Introduction to ECOLOGY

Environmental Systems c. Eutrophication

i. Excessive growth in wetlands
A. Systems
d. Leads to imbalances
 Set of interacting components 6. Negative Feedback
 Network of interdependent components a. Dampening Effect
and processes with materials and energy b. It maintains homeostasis
flowing from one component to another. 7. Disturbances
B. Ecosystem a. Events that destabilize or change
 Animals, plants and their environment the system (seasonal drought)
 Interaction between species 8. Resilience
 Interdependent and interconnected a. Ability to return to the previous
C. Characteristics of a System condition after disturbance
1. It is composed of compartments or b. Ability to bounce back
components “State variables” 9. State Shift
a. Either they store resources or a. Conditions that do not return to
produce resources normal
b. They can also be a form of process
(photosynthesis) Matter & Energy
2. Open system and Close system A. Matter
a. Open System a. Everything that takes up space
i. Exchange of energy and has mass
ii. Receives inputs and produce b. Composed of atoms (smallest unit)
outputs that leave the system c. Matter is neither created not
iii. Includes most natural systems destroyed but is recycled.
b. Closed System B. Atoms
i. No exchange a. Smallest unit
ii. Do not exchange energy or b. Atom to molecules to elements
matter with its surroundings. c. Composes of
3. Throughput i. Proton
a. Energy and matter flow into through 1. Positively charged
and out ii. Electron
4. Thresholds 1. Negatively charged
a. Limitation iii. Neutron
b. Tipping point 1. No charge
c. Rapid and sudden changes in the d. Atomic Number
environment i. The number of protons
d. The environment has its own e. Atomic Mass
limitation i. No of proton and no of neutrons
5. Positive feedback f. Atomic Structure
a. Increase in the state variable leads i. Protons and neutrons are inside
to further increase in the same the nucleus while the electron
variable surrounds them.
b. It will render system unstable C. Elements
 Introduction to ECOLOGY

a. Substances that cannot be broken 5. Antibodies

down 6. Muscle movement
b. They are already simple 7. Oxygen transport
c. 115 known elements 8. Levels of Protein
D. Common Elements a. Primary Structure –
a. Organic compounds formation of chains of
i. C, H, O amino acid
ii. Basic structure of cells b. Secondary Structure –
b. Essential Plant Fertilizers coiling of the chain of
i. N, P and K amino acids (alpha
ii. Essential components of proteins, helix)
cells and other biological c. Tertiary Structure –
compounds formation of 3D shape
E. Metals d. Quaternary Structure –
a. Fe, Au and Al (TOXIC formation of functional
ELEMENTS) protein
b. Pb, Hg and As iv. Nucleotides
i. Interfere with nervous system 1. 5-carbon sugar, phosphate
F. Compounds groups and an organic
a. Organic Compounds nitrogen-containing base
i. Lipids 2. Store and express genetic
1. Fats and oils information
2. Steroids 3. Signaling molecules (they
3. Triglycerides carry information between
4. Hydrocarbons cells, tissues and organs)
5. Immiscible 4. Sources of energy within cells
6. Stores energy for cells G. Energy
7. Makes up the cell membrane, a. Force that holds matter together,
hormones and other tear them apart and move them
significant structure. from one place to another.
ii. Carbohydrates b. Ability to do work
1. Glucose c. heat=calories
2. Sugars, starches and d. work=joules
cellulose e. Kinetic Energy
3. Several OH groups i. There is movement and motion
4. Stores energy and provide ii. It possessed mass and velocity
cell structure (speed and direction)
iii. Proteins iii. Heat is also a form of kinetic
1. Chains of amino acids folded energy
into complex 3D shapes iv. (E.g., wind, water, electro-
2. Provides cell structure magnetic radiation and electricity)
3. Regulate cell activity f. Potential Energy
4. Enzymes: catalyze reaction
 Introduction to ECOLOGY

i. Store energy/energy at rest (E.g, a. Complete with nucleus

nuclear energy) and organelles
H. Thermodynamics b. Species
a. Study of energy transformations i. All organisms of the same kind
b. Law of Conservation of Energy that are genetically similar enough
i. 1st Law of Thermodynamics to breed in nature and produce
1. When energy is converted live, fertile offspring.
from one form to another: c. Population
physical to chemical i. consist of all the members of a
ii. 2 Law of Thermodynamics
nd species living in a given area at
1. Entropy the same time.
2. With each successive energy d. Biological Community
transfer or transformation in a i. All of the populations of organisms
system, less energy is living and interacting in a particular
available to do work. area
I. Energy Sources Within Systems K. Food Chains, Webs and Trophic Levels
a. Primary Producers a. Food Chain
i. Plants i. A sequence of organisms, each of
1. Create carbohydrates and which serves as a source of food
other compounds from or energy for the next
sunlight, air and water
ii. Extremophiles
1. Live in thermal vents deep
within the ocean not receiving
sunlight
2. Organisms that extract
energy from inorganic
chemical compounds such as
hydrogen sulfide (i.e., b. Producers
chemosynthesis) i. Plants, algae, and certain bacteria
J. Species Organization c. Consumers
a. Cell i. Primary Consumer
i. Structural and functional unit of life 1. Herbivores
ii. Cell membrane 2. Eat plants
iii. Organelles ii. Secondary Consumer
iv. Human has a trillion of cells (200 1. Predators
cell types) iii. Primary Productivity
v. Types of cells 1. Photosynthesis
1. Prokaryotic iv. Secondary Productivity
a. No nucleus 1. Manufacturer of biomass by
b. Bacteria organisms that eat plants
c. No organelles d. Food Web
2. Eukaryotic i. Interconnected food chains
 Introduction to ECOLOGY

ii. Results from most consumer i. Elements and compounds, they

having multiple food sources move continuously in the
e. Trophic level environment
i. An organism’s feeding status in an ii. In order to sustain, people need to
ecosystem recycle, reuse and reduce
ii. Herbivores b. Biogeochemical cycle
1. (plant eat-ers), i. Cycling of elements and
2. Are animals such as rabbits, compounds
grasshoppers, deer, and c. Hydrologic Cycle
zooplankton that eat i. collects, purifies, and distributes
producers, the earth’s fixed supply of water
3. Mostly by feeding on green ii. Processes: Evaporation,
plants. Precipitation and Transpiration
iii. Carnivores iii. Evaporation – changes liquid to
1. (meat eat-ers), gas, water vapor, turns oxygen
2. Are animals such as spiders, into the atmosphere
hyenas, birds, frogs, and iv. Precipitation – Water brought back
some zooplankton-eating to earth’s surface: Rain, snow and
fish, dew
3. All of which feed on the flesh v. Transpiration - about 90% of the
of herbivores. water that reaches the atmosphere
iv. Omnivores evaporates from the surfaces of
1. Play dual roles by feeding on plants
both plants and animals. vi. the hydrologic cycle can be viewed
v. Scavengers as a cycle of natural renewal of
1. Will just eat what they find, water quality
and will often eat detritivores. vii. First, we withdraw large quantities
Because they have stomachs of freshwater from streams, lakes,
that can deal with the and underground sources,
bacteria that comes with sometimes at rates faster than
eating dead meat. nature can replace it.
vi. Detritivores viii. Second, we clear vegetation from
1. Detritivores break down food land for agriculture, mining, road
to its base organic nutrients building, and other activities, and
vii. Decomposer cover much of the land with
1. Break down those wastes buildings, concrete, and asphalt.
and those dead organisms This increases runoff, reduces
and return the raw materials infiltration that would normally
to the ecosystem. recharge groundwater supplies
L. Biogeochemical Cycles increases the risk of flooding, and
a. Nutrient Cycle accelerates soil erosion and
landslides. Clearing vegetation can
 Introduction to ECOLOGY
also alter weather patterns by
reducing transpiration
ix. The third way in which we alter the
water cycle is by increasing
flooding. This happens when we
drain wetlands for farming and
other purposes.
d. Carbon Cycle
i. Carbon is the basic building block
of the carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, DNA, and other organic
compounds necessary for life.
ii. It circulates through the biosphere,
the atmosphere, and parts of the
hydrosphere
iii. Based on carbon dioxide (CO 2 )
gas, which makes up 0.038% of
the volume of the atmosphere and
is also dissolved in water.
iv. Carbon dioxide is a key
component of nature’s thermostat.
v. The cells in oxygen-consuming
producers, consumers, and
decomposers then carry out
aerobic respiration.
vi. This process breaks down glucose
and other complex organic
compounds and converts the
carbon back toCO 2 in the
atmosphere or water for reuse by
producers.
vii. This linkage between
photosynthesis in producers and
aerobic respiration in producers,
consumers, and decomposers
circulates carbon in the biosphere.
viii. Oxygen and hydrogen—the other
elements in carbohydrates—cycle
almost in step with carbon.
e. Nitrogen Cycle
i. Chemically unreactive nitrogen
gas (N 2 ) makes up 78% of the
volume of the atmosphere.
ii. Nitrogen is a crucial component of
proteins, many vitamins, and
nucleic acids such as DNA.
However, N 2 cannot be absorbed
and used directly as a nutrient by
multicellular plants or animals.
iii. Fortunately, two natural processes
convert or fix N 2 into compounds
useful as nutrients for plants and
animals.
iv. One is electrical discharges, or
lightning, taking place in the
atmosphere. The other takes place
in aquatic systems, soil, and the
roots of some plants, where
specialized bacteria, called
nitrogen-fixing bacteria, complete
this conversion as part of the
nitrogen cycle
v. Ammonia not taken up by plants
may undergo nitrification. In this
 Introduction to ECOLOGY

two-step process, specialized soil warm the atmosphere and deplete

bacteria convert most of the NH 3
and NH 4 in soil to nitrate ions (NO
3), which are easily taken up by
the roots of plants. The plants then
use these forms of nitrogen to
produce various amino acids,
proteins, nucleic acids, and
vitamins
vi. In ammonification, vast armies of
specialized decomposer bacteria
convert this detritus into simpler
nitrogen-containing inorganic
compounds such as ammonia (NH
3) and water-soluble salts
containing ammonium ions (NH 4).
vii. In denitrification, specialized
bacteria in waterlogged soil and in
the bottom sediments of lakes,
oceans, swamps, and bogs
convert NH 3 and NH4 back into
nitrite and nitrate ions, and then
into nitrogen gas (N2) and nitrous
oxide gas (N2O).
viii. First, we add large amounts of
nitric oxide (NO) into the
atmosphere when N 2 and O 2
combine as we burn any fuel at
high temperatures, such as in car,
truck, and jet engines. In the
atmosphere, this gas can be
converted to nitrogen dioxide gas
(NO 2 ) and nitric acid vapor (HNO
3 ), which can return to the earth’s
surface as damaging acid
deposition, commonly called acid
rain
ix. Second, we add nitrous oxide (N 2
O) to the atmosphere through the
action of anaerobic bacteria on
livestock wastes and commercial
inorganic fertilizers applied to the
soil. This greenhouse gas can
stratospheric ozone, which keeps
most of the sun’s harmful
ultraviolet radiation from reaching
the earth’s surface.
x. Third, we release large quantities
of nitrogen stored in soils and
plants as gaseous compounds into
the atmosphere through
destruction of forests, grasslands,
and wetlands.
xi. Fourth, we upset the nitrogen
cycle in aquatic ecosystems by
adding excess nitrates to bodies of
water through agricultural runoff
and discharges from municipal
sewage systems.
xii. Fifth, we remove nitrogen from
topsoil when we harvest nitrogen-
rich crops, irrigate crops (washing
nitrates out of the soil), and burn or
clear grasslands and forests
before planting crops.
f. Phosphorus Cycle
i. The phosphorus cycle does not
include the atmosphere. The major
reservoir for phosphorous is
phosphate salts containing
phosphate ions (PO 4 3) in
terrestrial rock formations and
ocean bottom sediments.
 Introduction to ECOLOGY
ii. As water runs over exposed
phosphorus-containing rocks, it
slowly erodes away inorganic
compounds that contain
phosphate ions (PO 4 3? ). The
dissolved phosphate can be
absorbed by the roots of plants
and by other producers.
Phosphorous is transferred by
food webs from such producers to
consumers, eventually including
detritus feeders and decomposers.
In both producers and consumers,
phosphorous is a component of
biologically important molecules
such as nucleic acids and energy
transfer molecules such as ADP
and ATP
iii. It is also a major component of
vertebrate bones and teeth.
g. Sulfur Cycle
i. Much of the earth’s sulfur is stored
underground in rocks and
minerals, including sulfate (SO 4
2) salts buried deep under ocean
sediments
ii. Particles of sulfate (SO 4 2) salts,
such as ammonium sulfate, enter
the atmosphere from sea spray,
dust storms, and forest fires. Plant
roots absorb sulfate ions and
incorporate the sulfur as an
essential component of many
proteins.
iii. In the oxygen-deficient
environments of flooded soils,
freshwater wetlands, and tidal
flats, specialized bacteria convert
sulfate ions to sulfide ions (S 2).
The sulfide ions can then react
with metal ions to form insoluble
metallic sulfides, which are
deposited as rock, and the cycle
continues.
iv. We add sulfur dioxide to the
atmosphere in three ways.
1. First, we burn sulfur-
containing coal and oil to
produce electric power.
2. Second, we refine sulfur-
containing petroleum to make
gasoline, heating oil, and
other useful products.
3. Third, we convert sulfur
containing metallic mineral
ores into free metals such as
copper, lead, and zinc. Once
in the atmosphere, SO 2 is
converted to droplets of
sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) and
particles of sulfate (SO 4 2)
salts, which return to the
earth as acid deposition.