UNIT-II

Distribution Feeders

Syllabus:

Distribution Feeders

Design Considerations of Distribution Feeders; Radial and loop types of

primary feeders, voltage levels, feeder loading; basic design practice of the
secondary distribution system.

Objectives:

 To analyze primary feeder design concepts.

 To familiarize the students with the differences between Radial and loop
types of primary feeders.

Learning Outcomes:

After the completion of this unit, students will be to

1) Analyze the primary feeder design concepts.

2) Explain the differences between Radial and loop types of primary
feeders.
3) Explain the Primary feeder voltage levels and loading.
Distribution system: The part of power system which distributes electric power
for local use is known as distribution system

Distribution system consists of mainly

1. Feeders

2. Distributors and

3. The service mains

Fig.2.1 shows the single line diagram of a typical low tension distribution system

Feeder: A feeder is a conductor which connects the sub-station to the area

where power is to be distributed. Generally, no tappings are taken from the
feeder so that current in it remains the same throughout. The main
consideration in the design of a feeder is the current carrying capacity.

Distributor: A distributor is a conductor from which tappings are taken for

supply to the consumers. In Fig. 2.1 AB, BC, CD and DA are the distributors.
The current through a distributor is not constant because tappings are taken at
various places along its length. While designing a distributor, voltage drop along
its length is the main consideration since the statutory limit of voltage variations
is ± 6% of rated value at the consumers’ terminals.

Service mains: A service mains is generally a small cable which connects the
distributor to the consumers’ terminals.

Classification of Distribution Systems:

Distribution system is classified based on

1. Nature of current.
2. Type of construction
3. Scheme of connection

1. Nature of current: According to nature of current, distribution system may

be classified as
(a) D.C distribution system
(b) A.C. distribution system
A.C system is universally adopted for distribution of electric power as it is
simpler and more economical than direct current method.

2. Type of construction: According to type of construction, distribution

 system may be classified as
(a) Overhead system
(b) Underground system.
The overhead system is generally employed for distribution as it is 5 to 10 times
cheaper than the equivalent underground system. In general, the underground
system is used at places where overhead construction is impracticable or
prohibited by the local laws.

3. Scheme of connection. According to scheme of connection, the distribution

system may be classified as
(a) radial system
(b) ring main system
(c) inter-connected system

Design Considerations in Distribution System:

Good voltage regulation of a distribution network is probably the most important

factor responsible for delivering good service to the consumers. For this
purpose, design of feeders and distributors requires careful consideration.

(a) Feeders: A feeder is designed from the point of view of its current carrying
capacity while the voltage drop consideration is relatively unimportant. It is
because voltage drop in a feeder can be compensated by means of voltage
regulating equipment at the substation.

(b) Distributors: A distributor is designed from the point of view of the voltage
drop in it. It is because a distributor supplies power to the consumers and
there is a statutory limit of volt-age variations at the consumer’s terminals (±
6% of rated value). The size and length of the distributor should be such that
voltage at the consumer’s terminals is within the permissible limits.

The distribution system is classified into (i) primary distribution system and (ii)
secondary distribution system.

i) Primary distribution system. It is that part of a.c. distribution system

which operates at voltages somewhat higher than general utilization and
handles large blocks of electrical energy than the average low-voltage consumer
uses. The voltage used for primary distribu-tion depends upon the amount of
power to be conveyed and the distance of the substation required to be fed. The
most commonly used primary distribution voltages are 11 kV, 6·6 kV and 3·3
kV. Due to economic considerations, primary distribution is carried out by 3-
phase, 3-wire system.
 Fig. 2.2 shows a typical primary distribution system.

((ii) Secondary distribution system :It is that part of a.c. distribution system
which includes the range of voltages at which the ultimate consumer utilizes the
electrical energy delivered to him. The secondary distribution employs 400/230
V, 3-phase, 4-wire system. Electric power from the generating station is
transmitted at high voltage to the substation located in or near the city. At this
substation, voltage is stepped down to 11 kV with the help of step-down
transformer. Power is supplied to various substations for distribution or to big
consumers at this voltage. This forms the high voltage distribution or primary
distribution. The primary distribution circuit delivers power to various
substa-tions, called distribution sub-stations. The substations are situated
near the consumers’ localities and contain step-down transformers. At each
distribution substation, the voltage is stepped down to 400 V and power is
delivered by 3-phase, 4-wire a.c. system. The voltage between any two phases
is 400 V and between any phase and neutral is 230 V. The single phase
domestic loads are connected between any one phase and the neutral, whereas
3-phase 400 V motor loads are connected across 3-phase lines directly.
 Fig. 2.3 shows a typical secondary distribution system

Factors Affecting Primary-Feeder Rating:

1. The nature of the load connected

2. The load density of the area served
3. The growth rate of the load
4. The need for providing spare capacity for emergency operations
5. The type and cost of circuit construction employed
6. The design and capacity of the substation involved
7. The type of regulating equipment used
8. The quality of service required
9. The continuity of service required
 Fig 2.4 One-line diagram of typical primary distribution feeders .

Classification of Primary Distribution System:

1) Radial type primary feeder

2) Loop type primary feeder

1) Radial type primary feeder:

In this system, separate feeders radiate from a single substation and feed the
distributors at one end only. Fig. 2.5 (i) shows a single line diagram of a radial
system for d.c. distribution where a feeder OC supplies a distributor A B at
point A. Obviously, the distributor is fed at one end only i.e., point A is this
case. Fig. 2.5 (ii) shows a single line diagram of radial system for a.c.
distribution. The radial system is employed only when power is generated at
low voltage and the substation is located at the centre of the load.

Fig. 2.5 shows a single line diagram of a radial system

This is the simplest distribution circuit and has the lowest initial cost. However,
it suffers from the following drawbacks:

a. The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding point will be heavily
loaded.
b. The consumers are dependent on a single feeder and single distributor.
Therefore, any fault on the feeder or distributor cuts off supply to the
consumers who are on the side of the fault away from the substation.
c. The consumers at the distant end of the distributor would be subjected to
serious voltage fluctuations when the load on the distributor changes.
Due to these limitations, this system is used for short distances only.

The simplest and the lowest- cost and therefore the most common
form of primary feeder is the radial-type primary feeder as shown in F i g
2 . 6 The main primary feeder branches into various primary laterals
which in turn separates into several sub laterals to serve all the
distribution transformers. In general, the main feeder and sub feeders are
three-phase three- or four-wire circuits and the laterals are three-
phase or single-phase. The current magnitude is the greatest in the circuit
conductors that leave the substation. The current magnitude continually
lessens out towards the end of the feeder as laterals and sub laterals are
tapped off the feeder. Usually as the current lessens the size of the feeder
conductors is also reduced. However, the permissible voltage regulation may
restrict any feeder size reduction which is based only on the thermal
capability, i.e., current-carrying capacity, of the feeder..

The reliability of service continuity of the radial primary feeders is

low. A fault occurrence at any location on the radial primary feeder causes
a power outage for every consumer on the feeder unless the fault can be
isolated from the source by a disconnecting device such as a fuse,
sectionalizer, disconnect switch, or recloser.

Fig. 2.6 shows Radial-Type Primary Feeder

Figure 2.7 shows a modified radial-type primary feeder with tie and
sectionalizing switches to provide fast restoration of service to customers
by switching non faulted sections of the feeder to an adjacent primary
feeder or feeders. The fault can be isolated by opening the associated
disconnecting devices on each side of the faulted section.
 Fig 2.8 shows another type of radial primary feeder with express feeder
and back feeder. The section of the feeder between the substation low-
voltage bus and the load center of the service area is called an express feeder.
No sub feeders o r laterals a r e allowed to be tapped off the express feeder.
However, a sub feeder is allowed to provide a back feeder toward the
substation from the load center.

Fig. 2.7 Radial -Type Primary Feeder with tie and sectionalizing switches

Fig. 2.8 Radial-type primary feeder with express feeder and back feed
Fig. 2.9 Radial-type phase-area feeder

Figure 2.9 shows a radial-type phase-area feeder arrangement in which each

phase of the threephase feeder serves its own service area. In Figures 2.8 and
2.9 each dot represents a balanced three-phase load lumped at that location

LOOP-TYPE PRIMARY FEEDER:

Figure 2.10 shows a loop-type primary feeder which loops through

the feeder load area and returns back to the bus. Sometimes the Loop tie
disconnect switch is replaced by a loop tie breaker due to the load
conditions. In either case, the loop can function with the tie disconnect
switches or breakers normally open or normally closed.
Usually, the size of the feeder conductor is kept the same
throughout the loop. It is selected to carry its normal load plus the load of
the other half of the loop. This arrangement provides two parallel paths
from the substation to the load when the loop is operated with normally
open tie breakers or disconnects switches.

Fig. 2.10 Loop-type primary feeder.

A primary fault causes the feeder breaker to be open. The breaker

will remain open until the fault is isolated from both directions. The loop-
type primary-feeder arrangement is especially beneficial to provide service
for loads where high service reliability is important. In general, a separate
feeder breaker on each end of the loop is preferred, despite the cost
involved. The parallel feeder paths can also be connected to separate bus
sections in the substation and supplied from separate transformers. In
addition to main feeder loops normal open lateral loops are also used
particularly in underground systems.

PRIMARY-FEEDER VOLTAGE LEVELS:

The primary-feeder voltage level is the most important factor

affecting the system design, cost, and operation. Some of the design
and operation aspects affected by the primary-feeder voltage level are
1. Primary-feeder length
2. Primary-feeder loading
3. Number of distribution substations
4. Rating of distribution substations
5. Number of sub transmission lines
6. Number of customers affected by a specific outage
7. System maintenance practices
8. The extent of tree trimming
9. Joint use of utility poles
10.Type of pole-line design and construction
11.Appearance of the pole line

Usually, primary feeders located in low-load density areas are

restricted in length and loading by permissible voltage drop rather
than by thermal restrictions, whereas primary feeders located in
high-load density areas, e.g., industrial and commercial areas, may
be restricted by the thermal limitations.

In general, for a given percent voltage drop, the feeder length

and loading are direct functions of the feeder voltage level. This
relationship is known as the voltage-square rule

Fig 2.11 Factors affecting primary-feeder voltage-level selection decision

 The relationship between the voltage-square factor rule and the
feeder distance-coverage principle is explained in Fig 2.12

Fig 2.12 Illustration of the voltage-square rule and the feeder distance-
coverage principle as a functionof feeder voltage level and a single load

Fig 2.13 Feeder area-coverage principle as related to feeder voltage and a

uniformly distributed load.
 There is a relationship between the area served by a substation and the
voltage rule defines it as the area-coverage principle. As illustrated in Figure
2.13, for a constant percent voltage drop and a uniformly distributed load, the
feeder service area is proportional to
2/3
�
�
2�
�
�V
� L - N ,new ��
�
�VL - N ,old ��
�
�
� ��
�
For example, if the new feeder voltage level is increased to twice
the previous voltage level, the new load and area that can be served
with the same percent voltage drop are
2/3
�
�
2�
VL - N ,new ��
�
�
�
�
�VL - N ,old ��
= ( 2 ) = 2.52
2 2/3

�
�
� ��
�

is times the original load and area. If the new feeder voltage level is
increased to three times the previous voltage level, the new load and area
that can be served with the same percent voltage drop is 4.32

Factors Affecting Primary-Feeder Loading:

Primary-feeder loading is defined as the loading of a feeder during peak-

load conditions as measured at the substation. Some of the factors
affecting the design loading of a feeder are:

1. The density of the feeder load

2. The nature of the feeder load
3. The growth rate of the feeder load
4. The reserve-capacity requirements for emergency
5. The service-continuity requirements
6. The service-reliability requirements
7. The quality of service
8. The primary-feeder voltage level
9. The type and cost of construction.
10. The location and capacity of the distribution substation
11. The voltage regulation requirements
There are additional factors affecting the decisions for feeder routing,
the number of feeders, and feeder conductor-size selection, as shown in
Figures.

Fig 2.14 Factors affecting feeder routing decisions

Fig 2.15 Factors affecting number of feeders

Fig 2.16 Factors affecting Conductor- size Selection

Radial Feeders with Uniformly Distributed Load:

Fig. 2.17 A radial feeder

Fig.2.18 uniformly distributed main feeder

The single-line diagram, shown in Figure 2.17 illustrates a three-

phase feeder main having the same construction, i.e., in terms of cable
size or open-wire size and spacing, along its entire length l. Here, the
line impedance is z = r + jx per unit length.

The load flow in the main is assumed to be perfectly balanced and

uniformly distributed at all locations along the main. In practice, a
reasonably good phase balance sometimes is realized when single-phase
and open-wye laterals are wisely distributed among the three phases of
the main.

Assume that there are many closely spaced loads and/or lateral lines
connected to the main but not shown in Figure. Since the load is
uniformly distributed along the main, as shown in Figure 2.18 the load
current in the main is a function of the distance. Therefore, in view of the
many closely spaced small loads, a differential tapped-off load current dI,
which corresponds to a dx differential distance, is to be used as an
idealization. Here, l is the total length of the feeder and x is the distance of
the point 1 on the feeder from the beginning end of the feeder. Therefore
the distance of point 2 on the feeder from the beginning end of the feeder is
x + d x . Is the sending-end current at the feeder breaker, and Ir is the
receiving-end current. Ix1 and Ix2 are the currents in the main at points 1
and 2, respectively. Assume that all loads connected to the feeder have the
same power factor.

The following equations are valid both in per unit or per phase (line-to-
neutral) dimensional variables. The circuit voltage is of either primary or
secondary, and therefore shunt capacitance currents may be neglected.

Since the total load is uniformly distributed from x = 0 to x = l,

dI
This is a constant. Therefore k =
I x , that is, the current in the main of
dx
some x distance away from the circuit breaker, can be found as a
function of the sending-end current I s and the distance x. This can be
accomplished either by inspection or by writing a current equation
containing the integration of the d I . Therefore, for the dx distance

I x1 = I x 2 + d I

dx dI
I x 2 = I x1 - d I = I x1 - dx
dx dx

I x 2 = I x1 - kdx
 dI
k=
dx

Therefore, for the total feeder

I r = I s - kl

When x = l

Is
Ir = 0 � k =
l

And since x = l

Therefore, substituting

� x�
Ir = Is �
1- �
� l�

For a given x distance,

I x = Ir

� x�
Ix = Is �
1- �
� l�

This gives the current in the main at some x distance away from the
circuit breaker

The differential series voltage drop dv and the differential power loss dPLS due
to I 2R losses can also be found as a function of the sending-end current Is
and the distance x in a similar manner.

Therefore the differential series voltage drop can be found as

dV = I x �zdx
 x
dV = I s (1 - ) �zdx
l

Also, the differential power loss can be found as

dPLS = I x2 �rdx
2
� x �
dPLS = �
I s (1 - ) ��rdx
� l �
The series voltage drop VDx due to I x current at any point x on the feeder
is
x
VDx = �
dV
0

x
� x� � x�
VDx = � 1- �
Is � �zdx = I s �z �x �
1- �
0 � l � � 2l �

Therefore, the total series voltage drop �VDx on the main feeder when
x=l is
1
�VD x =
2
I s �z �l

The total copper loss per phase in the main due to I 2 R losses is

�P LS =�
dPLS
0

1
�P LS = I s2 �r �l
3
Therefore, from Equation, the distance x from the beginning of the
main feeder at which location the total load current Is may be
concentrated, i.e., lumped for the purpose of calculating the total
voltage drop, is

x=l/2

RADIAL FEEDERS WITH NONUNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD:

The single-line diagram, shown in Figure 2.19, illustrates a three-

phase feeder main which has the tapped-off load increasing linearly
with the distance x. Note that the load is zero when x = O. The plot of
the sending-end current vs. the x distance along the feeder main
gives the curve shown in Fig. 2.18.

Fig. 2.19 Uniformly increasing load

From Figure the negative slope can be written as

dI x
= -k �I s �x
dx

Fig 2.20 the sending-end current as a function of the distance along a feeder
l l
Is = �-dIx = �k �I
x =0 x=0
s �xdx

l2
I s = k �I s �
2
The k is the constant

dI x x
= - k �I s �x = -2 I s � 2
dx l

Therefore the current in the main at some x distance away from the circuit
breaker can be found

� x2 �
Ix = Is �
1- 2 �
� l �

Hence the differential voltage drop is

� x2 �
dV = I x �zdx = I s �z �
1- 2 �dx
� l �

Also, the differential power loss can be found as

2

� x2 �
dPLS = I �rdx = I �r �
2
x 1 - 2 �dx
2
s
� l �

The series voltage drop due to I x current at any point x on the feeder is
x
VDx = �
dV
0

Substituting in the equation and integrating the result

� x2 �
VDx = I s �z �x �
1- 2 �
� 3l �

Therefore the total series voltage drop on the main feeder when x=l is the

2
�VD x =
3
z ��
l Is

The total copper loss per phase in the main due to i 2 R losses is
l
8 2
�P LS =�
dPLS =
15
I s �r �l
0
APPLICATION OF THE A, B, C, D GENERAL CIRCUIT CONSTANTS TO
RADIAL FEEDERS

Assume a single-phase or balanced three-phase transmission or distribution

circuit characterized by the A , B , C , D general circuit constants, as shown in
Figure.2.21. The mixed data assumed to be known, as commonly encountered
in system design, are | Vs |, Pr, and cosθ. Assume that all data represent
either per phase dimensional values or per unit values.

As shown in Figure 2.19, taking phasor Vr as the reference

V r = Vr �00 ,V s = Vs �d

I r = I r �- q r

Where V r = receiving-end voltage phasor

V s = sending-end voltage phasor
I r = receiving-end current phasor

Fig 2.21 Symbolic represenataion of a line

The sending-end voltage in terms of the general circuit constants can be

expressed
 V s = A �V r + B �I r

A = A1 + jA2

B = B1 + jB2

I r = I r ( cos q r - j sin q r )

V r = Vr �00

V s = Vs ( cos d + j sin d )

By taking squares of Equations

Let
Where

They could be adapted to the simpler transmission consisting of a short

primary-voltage feeder where the feeder capacitance is usually negligible, as
shown in Figure written in terms of R and X. Therefore, for the feeder shown in
Figure
Where

Similarly
Present Design Practice of Secondary distribution system
The part of the electric utility system that is between the primary system
and the consumer’s property is called the secondary system. Secondary
distribution systems include step-down distribution transformers, secondary
circuits (secondary mains), consumer services (or SDs), and meters to measure
consumer energy consumption.
Generally, the secondary distribution systems are designed in single
phase for areas of residential customers and in three phase for areas of
industrial or commercial customers with high-load densities.

The types of the secondary distribution systems include the following:

1. The separate-service system for each consumer with separate distribution
transformer and secondary connection
2. The radial system with a common secondary main, which is supplied by one
distribution transformer and feeding a group of consumers
3. The secondary-bank system with a common secondary main that is supplied
by several distribution transformers, which are all fed by the same primary
feeder
4. The secondary-network system with a common grid-type main that is
supplied by a large number of the distribution transformers, which may be
connected to various feeders for their supplies
The separate-service system is seldom used and serves the industrial- or
rural-type service areas. Generally speaking, most of the secondary systems for
serving residential, rural, and light-commercial areas are radial designed.
Figure 2.22 shows the one-line diagram of a radial secondary system. It has a
low cost and is simple to operate.
Fig 2.22 One-line diagram of a simple radial secondary system

Secondary Banking
The “banking” of the distribution transformers, that is, parallel
connection, or, in other words, interconnection, of the secondary sides of two or
more distribution transformers, which are supplied from the same primary
feeder, is sometimes practiced in residential and light-commercial areas where
the services are relatively close to each other, and therefore, the required
spacing between transformers is little. However, many utilities prefer to keep
the secondary of each distribution transformer separate from all others. In a
sense, secondary banking is a special form of network configuration on a radial
distribution system. The advantages of the banking of the distribution
transformers include the following:
1. Improved voltage regulation
2. Reduced voltage dip or light flicker due to motor starting, by providing
parallel supply paths for motor-starting currents
3. Improved service continuity or reliability
4. Improved flexibility in accommodating load growth, at low cost, that is,
possible increase in the average loading of transformers without corresponding
increase in the peak load
Banking the secondaries of the distribution transformers allows us to take
advantage of the load diversity existing among the greater number of
consumers, which, in turn, induces a savings in the required transformer
kilovolt-amperes. These savings can be as large as 35% , depending upon the
load types and the number of consumers.
Figure 2.23 shows two different methods of banking secondaries. The
method illustrated in Figure 2.24a is commonly used and is generally preferred
because it permits the use of a lower-rated fuse on the high-voltage side of the
transformer, and it prevents the occurrence of cascading the fuses. This
method also simplifies the coordination with primary-feeder sectionalizing
fuses by having a lower-rated fuse on the high side of the transformer.
Furthermore, it provides the most economical system.
Figure 2.24 gives two other methods of banking secondaries. The method
shown in Figure 2.24a is the oldest one and offers the least protection, whereas
the method shown in Figure 2.24b offers the greatest protection. Therefore, the
methods illustrated in Figures 2.23a and b and 2.24a have some definite
disadvantages, which include the following:
1. The requirement for careful policing of the secondary system of the banked
transformers to detect blown fuses.
2. The difficulty in coordination of secondary fuses.
3. Furthermore, the method illustrated in Figure 2.23b has the additional
disadvantage of being difficult to restore service after a number of fuses on
adjacent transformers have been blown.

Fig 2.23 Two different methods of banking secondaries: (a) type 1 and (b) type 2
 Fig 2.24 Two additional methods of banking secondaries:
(a) type 3 and (b) type 4.
Today, due to the aforementioned difficulties, many utilities prefer the
method given in Figure 2.24b. The special distribution transformer known as
the completely self-protecting-bank (CSPB) transformer has, in its unit, a built-
in high-voltage protective link, secondary breakers, signal lights for overload
warnings, and lightning protection.
CSPB transformers are built in both single phase and three phase. They
have two identical secondary breakers that trip independently of each other
upon excessive current flows. In case of a transformer failure, the primary
protective links and the secondary breakers will both open. Therefore, the
service interruption will be minimum and restricted only to those consumers
who are supplied from the secondary section that is in fault.
However, all the methods of secondary banking have an inherent
disadvantage: the difficulty in performing TLM (Transformer Load Management)
to keep up with changing load conditions. The main concern when designing a
banked secondary system is the equitable load division among the
transformers. It is desirable that transformers whose secondaries are banked
in a straight line be within one size of each other.
For other types of banking, transformers may be within two sizes of each
other to prevent excessive overload in case the primary fuse of an adjacent
larger transformer should blow. Today, in general, the banking is applied to the
secondaries of single-phase transformers, and all transformers in a bank must
be supplied from the same phase of the primary feeder.