2.

11 Hierarchical Control
J. W. BERNARD (1970) T. J. WILLIAMS (1985, 1995) B. G. LIPTÁK (2005)

In modern, computer-controlled control systems (Figure 2.11a),
several layers of control can be superimposed onto the basic
controls, which are physically connected to the process. Such
hierarchical control uses several levels of computer systems in
an extended master–slave relationship to carry out not only the
process control but also the supervisory, management and busi-
ness functions in controlling industrial plants. This section
describes the historical evolution of hierarchical control and
some typical forms of such control systems, including the dis-
tribution of the potential duties among the several levels of
computers involved.
HIERARCHICAL LEVELS
There are basically four levels in the hierarchy:
1. All direct connections to the process are uniformly
referred to as Level 1. These basic controls include all
sensors, final control elements, continuous PID con-
trols, sequential interlocks, alarms, and monitoring
devices. In some systems, where several levels of basic
controls exist, they are referred to as Levels 1A and 1B.
2. Supervisory control is universally called Level 2. The
control functions of this level are targeted to increased
production, improved environmental protection, energy
conservation, optimization, predictive maintenance,
and plant-wide safety. The means used to achieve these
goals include envelope control, model-based controls,
fuzzy logic, statistical process control, and other types
of expert systems, which are all described in this
section.
3. In some plants the area controls or inter-area coordi-
nation is called Level 3, while in other plants it is
included in Level 2. From this example it can be seen
that not even the language has yet been standardized;
this whole field is still in a process of evolution.

Workstation
Internet/
Intranet

High-Speed
Ethernet

I/O Communication Bus

(Several options)

Controllers

FIG. 2.11a
Modern control systems are well suited for hierarchical control because Level 1 controls, which consist of devices with direct connections
to the process, can be cascaded to supervisory and management levels of control. (Courtesy of Control Associates, Inc.)

193

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

194 Control Theory

(Level 1B) Operator’s Analog Data and Data collection

display controllers (Level 1) alarm output and monitoring
devices computer

(Level 1A) Specialized

controllers Process

FIG. 2.11c
Process The early computers served only for data collection and monitoring.

Plant inputs to control system

Figure 2.11f. Figure 2.11f includes specialized dedicated dig-
Control signals to plant ital controllers to illustrate the relationship to Figure 2.11b.
Operator communication signals Although common today, these devices were not available in
the earliest DDC systems. In these early systems, all com-
FIG. 2.11b putational work was carried out in the digital computer of
The basic old analog control system operated at Level 1 only. Level 2 (Figure 2.11d).
Although direct digital control always had the potential
for assuming an unlimited variety of complex automatic con-
4. In some plants the management functions are referred trol functions, most early DDC systems were implemented
to as Level 3, while in others the scheduling and man- as digital approximations of conventional three-mode analog
agement information functions are called Level 4. controllers. Thus the computer system of Figure 2.11f is
Often this level is split into Levels 4A and 4B, where considered most often as a direct substitution for the analog
4A covers contact with the plant (scheduling, etc.) and control system of Figure 2.11b.
4B covers contact with upper management. Manage-
ment functions include marketing, financing, human The Central Computer
resources, production scheduling, and inventory tasks.
Some generalized software packages already exist for The early digital control systems suffered from many draw-
enterprise resource planning (ERP) and material backs. Among these were:
requirement planning (MRP).
1. The computers were all drum machines, i.e., the mem-
ory was located on a magnetic drum. As a result, they
HISTORY were very slow. A typical addition time for such
machines was 4 milliseconds.
Prior to the introduction of the use of computers for industrial 2. The memories were very small, usually 4000 to 8000
control applications, the standard industrial control system words of 12 to 16 bits each.
consisted of a large number of single-loop analog controllers, 3. All programming had to be done in machine language.
either pneumatic or electronic, as diagrammed in Figure 2.11b.
Note in the figure that Level 1A refers to those instruments
Supervisory
that have no signal readouts that are readily available to the Supervisor’s
(Level 2) control level
console
operator (e.g., some field-mounted controllers, ratio instru- computer
ments, etc.). Level 1B devices have transmitters and provide
indication to the operator by a pointer or on a strip chart, etc.
These latter devices include the standard PID (proportional, Operator’s Analog
(Level B)
integral, and derivative control mode) controllers. display controllers
Computers were first used in industrial plants not as
controllers but as monitors or data loggers (see Figure 2.11c).
However, these installations were quickly followed by the
Specialized
first supervisory controllers (early 1960s), which used the (Level 1A)
controllers
computer to change the set points of the analog controllers
(Figure 2.11d).
It was the desire of most control engineers who were
working with early computer control systems to completely Process
bypass the analog controllers of Figure 2.11d and have the
computer directly control the valves. This resulted in direct FIG. 2.11d
digital control (DDC), as illustrated in Figure 2.11e and Level 2 supervisory computer used to adjust the set-points at Level 1.

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

 2.11 Hierarchical Control 195

Centralized
Process computer system

(Level 2) Supervisor’s Supervisory

console control level
D/P cell
transmitter

Operator’s Direct digital

(Level 1) console control level
Common equipment
Measurement
Multi-
Output
plexer
control Process
control
Valve
Input Output output FIG. 2.11g
multi- multi- Two-level hierarchical control with supervisory control (Level 2)
plexer Analog to plexer and direct digital control (Level 1).
Digital
digital
computer
converter
In response to these problems, the computer manufactur-
ers came out with a second-generation computer, which was
much larger and had a magnetic core memory, wired-in arith-
Console metic functions, etc., which made it much faster. But the high
control cost of core memories and the additional electronic circuitry
made the system much more expensive. To help justify the
cost, vendors advocated the incorporation of all types of com-
puter functions, including both supervisory and DDC, into a
single computer or mainframe in the central control room
Console Console Console (Figures 2.11g and 2.11h.)
Although these computers had much greater speed and
memory size compared to earlier systems, their use led to
FIG. 2.11e
Block diagram of a direct control system.
still further problems:

1. Most were marketed before their designs were thor-

4. Neither vendors nor users had any experience in com- oughly proven or their programming aids (compilers,
puter applications. Thus, it was very difficult to size the higher-level languages, etc.) were fully developed. Thus
project properly within computer capabilities. Most there were many frustrating delays in getting them
projects had to be reduced in size to fit the available installed and running.
machines. 2. The vast amount of wiring and communication system
5. Many of the early computer systems were very unre- required to bring the plant signals to the centralized
liable, particularly if they used temperature-sensitive computer location and return the control signals to the
germanium rather than silicon circuitry, as many did. field was very expensive, and unless it was very care-
In addition, these computers depended on unreliable fully designed and installed, it was prone to electrical
mechanical devices, such as air conditioners, for their noise problems.
successful operation. 3. Because all of the control functions were located in one
computer, the possibility that the computer might fail
Operator’s Direct digital resulted in demands for a complete analog backup sys-
(Level 1B) tem. The resulting system, illustrated in Figure 2.11i,
console control level
was a combination of the systems shown in Figures
2.11d and 2.11g, and it greatly increased the cost.
Specialized 4. To compensate for these high costs, users and vendors
(Level 1A) dedicated alike attempted to squeeze as many tasks as possible
digital controllers
into the computer system, thus drastically complicat-
ing the programming and aggravating the difficulties
Process
described in item 1 above.

As a result of these difficulties, management in many com-

FIG. 2.11f panies reacted disapprovingly to computer control, and there
Digital substitution for the analog system in Figure 2.11b. was a hiatus in computer system installations until the 1970s.

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

196 Control Theory

Central control room

Computer

FIG. 2.11h
The use of centralized computer in a supervisory mode over analog controls located on an analog panel board and on a backup board
(circa 1965–1975).

production of the all-important microprocessor or microcom-

Centralized
computer system puter. The second development was the courageous effort
Supervisor’s Supervisory begun by the Honeywell Company in 1969 to design an
(Level 2) alternative to the unwieldy and unreliable centralized com-
console control level
puter control system. This alternative was the distributed
computer system.
The idea behind the distributed computer system was to
Operator’s Direct digital
(Level 1) have a set of small, widely distributed computer “boxes”
displays control level
containing one or more microprocessors. Each of the boxes
controlled one or a very few loops. All of them were con-
nected by a single high-speed data link that permitted com-
Analog back-up munication between each of the microprocessor-based
devices
“boxes” and with a centralized operator station or console.
This became the TDC 2000 system, the principles of
which were widely followed by other process control system
Process
vendors. These systems solved reliability problems in two
ways. First, these units controlled only a few process loops;
FIG. 2.11i thus any single failure involved only those few loops. Second,
Complete secondary digital control: supervisory plus direct digital a digital backup capability was developed, that is, backup
control with associated analog control backup. computer systems were included to take over the duties of
any failed components.
Figure 2.11j illustrates this concept. Comparing this fig-
Distributed Control ure with Figure 2.11h shows what was accomplished with
this new concept. Almost universally, the distributed com-
Because of the problems experienced with the centralized
puter systems offered the following features and capabilities,
computer systems of the late 1960s, most of the new computer
which greatly fostered their acceptance over electronic ana-
projects of the early 1970s were relatively small, specialized
log or centralized computer-based control systems:
projects that took advantage of the capabilities of the newly
arrived minicomputer. Many such projects flourished. They
generally followed the lines of Figures 2.11d or 2.11i and 1. A modular system development capability that is easy
differed from earlier undertakings mainly in their smaller size. to use, particularly with the configuration aids avail-
However, at this time, two other developments were under able from the vendor.
way that would forever change digital computer–based con- 2. A color-CRT–based, largely preprogrammed operator
trol and indeed all process control. The first of these was the interface system that is easy to adapt to the individual
rapid development of the integrated circuit and the resulting plant situation.

© 2006 by Béla Lipták


Controller
Controller
FIG. 2.11j
Microprocessor-based distributed direct digital computer control system (circa 1975).
3. A preprogrammed menu type of instruction system
for the microcomputers of the controller box. This per-
mits the final programming (configuration) of the total
system to be done by pushing a few buttons on the
keyboard.
4. A very wide selection of control algorithms or com-
putational schemes within the preprogrammed menu,
which permits easy selection and testing of alternate
control schemes for a process.
5. Data highway based data transmission and commu-
nications capabilities between separate units of the
system. Data highways provide very-wide-band com-
munications and the possibility of redundancy for extra
safety.
6. Relatively easy communications with mainframe com-
puter systems for supervisory control or other higher-
level process control or hierarchy control functions.
However, these new control systems themselves are
generally restricted to supplying the needs of the 1A
and 1B level or dynamic control. Supervisory control
is externally supplied.
7. Extensive diagnostic schemes and devices for easy and
rapid maintenance through replacement of entire cir-
cuit boards.
8. Redundancy and other fail-safe techniques to help pro-
mote high system reliability. These features are often
standard, but may be optional.
What was achieved with these systems is illustrated by
Figures 2.11h and 2.11j, as noted above. These particular
sketches are adapted from Honeywell drawings, but they are
just as applicable to almost any other vendor’s process control
system.
© 2006 by Béla Lipták
2.11 Hierarchical Control 197
Controller
ighway
Data h
Central
control room
Controller
HIERARCHICAL CONTROL
The development of the distributed digital control system
greatly simplified the connection of the computer to the pro-
cess. (Compare Figure 2.11k to Figure 2.11d.) Also, since
redundancy or other backup devices could be incorporated
directly into the digital system, the need for analog safety
backup systems was minimized.
As illustrated in Figure 2.11k, there are three levels of
control devices. Each has its distinct duties, as they form
a hierarchical computer system in which upper-level com-
puters depend on lower-level devices for process data, and
the lower-level systems depend upon the higher ones for
direction that serves more sophisticated control functions
such as overall plant optimization. This configuration makes
it possible to design a computer control system — one that
combines the company’s production scheduling and man-
agement information functions with the process control
functions to form a total plant hierarchical control system,
as illustrated in Figure 2.11l. This figure outlines most of
the probable functions of such a hierarchical computer con-
trol system, but the magnitude of the tasks to be accom-
plished in the upper levels of the system is better indicated
by the expanded version shown in Figure 2.11m. Such a
system represents the ultimate dream of many process con-
trol system engineers. While what has already been achieved
in the field of computer control fits easily within the frame-
work shown in this diagram, this framework is only one of
several possible structures for such a system and is not nec-
essarily the optimal one for the task. Nevertheless, it is an
excellent vehicle for our purpose here since it allows us to
treat all the possible benefits of the computer system with
one example.
198 Control Theory

The dedicated digital controllers at Level 1A require no human

(Level 2) Supervisor’s Supervisory
console control level intervention since their functional tasks are completely fixed
by systems design and are not altered online by the operator.
All other levels have human interfaces as indicated in the
figure. It should also be noted that each element of the hierar-
Operator’s Direct digital
(Level 1B) console chy can exist as an individual element. Indeed, all of the earlier
control level
forms of industrial digital computer systems (Figures 2.11c,
2.11d, 2.11f, and 2.11i) still exist and will no doubt continue
to be applied where their particular capabilities appear to best
(Level 1A) Specialized dedicated
fit the application at hand.
digital controllers
The paragraphs below explain the basis for the organization
of the six-level hierarchical system depicted in Figure 2.11m.
Process

Overall Tasks of Digital Control Systems

FIG. 2.11k
Complete secondary digital control: supervisory plus direct digital
control.
It should be noted that the several levels shown in
Figure 2.11m are operational levels and do not necessarily
represent separate and distinct computer or hardware compo-
nents. Although in large systems each level is likely to be
handled by a separate computer, in small systems two or more
operational levels might be combined into a single computer.
Automatic control of any modern industrial plant, whether it
is by a computer-based system or by conventional means,
involves an extensive system for the automatic monitoring of
a large number of variables, each having its own dynamics.
The generation of control output signals requires the develop-
ment of a large number of functions, some of which might be
quite complex. These control corrections must be transmitted
to a large number of widely scattered final control elements
of various types. Because of the nature of the manufacturing
processes involved, these control corrections often require the
expenditure of very large amounts of material and energy.

Communications
Production with other
Management
scheduling and supervisory
data
management control
presentation
information level machines

Digital Data Link

Communications
Supervisor’s Supervisory
(Level 2) with other
console control level
direct control
machines
Digital Data Link

Operator’s Direct digital

(Level 1B)
console control level

Digital Data Link

Plant inputs
Specialized dedicated (Analog and digital)
(Level 1A) digital controllers

Plant inputs Control signals

(Analog and digital)

Process

FIG. 2.11l
Hierarchical organization for a complete process computer control system.

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

 2.11 Hierarchical Control 199

Management Management Sales

(Level 4B) data information orders
presentation level

Production Communications
Operational and scheduling
(Level 4A) production with other
and operational areas
supervision management

Intra-area Communications
(Level 3) coordination with other
supervisory levels
Supervisor’s
consoles
Supervisory Communications with
(Level 2) control level other control level
systems

Operator’s Direct digital

(Level 1B) console control level

Specialized dedicated
(Level 1A) digital controllers

Process

FIG. 2.11m
Hierarchical computer system structure for a large manufacturing complex.

Also, both operators and managers must be kept aware of the
current status of the plant and of each of its processes.
In addition, an industrial plant is faced with the continual
problem of adjusting its production schedule to match its
customers’ needs, as expressed by the order stream being
continually received, while maintaining high plant produc-
tivity and the lowest practical production costs. Production
scheduling today is usually handled through a manual, com-
puter-aided production control system in conjunction with an
in-process and finished goods inventory judged adequate by
plant personnel.
Another role of digital computer control systems in indus-
trial plants is as a “control systems enforcer.” In this mode, the
main task of the lower-level computers is continually to ensure
that the control system equipment is actually carrying out the
job that it was designed to do in keeping the units of the plant
production system operating at some optimal level — that is,
to be sure that the controllers have not been set on manual,
that the optimal setpoints are being maintained, etc.
Often the tasks carried out by these control systems are
ones that a skilled and attentive operator could readily do.
But the automatic control systems offer a much greater
degree of attentiveness over much longer periods of time.
All of these requirements must be factored into the design
and operation of the control system that will operate the plant,
including the requirements for maximum productivity and
minimum energy use. As the overall requirements become
more complex, more sophisticated and capable control sys-
tems are necessary. Thus we enter the realm of the digital
computer-based control system.
System Capabilities To obtain the above described control
responses, an overall system is needed that offers the follow-
ing capabilities:
1. Tight control of each operating unit of the plant to
ensure that it is using raw materials and energy at
maximum efficiency and/or is operating at the most

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

200 Control Theory
efficient production level, based upon the production
level set by the scheduling and supervisory functions
of the control system. This control reacts directly to
any emergencies that occur in its own unit. (These
control functions are executed by Levels 1A and 1B
in Figure 2.11m)
2. A supervisory and coordinating system that deter-
mines and sets the local production level of all units
working together between inventory locations and
optimizes their operation. This system ensures that no
unit exceeds the general area level and thus ensures
that no unit uses unnecessary amounts of energy or
raw materials. This system responds to emergencies
or upsets in any of the units under its control to shut
down or systematically reduce the output in these and
related units. (These control functions are executed by
Levels 2 and 3 of Figure 2.11m.)
3. An overall production control system capable of car-
rying out the scheduling function for the plant based
on customer orders or management decisions so as to
produce the required products at the optimum combi-
nation of time, energy, and raw materials, suitably
expressed as cost functions. (This is the specific task
of Level 4A of the hierarchy.)
4. A method of assuring the overall reliability and avail-
ability of the total control system through fault detec-
tion, fault tolerance, redundancy, and other applicable
techniques built into the system’s specification and
operation. (This task is performed at all levels of the
control system.)
Because of their ever-widening scope of authority, con-
trol tasks 1, 2, and 3 above can effectively become the distinct
and separate levels of a hierarchical control structure. Also,
in view of the amount of information that must be passed
back and forth among these three control tasks, it appears
that some sort of distributed computational capability, orga-
nized in a hierarchical fashion, could be a logical structure
for the required control system.
In Figure 2.11m, we can see that the right-hand elements
of Levels 2 to 4A are all handled by computers of increasing
capability as one goes up the hierarchy. Level 4B also
contains a computer, but it is used mainly for communica-
tions and database management tasks. These elements are
best handled by data processing or scientific computers
since the noncontrol tasks at these levels far outnumber
the process control tasks. These noncontrol computational
tasks will thus determine the design and cost of these com-
puters. As long as they are satisfactory for the purposes of
process control, these established computer models should
be used so that the economy gained from large-scale pro-
duction can be capitalized on. This leaves Levels 1 and 2
as candidates for the application of digital process control
hardware — the distributed, microprocessor-based systems
discussed earlier.
© 2006 by Béla Lipták
TABLE 2.11n
Duties of Control Computer Systems
I. Production scheduling
II. Control enforcement
III. System coordination, reporting, and management information
IV. Reliability assurance
Detailed Task Listings
In the context of a large industrial plant, the tasks carried
out at each level of the hierarchy are as described in Tables
2.11n to 2.11t. Note that in each table the tasks are subdi-
vided into ones that are related to production scheduling,
control enforcement coordination/reporting, and reliability
assurance. This was described in items 1 through 4 previ-
ously. Note also that the duties listed in Table 2.11o for
Levels 1 and 2 begin with Item II, Control Enforcement,
since the lower-level machines do not do any production
scheduling. Likewise, the upper-level machines do no con-
trol enforcement since they have no direct connection to the
process actuators.
Finally, Level 4B does neither since its main task is
management and staff function communications, with a pro-
duction data file maintained by Level 4A, Production Sched-
uling. These tables outline the tasks that must be carried out
in any industrial plant, particularly at the upper levels of the
hierarchy. Details of how the operations are actually carried
out will vary drastically, particularly at the lowest levels,
because of the nature of the actual processes being con-
trolled, but this does not change the basic definition of these
tasks.
The general duties of the different levels in the hierar-
chical computer system are summarized in Figure 2.11t.
TABLE 2.11o
Duties of the Control Levels (Levels 1A and 1B)
II. Control enforcement
1. Maintain direct control of the plant units under
their cognizance.
2. Detect and respond to any emergency condition in these
plant units
III. System coordination and reporting
3. Collect information on unit production raw material and
energy use and transmit to higher levels.
4. Service the operator’s man/machine interface.
IV. Reliability assurance
5. Perform diagnostics on themselves.
6. Update and standby systems.

TABLE 2.11p
Duties of the Supervisory Level (Level 2)
II. Control enforcement
1. Respond to any emergency condition in its region of plant
cognizance.
2. Locally optimize the operation of units under its control
within limits of established production schedule; carry out
all established process operational schemes or operating
practices in connection with these processes.
III. Plant coordination and operational data reporting
3. Collect and maintain data queues of production, inventory,
and raw material and energy usage for the units under its
control.
4. Maintain communications with higher and lower levels.
5. Service the man/machine interfaces for the units involved.
IV. System reliability assurance
6. Perform diagnostics on itself and lower-level machines.
7. Update all standby systems.
Lower-Level Computer Tasks
In the hierarchy shown in Figure 2.11m, all contact with the
controlled process is maintained through the computers of
Levels 1 and 2. The distributed, microprocessor-based sys-
tems, are all effectively stand-alone Level 1 and 2 systems.
TABLE 2.11q
Duties of the Area Level (Level 3)
I. Production scheduling
1. Establish the immediate production schedule for its own
area, including transportation needs.
2. Locally optimize the costs for its individual production area as
a basis for modifying the production schedule established by the
production control computer system (Level 4A) (e.g., minimize
energy usage or maximize production).
III. Plant coordination and operational data reporting
3. Make area production reports.
4. Use and maintain area practice files.
5. Collect and maintain area data queues for production, inventory,
raw materials usage, and energy usage.
6. Maintain communications with higher and lower levels of the
hierarchy.
7. Collect operations data and off-line analysis as required by
engineering functions.
8. Service the man/machine interface for the area.
9. Carry out needed personnel functions (such as vacation schedule,
work force schedules, and union line of progression).
IV. System reliability assurance
10. Diagnostics of self and lower-level functions.
© 2006 by Béla Lipták
2.11 Hierarchical Control 201
TABLE 2.11r
Duties of the Production Scheduling and Operational Management
Level (Level A)
I. Production scheduling
1. Establish basic production schedule.
2. Modify the production schedule for all units per order stream
received, energy constraints, and power demand levels.
3. Determine the optimum inventory level of goods in process at each
storage point. The criteria to be used will be the trade-off between
customer service (e.g., short delivery time) versus the capital cost
of the inventory itself, as well as the trade-offs in operating costs
versus costs of carrying the inventory level. (This is an offline
function.)
4. Modify production schedule as necessary whenever major
production interruptions occur in downstream units, where such
interruptions will affect prior or succeeding units.
III. Plant coordination and operational data reporting
5. Collect and maintain raw material use and availability inventory
and provide data for purchasing for raw material order entry.
6. Collect and maintain overall energy use data for transfer
to accounting.
7. Collect and maintain overall goods in process and production
inventory files.
8. Collect and maintain the quality control file.
9. Maintain interfaces with management interface level function and
with area level systems.
IV. System reliability assurance
10. Run self check and diagnostic routines on self and lower-level
machines.
According to Table 2.11o, the tasks of these systems are
to maintain direct control of the process; to detect and
respond to timing signals, emergencies, and other events in
the process; to collect process data for the plant operators or
TABLE 2.11s
Required Tasks of the Intracompany Communications Control Sys-
tem (Level 4B)
III. Plant coordination and operational data reporting
1. Maintain interfaces with plant and company management, sales
personnel, accounting and purchasing departments, and the
production scheduling level (Level 4A).
2. Supply production and status information as needed to plant and
company management, sales personnel, and the accounting and
purchasing departments. This information will be supplied in the
form of regular production and status reports and in response to
online inquiries.
3. Supply order status information as needed to sales personnel.
IV. System reliability assurance
4. Perform self check and diagnostic checks on itself.
202 Control Theory

Management Management Sales

(Level 4B) data information orders
presentation level

nt

n
on

o
me
lin

ati
cti
Production

d
Communications

ge
du
Operational and

or m
An
du
scheduling

na
with other

he
(Level 4A) production

o
and operational

Ma

Inf
areas
Pr

Sc
supervision management

Intra-area Communications
(Level 3) coordination with other
supervisory levels
Supervisor’s
consoles
Supervisory Communications with
(Level 2) control level other control level
systems
n

t
ol

tio

en
Operator’s Direct digital
ntr

ol
d
uta

cem
(Level 1B)
An

control level

ntr
console
Co

mp

Co

for
Co

En
Specialized dedicated
(Level 1A) digital controllers

Process

FIG. 2.11t
Summary of the tasks of the hierarchical computer.

for higher-level functions; and to ensure reliability by mon-

itoring their own operation. TABLE 2.11u
Sampling Frequency for Process Variables
To do this, the system must monitor each important
plant or process variable on a regular basis. That is, it must Variable Frequency
read the current value of the variable and, first, compare it
1. Flow Once each second
with a set of alarm limits to detect the presence of any
emergency situation and, second, compare it with the cur- 2. Level and pressure Once each 5 seconds
rent operating set point to determine whether any correction 3. Temperature Once each 10 seconds
to the current control output is necessary. Close check is 4. Queries from the operator’s console Once each second
also kept of the passage of time on the system real-time
clock since most systems are time coordinated. That is, the Note: In some systems, process variables are sampled much more
monitoring program is reinitiated at fixed time intervals frequently than this. These are minimum rate values established
from plant experience.
based upon the required sampling interval for the process
variables.
As just indicated, plant variables are normally monitored
either on a fixed time schedule, so that every variable is tested sensed. This second system has been popular for minicom-
each second or fraction of a second (common in micropro- puter-based digital control systems that commonly do not
cessor-based distributed systems) or on a variable schedule have the speed capability of the distributed systems. It is based
depending upon the detected variable type. Table 2.11u lists on the dynamics or speed of response of the process being
the frequencies at which the various process variables are monitored and controlled.

© 2006 by Béla Lipták


The timing of the process variable sampling is normally
based upon a real-time clock included in the computer system.
If an emergency is detected, the computer’s program con-
tains routines for correcting the emergency or calling the oper-
ator’s attention to it. The routines are selected according to a
priority interrupt scheme. Control correction computations are
carried out by means of a set of control algorithms or compu-
tational routines also stored in the computer’s memory.
In addition to being used for emergency detection and
control corrections, the values of the process variables are
stored in the computer’s memory in a process data base.
These data are then available for readouts on the operators’
consoles, for data logging, for historical records, for process
efficiency calculations, and for readout to higher-level com-
puters for optimization calculations, inventory monitoring,
overall plant production status, historical file updates, and
other necessary calculations. These calculations thus fulfill
the systems coordination and reporting functions listed in
Table 2.11o.
The computer uses any spare computational time to run
test computations to check the validity of its own operation
and of any companion computers in the system. These and
other related tests fulfill the need for the reliability assurance
functions listed in Table 2.11o.
Higher-Level Computer Tasks
As noted in the previous section, all contact with the con-
trolled process is maintained through the input/output inter-
faces of Levels 1A and 1B. These interfaces may be part of
a microprocessor-based distributed control system or of a
minicomputer-based direct digital controller. Any other lay-
out would require a reversion to the schemes of Figures
2.11d, 2.11g, or 2.11i, all of which have distinct drawbacks
compared to Figures 2.11k or 2.11m.
The upper-level machines are connected to the lower-
level systems and to each other through the communications
system. Their major tasks, as outlined in Tables 2.11p to
2.11t, are to carry out the extensive computations involved
in (1) the optimization of productivity and of raw material
and energy use in each process; (2) the development of the
best production schedule for the overall plant; and (3) the
minimization of the plant’s inventory.
An equally important task is the processing of the plant’s
production data as collected by the lower-level machines in
order to supply the proper information to plant supervisory
and management personnel and in order to maintain the plant’s
production database for the company’s production, financial,
and personnel reports.
Bibliography
Alexander, L., et al., Hierarchical Non-Linear Switching Control Design,
Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 2000
© 2006 by Béla Lipták
2.11 Hierarchical Control 203
Ash, R. H., “Manufacturing Systems Integrated by Information and Control,”
Control Engineering, Vol. 33, No. 5, May 1986, pp. 67–79.
Belick, F. M., “Computer Control,” Water & Wastes Engineering, March
1975.
Bennett, C. E., “Evaluating Controls for Batch Processing,” Instrumentation
Technology, July 1977.
Chattaway, A. T., “Control System Integration,” InTech, September
1983.
Dallimonti, R., “The Horizon Plant,” Control Engineering, Vol. 33, No. 5,
May 1986, pp. 72–76.
Fayssoux, J. O., “Planning and Design for Systemwide Control,” Part 1,
Instrumentation Technology, Vol. 39, No. 6, June 1992, pp. 20–22; Part 2,
No. 7, July 1992, pp. 22–24.
Griem, P. D., “Security Functions in Distributed Control,” InTech, March
1983.
“Hierarchical Control Problems,” MCSD Seminar Series, Dept. of Opera-
tional Research, UNC, Boulder, CO, December 2001.
“Hierarchical Process Control of Chemical Vapor Infiltration,” Technical
Paper sponsored by Pentagon, May 1995.
Howard, J. R., “Experience in DDC Turbine Start-Up,” ISA Journal, July
1966.
Kaiser, V. A., “Changing Patterns of Computer Control,” Instrumentation
Technology, February 1975.
Kovalcik, E. J., “Understanding Small Computers,” Instruments and Control
Systems, January 1976.
Larsen, G. R., “A Distributed Programmable Controller for Batch Control,”
InTech, March 1983.
Long, M. V., and Holzmann, E. G., “Approaching the Control Problem of
the Automatic Chemical Plant,” Transactions of ASME, October
1953.
Luyben, W. L., “Batch Reactor Control,” Instrumentation Technology, April
1975.
Maurin, L. V., “Computing Control at Little Gypsy,” ISA Journal, May
1966.
Merritt, R., “Personal Computers Move Into Control,” Instruments and Con-
trol Systems, June 1983.
Miller, T. C., and Umbach, M., Hierarchical Operations and Supply Chain
Planning, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, April 2002.
Miller, W., “Designing Reliability into Computer-Based Systems,” Instru-
ments and Control Systems, May 1982.
Miyazaki, S., “Development Project for DDC System,” CERR, May
1970.
Morris, H. M., Kompass, E. J., and Williams, T. J. (Eds.), Advanced Control
in Computer Integrated Manufacturing, Proceedings of the Advanced
Control Conference, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana,
1987.
Murphy, J. A., “Computer Control of an Aluminum Plant, ” Instrumentation
Technology, April 1972.
Prickett, M. J., “Microprocessors for Control and Instrumentation,” InTech,
March 1983.
Purdue Laboratory for Applied Industrial Control, Tasks and Functional
Specifications of the Steel Plant Hierarchy Control System (Expanded
Version), Report No. 98, Purdue University, June 1982.
Rispoli, L. M., “Hierarchical Computer Control Systems,” Instruments and
Control Systems, October 1970.
Roberts, D. B., “Optimal Control of Batch Processes,” Ph.D. Research
Project, School of Engineering, City University Northampton Square,
London, 2000.
Sayles, J. H., “Computer Control Maximizes Hydrocracker Throughput,”
Instrumentation Technology, May 1973.
Stamphil, L. M., “Organizing In-House Systems Integrations Projects,”
Instruments and Control Systems, Vol. 65, No. 1, January 1992,
pp. 45–48.
Stout, T. M., “Justifying Process Control Computers,” Chemical Engineer-
ing, September 11, 1972.
204 Control Theory
Van Horn, L. D., “Crude Distillation Computer Control Experience,” 1976
ISA Conference, Preprint No. 76-533.
Williams, D. L., and McHugh, A., “TDC-1000–An Overview,” Minutes
of the Eighth Annual Meeting, International Purdue Workshop on
Industrial Computer Systems, Purdue University, September 22–25,
1980.
Williams, T. J., “Hierarchical Distributed Control,” InTech, March 1983.
© 2006 by Béla Lipták
Williams, T. J., The Purdue Enterprise Reference Architecture, A Technical
Guide for CIM Planning and Implementation, Research Triangle Park,
NC: Instrument Society of America, 1992.
Williams, T. J. (Ed.), A Reference Model for Computer Integrated Manufac-
turing, ICM, A Description from the Viewpoint of Industrial Automa-
tion, Research Triangle Park, NC: Instrument Society of America,
1989.