INCLINED BEDDING - FOLD (LAB 2a)

OBJECTIVE :

To plot ground profile and rock formations from geological map –

inclined beddings and faulted bedding.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

a) We are able to plot subsurface profile.

b) We are able to understand the geological structure in subsurface profile.
c) We are able to understand a history of the geological area.

THEORY:

A geological map is one, which shows in the first place, the occurrence and distribution of the
rocks at the surface of the ground. Conventional sign may show certain facts of observation about them.
The geological map allows the geological structure of the country to be inferred.

Beds of rocks are bounded by bedding surfaces, which may be horizontal, tilted or bent in any
form or direction. A series of beds which have been laid down regularly one on the other, and which
may be treated as a whole, form a conformable series. It follows that the lower beds are the older. In
such a series of bedding surfaces are parallel. Each bedding surface is usually common to two beds of
rock, being the top of one and the bottom of the one next above. In the simplest case, these surfaces are
planes: bedding planes.
EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS:

1. Geological Map ( Map 14 – Appendix B )

2. Graph paper

3. Ruler

4. Pencils
PROCEDURE:

1. The cross-section was plotted with the horizontal and vertical scales accordingly to the
scale of the geological map on a piece of graph paper or blank sheet. Refer Figure 1.1. The
vertical scale was normally exaggerated to improve visibility of the profile.
2. A line was draw to join the line of cross-section on the map, says A - B.
3. The points were marked of intersection accordingly between the lines with the contours
respective to its heights using a blank piece of paper.
4. The points were transferred to the cross-section profile respective to the heights of the
contours.
5. The points was joined to form the profile of the ground elevation
QUESTIONS:

Explain types of fold (with the aid of diagram) and discuss how this structure occurred.

1.Anticline

This anticline is in Alberta, Canadia in the Rocky Mountains

Anticline is a fold that is convex up and has its oldest beds at its core. The term is not to be confused
with antiform, which is a purely descriptive term for any fold that is convex up. Therefore if age
relationships between various strata are unknown, the term antiform should be used.

2. Syncline

Syncline sidling hill

A syncline is a fold with younger layers closer to the center of the structure. Synclines are typically a
downward fold, termed a synformal syncline (i.e. a trough); but synclines that point upwards, or
perched, can be found when strata have been overturned and folded (an antiformal syncline).

3. Monocline
Local warping in horizontal strata. Rock beds lying at two level separated by steep inclined limbs. It is
form by vertical movement and generally found fault below monocline. a step-like fold in rock strata
consisting of a zone of steeper dip within an otherwise horizontal or gently-dipping sequence.

4. Chevron fold

Chevron folds with flat-lying axial planes, Millook Haven,

North Cornwall, UK

Chevron folds are a structural feature characterized by repeated well behaved folded beds with straight
limbs and sharp hinges. Well developed, these folds develop repeated set of v-shaped beds. They
develop in response to regional or local compressive stress. Inter-limb angles are generally 60 degrees
or less. Chevron folding preferentially occurs when the bedding regularly alternates between
contrasting competences.
5.Recumbent fold

Recumbent fold Bahrain

Recumbent fold has an essentially horizontal axial plane. Linear, fold axial plane oriented at low angle
resulting in overturned strata in one limb of the fold.

6. Isoclinal fold

Isoclinal folds are similar to symmetrical folds, but these folds both have the same angle and are
parallel to each other. 'Iso' means 'the same' (symmetrical), and 'cline' means 'angle,' so this name
literally means 'same angle.' So isoclinal folds are both symmetrical and aligned in a parallel fashion.
7.Plunging fold

Plunging chevron folds

A fold whose axis plane is not horizontal (not Parallel to sea level). Direction of plunge - the direction
in which the axis is inclined nose - indicate the direction of plunge. In anticline, plunge is directed
towards nose and in syncline it is directed away from nose.

8. Dome and Basin

Desert of Mauritania. dome.

It also have domes, which are like anticlines but instead of an arch, the fold is in a dome shape, like an
inverted bowl. Similarly, there are also basins, which are like synclines but again, instead of a sinking
arch, the fold is in a shape of a bowl sinking down into the ground. Dome: nonlinear, strata dip away
from center in all directions, oldest strata in center. Basin: nonlinear, strata dip toward center in all
directions, youngest strata in center.
9. Ptygmatic fold

Folds are chaotic, random and disconnected. Typical of sedimentary slump folding, migmatites and
decollement detachment zones. Ptygmatic folds generally represent conditions where the folded
material is of a much greater viscosity than the surrounding medium.
CONCLUSION:

Conclude your results especially by rate its effect on outcrop layer in relation to the civil engineering or
construction industry etc.

In conclusion, based on the map's map, we find every layer of stone from the fold. We need to
follow step by step for each procedure to draw a real line of drawings. The fold is the flexure curve in
the layered rock. It is the most common type of deformation in layered rocks which are usually good
fragments developed in large mountain systems due to tectonic plate collisions.

Next, the map shows the anticlines and syncline layers where the upward fold is anticline and
down is the syncline. Anticline is an upward curve or convex upward with the oldest rock layer on its
core and the syncline is a curved down or curved up where the youngest layer of stone is on its core.
Clay up from the original structure when we look at the cross section x - y. The geological map
graphically delivers vast geological information and represents the projection on a flat piece of paper
from crossing between geological 3D features with surface topography with additional benefits that
reflect each relative age, composition and relationship between rocks and sediments in and near the
surface this earth.

Finally, based on the soil profile and rock formations, there are sloping bedding which are bent
from everywhere and in the direction. The shade beds form shapes look like rattan. On the scarf, there
is a sandstone decoration. Sandstone is the youngest of these three stones. The clay is the oldest among
the rocks as it lies and covers the lowest area or contour position that is on the surface of the earth.
FAULT BEDDING (LAB 2b)

OBJECTIVE:

To plot ground profile and rock formations from geological map - faulted bedding.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

a) We are able to plot subsurface profile.

b) We are able to understand the geological structure in subsurface profile.
c) We are able to understand a history of the geological area.

THEORY:

A geological map is one, which shows in the first place, the occurrence and distribution of
the rocks at the surface of the ground. Conventional sign may show certain facts of observation
about them. The geological map allows the geological structure of the country to be inferred.

Beds of rocks are bounded by bedding surfaces, which may be horizontal, tilted or bent in
any form or direction. A series of beds which have been laid down regularly one on the
other, and which may be treated as a whole, form a conformable series. It follows that the lower
beds are the older. In such a series of bedding surfaces are parallel. Each bedding surface is
usually common to two beds of rock, being the top of one and the bottom of the one next above.
In the simplest case, these surfaces are planes: bedding planes.
EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS:

1. Geological Map ( Map 14 – Appendix C )

2. Graph paper

3. Ruler

4. Pencils
PROCEDURE:

1. The cross-section was plotted with the horizontal and vertical scales accordingly to
the scale of the geological map on a piece of graph paper or blank sheet. Refer
Figure 1.1. The vertical scale was normally exaggerated to improve visibility of the
profile.
2. A line was draw to join the line of cross-section on the map, says A - B.
3. The points were marked of intersection accordingly between the lines with the
contours respective to its heights using a blank piece of paper.
4. The points were transferred to the cross-section profile respective to the heights of the
contours.
5. The points were joined to form the profile of the ground elevation.
QUESTIONS

Explain types of fault (with the aid of diagram) and discuss how this structure occurred.

Types of movement of crustal blocks that can occur along faults during an earthquake:

1. Where the crust is being pulled apart, normal faulting occurs, in which the overlying (hanging-
wall) block moves down with respect to the lower (foot wall) block.

2. Where the crust is being compressed, reverse faulting occurs, in which the hanging-wall block
moves up and over the footwall block – reverse slip on a gently inclined plane is referred to as
thrust faulting.

3. Crustal blocks may also move sideways past each other, usually along nearly-vertical faults.
This ‘strike-slip’ movement is described as sinisterly when the far side moves to the left, and
dextral, when the far side moves to the right.

4. An oblique slip involves various combinations of these basic movements, as in the 1855
Wairarapa Fault rupture, which included both reverse and dextral movement (COM pg.100).

Faults can be as short as a few meters and as long as 1000km. The fault rupture from an
earthquake isn’t always a straight or continuous line. Sometimes there can be short offsets
between parts of the fault, and even major faults can have large bends in them.
CONCLUSION:

Conclude your results especially by rate its effect on outcrop layer in relation to the civil
engineering or construction industry etc.

In conclusion, we know one of the categories of errors that occur on earth. Based on the
graph, we see more information about the errors that occur in the crust. The damage is a fracture
that has crushed rocks along the crust.

Furthermore, the condition of the detailed geological map shows what is on it, where the
same rock or sediment is visible, how old the stone is, how it is formed, how it may have been
affected by damage, creep or other geological process and existing mineral or potential
geological or existing resources on earth.

Next, geological information can show that maps are needed for infinite reasons, rather
than finding natural resources (water, minerals, oil and gas) to evaluate the fundamental parts of
the environment that control the distribution of plants and animals.

In addition, general purpose geology maps address all of these themes. The adjacent mass
of stones slips each other in response to tension, pressure of the shear pressure. Damage usually
creates a broken ground zone - weak and stable compared to adjacent stones. Sudden movements
along faults can cause an earthquake. The creation and error behavior, in both the individual
minor faults and in the larger error zones that determine the tectonic plates, are governed by the
relative movement of stones on both sides of the fault due to friction and rock hardness, the rocks
cannot glide or fly past each other. On the other hand, stress will be built up in rocks and when
reaching a level beyond the threshold, the accumulated power potentially released as tension,
which is focused on the plane where motion is relative placed.