generally taken as shown
ti7
 ë

I
titì Loudlteurittg brick¡'t¡rk und ltlocknt¡rk
I)a.s i ttt ret¡ tt i rcrrtut ts u9

Table 6'l Characterisitc compressive strength of masonry;f* constructed with standard-fbrmat bricks in Table 6.5, and allow for the clifference t'retween
laboratory- and site-const¡ucted brickwork and
lnsrtu or precost concrete
Cotn¡trcssive strcngth of unit (Nfnmt¡ floor or foof continuous
blockwork. over interool wott.
Mortar
designation I0 t5 20 27.5 -t-5 50 70 100
l'able 6,5 Partial safct'r'f'àctors -l',,, for ntaterial stÌength
(i) 2'5 44 6.0 9.2 I l-.+ I .s.0 19.2 21.0
( ii) 2.5 4.2 5.3 ó.4 7.9 9'4 tl-2 t-s.I 18.3
( ut(!()r.\' ttI t'rtttstrttuiott
(iii) 2'5 4.1 5.0 5.8 t.l 8,5 I0.6 13.1 l -s.5
(iv) ).) 3.5 4.4 5-2 o.¿ 7-3 9.0 10.8 12-6
('ittclorv ol Spccirrl t5 jì
nìirnulirctLrr¡ng Nor-nlrl l.s 1-5

Table 6.2 Characteristic compressive strength of solid concrete blocks conltol tll'
/¡ having a ratio of height to least horizontal
\1rucluraI
dirnensron of between 2.0 and 4.0
Lrnits
Insìtu o¡ Þrecost concrete
()onr¡tressive strength of unit (Nfntmr) f lær or rôof (rrrespecf ive
.\ì,¡ ¡;,,, r <lererPtiort rll e:rtegories r¡l illirnlrl.ìallrìrrr rr¡rl errn.trt¡r'lloll of spon direcf ion ) hos o
.(ìnlr()l \rr IiSihlSt I'lft l: 1,,75 beoring of hotf the wotI
Mortar .15 r.¡r
thickness......
designation 2.8 -t.5 5-0 7.0 t0 1-5 20 8r(ulc I

(i) 2.8 3.5 5.0 6.tì ti.u 12.0 148 22 ti Design loads
( ii) 2.8 3.5 5.0 6.4 I0.6 l2 ls.tÌ . but in no cose tess
tì.-+ ¡J
(iii) Thcsc c¿rn be defined as.
2.8 3._5 5.0 o.+ 8.2 I0.0 | 1.6 t].0 fhon 90mm.
(iv) 2.8 3.5 4.4 -5.6 7-0 f,ì.tÌ r0.1 14.6 Characteristic load x partial safety factor
As previously mentioncd, the partial safety factors
Table 6.3 Mortar mixes and strenqths vary according to the circumstanccs under which
l-igure ó.I Exant¡rlcs ol cnh:rncctl rcs¡st¿¡rìcc t<> Iirtcral
the loads are considerecì. Maximt¡rn design loads
rnovcnrcnt ol rv:lll
Mortar Type of mortar' (proportion by volLtnte) Mean contpressivc can be obtained by reference ta Table 6.4.
designation strength at 28 duys

Cement:lime: Masonrycemenl: Centanl:.sand Pre Iintinary Site

Effective height
sand sand wirh plastit'izcr (Iubora¡ory) 1C.t¡S The effective height of a wall may be taken as:
resrs (Nfmm2¡ (Nlmm'))
1. 0.75 x the clear distance between lateral suo-
(i) l:0 to.l:3 16.0 I t'0 ports which provide enhanced resistance io
(ii ) l:l:4 to 4l l:2j to 3i l:3 to 4 6.5 4'-5 lateral movement, or Insifu or precosi conc¡ete
(iii) l: l:-5 to 6 l:4 to 5 l:5 to 6 3.6 2'5 2. The clear distance between lateral supports ftoor or roof obutiinq
(iv) l:2:8 to l:-51 to 6l l:7 to 8 l.f infernol wott.
9 1.0 which provide simple resistance to Iateral
movement.
Table 6.4 Partial safety factor y, for design loads The effective height of a column should be taken
(a) Design and irnposed load (c) Dead, imposed and wind load
AS:

Loading Partial safety factor Loading Partial safety factor 1. The distance between lateral supports, or
2. Twice that distance in respect of a direction in
Design dead load 0.9G* or 1.4G, Design dead load l.2ck which lateral support is not provided.
Design imposed load l.6ok Design imposed load 1'2Q *
Design wind load 7.2Wç or 0.015Gk The effective height of a pier may be treatecl as a
whichever is the greater wall for effective height consideration if the thick-
(b) Dead and wind load ness of the pier is not greater than I '-5 times the Pock ing to be provided ot
thickness of the wall of which it fornrs a part. The of sfro,ps ond secufed
(d) Accidental damage I0 J0rsrs. S qf¡nn
Loacii:ig Partial safety factor pier should otherwise be treated as a column ln M
the plane at right irngles to the wall. The terms !,/
Design dead load 0.9G¡ or l.4C¡ Loading Partial safety factor 'enhanced' and'simple' resistance are defined rn
Design wind load 1oo
1'4W ¡ or 0.015Gk
BS -562[ì: Part l: l97tì. Examples are given rn
I

whichever is the greater Design dead load 0.095Gk or 1.05G¡

Design imposed load 0.35Q¡ (except that in the
Figures 6.1 and 6.2. ^-
case of buildings used pre-
Noftaf: L Whcrc allcflrirtivc Yrlucs ¡rc shosn. lhill protlucin-r thc ntost dominantly for storage, or
scvcrc coil(litiols shoulcl bc sclcctccl Effective length
2. In clcsign. c¡ch of thc loil(l conrbiililri()ns (rr)-(cl) shoulrl lìc c(rilsi(lcrc(l where the imposed load is
iln(l lhill !iri¡ìq thc rnost scvcrc conditions sh()úl(l l)c ¡doptc(1. of a permanent nature, The effective length of a wall may be taken as:
i. (;tr ch¡ractcrislic dead lo¡rl. 1.05Q* should be used) F igure 6.2 Exarn¡rlcs o[ sinr¡rlc rcsistancc to latcral
0t: chilrilctcristic iilìposc(l l()n(1.
Design wind load 0.35Wk l. 0'75 x the clear distance between vertical later- rìlovctncnt of rvall (0thcr cxarnplcs ol sinrplc rcsistancc
lV¡: chirractcristic rr i¡tl lo¡cl. al supports or arc shown in BS 562tÌ: Part l)
90 Loudbearittg brickn,ork und hlockn,ork Design requirements 91

2. Twice the distance between a support and a set in Portland cement mortars the slenderness Design vertical load resistance of \üalls Design vertical load resistance of cavity walls
free edge, where lateral supports provide en- ratio should not exceed 20 Tor walls less than and columns
hanced resistance to laterai movement; or 90 mm thick in buildings of more than two storeys This is given by
3. The clear distance between lateral supports; or and 27 in all other cases. Table 6.7 gives reduction þtf u When the applied vertical load acts between the
4. 2.5 x the distance between a support and a free factors for slenderness ratios 0 to 27 for varying n.. unit length of wall centroids of the .two leaves of a cavity wall or
edge, where lateral supports provide simple eccentricities at the top of the wall and Figure 6.3
li walls it should be replaced by two equivalent axial
resistance to lateral movement. illustrates various assessments of eccentricities. where loads on the two leaves, and then designed in
= capacity reduction factor allowing for accordance with the above.
Table 6.7 Capacity reduction factor B
Effective thickness the effects of slenderness and eccen-
tricity (see 'îable 6.7),
The effective thickness of a single-leaf wall or Slentlerness Eccentricity at to¡t oJ'vuall f. :
ralto JK characteristic strength of the masonry Concentrated loads (design stress reductions)
column is the actual thickness. With a cavity wall obtained from Tables 6.1 or 6.2,
or column this thickness should be taken : BS 5628: Part 1: 1978 suggests three types of
as: Up to t the thickness of the wall,
: concentrated load application where the normal
the partial safety factor for the mate-
1.. i(y + r), or 0-05t 0.1t 0-2t 0.-1t fm
rial obtained from Table 6.5.
design stress may be reduced.
2. tt, or
3.t2, 0 t.00 0 tìu 0.óó 0-44 Type I. The stresses obtained from concentrated
0 1.00 0.tì8 0.66 0.44 loads bearing over substantial areas of the wall
where 11 and t2: actual thickness of the brick or ò I.00 0.8tì 0.66 0.44
Design vertical load resistance of columns (Figure 6.4) may be increased by 1.25 x the nor-
block leaf. l0 0-91 0.uti 0.66 0-44
mal design stress.
When a wall is stiffened by piers or intersecting t2 0'93 0.rì7 0.66 0..14 This is given by
t4 0 tì9
Type 2. The stresses obtained from concentrated
0.83 0.66 0.44
walls the effective thickness of a sinsle-leaf wall t6 0 tì3 þbrf x loads bearing over very limited areas of the wall
0.77 0.64 0'44
(which may be one leaf or a cavity wãll) is given l8 0.17 0.70 0.-s7 0-44 (Figure 6.5) may be increased by 1.50 x the nor-
fm
by: 20 0.70 0.64 0 -5 I 0.31 mal design stress.
where Type 3. The stresses obtained from concentrated
ter:tXK 22 0.62 0.56 0.43 0.30
1Á
0.53 0-47 0.34
fr : characteristic strength of the masonry loads borne by properly designed spreader beams
where: !6 0.4,s 0.31Ì
obtained from Tables 6.1, or 6.2, located at the end of the wall (Figure 6.6) may be
ter : the effective thickness of the wall or
27 0'40 0.33
t : the thickness of coluñrn. increased by 2.0 x the normal design stress.
leaf, N¿lc: lt is not Dcccssilr\/ lo considcr thc cll¡cts ol ccccnlricilics up to
b : width of column,
t : the actual thickness of the wall or leaf, lhilr) or cquill lo {).-s/.
lcss
t3
: capacity reduction factor determined in It should be remembered that all other loadines
K the appropriate stiffness coefficient accordance with the recommendations on the same areas as the concentrated load must
taken from Table 6.6. of BS 5628: Part 7: 1978. be taken into account in the desien.
Axial lood
If intersecting walls are used to stiffen a wall from qbove
instead of piers, assume the intersecting wall to be
a pier, where b : thickness of the intersecting
wall and /p : 3 x the thickness of the stiffened Lood from brickwock obove taken
wall. The appropriate stiffness coefficient may os qxiot df o Ioterot suDDorf.
then be obtained from Table 6.6.
--Y?t
Table 6.6 Stiffness coeflicient 1( for walls stiffened bv
piers 1/3
Lood from ftoor octs ol b
frorn looded foce.
Ratio of pier spacing Ratio of pier thickness to
(centre to centre) to pier actual thickness of wall to Eccentricity = I0.5-0.33b jt <7t
width which it is bonded ¡

Moderofe spon concrete ftoor

6 1.0 1.4 2.0 token qs qxiqt.
10 1.0 t.2 t-4
20 1.0 1.0 1.0 50nms x< llt
No restriction
Slenderness ratio
Edge distonce moy be zefo
This can be defined as:
Long spon conrete floor
Effective height eccenfricity = 0.1 6ó t LocoI design stress 1.25 fk
Effective thickness Yrn

BS 5628: Part 1: 1978 recommends that for walls Figure 6.3 Typical exanrples of assessment of cccentricity Figure 6.4 A typical conccntratccl load of Tvrre I
 I
I

92 Loadbearins brickwork and blockwork Design of a simple single-leaf wall 93

6.2 Examples of determining the

effective thickness of brick and
block \üalls
1.. Determine the effective thickness for the
unstiffened cavity wall shown in Figure 6.7.
< /+t
Case t"¡: lQ1 + t2)
(a)
t"r : J(150 + 75) = 150 mm
distonce > x
Case (b) ter: tt: 150 mm
Case (c) tet : tz: 75 mm Figure 6.8 A stiffened single-leaf wall
1ât=r<t Locol design strength 't.5 f k
In this example the effective thickness of the
Tm wall : 150 mm.
2. Determine the effective thickness for the stiff-
ened single-leaf wall shown in Figure 6.8.
Figure 6.5 A typical concentrated load of Type 2
t]:"ol:tÏ : Í90: ,u
Pier width 440
Pierthickness: 430
A.t""l *^ll 2I5: "
From Table 6.6 the stiffness coefficient
K: 1'2. Hence
ter : l'2t
Distribution of stress under x 2I5 :258 Figure 6.9 A stiffened cavity wall
the soreqder shoutd be bqsed tet: 1.2 mm
on on occeptobte etostic theory Effective thickness of wall : 258 mm
3. Determine the effective thickness for the stiff- 2. Calculate the design loads using partial safety 7. Select the capacity reduction factor from
ened cavity wall shown in Figure 6.9. factors from Table 6.4. Table 6.7.
3. Assess the type of lateral support at the top 8. Select the partial safety factor for the material
ts"oït$ :19,0: ro and bottom of the wall and determine the strength y, from Table 6.5.
Pier width 440 effective height (mm). 9. Calculate the characteristic compressive
Pier thickness: 215 4. Calculate the effective thickness of the wall if strength of the masonry from:
A"t""l *"ll tti.'k""* = ¿'u9 necessary (mm). Design load x y-
IA2.5
5. Calculate the slenderness ratio of the wall ^
rñ
From Table 6.6 stiffness coefficient (K): I'22. from:
ßxt
Hence 10. Select the appropriate mortar designation and
Effective height type of mortar from Table 6.3.
tw: t'22 x 102'5
Effective thickness 11. Select the brick or block strensth from Tables
: 125'1mm 6. Assess the degree of eccentricity of loading at 6.L or 6.2.
Therefore t.r : 4(125.1 + 102.5) the toD of the wall.
t"t : !52'73 mm
In this example the effective thickness of the
wall : 151'73 mm

/N
Figure 6.6 A typical concentrated load of Type 3
.^-.llso
'" t2
t

Figure 6.7 An unstiffened cavity wall

Walls subjected to shear forces

6.3 Design of a simple single-leaf wall
BS 5628: Part 1: 1978 should be consulted where
walls resist, in shear, horizontal forces acting in 1. Estimate the characteristic loads Gr and 2t
their plane. (kN). --zlr
 ry
a

Active pressures on a vertical wull with cohensionLess soil backing 95

due to a superimposed uniformly distributed

7 surcharge
Pw intensity of water pressure on the wall back
at a given depth
maximum safe bearing capacity of the soil
Retaining walls q
R resultant thrust on the foundation soil per
unit length of wall
r( ¡1 horizontal component of the resultant thrust
on the foundation soil per unit length of wall
Ru vertical component of the resultant thrust on
the foundation soil per unit length of wall
w weight per unit length
W, intensity of surcharge loading per unit ai'ea
fu average density of all the strata down to a
given depth
submerged density of soil Figtre7.2 Activc picssurc cliasram (Rankinc)
lr
|¿ dry density of soil
lm moist density of soil
/. saturated density of soil Rankine's fonnuia assrìmes that ô : 0: tlielefore
)* density of water secO:landhence
z vertical distance measured behind the wall
7.r Pressures on retaining walls due to soil and 7.5 Design of a gravity wall with cohesionless soil ô angle of friction between the retained earth po : Kulz (kN/m2)
other granular materials backing and horizontal ground and wall back ¡72
7.2 Active Dressures on a vertical wall with cohe- 7.6 Design of a reinforced concrete cantilever walÌ
A angle of internal friction of the retained p": Koy
'¿
sionless soil backing with cohesionless soil backing and horizontal earth =(kN/m)
7.3 Active Dressures on a vertical wall with cohe- ground -- : (l
K" ,ffi:
- sinrÞ) -l - ¿\
sionless soil backing 7.7 Factors of safety for retaining walls in cohe- (r+slnq, ranrl+S
\ {llt
7.4 Bearing pressures on foundation soil sionless materials
7.2 Ãctive pressures on a vertical wall Typical values of þ and K,, are shown in Tatrles
7.1 and 7 .2 and densities of cotresionless matelials
with cohesionless soil backing are given in Table 7.3.
For earth-retaining structures the relevant code rs D depth of the foot of foundation below
Horizontal ground (Figures 7.7 and 7.2)
Civil Engineering Code of Practice No. 2 (1951). ground level at front of wall
It should be noted that some of the information d distance of a point below the earth surface The active pressure intensity at any depth below
contained in this publication is still in imperial in front of the wall the horizontal ground surface is given by the '['able 7. l Typical values of rp fbr cohensionlcss niaterials
units. code will
It is, however, anticipated that the e eccentricity of the resultant thrust equation
be revised and published as a British Standard at a f, pressure on the foundation soil at the toe of
pn : Kulz Mutariuls
the wall secð (kN/rn2)
future date.
fz pressure on the foundation soil at the heel The total active pressure San<ìy gravc-l -j5-45"
of the wall Cornpact sand -3-5,40'
7.1 Pressures on retaining walls due .t-1 vertical height of the earth retained by the P,: Kot *¿ secô (kN/m) Loose sancl 30-3_s'
Sltalc l'illing 30- 35"
wall and foundation
to soil and other granular I't net vertical height of the earth retained by
Rock {illing -3-5 -4-s"
Ashcs t¡r blokcn brick 35- 4-s'
materials the wall
h,u vertical distance to ground water level
The pressures considered in this book apply to Ko coefficient of active earth nressu¡e for cohe-
cohesionless soils such as sands and gravels. Other sionless soils
materials which possess the property of internal L length generally
p Tahle 7.2 Values of K, for cohesionless rÍrateriâls (vertical
friction (for example, coal, coke grain and certain total active lateral thrust per unit length of walls and horizontal ground)
ores) may also be considered under this heading. wall on the wall back due to earth alone
Pressures due to cohesive soils such as silts and Pa intensity of active lateral pressure at a given Values of Q
clays are too complex to be dealt with in a work depth due to earth alone Values
of this description ancl reference should be made P total passive ¡esistance of earth in front of oÍõ 25' 30' .15' 40'
to the code. the wall
yp intensity of the passive resistance of the Values of K"
Symbols used in calculating pressures on earth in front of the wall at a given depth
below the surface 0" 0.41 0.33 0-27 0-22 0.11
retaining walls P total lateral thrust per unit length of wall on
10' 0'31 0.31 0.25 0.20 0.16

breadth of the base or foundation of the wall back due to uniformly distributed load
20" 0'34 0.28 0.23 0.19 0.15
B 30" 0.26 0.2r 0.17 0. 14
wall P,, intensity of lateral pressure at a given depth Figure 7.1 Activc pfcssuro diagrarn (general casc)
 _N

96 Retaining walls Passive pressures on a vertical wall with cohensionless soil backing 97

Tabte 7.3 Densities of cohesionless materials (kg/mt)

However, another method which the student The total passive resistance
Materíal Density when Density when
may consider for this case is Coulomb's wedge ,, )2
drained above submerged be- theory. Space does not allow a description here of P, - K, * secô (kN/m)
ground water low ground wa- the wedge theory but it is fully described in most
level (y^) ter level (y6) books on the mechanics of engineering soils. es Uetore, Rankine's formula assumes that
ô: 0: hence
Gravel 1600-2000 I
Saturated soils: horizontal ground (Figure 7.5) pp : Kptd (kN/m2)
Coarse and medium sands 1680-2080 | 960-1280 If the ground water level is at a depth lz* below K^yDz
- : --\-
Fine and silty sands L760-21,60 ) the surface of the ground the backing will be Po (kN/m)
f
granites and shales 1600-2080 960-1280 waterlogged below this level and its density will be
(1 + sinó)
Rocks .l
basalts and dolerites 1760-2240 1120-1600 the submerged value as shown in Table 7.3. Rank-
^o
:
(t _ìinó)
: tan,(o, t g\
I
limestones and sandstones
'
chalk
1280-1920
960- 1280
640-1280
320-640
ine's formula then becomes \+J-r t/
Broken brick rt20-1760 640-960 Pt K^l^hn (kN/m'z) Typical values of Ko are given in 'lable 7.4.
Ashes 640-960 320-480
P1 *^r^*(kN/m) (1) Table 7,4 Values of Ko for cohesionless materials (vertical
Fully saturated density = 5q66ç¡t.d density + 1000 kg/ml walls and horizontal ground)
.Ys:Yb+yw P2 : K^t-hn (H - h*) (kN/m) (2)
Values of
Superimposed uniformly distributed load: p, : K^!h" (kN/m'z) pz : K^tu (H - h*) (kN/m'z) Q

horizontal ground (Figure 7.3) The total active pressure P3 : lH-h."\ Values of y 25" 30" 35' 4r
Kurt (kN/m) (3)
Rankine replaced the superimposed uniformly dis- Pu: K^rH"H (kN/m)
l-l Values of K,
tributed load by an equivalent height of earth: pt : y* (H - /r") (kN/m2)
0' 2-5 3.0 3.7 4.6
Pa : /" lH-h-\
hence:
,w"
ne:
Ground sloping at an angle equal to the angle
\-/ (tN/m) (4) å3:
J.I
3-7
4.0
4.9
4.8
6.0
6.5
8.8
of repose (Figure 7.4) 30. 5.8 7.3 tt.4
- Hence the total active p."riu."
where In this case Rankíne assumed that the angle of
repose is equal to the angle of internal friction. =Pr*P2]-P3rPa
h" : equivalent height of earth, Therefore the active pressure intensity at any
depth is given by the equation
W" : supeiimposed UDL, 7.3 Passive pressures on a vertical Saturated soils: horizontal ground (Figure 7.8)
pa : lz cos @ (kN/m2) In this case, using Rankine's formula
density of material. wall with cohesionless soil backing
Therefore the active pressure intensity at any
The total active pressure
Horizontal ground (Figures 7.6 and 7.7) pt : Kry^d* (kN/m'z)
depth below the horizontal ground surface is given Hz
P^=!;-cosó(kttt/m) The intensity of passive resistance at any depth P¡ :
by the equation
below the horizontal ground surface is given by
Kpr- f 1tN/m¡
L
(1)

the equation P2 = Kpy^d* (D - d*) (kN/m) (2)

Pp: Kpla secô (kN/mz) Pz = Kora (D - d*) (kN/m'z)

P1 Moist ground

Figure 7.4 Active pressure diagram (Rankine) for in- Figure 7.5 Active pressure diagram (Rankine) for satu-
Figure 7.3 Active pressure and surcharge diagram clined sround rated sround
 -re 'l
I

98 Retaining walls Design of a gravity wall with cohensionless soil backing and horizontal ground, õ - 0 99

l^-,1 \2 Table 7.5 Maximum safe bearing capacities for foundations of width greater than
P3 :K,tt\=) (kN/m) (3) I m and depth not less than 600 mm (cohesionless soils)
: y* (D - d*) (kN/m2) Typical Max. safe bearing

: r" lo-a-\
values of capacity (kNlm'z)
P¿ |,-J rtN/m'z) (4)
Type of soil
a
(degrees) Dry Submerged

Hence the total passive resistance Compact well-graded sands and 40-45 400-600 200-300
:Pt*Pz-lPt*Pq gravel-sand mixtures
Loose well-graded sands and 35-40 200-400 100-200
gravel-sand mixtures
Compact uniform sands 35-40 200-400 i00-200
7.4 Bearing pressures on foundation Loose uniform sands 30-35 100-200 50- 100
soil
Dry means rhar rhc ground water lcvel is at a depth not less than the width B of the foundat¡on below the
The bearing pressures on the fóundation soil be- bottom of the foundation.

Figure 7.6 Passive pressure diagram (general case) neath the base of the wall may be calculated as
follows: the above cases are shown in Figure 7.9. The Table 7.5. Note that in gravity walls R, should not
maximum pressure in all cases should not exceed fall outside the middle third of the base.
1. Where R" falls inside the middle third of the the maximum safe bearing capacity of the soil.
base: Typical values for cohesionless soils are givefl in
- R,
¡,:-lt+-l l, 6"\ 7.5 Design of a gravity wall with
JI B \' BI cohesionless soil backing and
f":
J:
R., |
--:l
11
6-\ horizontal ground, ô: 0
B \' - B]
R
-:- e<-a
b
1.. Assume a cross sectìon for the wall (the width
2. Where R" falls at the middle third of the base:
of the base is approximately half the height of
2R" fz
" B
the wall).
2. Calculate the vertical line in which the centioid
lies by taking moments of areas about the bàck
fz:o of the wall (Figure 7.10).
3. Where R" falls outside the middle third of the 3. Calculate the weight of one metre-run of wall
base: w and the total active pressure Pu due to the
2Ru earth bâcking.
"
JI 4. Find graphically or by calculation where the
JD
R
resultant thrust R cjf P" and W cuts the base of
Figure 7,7 Passive pressure diagrarn (Rankine) fz=0 e= i-o the wall and determine the eccentricity e.
The assumed distribution of bearing pressure for Graphically, and with reference to Figure 7.11,
to scale Oa represents P", Ob represents W
t2 and Oc is the resultant ihruSt R. Hence e can

Moist gi'ound P1

-
Ptr___$ ground P3 - Y L.
-I-soturol.¿
(q) (b)
Figure 7.8 Actiie pressure diagram (Rankinc) for satu-
rated ground Figure 7.9 Bcaring pressure cliagrams F-igure 7.I0 The centre of gravity of retaining walls
100 Retaining walls Factors of safety for retaining walls in cohesíonless materials t01

be obtained by scaling the distance from the 7.6 Design of a reinforced concrete
midpoint of the base to the point where the cantilever wall with cohesionless
resultant cuts the base of the wall. Bv calcula-
tion: soil backing and horizontal
P^H groundr ô: 0
': zw e:x-u 1. Assume dimensions for the base and stem. The
where a: distance from the centre of gravity thickness of the base should be at least equal to
of the wall to the midpoint of the base. the thickness of the stem. The width B of the
5. Calculate the bearing pressure on the founda- base is about two-thirds the height of the wall
tion soil beneath the base (see Section 7.4). for Figure 7.I2(a) and about half the height of
the wall for Figure 7.12(b) and (c).
2. Calculate the total ultimate active pressure P"
due to earth backing. Note that the pressure
acts horizontally (ô: 0) in the case of rein-
forced concrete retaining walls.
3. Calculate the vertical line in which the centroid
lies by taking moments of areas about the heel
of the wall (Figure 7.13):
IVs : weight of stem per metre run (kN),
Irys: weight of base per metre run (kN),
I/e : weight of earth per metre run (kN),
Figure 7.13 Position of resultant vertical load in a re-
Taking moments about the heel inforced concrete cantilever wall Figure 7.15 Moment in base of a reinforced concrete
retaining wall
(Ws + WB + WE)x: ll/srs * Wsxs * Wpx¿
+. Calculate the weight of one metre run of wall.
Hence
W:Ws*WsiWe 7.7 Factors of safety for retaining
\üalls in cohesionless materials
5. Find where the resultant thrust R of Pu and I{
cuts the base (as for gravity walls). Resistance to overturning (Figure 7.16)
6. Calculate the bearing pressures on the founda- In gravity walls the resuhant thrust should not fall
tion soil beneath the base (see Section 7.4). outside the middle third of the base of the wall. In
7. Calculate the ultimate bending moment in the all other cases a factor of safetv of at least 2 is
c,u stem (Figure 7.L4) and determine the amount
lz centre tine required.
l\-of bose of reinforcement required in accordance with
BS 8110.
Figure 7.ll Position of resultant thrust in a cavity wall 8. Calculate the ultimate bending moments in the Bearing pressures
The maximum pressure exerted on the foundation
soil beneath the wall base, which will usually be at
the toe, should not exceed the safe bearing capa-
city appropriate to the foundation soil. For typical
values of safe bearing capacities see Table 7.5.
These give a factor of safety of at least 2.
M qt bottom
of stem = poh¡,
Resistance to forward movement (sliding)
Figure 7.14 Moment at bottom of stem of a RC retain- (Figure 7.17)
ing wall
For cohesionless soils, the base friction resistance
base. For example, the ultimate bending mo- under a concrete foundation cast in situ may be
ment XX in Figure 7.15 is due to downward determined by assuming that the angle of friction
pressure of earth, downward pressure due to beneath the base is equal to the tangent of the
weight of base and upward pressure due to angle of internal friction of the soil beneath the
reaction from the soil. Calculate the reinforce- foundation (see Table 7.1). When the foundation
ment required. Moment and reinforcement cal- is not cast in situ the angle of friction should be
culations should be in accordance with BS taken as equal to ô, the angle of wall friction.
Figure 7.12 RC cantilever wall types 8110. In theory the passive pressure will assist in
102 Retaining walls

F= FrictionqI resi

F=
of soit.
Rv ton Ø Foctor of sofety
Index
- t+PP
--ã--\L
,,¡
Rx= HorizontoI HH
component of the
Resuttont IR]

Pn

Anchorage of reinforced concrete, 68-69 concrete, prestressed s¿e Prestressed concrete

Concrete, reinforced se¿ Reinforced concrete
Roto ti o n
Figure 7.17 Rcsistance to forward movenlcnt
For wdtts other thon gravity fype Balustrades and parapets, horizontal loads on, 9
resisting the forward moment of the wall, due to Basic SI units, 1 Dead Loads and Imposed Loads. BS 6399,67,87
the foctor of sofefy'Siqbititv
momen t active pressure. This should be treated with ex- Beams, Definitions
= 0veif Liflì-ing motnenT treme caution as the passive resistance of the prestressed concrete, 84-86 general,3-7
reinforced concrete, steel wires and bars for prestressed concrete, 83
ground is often sought at relatively shallow depths
flanged, design.76-77 structural steelwork, l6-17
=Wk =3WX tn where the soil is subject to seasonal change. Deflection of steel beams, 30-31
PoH/- HOH When computing the total force resisting sliding, simply supported rectangular, 75-76
t5 span and shear resistance, 68-69 Deflections, bending moments, sheai force and shear
base friction oi adhesion may be added to the steel, subject to bending only, 17-31 properties. 9- l4
Figure 7.16 Resistance to overturning passive resistarice of the ground in front of the Design requirements,
Bending moment,
toe. A factor of safety of approximately 2 should definition, 5 foadbearing brickwork and blockwork, 87-92
be applied to the total force calculations. maximum, 9, l0 prestressed concrete, 82-84
shear force, deflections and shear properties,9-14 reinforced concrete, 66-J2
Bolts, simple connections in steelwork, 40-45 structural steelwork, 16
Bond stress of reinforced concrete, 68 structural timber, 58-63
Brickwork and blockwork, loadbearing, see Loadbezrring Design vertical load resistance of walls, columns and
brickwork and blockwork cavity walls, 9l
British Standards and codes of practice 14, see also Double-angle steel struts, 34-36
Standards
Buckling and bearing capacity of the web of steel beams,
26-31 Effective height and length of walls, 89
Effective length of columns and slenderness ratio,
definition,6
Effective span of prestressed concrete beam, 84
Cantilever wall in reinforced concrete, 100
of timber, 6l-62
Characteristic loads for reinforccd concrete, 67
Effective thickness of walls, 90,92-93
for structural brickwork and lrlockwork. 87-89
Elasticity, 3
Characteristic strength of masonry, 87-89
modulus of, 4
of prestressed concrete, 83
in timber, 59-60
of reinforced concrete, 67
End fixity of beams. definition, 3
Circle, properties of, l2
Code for timber, 58-59
Codes of practice, l4-15
Civil Engineering. No.2 (1951), 92 Factor of safety, 3-4, 67,10I-102
Columns, Fillet welds, 4l-42
of reinforced concrete, 78-81 Flat roofs, toading, 7
steel, base plate subject to axial compressive load Floors, minimum imposed floor loads, 7, 8

only, 46 Force, definition, 4

steel, cased column subject to axial load only, 36
steel, in a sirnple multi-storey construction, 37-38
steel, subject to axial load only, 31-34
Compatibility of units, 2-3
Compression flange of steel beams, 18-19
Grade stress in timber, 58-59
Gravel, sands, rocks, and ashes, densities of, 96
Gyration, radius of, definition, 6
103
 Index 105
r04 Index

Standards, 14.41 Structural timber, 58-65

Height, length and thickness of brick walls, effective, Rectangle, properties of, 10 angles, 45 design requirements, 58-63
89-93 Rectangular beam in prestressed concrete, 84-86 Dead Loads and Imposed Loads . BS 6399 ' 67 ' 87 solid rectangular timber section in axial compression,
High-strength friction-grip (HSFG), 40-43 timber sections, 63-65 for high-tensile wires and steel bars for prestressed 65
Hinged members, definition, 6 Reinforced concrete, 66-81 concrete, 83 solid rectangular timber section in bending, 63-65
Hooke's law,4 axially loaded columns, 79-81 Schedule of Weights of Building Materials. BS ó48' 67' Structural Use oÍ Concrete. BS 81f0, 66-83
Hooks and bends of reinforced concrete, 69 basic principles for the design of simply supported 87 Structural IJse of Timber. BS 52ó8, 58
HSFG, High-strength friction -grip, 40-43 ' flanged
beams with tension reinforcemènt only, Specification for Timber Grades for Stuctural Use' BS Struts, steel, discontinuous single- and double-angle
76-77 4987, 58 struts subject to axial load only,34-36
basic principles for the design of solid slabs and Structural Use of Concrete. BS 8110, 66-83 Symbols,
Indices, expression of, 2 rectangular beams, 72-7 4 Structural IJse of Timber. BS 5268' 58 for calculating pressures on retaining walls' 94-95
Inertia, moment of, 5 design of a cantilever wall, 100 Steel, section properties,9
International System (SI) units, 1-3 design requirements from BS 8110, 66-72 beams, 17-31 and subscripts used for timber,60
simple beam design, 75-76 columns, 3l-34, 36-38, 46 used for concrete, 66-67
simple column base design, 78-79 double-angle steel struts, 34-36 Système International d'Unités (SI), 1-3
K factors in timber, 60-62 simple flanged beam design, 77 members, simple tension, 38-39
simple slab design, 74-75 used in prestressed concrete, 83
simply supported hollow block slab design,77-78 Steelwork, structural s¿e Structural steelwork Thickness of walls, 90,92-93
Lateral and torsional restraint of steel beams, 19-26 Resistance, moment of, definition, 5-6 Strain, definition, 7 Timber. structural, 58-65
Length of columns, 6 Restraint of steel beams, 19-26 Streneth classes for timber,59 see also Structural timber
of brick walls, 89-93 Retaining w alls, 9 4 - 102 Strenlth of concrete, 67, 85 Torsional and lateral restraint of steel beams, 19-26
Limit stâte design, 67 actlve pressures on a vertical wall with cohesionless of masonry, 87-89 Triangle, properties of , ß-12
Load factor, definition, 4 soil backing, 95-97 Stress, definition, T
Loadbearing brickwork and blockwork, 87-93 bearing pressures on foundation soil, 98-99 Stress-graded timber, 58-59
design requirements, 87 -92 design of a gravity wall with cohesionless soil backine Structural steelwork, 16-57 Universal Beam, 19, 34
design of a simple single-leaf wall,92-93 and horizontal ground, ô = 0,99-100 beams subject to bending only, 18-31 Universal Column, 34
examples of determining the effective thickness of design of a reinforced concrete cantilever wall with cased column subject to axial load only, 36
brick and block walls, 92 cohesionless boil backing and horizontal ground, columns in a simple multi-storey construction, 37-38
Loading, 7-9 ô:0, 100-101 column base plate subject to axial compressive load Walls, retaining see Retaining walls
for floo¡s and roofs, 7-9 factors of safety for, in cohesionless materials, 101- onlY, 46 Web buckling and web bearing of steel beams, 26-30
for timber, 62 t02 columns subject to axial load only, 31-34 Wind loading,9
Loads, characteristic, for reinforced concrete, 67 passive pressures on a vertical wall with cohesionless definitions,16-17 Wires, bars or strands for prestressed concrete, 83
horizontal, on parapets and balustrades, 9 soil backing, 97-98 discontinuous single- and double-angle struts subject to Wood,58-65
pressures on, due to soil and other granular materials, axial load onlY, 34-36 see also Structural timber
94-95 section classification, 19
Magnitude of SI units, 1 Roller bearing, definition, 6 section properties, 46-57
Masonry, characteristic strength of, 87-89 Roofs, loading for flat and sloping, 7 simple connections, 40-46 Yield stress, definition. 7
Mass densities of materials, 9, 96 simple tension members, 38-39 Young's modulus, definition, 4
Members, simple tension steel, 38-39
Middle-third rule, 4
Modification factors in timber, 60-62 Safety factors, definition, 3-4
Modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus, 4 of ¡einforced concrete, 67
in timber, 59-60 for retaining walls, 101-102
Moisture content of timber, 59-60 Schedule of Weights of Building Materials, BS 64g, 67,
Moment bending, definition, 5 87
Moment of a force, definition, 5 Section modulus, definition, 6
Moment of inertia, definition, 5 Section properties, 9
Moment of resistance, definition, 5-6 Shear force, bending moments, deflections and shear
properties, 9-14
SI Units, 1-3
Notation of SI units, 3 see also Svmbols Simply (freely) supported beams see End fixity of beams
Single-angle steel struts, 34-36
Single-leaf wall, design of brick, 92-93
Parallel axis theorem, 13 Slabs and rectangular beams of ¡einforced concrete,
Parapets and balustrades, horizontal loads on, 9 72-75,76-78
Pinned (hinged) members, definition, 6 Slenderness ratio, definition, 6
Prestressed concrete, 82-86 of steel beams, 22-26,30
design of a rectangular simply supported pre-tensioned of walls, 90
beam, 84-86 Sloping roofs, loading, 7
design requirements from BS 8110, 82-84 Softwood species, strength class,59 j

Soil and retaining walls, 94-102

Span of prestressed concrete beam, 84
Radius of gyration, definition, 6 of timber, 61-62
of a cased steel beam, 31 Specification for Timber Grades for Structural IJse,
Rankine's formula, 95-97 BS 4987, 58