Most are unicellular, but some prokaryotes are multicellular.

Many important genes in prokaryotes are stored on plasmids. Plastids that

contain chlorophyll can carry out photosynthesis and are called chloroplasts. Plastids can also store
products like starch and can synthesize fatty acids and terpenes, which can be used for producing
energy and as raw material for the synthesis of other molecules.

Cyanobacteria are aquatic and photosynthetic, that is, they live in the water, and can
manufacture their own food. They are usually unicellular andoften grow in large
colonies.
Feeding: Some bacteria are photosynthetic, they can make their own food from sunlight, just like plants.
Also like plants, they give off oxygen. Other bacteria absorb food from the material they live on or in.
Some of these bacteria can live off unusual "foods" such as iron or sulfur. The microbes that live in your
gut absorb nutrients from the digested food you've eaten.

Movement: Some bacteria have hair- or whip-like appendages called flagella used to ‘swim’ around.
Others produce thick coats of slime and ‘glide’ about. Some stick out thin, rigid spikes called fimbriae to
help hold them to surfaces.

The Prokaryotic Cell Parts

 Cell Wall – lends to the shape of the cell (2 types: gram positive and gram negative)
 Pili – hair-like projections surrounding the outer layer of the cell; enables bacteria to
stick-on surfaces or latch-on other cells
 Capsule – thick covering of the cell wall that can provide protection from phagocytosis,
chemicals and dehydration; the sticky nature allows it to adhere to other cells; found in
gram-positive bacteria and blue-green algae
 Flagellum – attached to the cell wall, usually described as “whip-like;" most prokaryotes
are in constant motion and only able to move forward and backward
 Plasma Membrane – a thin, flexible asymmetrical “sac" that essentially contains the cell;
serves as a passageway for anything that enters or leaves the cell such as nutrients and
gases; also holds the cytoplasm
 Cytoplasm – can be compared, in terms of purpose, as carrying out similar functions to
membrane-bound organelles; contains enzymes for and carries out metabolism;
important to note that nothing within the cytoplasm is separated via membrane or well-
defined sections, items are suspended in the semi-fluid gel
 Nucleoid or Nuclear Body – area of the cytoplasm where the DNA strand is located
 Plasmids – tiny rings of DNA that can be transferred to other cells; anti-biotic resistance is
a prime illustration of the way prokaryotes share information with other prokaryote cells,
enabling cells to make adjustments that ensure survival
 Ribosomes – combination of RNA and protein, the function of prokaryotic ribosomes
widely depends on the bacteria

Facts

Prokaryotes consist of two Kingdoms: Monera or Bacteria (sometimes called

eubacteria), which includes cyanobacteria noted for the ability to carry out
photosynthesis, and Archaea (archaebacteria).

With the greatest ability to withstand the most severe environmental conditions,
science believes the latter contains the oldest cells/organisms on the planet, and
sometimes referring to it as “ancient bacteria."

Range of purpose – without the existences of many “good" bacteria, many species
could not exist, including humans

Are found everywhere – bacteria are not limited to causing disease, for example, they:

 Line human intestines to help with digestion

 Aid in the digestive process of rudiment animals
 Help decompose waste material

Adaptability – some bacteria create endospores, enabling them to survive if placed in a

different or “harsh" environment
 Can survive conditions that would kill other cells – for example, some live in
exceptionally hot or cold temperatures, gaseous environments or in places with intense
high or low Ph

Function – even though the cell structure seems simple, especially when compared to
eukaryotes, unicellular bacteria and archaea organisms not only perform complex
functions to survive, they are the oldest known cells

Colonization – many bacteria grow in colonies, yet each cell maintains its autonomy

Reproduction – cells pass along genetic information via a process called binary fission;
cells create duplicate DNA and divide

Identifying Bacteria

Prokaryotes are classified through characteristics such as shape, behavior, size, growth,
and stains.

Bacteria are separated into three classes based on shape: cocci, bacilli, and spirilla.
Although defined by morphology, they might not fall into the same classification – the
only commonality might be shape.

Also important to note, due to the size of bacteria, shapes are the only aspects visible
under a light microscopes, such as electron microscopes, which offer more powerful
magnification, in order to see the internal structures of the cell.

Shapes include:

 Cocci are described as round, flat spheres and can be observed as lone cells, pairs,
chains, tetrads (4 cells), clusters or cubes (8 cells); streptococcus is a chain of cocci-
shaped bacteria cells responsible for the common sore throat infection
 Rods, sometimes described as cylindrical and called as bacilli exist as singles, pairs
and chains; unlike the simpler cocci, the length of chains has no bearing on
identification
 Spirilla, known for their spiral shape can appear as one curve, like elbow-macaroni,
twists or genuine spirals

The way bacteria behaves is also important in identification; attributes include:

 Whether a culture grows in a warm or cold environment

 Whether cells colonize
 DNA tests
 Cell behavior when exposed to a variety of filters, chemicals, elements, gases or
states (i.e., dehydration, change in Ph)
 Growth (i.e., observing sample in a Petri-dish over time, possibly changing the
external conditions)
In addition, bacteria are separated into gram positive and gram negative, easily
discerned from one another by the use of a stain, High end microscope , and DNA
extraction (molecular method).

Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells are organized into complex structures by
internal membranes and a cytoskeleton. The most characteristic membrane bound
structure is the nucleus. This feature gives them their name meaning true, and nut,
referring to the nucleus. Animals, plants, fungi, and protists are eukaryotes.

Eukaryotes contain many organelles – structures within the cell – including:

Nucleus – the defining structure, often likened to the “brain" or control center of the
cell; the nucleus contains genetic material (DNA and RNA) and also manages the
activities of the other organelles within the cell; other aspects include:

 Nucleolus – dark area within the nucleus essential to cell division

 Nuclear Envelope – double membrane contains pores that allow for communication
between the nucleus and cytoplasm; connected to ER
 Chromatin – DNA proteins with a thread-like appearance when the cell is not actively
undergoing mitosis or meiosis
 Chromosomes – contain genetic information of a cell; formed when chromatin
transforms into short, dense coils

Cytoplasm – contained within the plasma membrane of the cell, but outside the
nucleus; microfilaments and microtubules aid in the formation of the cytoskeleton

Cytoskeleton – provides shape to the cell through a “criss-cross" arrangement of

protein-based filaments secured to the cell membrane; changes in filament tension lend
to cell movement; certain cells move via the attachment of microtubules, cilia and
flagella to the outer cytoskeleton; also plays a role in the separation of chromosomes
during the process of mitosis

Cell Wall – most prominent in plant cells and commonly made of cellulose or chitin;
glycocalyx in animal cells make the thin wall more durable and provides a means for
cells to connect to each other

Mitochondria – a powerful part of a cell located in sphere-shaped double membrane

structures throughout the cytoplasm; the outer layer is smooth, while the inner
membrane contains cristae -- a progression of “folds" along the sphere that allow for an
incredibly large surface area, while the small inner space (matrix) contains fluid;
converts food into energy via aerobic respiration; essential to the production of ATP
(energy)
 Chloroplast – the plant version of mitochondria; contains chlorophyll and enzymes
required for photosynthesis; like mitochondria, chloroplasts possess their own DNA,
which it replicates on its own

Ribosome – manufactures protein in eukaryotes

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) – called the “intercellular highway," the ER transports

material around the cell; located between the pores of the nuclear envelope, the ER
allows for the transfer of compounds in and out of the cell; two types:

 Rough – covered with ribosomes and containing cisterns or sacs, rough ER is

associated with the formation and transport of proteins; can be considered an
extension of the nuclear envelope
 Smooth – generates lipids; responsible for detoxification, eliminating harmful
compounds and poisons from the cell
Golgi Apparatus/Complex – responsible for preparing or “packaging" items, such as enzymes or proteins,
within cisterns transported outside the cell through a vacuole or to another area of the cell like a lysosome; also
produces/modifies proteins

Lysosome – uses an enzyme to break down food sources into usable forms such as
amino acids (proteins) or energy (glucose); also ingests bacteria, protecting the cell
from harmful intruders

Vacuole – storage facility for food and water; can be very large in plant cells and, in
addition to storing nutrients and water, plant vacuoles can store metabolic waste and
other harmful substances, keeping them away from the cytoplasm so the plant remains
healthy