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 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com

FLUID FLOW
AND ROTATING
EQUIPMENT
Troubleshoot vacuum operations
of a condenser unit

Analyzing noise, vibration and

failures in axial cooling fans

MAINTENANCE AND RELIABILITY

Does your control valve talk?

Role statements needed

for reliability job functions

HEAT TRANSFER
Considerations for revamping
shell-and-tube heat exchangers

PROCESS CONTROL
The lost art of proportional band
CHEMICAL • PETROCHEMICAL • OIL • GAS • PHARMACEUTICAL • INDUSTRIAL

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 AUGUST 2017 | Volume 96 Number 8
HydrocarbonProcessing.com

23
SPECIAL FOCUS: FLUID FLOW AND ROTATING EQUIPMENT DEPARTMENTS
29 Troubleshooting vacuum operation of an 4 Industry Perspectives
inter-after condenser unit in an ethylene plant
8 Business Trends
T. Wieslaw, J. Nichols, N. Lieberman and E. Johnson
15 Industry Metrics
35 Analyzing axial cooling fans’ high noise, vibration and failures
17 Global Project Data
W. K. Allah
91 Innovations
39 Plug the metering skills gap to ensure measurement accuracy and safety
94 Onsite
A. MacGillivray
95 Marketplace
HEAT TRANSFER 96 Advertiser Index
41 Revamp fired heaters with a common air-preheating system to increase capacity
97 Events
S. Ahamad and R. Vallavanatt
98 People
47 Considerations for revamping shell-and-tube heat exchangers
E. Garrido
COLUMNS
MAINTENANCE AND RELIABILITY
49 Does your control valve talk? 7 Editorial Comment
Is the industry ready
A. Almas for IMO 2020?
53 Carburization inspection robots for radiant tubes
inside ethylene cracking furnaces 19 Reliability
Identify top ways to weather
T. Tiyawongsakul weak market conditions
57 Role statements needed for reliability job functions
H. P. Bloch
21 Automation Strategies
Navigating automation
WATER MANAGEMENT in oil and gas: Lessons learned
from other industries
61 Filter process streams to protect downstream equipment
and improve product quality 23 Global
M. Clements Russian oil majors eye
Western expansion
PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION
65 Identify the cause of liquid maldistribution inside packed beds 25 Supply Chain
L. Pless Rail’s speed of change
is all about efficiency
67 The lost art of proportional band, and the accidental art
of performance monitoring
A. Kern DIGITAL EXCLUSIVES
Boxscore Construction Analysis
ENVIRONMENT AND SAFETY
71 Rethinking the risk mitigation process and revitalizing operational safety
S. Planche
Cover Image: Manufactured in Belfort, France,
75 Safety studies and the importance of closeout reports GE’s 9HA gas turbine is the world’s largest
and most efficient gas turbine. Photo courtesy of GE.
V. A. Kunte

ADVANCED CATALYSIS TECHNOLOGY—SUPPLEMENT

C–82 Troubleshooting catalyst losses in the FCC unit
R. Kuo and A. Tan

GAS PROCESSING SUPPLEMENT

GP-1 Technology and Business Information for the Global Gas Processing Industry

www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com
P. O. Box 2608
Houston, Texas 77252-2608, USA
Phone: +1 (713) 529-4301
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PUBLISHER Catherine Watkins

Industry Perspectives EDITOR/ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER

Catherine.Watkins@GulfPub.com
Lee Nichols
Lee.Nichols@GulfPub.com

EDITORIAL
Executive Editor Adrienne Blume
The global reach of Managing Editor
Technical Editor
Mike Rhodes
Bob Andrew
Hydrocarbon Processing Digital Editor
Reliability/Equipment Editor
Ashley Smith
Heinz P. Bloch
Contributing Editor Alissa Leeton
Since the beginning of this year, Hydrocarbon Processing Contributing Editor ARC Advisory Group
Contributing Editor Anthony Sofronas
has published more than 200 articles and columns. These
publications include technical and trends-based articles on MAGAZINE PRODUCTION / +1 (713) 525-4633
the hydrocarbon processing industry (HPI) within the maga- Vice President, Production Sheryl Stone
Manager, Advertising Production Cheryl Willis
zine, online, in show dailies, etc. This feat would not be pos- Manager, Editorial Production Angela Bathe Dietrich
sible without the time and effort of dozens of authors and Assistant Manager, Editorial Production Lindsey Craun
Artist/Illustrator David Weeks
contributors from around the world. Graphic Designer Andreina Keller
Hydrocarbon Processing has the largest audience in the
ADVERTISING SALES
HPI, which is primarily due to the editorial integrity of the See Sales Offices, page 96.
articles that are published. Hydrocarbon Processing is honored
to work with a diverse group of authors that contribute their CIRCULATION / +1 (713) 520-4498 / Circulation@GulfPub.com
Manager, Circulation Suzanne McGehee
hard work to the publication every month, and it has been our
intention to grow our international authorship from best-in- SUBSCRIPTIONS
class companies. This goal drives our publication to continue Subscription price (includes both print and digital versions): One year $399,
two years $679, three years $897. Airmail rate outside North America $175 addi-
as the best in the industry, as well as to showcase ideas, chal- tional a year. Single copies $35, prepaid.
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Although Hydrocarbon Processing is a US-based publica- This plan provides full access to all information and data Hydrocarbon Processing
tion, the technical content is provided by authors from every has to offer. It includes a print or digital version of the magazine, as well as full
access to all posted articles (current and archived), process handbooks, the
region around the world. As shown in FIG. 1, more than 70% of HPI Market Data book, Construction Boxscore Database project updates and more.
the technical articles and/or columns published in Hydrocar- Because Hydrocarbon Processing is edited specifically to be of greatest value to
bon Processing are from authors outside of the US. This data people working in this specialized business, subscriptions are restricted to those
displays the global reach of the publication, and is a major fac- engaged in the hydrocarbon processing industry, or service and supply company
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tor why Hydrocarbon Processing is the most-read publication
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10% Canada
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6% Latin America
President/CEO
CFO
John Royall
Pamela Harvey

19% Europe Vice President

Vice President
Andy McDowell
Ron Higgins
Vice President, Production Sheryl Stone

FIG. 1. Market share analysis of authors that have contributed Publication Agreement Number 40034765 Printed in USA
to Hydrocarbon Processing by region, 2017. Other Gulf Publishing Company titles include: Gas ProcessingTM, Petroleum Economist ©,
World Oil ®, Pipeline & Gas Journal and Underground Construction.

4 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
The power of
partnership.
Engineering Ingenuity

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 Editorial
Comment
Is the industry ready for IMO 2020?
In mid-July, hydrocarbon process-
ing industry (HPI) professionals from
around the world met in Houston, Texas
for Hydrocarbon Processing’s International
Petrochemical and Refining Conference
(IRPC). Founded in 2009, Hydrocarbon
Processing’s IRPC provides a series of
events for the international downstream
industry, covering technical innovations
and exploring both the challenges and
opportunities in today’s market.
The July event was the first time that
Hydrocarbon Processing has featured IRPC
in the US. The two-day, dual-track IRPC
Americas technical conference focused on
critical topics in the HPI, such as heavy
oil/bottom-of-the-barrel processing, op-
erations/flaring, filtration and separation,
process control and automation, feed-
stocks, water treatment, refinery and plant
optimization, and increased profitability.
The conference also featured a dynam-
ic panel discussion: Refiners and Mari-
time—Ready for IMO 2020? In October
2016, the International Maritime Organi-
zation (IMO) announced that it will im-
plement a new regulation that calls for a
reduction of the sulfur content in marine
fuels from 3.5% to 0.5%. The new rule
will go into effect in January 2020, and af-
fects more than 50,000 ships worldwide.
With a global marine fuel demand of
approximately 4 MMbpd, this action by
the IMO will have a profound impact on
the maritime and refining industries inter-
nationally, as well as on the environment.
Three solutions have moved to the fore-
front of discussions on meeting the global
sulfur cap regulation for shipowners:
1. Purchase compliant fuel with a
sulfur content of 0.5%
2. Install onboard scrubbers
3. Switch to an alternative fuel,
such as LNG.
Each of these options present ben-
efits and challenges. For example, LNG
is clean-burning, but global LNG bunker
fuel infrastructure is lacking.
Hydrocarbon Processing conducted
LEE NICHOLS, EDITOR/ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER
Lee.Nichols@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
a poll earlier this year to discover what
our subscribers think is the likely route
that shippers will follow to adhere to the
IMO regulation. After hundreds of votes,
nearly half of the respondents believed
that shippers will burn more low-sulfur
marine fuel. The options of installing
onboard scrubbers or switching to al-
ternative fuels both received 25% of the
votes. The production of low-sulfur ma-
rine fuel could provide refiners higher
margins in the future, if they are able to
produce it. Some may need to purchase
lighter, sweeter crudes, increase blending
or install new cokers; however, investing
in new capital-intensive coking units may
be hard for many refiners to justify.
The IRPC Americas’ IMO panel dis-
cussion focused on the impacts of the
IMO’s Global Sulfur Cap decision and
how the mandate will affect the future of
refining operations in the US and abroad,
as well as feasible options available to
achieve lower maritime sulfur emissions.
The panel consisted of respected in-
dustry professionals from Amec Foster-
Wheeler, Bechtel, Hydrocarbon Process-
ing, IHS Markit and Opportune. Some
of the key points made during the discus-
sion included:
• Higher crude runs will be needed
to meet 0.5% sulfur in bunker fuel
• Significant residual production may
need to be converted into coking
• Marine fuel will become more
expensive, and residual fuel oil
will become less valuable
• Rebalancing the bunker fuel/refining
product market will be complex
• Refiners are only going to produce
low-sulfur fuel oil if the price is right
• Larger, more-complex refineries
have the advantage over small,
simple refineries
To read the coverage of the IMO panel
discussion, or to learn more about the
many industry technology presentations
featured at IRPC Americas, visit www.
HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
INSIDE THIS ISSUE
8 Business Trends.
Ethylene
is the key building block for the
petrochemical industry. This olefin
supports 70% of petrochemical
industry production, and is used to
manufacture a wide variety of products
for industrial and consumer markets.
This article examines the optimal
conditions for the production of
ethylene from several feedstocks.
23 Global. Amid declining
domestic profits, Rosneft
is considering expanding in the EU
and US refining markets. HP examines
the investments and moves the
Russian oil major is making to
expand into Western markets.
28 Special Focus.
One of the most crucial
topics in the HPI is fluid flow and
rotating equipment. Any problems
or disruptions in a facility’s fluid flow
system, or the equipment that supports
the force for moving process liquids,
can severely impact the entire plant’s
operations. This month’s Special Focus
examines numerous issues around
maximizing plant/process unit uptime
and reliability, and solutions to maintain
and increase efficiency.
49 Maintenance
and Reliability.
This article discusses how the use
of smart, advanced diagnostics on
control valves can help with predictive
maintenance, control costs and
ensure reliable operations.
61 Water Management.
What kind of impact does
unfiltered water have on downstream
equipment, catalysts and processes?
The author provides the benefits of
optimized filtration for process water,
and how that process can mitigate
increased maintenance, repair costs
and downtime, as well as increase
conversion rates and process yields.
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 7
 | Business Trends
Ethylene is produced by cracking a range of hydrocarbons including
ethane, propane, butane, naphtha, LPG and gasoils. Naphtha is the
principal raw material used in European and Japanese crackers, while
the US utilizes ethane as its primary feedstock.

The petrochemicals industry is witnessing enormous growth worldwide. By

2020, global ethylene capacity is forecast to rise steadily to more than 215
MMtpy. Plans for additional capacity in the petrochemicals industry are
constantly being updated due to changes in oil prices, estimates of natural
gas reserves, investment ability, etc. However, investigations of technical
and economic aspects governing the production of petrochemicals from
optional resources are crucial on both internal and national levels.

This month’s Business Trends examines the optimal conditions for the
production of ethylene from several feedstocks.

Photo: Night view of ExxonMobil’s petrochemical complex on Jurong Island, Singapore.

Photo courtesy of ExxonMobil.
F. H. SOROUR, Gulf of Suez Petroleum Co., Cairo, Egypt;
N. M. ABDELMONEM, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt; SH. R. TEWFIK,
National Research Center, Cairo, Egypt; and F. H. ASHOUR and
M. A. GADALLA, British University in Egypt, Cairo, Egypt
Business Trends

Ethylene production economics

from optional feedstocks
The petrochemicals industry is witnessing enormous Product range and yield. The choice of feedstock and the
growth worldwide. Ethylene is produced by cracking a range reaction cracking conditions determine the ratio of products
of hydrocarbons. Naphtha is the main raw material used in Eu- obtained. Typical yields in wt% for various feedstock are
ropean and Japanese crackers, while the US utilizes ethane as shown in TABLE 1.
its primary feedstock. In the US, 52% of ethylene is produced
from ethane, 22% from gasoil, 5% from naphtha, and the re- FEEDSTOCK AND METHODOLOGY
mainder is from other feedstocks. In Western Europe, naphtha The methodology used combines both the simulation
constitutes approximately 71% of ethylene feedstock, gasoil (through an industrial process simulator program) and the cost
and LPG account for 11% each, and the remainder of ethylene model (through an economical evaluation of different technol-
production originates from ethane cracking.1 ogies) for the production of ethylene based on the total invest-
ment cost. The feedstocks used in this study for the produc-
ETHYLENE PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES tion of ethylene and propylene were ethane (C2H6), propane
The following is a review on the most common technolo- (C3H8) and light naphtha.
gies for producing ethylene from different feedstocks. A sum-
mary of each technology, along with standard reactions, is Feedstocks
presented, as well as temperatures/pressures of the reactions, Ethane (C₂H₆). Ethane is extracted from natural gas by dis-
operation of the reactors and whether the reaction type is en- tillation, and is the main component in the feed to olefin plants
dothermic or exothermic. for the production of unsaturated hydrocarbons, such as eth-
ylene (i.e., undergoes a catalytic dehydrogenation reaction).4
Ethylene from steam cracking. The hydrocarbon stream Light naphtha. Naphtha has a boiling range of 34°C–
is heated and then diluted by mixing it with steam before en- 129°C. It is steam cracked in parallel tubular pyrolysis heaters
tering a tubular reactor. The steam required depends on the at a furnace outlet temperature of 840°C–855°C and a pressure
type of feedstock used. The cracking reaction takes place at of 1.8 bar. The furnace outlet ethylene yield is 35 wt%.5
a temperature of 750°C–870°C under partial pressure, with a
residence time of up to one second. The reaction (Eq. 1) is en- Methodology
dothermic and requires considerable heat input.2 Industrial process simulator program. The industrial
process simulator program is a powerful engineering simula-
C2H6 → C2H4 + H2 (1) tion tool, providing a set of software tools that are designed to
help manage process knowledge throughout the asset lifecycle.a
Ethylene from propylene by disproportionation. A de- Simulation of ethylene production. The industrial process
methanized propylene stream is fed into a reactor operating at simulator program is used in the synthesis, simulation, optimi-
7 bar, a temperature of 360°C–450°C, and containing a catalyst zation and economical evaluation of different methods for the
(Eq. 2). production of ethylene. In this research, the simulator was used
to compute the percentage of ethylene yield against various op-
2C3H8 → C3H6 + H2 + C2H4 + CH4 (2)
TABLE 1. Types of feedstocks and percent ranges
Ethylene from ethyl alcohol by dehydrogenation. Ethyl of products produced3
alcohol is changed into a vapor by heating it with a high–pres- Products/ Ethane, Propane, Butane, Naphtha, Gasoil,
sure steam before passing it over a fixed bed of activated alumi- feedstock wt% wt% wt% wt% wt%
na and phosphoric acid contained in the reactor, shown in Eq. Ethylene 79–84 42–45 30–40 28–38 23–26
3. The reactor can be in either an isothermal or adiabatic state. Propylene 1–3 1–18 16–20 13–18 13–14
The temperature ranges from 296°C–315°C, and conversion
Butadiene 2 2 2.5–3 4–5 4.8–5
rates up to 99% are claimed, with a yield of 94%.2
Butanes/butanes 1 1 6.5–6.8 4–5 4.5–5.3
2C₂H₅OH → 2C₂H₄ +2H₂O (3) Yield 30-35 NA NA NA NA

Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 9

 Business Trends

erating conditions—temperature, pressure and feed tray—to petrochemicals production, energy prices equate to the
indicate the maximum obtained product yield and the best op- total costs of feedstock and energy use during processing.
erating conditions. Many trials were performed for each run and • Operation and maintenance (O&M): This term refers
for each change in the three operating parameters. These runs to the cost of labor, operation and maintenance. Annual
provided results to help determine optimum performance, max- O&M costs consist of all costs related to operating and
imum production yield and associated operating conditions.a maintaining the plant for a period of 1 yr. O&M costs
include chemical usage, O&M labor, and the removal,
Cost model. A cost model was developed to calculate the pro- transportation and disposal of any waste solids, sludge,
duction cost for each selected technology. The model provided solvent or other waste products generated by the
the product value for ethylene (cent/kg), as well as the best treatment system. Additional costs include utilities,
methods for its production. The production costs consisted of such as electricity, steam, cooling water, instrument
the following components: air, nitrogen purge and fuel consumption.6,7
• Energy prices: For feedstock production, the term • Capital costs: Typically, direct capital costs include
energy prices refers to the costs of primary energy the purchase and installation of treatment equipment,
sources and the costs of process energy use. For piping, instrumentation, pumps and other auxiliary
equipment, site preparation, and construction of
TABLE 2. Comparison of ethylene production yields from buildings and other structures.8
different feedstocks9
Feedstock Ethylene yield, wt% Theoretical yield, wt% Analysis. The technical analysis for selected ethylene manufac-
turing processes was conducted to identify the optimum pro-
Ethane 48.2 80.9
cess. The goal was to compare and assesses the use of natural
Propane 34.5 42.6 gas vs. light naphtha. The analysis indicated that the best yield
Light naphtha 35 37.6 achieved for the production of ethylene is from natural gas (i.e.,
ethane or propane). The ethylene yield from natural gas and
TABLE 3. Economic processes assessments and selection of the light naphtha is shown in TABLE 2.
ethylene manufacturing methods10 An economic analysis between selected ethylene production
Principles of process Ethylene Ethylene Ethylene
methods is conducted by applying economic analysis—de-
selection evaluation from ethane from propane from naphtha pending on certain criteria such as capital investment, operating
Capital investment, 0.86 1.05 1.32
investment, raw material cost, energy consumed, environmen-
kg/yr ($US) tal and health impact, production cost, availability and product
value—to identify the most optimum process for the produc-
Operating 172.85 x 106 175.15 x 106 119.2 x 106
investment, $/yr tion of ethylene (TABLE 3).8
After reviewing data represented in TABLES 2 and 3, the most
Raw material, $/kg 0.2158 0.4074 0.539
economical production of ethylene is through ethane by con-
Conversion, mol% 60 90 37.6 ventional cracking/front-end deethanization.
Energy consumed
Steam 0.035 0.0418 –
CASE STUDY FOR THE OPTIMIZATION
Electricity 0.011 0.002 –
OF AN ETHYLENE PLANT
The ethylene process simulation through conventional
Total, $/kg 0.046 0.0438 .0546
cracking with front-end deethanization is shown in FIG. 1. The
Production cost, $/kg 0.3387 0.3414 0.4322 major findings from the simulation are shown in TABLE 4.
Product value, $/kg 0.5437 0.5925 0.7069 The simulation results indicated that the demethanizer sec-

Ethylene
Temperature –41.03 °C
Pressure 122 psi
Molar flow 4155 kmol/h
Mass flow 1.040e + 008 tpy
Methane
BFW Q-103 Mols frac, ethylene 0.7008

CRV-100
Feed
Steam MIX-100 3 Q-108
Cond. Q3
Cond. Cond.
4 C E-103 De-C1 Q Q2
Ethane E-100 Ethylene
feed Splitter
Q-100 K-O Reboiler Q Reboiler Q2 E-104
Steam out feed
2 drum Reboiler Q2
De-C1 De-C1 btm Valve-100 De-C2 De-C1 De-C2 btm
Q-104 To feed
K-O Splitter Ethane btm
Ethane 12 Water De-C1 feed De-C2 feed Splitter feed
Temperature 29.97 °C E-102 Temperature –35.00 °C Temperature –9.797 °C Temperature –30.58 °C
Pressure 700 psi Pressure 450 psi Pressure 385 psi Pressure 210 psi
Molar flow 7850 kmol/h Molar flow 1.197e + 004 kmol/h Molar flow 5225 kmol/h Molar flow 4813 kmol/h
Mass flow 2.015e + 008 tpy Mass flow 2.018e + 008 tpy Mass flow 1.352e + 008 tpy Mass flow 1.218e + 008 tpy

FIG. 1. An ethylene process simulation (conventional method).

10 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
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 Business Trends

tion plays a major role in the process, and is the key component Feed tray variation of the demethanizer tower against
within an ethylene plant. The demethanizer is optimized to ethylene yield percentage. Tests were conducted on varia-
maximize the percentage of ethylene yield through the varia- tions of the feed tray location until Stage 20. The results showed
tions of feed temperature, pressure and tray location. that the maximum ethylene yield of 61.9% was located at Stage
16 (TABLE 7).
Feed temperature variation against ethylene yield
percentage. The feed temperature was varied from –5°C to Simulation analysis. After analyzing the data, the best operat-
–40°C. The cross-ponding ethylene yield depicted in TABLE 5 ing conditions for the demethanizer are:
indicates that the maximum yield was obtained with a feed tem- • Temperature of –10°C
perature of –10°C. • Pressure of 455 psi
• Feed tray location at Stage 16.
Feed pressure variation against ethylene yield per- The major findings of the simulation are shown in TABLE 8.
centage. The feed pressure of the demethanizer varied from The optimized process simulation method for ethylene produc-
430 psi–455 psi. The maximum ethylene yield was 61.9% at a tion is shown in FIG. 2. The analysis of all ethylene plant com-
pressure of 455 psi (TABLE 6). ponents in both the conventional case and optimized case re-
vealed the following features:
TABLE 4. Major findings from the conventional (cracking/ • The inlet mixer (MIX-100), conversion reactor
front-end deethanization) ethylene process simulation (CRV-100), parallel transfer line exchangers (E-100),
Temperature, Pressure, Mol flow, water cooler (E-102) and K-O drum (direct water
Stream °C psi kmol/hr quenched tower) indicated no change in operating
Ethane feed 30 700 7,650 conditions, which are constant in both conventional
Demethanizer column –35 450 11,970
and optimized modes (FIG. 3).
• The water cooler (E-103) duty is lower and saves
Deethanizer column –9.79 365 5,225 cooling power.
Splitter column -30.56 210 4,813 • The material stream and conditions and composition
Ethylene production –41.03 192 4,155 (purity): of the splitter tower (FIG. 4) showed a clear increase in
70.06% ethylene product quantity and purity in the optimized

TABLE 5. Feed temperature variation against ethylene yield percentage

Temperature, °C –5 –10 –15 –20 –25 –30 –35 –40
Yield, % No conversion 61.6 34.6 36 42.5 51.5 60 No conversion

TABLE 6. Feed pressure variation against ethylene yield percentage

Pressure, psi 430 435 450 455 460
Yield, % No conversion 59 61.34 61.9 No conversion

TABLE 7. Feed tray location variation against ethylene yield percentage

Tray location, stage 12 14 15 16 20
Yield, % No conversion 60.9 61.5 61.9 No conversion

Ethylene
Temperature –35.61 °C
Pressure 240 psi
Molar flow 4910 kmol/h
Mass flow 1.207e + 0068 tpy
Methane
BFW Q-103 Mols frac, ethylene 0.9992

CRV-100
Feed
Steam MIX-100 3 Cond. Q3
Cond. Cond. P-100
4 C E-103 De-C1 Q Q2
Ethane Q
E-100 feed C2-C2 Splitter Ethylene
Q-100 K-O Reboiler Q Reboiler Q2
Steam out feed
2 drum Q-101 Reboiler Q2
De-C1 De-C1 btm De-C2 De-C1 De-C2 btm
Q-104 To E-101 feed
K-O Splitter Ethane btm
Ethane 12 Water De-C1 feed De-C2 feed Splitter feed
Temperature 29.97 °C E-102 Temperature –35 °C Temperature –20 °C Temperature –450.15 °C
Pressure 700 psi Pressure 455 psi Pressure 170 psi Pressure 250 psi
Molar flow 7660 0 kmol/h Molar flow 1.197e + 004 kmol/h Molar flow 7423 kmol/h Molar flow 7041 kmol/h
Mass flow 2.015e + 008 tpy Mass flow 2.016e + 006 tpy Mass flow 1.907e + 006 tpy Mass flow 1.770e + 006 tpy

FIG. 2. The optimized process simulation method for ethylene production.

12 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
 Business Trends

mode compared to the conventional case. For example,
ethylene production in the conventional case was 4,155
kmol/hr, with a mol fraction of 0.7006. This analysis
showed that the ethylene product had a low purity of
70.06%. In the optimized mode, the ethylene production
increased 750.68 kmol/hr to 4,905.68 kmol/hr, with a
mol fraction of 0.9992. The optimized mode rendered an
ethylene product with a purity of more than 99.9%. The
simulation results of ethylene production via conventional
and optimized modes are summarized in TABLE 9.
FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The study indicated that the most economical method for
the production of ethylene is through ethane cracking. An in-
dustrial process simulator program studied the variation of op-
erating conditions, such as temperature, pressure and feed tray
location for all plant components. The results determined that
the demethanizer tower assumes the main role in maximizing
ethylene production.
Major findings of the top effluent stream of the splitter tower
showed an increase in ethylene product quantity and purity in
the optimized mode. The ethylene production in the optimized
mode was equivalent to 680 Mtpy. With average ethylene prices
at approximately $1,000/ton, the plant’s annual profit would in-
crease by $185 MM.
tower. However, this configuration helps prevent ethylene
escaping in the bottom stream (i.e., a savings of 2.61 kmol/
hr = 650.5 tpy of ethylene). Since the temperature of the
tower top effluent (C2-C2) is decreased from –14°C to
–48.47°C in the optimized mode, an additional cooler
is not needed before the stream is introduced to the
splitter tower (final stage of separation). Since the stream’s
pressure decreases from 361 psi to 140 psi in the optimized
mode, a pump is required to compensate for this decrease
in pressure, as well as to handle the incremental increase
of 4,813 kmol/hr in conventional mode, to 7,041 kmol/hr
in optimized mode (i.e., equal to 2,228 kmol/hr). Lastly,
the reduction in the main temperature section by 50 stages
in the optimized mode leads to a 48% decrease in the
construction cost for the splitter tower.
NOTES
a Refers to AspenTech’s HYSYS 8.6
REFERENCES
Complete references available online at HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
FAISAL H. SOROUR has held positions as a Shift Engineer in both crude distillation
units, and the hexane and kerosine production units for Alexandria Petroleum Co.,
and has held multiple leadership positions at one of Gulf of Suez Petroleum Co.’s
LPG production plants. Dr. Sorour received a BSc degree in chemical engineering
from Alexandria University, as well as an MS degree and a PhD in chemical
engineering from Cairo University.

Recommendations. The optimized processing mode achieves Q-103

BFW
the following parameters and conditions: CRV-100
Feed
• Demethanizer (De-C1): A reduction of the main Steam MIX-100 3
temperature section by 20 stages leads to a 40% savings 4 C E-103 De-C1
in the construction cost of the demethanizer tower. The Ethane E-100 feed
Q-100 K-O
optimal operating condition of the demethanizer is at a Steam out drum
temperature of –10°C, at 455 psi and a feed tray level of 16. 2
Q-104 To
• Deethanizer (De-C2): In optimized mode, increasing K-O
the main temperature section stage by 20 stages leads to a Ethane 12 Water
40% increase in the construction cost of the deethanizer Temperature 29.97 °C E-102
Pressure 700 psi
Molar flow 7850 kmol/h
Mass flow 2.015e + 008 tpy
TABLE 8. Major findings on the conventional cracking
with front-end deethanization simulation FIG. 3. Inlets and outlets streams of the inlet mixer (MIX-100),
Temperature, Pressure, Mol flow, conversion reactor (CRV-100), parallel transfer line exchangers (E-100),
Stream °C psi kmol/hr water cooler (E102) and K-O drum in optimized mode.

Ethane feed 30 700 7,650

Demethanizer column –10 455 11,970 Ethylene
Temperature –35.61 °C
Deethanizer column –20 170 7,423 Pressure 240 psi
Molar flow 4910 kmol/h
Splitter column –46.15 250 7,041
Mass flow 1.207e + 006 tpy
Ethylene production –35.61 240 4,910 (purity): Mols frac, ethylene 0.9992
99.92%

Cond. Q3
TABLE 9. Simulation results of ethylene production Splitter feed
via conventional and optimized modes
Ethylene
Ethylene Conventional mode Optimized mode Splitter feed
Temperature –450.15 °C
Temperature, °C –41.03 –35.61 Pressure 250 psi Reboiler Q2
Molar flow 7041 kmol/h
Pressure, psi 192 240 Mass flow 1.770e + 006 tpy
Splitter Ethane btm
Mol flow, kmol/hr 4,155 4,910
Mass flow, MMtpy 1.04 1.207 FIG. 4. Ethylene splitter tower inlet and outlet streams in
Mol fraction (ethylene) 0.7006 0.9992 optimized mode.

Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 13

Select 99 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
MIKE RHODES, MANAGING EDITOR
Mike.Rhodes@HydrocarbonProcessing.com

Industry Metrics

High refinery runs contributed to high inventories, pressuring US Global refining margins, 2016–2017*
product markets despite healthy summer driving season demand. 20
Healthy European gasoline and fuel oil demand and export opportunities WTI, US Gulf
were offset by plentiful supply. Slight improvements in Asia middle 15 Brent, Rotterdam

Margins, US$/bbl
Oman, Singapore
distillates and fuel oil were offset by weak gasoline cracks. Strong 10
regional demand and depleting stocks supported margins.
5
An expanded version of Industry Metrics can be found
online at HydrocarbonProcessing.com. 0

June-16

July-16

Aug.-16

Sept.-16

Oct.-16

Nov.-16

Dec.-16

Jan.-17

Feb.-17

Mar.-17

April-17

May-17

June-17
US gas production (Bcfd) and prices ($/Mcf)
100 7 Global refining utilization rates, 2016–2017*
6 100
80
5
Gas prices, $US/Mcf
Production, Bcfd

90
Utilization rates, %
60 4
40 3 80
Monthly price (Henry Hub) 2
20 12-month
12-monthprice
priceavg.
avg. 70 US Japan
Production 1 EU 16 Singapore
0 0 60
J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J
June-16

July-16

Aug.-16

Sept.-16

Oct.-16

Nov.-16

Dec.-16

Jan.-17

Feb.-17

Mar.-17

April-17

May-17

June-17
2015 2016 2017
Production equals U.S. marketed production, wet gas. Source: EIA.

Selected world oil prices, $/bbl US Gulf cracking spread vs. WTI, 2016–2017*
80 60
50 Prem. gasoline
W. Texas Inter. Jet/kero
Cracking spread, US$/bbl

70 40
Brent Blend Diesel
Oil prices, $US/bbl

60 Dubai Fateh 30 Fuel oil

Source: DOE
20
50
10
40 0
30 -10
-20
20
June-16

July-16

Aug.-16

Sept.-16

Oct.-16

Nov.-16

Dec.-16

Jan.-17

Feb.-17

Mar.-17

April-17

May-17

June-17

July-17
J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J
2015 2016 2017

World liquid fuel supply and demand, MMbpd Rotterdam cracking spread vs. Brent, 2016–2017*
102 6 40
Stock change and balance Forecast Prem. gasoline Gasoil
Stock change and balance, MMbpd

100 5 30 Jet/kero Fuel oil

Cracking spread, US$/bbl
Supply and demand, MMbpd

98 World supply 4
World demand 20
96 3
94 2 10
92 1 0
90 0
88 -1 -10
86 -2 -20
84 -3
June-16

July-16

Aug.-16

Sept.-16

Oct.-16

Nov.-16

Dec.-16

Jan.-17

Feb.-17

Mar.-17

April-17

May-17

June-17

July-17

2012-Q1 2013-Q1 2014-Q1 2015-Q1 2016-Q1 2017-Q1 2018-Q1

Source: EIA Short-Term Energy Outlook, July 2017
Singapore cracking spread vs. Oman, 2016–2017*
Brent dated vs. sour grades
30
(Urals and Dubai) spread, 2016–2017* Prem. gasoline Gasoil
Cracking spread, US$/bbl

20 Jet/kero Fuel oil

8
Light sweet/medium sour

6 10
crude spread, US$/bbl

4 0
2 -10
0 -20
Dubai
-2
June-16

July-16

Aug.-16

Sept.-16

Oct.-16

Nov.-16

Dec.-16

Jan.-17

Feb.-17

Mar.-17

April-17

May-17

June-17

July-17

Urals
-4
June-16

July-16

Aug.-16

Sept.-16

Oct.-16

Nov.-16

Dec.-16

Jan.-17

Feb.-17

Mar.-17

April-17

May-17
June-17
July-17

* Material published permission of the OPEC Secretariat; copyright 2017;

all rights reserved; OPEC Monthly Oil Market Report, July 2017.

Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 15

 ™

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LEE NICHOLS, EDITOR/ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER
Lee.Nichols@HydrocarbonProcessing.com

Global Project Data

Hydrocarbon Processing’s Construction Boxscore Database is
tracking nearly 350 downstream projects with capital expenditures
(CAPEX) of $1 B or greater. The majority of these capital-intensive
projects are in Asia-Pacific, the Middle East and the US. Asian and
Middle Eastern projects are focused on building new refining and
petrochemical capacity to meet increasing demand for petroleum
products. The majority of US mega-projects are focused on utilizing
shale gas to boost petrochemicals and LNG export terminal
capacity. When activity levels of mega-projects are compared,
approximately 67% are in preconstruction stages.

23

Canada
36
74
Europe

53
US
30 105
Middle East
28 Africa

Latin America Asia-Pacific

Total active projects, by region,

with CAPEX greater than $1 B

29
28% Proposed/planning
20 20

15
17 33% Under construction
13 12 12 13 12 12
10 10 11
11% Study
13% Engineering
May- June- July- Aug.- Sept.- Oct.- Nov.- Dec.- Jan.- Feb.- Mar.- April- May- June-
16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 17 17 17 17 17 17 15% FEED
Boxscore new project announcements, Market share analysis of active downstream
May 2016–present projects by activity level (CAPEX greater than $1 B)

Detailed and up-to-date information for active construction projects in the refining,
gas processing and petrochemical industries across the globe | ConstructionBoxscore.com

Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 17

At Ariel, reliability and durability go hand in hand. Our field-proven
gas compressors feature cylinder bores, unloader stems and piston
rods that are ion-nitrided within our own manufacturing facilities
for surface hardness and wear resistance – resulting in maximum
productivity and minimum downtime.
Quality: embedded in everything we do.

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Reliability
Identify top ways to weather weak market conditions
New Jersey-based Carmagen Engi-
neering Inc., a member of Mistras Group
Inc., is a highly respected consulting en-
gineering and project management firm
comprising experienced subject matter
experts (SMEs). When asked about the
top pursuits that oil refinery owners and
managers should consider to better sur-
vive today’s market conditions, Carmagen
posed the question to its engineers.
Due to space limitations, we will share
answers from just four of the more than
160 SMEs at that firm. Note: Answers
provided by additional engineers are
posted at http://www.carmagen.com/
news/newsletters/index.html. We be-
lieve the engineers’ perceptive and au-
thoritative responses are influenced by
their experience-based backgrounds.
John Wilbur has more than 40 yr of ex-
perience as a process engineering consul-
tant, including 30 yr at Exxon Research
and Engineering Co. He is a recognized
expert and consultant for hydrogen (H2)
plants and H2 recovery, as well as a pro-
cess technical advisor for new and recom-
missioned H2 plant startups. He has had
numerous successes in troubleshooting
and resolving H2 plant incidents, and
has made relevant presentations at inter-
national technical seminars on H2 plant
operations. Mr. Wilbur’s advice includes:
• Slowly reduce inventory in crude
and product tankage
• Reduce supervisory personnel by
10% to increase productivity and
responsibility of remaining staff
• Conduct a “profitability
improvement” contest with all
personnel on an individual basis,
and offer prizes for successful input
• Reduce overtime-paying
assignments and urge supervisors
and managers to be more
productive and effective at
planning overtime
• Sell off mothballed process units
to generate cashflow
H. P. BLOCH, RELIABILITY/EQUIPMENT EDITOR
Heinz.Bloch@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
• Reduce or eliminate bonus
payments to highly paid managers
and executives
• Terminate product lines that
operate at a loss and/or sell these
assets to another refinery
• Defer major capital expenditures.
Gordon Thielvoldt has spent more than
45 yr in the oil and gas industry, including
responsible assignments as refinery main-
tenance manager, turnaround manager
and refinery capital projects construction
manager. He is experienced in all phases
of refining: planning, execution, problem-
solving, contracts, finances, capital alloca-
tion, engineering, scientific development,
oil spill cleanup (e.g., the Exxon Valdez),
heavy lifts, refinery operations and main-
tenance management for virtually all re-
fining units. Mr. Thielvoldt asks us to:
• Recognize what you do well
and why. Celebrate those attributes
and leverage them to improve
in other areas.
• Engineer your way out of repeat
maintenance with small groups
to tackle repeat maintenance
offenders. Heat exchangers, rotating
equipment, reactors, towers and
roads have some components that
fail more than others. Engineering
fixes can eliminate or drastically
reduce repeat maintenance costs.
• Look for ways to expand your
marketplace. For example,
gasoline retails at around $6/gal
in Australia, and coke improves
the quality of concrete.
• Engineer your way to longer unit
run lengths—it can be done.
• Make specialty products.
Non-ethanol-containing gasoline
sells for a $1/gal premium in
some US states.
• Ask all employees for ideas on
how to improve. Listen and provide
them with generous feedback.
Richard Burkhart has more than 40 yr
of experience in technology, marketing
and new product introductions with one
of the top-rated global chemical compa-
nies. He has diverse experience in leading
teams of professionals. Mr. Burkhart asks
us to seriously consider:
• Using existing engineering staff
to conduct energy audits and find
ways to reduce energy consumption
• Selling low-pressure steam to
neighbors
• Improving yields by upgrading
to better/newer catalytic cracker
catalysts
• Re-optimizing the use of
contractors vs. in-house labor
• Tightening up on flaring and other
hydrocarbon losses.
Byron Nicholas looks back on 39 yr of
diverse mechanical and facilities engi-
neering experience in the energy indus-
try. His field of practice has focused on an
extensive number of oil and gas develop-
ment projects in offshore and onshore op-
erating areas. Mr. Nicholas observes that:
• In general, refineries are presently
benefiting from lower-cost supplies.
Plants in a position to lock in
“lower-price” supply contracts
should do so. This strategy assumes
that the market has reached or
is very near the bottom.
• Refiners that can adjust operations
to process lower-quality crudes
may derive better deals on the
spot market. This could increase
margins and create an outlet
for producers seeking buyers.
• Refiners should continue examining
ways to increase overall operating
efficiency. Plant air systems, process
insulation systems, pumping
systems and other operating
support systems should receive
thorough reviews, not only during
“down-market” times but also over
a client-established period of time.
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 19
 Reliability
David Fisher has more than 38 yr of hurt their reliability programs.
experience in refining and pipeline op- • Focus on safe and reliable
erations with Mobil Oil, ExxonMobil, operations. Do not use shortcuts
Hovensa LLC and BP. He is thoroughly that impair safety and reliability—
versed in refining and operator care and these actually make money
process safety management. He views for your plant.
matters with an operator’s eyes and plac- • Do not cut turnaround budgets or
es emphasis on the following five points: projects. Doing so may look good
• Do not cut safety programs. When on paper and make the turnaround
refineries cut non-required training group shine, but operating
to save a few dollars, they usually performance will usually suffer.
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20
• Communicate the company’s
strategy to operate with tight
margins to all employees.
While not everyone may agree,
they will at least understand.
• Do not harp on how bad profits
are; the employees cannot do
anything about it. Support them
in their jobs to operate the refinery
safely, reliably and with full
environmental compliance.
Heard it before? If you think you have
seen similar advice before, you are cor-
rect. Recall: “Small groups to tackle repeat
maintenance offenders”; we know these
small groups as reliability professionals.
Similarly, “Engineer your way to longer
unit run lengths”; we have labeled this
machinery quality assessment (MQA).1
We recommend that you work with
bright and responsive companies that
minimize delays and provide detailed
answers, rather than a large package of
consultant-conceived generalities. Avoid
companies that are staffed by untutored
novices, or those that procrastinate and
route your requests through too many lay-
ers of approval.
A rapid and fact-based response is of
far greater value than inundation with
reams of paperwork and promises that
never materialize. To this point, it took the
author a mere 10 min to acquire pertinent
approvals for this page from Carmagen
Engineering. Unnamed others manage to
turn the simplest request into an elaborate
project—a trap to avoid, if you believe in
the adage, “Time is money.”
LITERATURE CITED
1
Bloch, H. P., Petrochemical Machinery Insights,
Elsevier Publishing, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,
2016.
HEINZ P. BLOCH resides
in Westminster, Colorado.
His professional career
commenced in 1962
and included long-term
assignments as Exxon
Chemical’s Regional
Machinery Specialist for
the US. He has authored
or cowritten close to
700 publications, among
them 20 comprehensive books on practical machinery
management, failure analysis, failure avoidance,
compressors, steam turbines, pumps, oil mist lubrication
and practical lubrication for industry. Mr. Bloch holds BS
and MS degrees (cum laude) in mechanical engineering.
He is an ASME Life Fellow and was awarded lifetime
registration as a Professional Engineer in New Jersey.
 Automation JOHN FRYER, SENIOR DIRECTOR
Strategies Stratus Technologies
Navigating automation in oil and gas:
Lessons learned from other industries
In today’s economy, industrial automation has become ab-
solutely essential for refiners, petrochemical producers and
pipeline owners looking to maintain profitability and com-
petitive advantage as market pressures bear down on them.
Fortunately, oil and gas is far from the only space in which
companies are navigating the complexities of developing an
automation strategy. This means that a number of lessons can
be learned from other industries with similar challenges.
From telecom to financial services to manufacturing, com-
panies have successfully made the transition from the inflex-
ible, proprietary technologies of the past to the agile, intelli-
gent and open technologies of today—this is the ideal of the
Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) that is transforming the
industrial landscape. As energy companies find their way, they
can glean from industries already reaping the benefits of next-
generation automation.
Adopting standards-based systems. The challenges for
industrial companies often begin with aging infrastructure.
Many downstream oil and gas operations are still using process
automation infrastructure built on distributed control systems
(DCS) that are either approaching or have reached their end
of life. Moreover, these are generally closed and proprietary
systems that limit upgrade options to a single vendor, driving
up costs. Making the decision to replace these systems with
standards-based platforms can not only drive down hardware
costs, but will enable more flexibility for innovation.
Consider telecom companies, which once relied on expen-
sive switch platforms for basic communications services. In the
early 2000s, certain carriers saw the advantages in using low-
cost, off-the-shelf computing platforms running industry-stan-
dard operating systems, and chose to innovate with these tech-
nologies to deliver “enhanced services” applications. Beyond
driving down the costs associated with their central office in-
frastructures, it freed their developers to innovate new systems
and create breakthrough communications applications.
For energy companies, a move to standards-based infra-
structure can similarly introduce operators to a new generation
of automation applications that are much more intricate than
simply controlling process equipment.
Implementing distributed intelligence. The rise of distrib-
uted intelligence, one of the more exciting developments of the
IIoT, involves gathering data generated by process equipment
and sensors for analysis. This analysis is then used to inform de-
cision-making for optimizing processes, uncovering potential
problems and identifying new areas for improving a business.
Internet-connected devices have driven the growth of the
IIoT in a variety of industries—from connected appliances that
automatically reorder groceries to industrial asset management
systems that control a factory floor. In the latter, sensors on man-
ufacturing equipment continually gather, aggregate and process
data to identify early signs of potential failure. When operators
evaluate machine insights against certain benchmarks, they
can be alerted before a failure might occur and help avoid un-
planned downtime (FIG. 1). When we look ahead, this historical
data can then be analyzed down the line to develop predictive
models and optimize operating equipment efficiency (OEE).
These same benefits of the IIoT can extend into the oil and gas
space with the proper infrastructure in place, particularly when
it comes to monitoring and managing remote or unmanned fa-
cilities, such as natural gas pipeline compression stations.
Letting go of the fear of connectivity. Bringing together
disparate sources of information is a key aspect of the advanced
automation side of the IIoT, including Internet- or private cloud-
based technologies that breed connectivity. The oil and gas
space tends to be risk averse, and companies have often equated
increased connectivity with increased risk, which explains their
apprehension toward adopting the IIoT. However, as the use
of data becomes more central to successful operations, this in-
creased connectivity is inevitable. Companies should instead
turn their focus to ensuring their ability to identify and protect
potential points of vulnerability.
If we look at the financial services industry, which can be
equally or perhaps more risk averse than oil and gas, we can see
the effect that connectivity has had on banks and credit compa-
nies that are unafraid to change. Once known to barricade trans-
FIG. 1. Historical data can be analyzed down the line to develop
predictive models and optimize operating equipment efficiency.
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 21
 Automation Strategies

action systems behind impenetrable walls, these companies—
if they wanted to survive and thrive—recognized the need to
allow their customers to connect with their money whenever
and wherever they wanted via mobile devices. The shift has
since only sharpened the financial services industry’s focus on
security and uptime, and has led to the creation of some of the
world’s most secure infrastructures.
Eliminating unplanned downtime. Unplanned downtime
has long topped the list of things that many oil and gas opera-
tions would like to avoid. As data use becomes increasingly
central to operations, protecting the availability of automation
systems and the data they generate has grown into a mission-
critical capability. This means ensuring that data is not lost at
any point—from the data source at the PLC/PAC, to the his-
torian database, to the analytics engines that drive IIoT pro-
cesses. The closer the data loss is to the source, the greater the
impact. If data is lost at the point of collection, it is lost forever.
Data lost at the historian level can spell the loss of valuable in-
formation pulled from thousands of endpoints over time. Mak-
ing fault tolerance a priority is a key means of avoiding this loss.
When we look at industries that are prioritizing fault toler-
ance, building automation and security stick out as industries
to watch. If access control systems go down or lose data, the
building in question is no longer secure. If the data produced
by video monitoring systems (VMS) is lost, valuable evidence
could be forfeited. If the environment uses virtualized systems
or has IIoT elements, these risks may be magnified. To avoid
these issues, those responsible for building security employ a
variety of strategies for achieving end-to-end fault tolerance at
scale in a distributed environment.
Designing an automation strategy must specifically address
the unique challenges of the oil and gas space. When it comes
to industrial automation, a number of commonalities between
industries can help inform this strategy: the need for agility, ef-
ficiency and productivity are only a few of the examples. Re-
finers, petrochemical producers and pipeline owners stand to
learn a lot in this regard, specifically by moving toward stan-
dards-based infrastructures, implementing distributed intel-
ligence, embracing connectivity and making fault tolerance a
priority. Downstream organizations that recognize the impor-
tance of each, sooner rather than later, will be putting them-
selves in a much stronger position than their competition to
survive and thrive in the IIoT.
JOHN FRYER is Senior Director of industry solutions
at Stratus Technologies, where he is responsible for
go-to-market strategies and industry initiatives across
all of the company’s product lines. He has more than
25 yr of experience with systems and software
products in a variety of engineering, marketing and
executive roles at successful startups and major
companies, including Motorola, Emerson Network
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 E. GERDEN
Global Contributing Writer
Russian oil majors eye Western expansion
Amid declining profits in the domestic market, Russia’s na-
tional oil company and leading oil producer, Rosneft, is consid-
ering expanding in the European Union (EU) and US refining
markets. This expansion effort is expected to take place through
the acquisition of new refineries, as well as the expansion of
those already in operation. To accomplish these goals, Rosneft
has plans to allocate up to $2.48 B through 2018, with the pos-
sibility of increasing these investments.
Preparations for this investment plan began at the end of
2016 with the breakup of Ruhr Oel GmbH (ROG), a JV be-
tween BP and Rosneft. Rosneft entered into ROG in 2011,
after purchasing a 50% stake from PDVSA. Since Rosneft’s
entrance into the JV, ROG has been a leader in the German re-
fining market, in terms of throughput, motor vehicle sales and
petrochemical products.
The dissolution of the JV was finalized in early January. Un-
der the terms of the deal, which resulted in the reorganization
of the JV, Rosneft became a direct shareholder and increased its
ownership in several leading German refineries. The sharehold-
ing details are as follows, as Rosneft:
• Increased its stake in the 11-MMtpy, multi-site
Bayernoil refinery from 12% to 25% (the refinery
provides fuels to Bavaria and northern Austria)
• Increased its stake in the Mineraloelraffinerie Oberrhein
GmbH (MiRO) refinery, located in Karlsruh, Baden-
Wurttemberg, from 12% to 24%
• Increased its stake in PCK Raffinerie’s 11-MMtpy
Schwedt refinery (FIG. 1) from 35.42% to 54.17% .
In turn, BP obtained full ownership of the 12.8-MMtpy
Gelsenkirchen refinery, as well as the DHC Solvent Chemie
plant in Ruhr, Germany. As a result of the deal, Rosneft now
controls 12.5 MMtpy of refining capacity in Germany, which
equates to more than 12% of Germany’s total refining capacity.
In addition, the deal allowed Rosneft to become the third-larg-
est refiner in the German market and one of the largest refiners
in the EU. Rosneft will operate its German business through its
subsidiary Rosneft Deutschland GmbH.
The dissolution of the JV has already resulted in the simpli-
fication of supplying Russian oil to Germany via the Druzhba
pipeline (FIG. 2), and has ensured Rosneft access to end users in
Germany. According to the company’s objectives, more than 8
MMtpy of oil will be supplied to its German refineries until 2019.
In 2016, Rosneft produced 13.7 MMt of oil products at its
German refineries, and has plans to increase production in
2017. Rosneft aims to increase deliveries of jet fuel to the largest
airports in Germany, along with increasing ship fuel to German
seaports. The company seeks to accomplish these goals by sign-
ing direct contracts with airlines and shipping companies. Ros-
neft also intends to enter the German road construction market
with a special line of polymer-bitumen binders (PBB), which
are used in road building.
These programs are the steps Rosneft is taking to expand its
presence in the EU refining market. However, these activities
have sparked fears from some high-ranking EU officials who
believe that Rosneft could have the ability to dictate conditions
to European energy consumers in the near future. According to
some EU energy experts, PCK Raffinerie’s Schwedt refinery is
one of the most efficient and complex refineries in Europe. The
plant has the capacity to produce 11.5 MMtpy of refined prod-
ucts. Some members of the European Commission believe that
Rosneft’s control of such a facility could pose a threat to the EU’s
energy security in the short term. In an official statement, the Eu-
ropean Commission said that, “Combined with the already exist-
ing dependence on Russian oil and the ever-growing influence of
Russian oil producers on the EU energy market, the expansion
of Rosneft and other Russian majors in the European refining
sector makes the industry vulnerable to political interference.”
These concerns, however, have already been denied by
Rosneft and the Russian government. According to an official
spokesman of Alexander Novak, Russia’s Minister of Energy,
there is no risk of Russian domination in the EU energy sec-
tor. Except for the controlling interest in the Schwedt refinery,
Rosneft’s stakes in other German refineries are minimal, and do
not represent controlling stakes. Mr. Novak’s spokesman argued
that the arrival of Russian investors will ensure stable, diversi-
fied supplies of fuel to the EU market, which, in turn, will con-
tribute to the further strengthening of energy security in the EU
and reduce the risks of monopolies.
Poor prospects of Russian refining. In contrast to Russia,
EU refining margins have increased in recent years. The growth
in refining margins is mainly due to low global oil prices. Ac-
FIG. 1. Aerial view of the 11-MMtpy Brandenburg PCK Raffinerie.
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 23
 Global
FIG. 2. The Druzhba pipeline, which supplies Russian oil to the EU, is
the longest crude oil pipeline in the world.
FIG. 3. View of Rosneft’s Syzran refinery.
cording to Konstantin Kovalev, head of Energia, one of Russia’s
leading consulting agencies in the field of energy, oil product
prices tend to be more stable than crude oil prices; however, a
high possibility of their decline in the short-term exists, as the
EU still experiences a surplus of refineries.
According to Mr. Kovalev, Rosneft and other Russian oil
majors purchased the European refining assets with a long-term
focus, expecting the forthcoming restoration of the European
economy from stagnation, as well as the increase in fuel demand
in the EU and the liquidation of inefficient refining capacities.
Expanding into the higher-margin refining market of the
EU is an acute need for Rosneft and other Russian oil majors,
such as Lukoil, which has witnessed its profits in the domes-
tic market decline significantly in recent years. The decline in
profitability of Russian refiners is mainly due to government tax
maneuvers and low oil prices, with the refineries with the lowest
refining depth suffering the most. The Russian government’s
tax maneuver has changed the economy of Russian refineries,
and has resulted in the decline of refining margins from 6.3%
in 2014 to 1.8% in 2016. Presently, only two Russian refineries
have a Nelson complexity index of more than 8, while its aver-
age rate in the industry is estimated at only 5.26.
The Russian government has been encouraging the domes-
tic oil industry to modernize its refining capacities and increase
its fuel yield since 2015. This program was initiated through
the reduction of export duties on gasoline and diesel, with the
simultaneous increase of duties on fuel oil and dark oil prod-
ucts. Since the beginning of the year, export duties on fuel oil
in Russia have increased by up to 100%, which resulted in the
24 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
further decline of local refineries’ revenues, especially those
with a low processing depth.
Although Rosneft has a total domestic refining capacity of
more than 95 MMtpy, its refining depth remains small. For ex-
ample, the refining depth of the company’s Saratov group of
refineries is estimated at approximately 73%, while the Samara
group of refineries, which includes the Kuibyshev, Novokuib-
yshevsk and Syzran refineries (FIG. 3), has a refining depth of
approximately 68%. As a result, Rosneft cut investments in its
domestic refining sector by approximately $1 B in 2016, which
represented a drop of 50% from 2015 investments. The com-
pany also began to shift its attention to Western markets.
In February, Rosneft’s CEO, Igor Sechin, asked the Rus-
sian government to support the domestic oil refining industry
through the provision of special state subsidies to Rosneft, on
the grounds that the company is the leader of Russia’s refining
industry. According to Mr. Sechin, state support should take
place through the imposition of an excise on oil, which is sup-
plied to Russian refineries, with the provision of tax deductions
to Rosneft. The amount of planned deductions is undisclosed.
The company expects that the amount of the tax deduction for
several of its largest refineries will be higher than the amount of
excises for oil that the industry will have to pay. At the time of
this publication, no final decision has been made.
Future plans. As previously mentioned, Rosneft’s move into
Western refining markets is expected to become a priority not
only for Rosneft, but also for other Russian oil majors.
In addition to Germany, the company has not ruled out the
possibility of reemerging itself into the Italian refining market.
In January, Rosneft decided to leave the Italian refining market
by selling its 12% stake in Italian refiner Saras. The divestiture
was mainly due to Rosneft’s inability to increase its stake in the
Italian refiner because of Western sanctions.
Rosneft is also interested in expanding its footprint into the
US refining market through a stake in PDVSA’s refining subsid-
iary CITGO. CITGO operates dozens of oil terminals, three re-
fineries and a system of pipelines in the US. However, CITGO-
branded gas stations and convenience stores are independently
owned and operated.
At the end of 2016, PDVSA transferred a 49.9% stake in CIT-
GO to Rosneft as collateral for loans that were provided by Ros-
neft. With the economic instability in Venezuela, there is a high
possibility that PDVSA could default on its loan obligations this
year. If so, Rosneft could gain control of CITGO by acquiring
additional PDVSA bonds, thus pushing its CITGO ownership
to more than 50%. Similar to the EU, the possibility of Rosneft
entering the US refining market has sparked concerns from
some US senators. Just like the EU Commission, US senators
believe that this act will pose a threat to US energy security.
EUGENE GERDEN is an international contributing
writer specializing in the global oil refining and
gas industry. He has been published in a number
of prominent industry publications.
 Boxscore
Construction Analysis
The state of the global downstream
construction sector
In May, Lee Nichols, Editor and Associate Publisher of Hy-
drocarbon Processing and Gas Processing, presented a detailed,
year-to-date trend analysis and review on new and active down-
stream construction projects around the world. The data was
based on information gathered from Hydrocarbon Processing’s
Construction Boxscore Database.
Although the industry has seen a decline in new project an-
nouncements over the past few years, this trend has begun to
slow this year. Every region is continuing to announce new cap-
ital-intensive downstream investments; however, many projects
could be delayed or canceled due to general market behaviors
such as overcapacity, funding, government regulations or an in-
ability to fulfill supply contracts.
New Projects. When new project announcements are reviewed
over the past few years, there has been a sharp decrease from
May 2014 to May 2017. The Boxscore Database has tracked
360 new project announcements globally from May 2014 to
May 2015. New project announcements fell to 269 the follow-
ing year, representing a year-over-year (y-o-y) decrease of 25%.
Over the past year, the total number of new project announce-
ments declined to 232. This decline represents a y-o-y decrease
in new project announcements by 14%. Although new project
numbers have decreased over the past three years, the world
has witnessed over 860 newly announced downstream projects
(FIG. 1). Should the rate of new project announcements in 2017
keep its current pace, the downstream industry will likely wit-
ness its first growth in new project announcements in over 3 yr.
The Asia-Pacific region continues to be the leader in new
downstream project announcements. Since 2015, the Asia-
Pacific region has witnessed nearly 250 new project announce-
ments. This trend is due to multiple emerging countries in Asia
building new downstream infrastructure to meet rising demand.
The US has the second-highest number of newly announced
projects over the past few years. The shale gas boom has pro-
vided the US with cheap, readily available feedstock that is fu-
eling the development of millions of tpy of new LNG export
infrastructure and petrochemical capacity.
The Middle East region has been building out its down-
stream sector to diversify itself away from relying on crude oil
exports. Saudi Arabia will lead the charge on the region’s down-
stream infrastructure buildout.
Led by Russia, Eastern Europe and countries in the Com-
monwealth of Independent States (CIS), Europe has announced
nearly 125 downstream processing projects since 2015. Africa
has witnessed an uptick in new project announcements, driven
by projects in Egypt, Algeria, East Africa and Nigeria.
B. BALBOA, BOXSCORE RESEARCH COORDINATOR
Brian.Balboa@GulfPub.com
Latin America is struggling due to the drop in crude oil
prices, which has severely hurt many of the region’s national oil
companies’ pocket books. “The region needs additional down-
stream capacity to meet demand for fuels,” said Nichols, “but
the money is not there to make significant capacity additions.”
Active projects. The Boxscore Database is tracking over 1,700
projects around the world (FIG. 2). When active projects are
broken down by activity level, approximately 60% are in the
pre-construction phases. The Asia-Pacific region dominates the
globe in total active projects, led by downstream capacity builds
in China and India. The Asia-Pacific region is followed by the
Middle East and the US.
Refining. Over the past year, new project announcements
have averaged 15 per month. Over one-third of these are refin-
ing projects. Depending on whatever major forecast you read,
global oil demand is expected to increase from approximately
95 MMbpd in 2015 to between 99 MMbpd–101 MMbpd in
2021. The latest IEA Oil analysis forecast that oil demand could
reach approximately 104 MMbpd by 2021. Within that same
timeframe, global refining capacity should increase by about 7
MMbpd to over 104 MMbpd (FIG. 3).
As you can see from the FIG. 3, the global refining industry
will stay in a state of overcapacity through the early 2020s. Al-
though there will be more refining capacity than required, low
utilization rates in regions such as Africa and Latin America,
will limit the drag on the oversupply of refined fuels.
140
2015
120 2016
2017
100
80
60
40
20
0
Africa Asia-Pacific Canada Europe Latin America Middle East US
FIG. 1. New project announcements, May 2014–May 2017.
Source: Hydrocarbon Processing’s Construction Boxscore Database.
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 24–A
 Boxscore Construction Analysis
One of the major factors affecting the refining industry is
the move towards low-sulfur fuels, which is evident by multiple
countries enacting new regulations to curd the amount of sulfur
in transportation fuels. These regulations include Bharat Stage
6 in India, National 5 in China, Tier 3 in the US and Canada,
as well as mandated higher ethanol blending rates, an increased
use of biofuels and electric and natural gas powered vehicles,
and the switch to low-sulfur shipping fuels.
As many nations are taking the steps to decrease the amount
of sulfur in fuels, billions of dollars in new investments are being
made to adhere to these new fuel-quality regulations. For ex-
ample, desulfurization capacity additions represent the largest
capacity increases among all process units to 2040, according to
OPEC’s World Oil Outlook 2016. This trend is due to increased
regulations on the amount of sulfur allowed in transportation
fuels. Nearly 4 MMbpd of new desulfurization capacity is ex-
pected to begin operations by 2021. However, an additional
13.7 MMbpd of desulfurization capacity will be needed by
2030, with a requirement for an additional 5.6 MMbpd between
2030 and 2040. In total, the global refining industry is expected
to add more than 23 MMbpd of new desulfurization capacity
by 2040. Most of this new capacity will be located in the Asia-
Pacific region, primarily in China, followed by the Middle East,
which is investing heavily in capital-intensive projects to meet
Euro 4 and Euro 5 specified fuels.
Petrochemicals. The global petrochemical sector will con-
tinue to see strong growth through the rest of the decade. Some
of the strongest petrochemical growth will be seen in Asia, the
Middle East and the US.
A decline in the oil-to-gas spread has made oil-based naph-
tha crackers, in regions such as Western Europe and Northeast
Asia, more viable than they have been in years. However, eth-
42
6 19
Canada
67
115
94
61
US
85
Refining
Petrochemical 32 45
Gas processing/LNG Latin America
FIG. 2. Total active projects by region and sector, June 2017. Source: Hydrocarbon Processing’s Construction Boxscore Database.
24–B AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
ane cracking operations still maintain a price advantage against
cracking naphtha, although the gap has shrunk considerably.
Over the past year, new petrochemical project announce-
ments have accounted for approximately 45% of all new project
announcements, according to the Boxscore Database. Although
petrochemicals make-up a sizable amount of new project an-
nouncements, the sector has witnessed a decline in new project
announcements over the past few years. New petrochemical
project announcements have fallen from nearly 170 in 2014, to
130 in 2015, to just over 100 in 2016. This trend represents a
decrease in new petrochemical project announcements of 24%
and 13%, respectively. Despite this decline, there have been over
400 new petrochemical projects announced over the past three
years, representing over $80 B in CAPEX.
The petrochemical sector makes up approximately 35% of
total active projects globally. The Boxscore Database is tracking
over 700 petrochemical projects worldwide, representing over
$400 B in CAPEX. The largest CAPEX regions for petrochemi-
cals are Asia-Pacific at $145 B, the US at over $100 B, and the
Middle East at nearly $90 B.
The Asia-Pacific region will see some of the most significant
petrochemical capacity additions through the end of the decade.
Despite the growth in demand, new petrochemical project an-
nouncements in the Asia-Pacific region have decreased since
2014. Regardless, the region will witness some of the most signif-
icant expansions in the global petrochemical market. China con-
tinues to be the driver for petrochemical capacity additions in the
region, followed by India. Other Asia-Pacific nations will increase
capacity, as well. Those nations include Vietnam, Indonesia, Ma-
laysia and Thailand. The region is short on ethylene and many
Asian producers are investing to increase production capacity.
The Middle East is investing heavily in the construction of
mixed-feed crackers and ethylene derivative units, while the US
91 99
Europe
180
128
79
215
165
26 32 39 Middle East 110
Africa
Asia-Pacific

is utilizing cheap, shale gas feedstock to build millions of tpy of
new ethylene and derivatives capacity, as well as methanol and
ammonia/urea capacity.
Gas processing/LNG. Natural gas has become the fastest-
growing fossil fuel. This trend has resulted in growth on both
the supply and demand sides, which has spurred billions of dol-
lars in new capital investments.
One sector of sizable growth is in the LNG industry. Over
the past several years, hundreds of millions of tpy of new LNG
export capacity has been announced. However, the growth in
LNG supplies have resulted in a global supply glut. This pre-
dicament has, and could lead to additional, LNG investors to
delay final investment decisions.
Despite the growth in natural gas processing and LNG
capacity builds, new gas processing/LNG project announce-
ments have been in decline. According to the Boxscore Data-
base, new gas processing/LNG project announcements have
declined from 177 in 2014, to 127 in 2015 to 68 in 2016. This
trend represents a y-o-y decrease of 27% and 46%, respectively.
Although new project announcements have slowed signifi-
cantly, over 370 new gas processing/LNG projects have been
announced in the past few years. The overwhelming majority
of these projects are located in the Asia-Pacific and US regions.
The supply of LNG has soared over the past few years, led
primarily by liquefaction capacity in Australia. Future LNG
supply growth through the end of the decade will be domi-
nated by Australia and the US. However, as the LNG market
remains in oversupply, millions of tpy of new LNG capacity
is still awaiting final investment approval, especially in the US
and Canada. In total, the US has announced over three dozen
LNG export terminal projects. These projects equate to over
330 MMtpy of LNG export capacity by 2030, representing
nearly $200 B in announced LNG export terminal construc-
tion over the next decade.
With regards to LNG demand, China and India represent the
greatest potential for a boom in LNG import capacity builds.
However, the increase of Chinese and/or Indian LNG imports
is dependent on developing domestic natural gas infrastructure.
Over the past two years, more countries have become LNG
importers. These countries include Colombia, Egypt, Jamaica,
Jordan, Pakistan and Poland. These countries, as well as coun-
120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
OPEC World Oil Outlook 2016
IEA Oil 2017
US EIA Internaitonal Energy Outlook 2016
FIG. 3. Global oil demand forecast, 2015–2021 (left), and global oil demand vs. refinery capacity builds (MMbpd), 2015–2021 (right).
Boxscore Construction Analysis
tries in Africa, the Middle East and Asia, will, most likely, utilize
floating LNG (FLNG) technology to import natural gas sup-
plies. FLNG vessels offer a wide-range of benefits including a
quicker build time and a significantly lower capital cost.
Additional regional trends. Other regions are witnessing
downstream capacity growth, as well. For most of the decade,
Western European project announcements lived in the shadow
of projects in Eastern Europe, Russia and the CIS. However,
this trend has slowed over the past two-and-a-half years. Russia
still dominates in total active project market share, as well as
accounts for the majority of CAPEX in the European region.
Russia is at the tail-end of its refining modernization program,
but is still investing heavily in additional petrochemical and
LNG export capacity.
OECD Europe’s refining sector is facing major headwinds.
The region has experienced decreasing demand, heavy regula-
tory burdens, an imbalance product mix, disadvantaged feed-
stock costs, as well as fierce competition from ultra-modern re-
fineries in the Middle East and Asia, which are starting to ramp
up exports into the European region. OECD Europe is also
making a significant push to increase renewables and biofuels
usage in the fuel product mix, which will undercut the region’s
fossil fuel processors.
In Latin America, the Boxscore Database is tracking nearly
180 active downstream projects. The region’s downstream
processing sector outlook is gloomy. Many Latin American na-
tions have been hit hard by the drop in oil prices, which has
left little money to fund much-needed capacity additions. “In
the short-term, Latin American nations would rather import
refined fuels and petrochemical products than invest in major
expansions or grassroots facilities,” Nichols said. “In fact, to
raise additional revenues, many Latin American nations and
companies are looking into divesting assets to restore their bal-
ance sheets, as well as removing fuel subsidies and allow pump
prices to reflect international pricing.”
Despite the lackluster outlook, the region is expected to add
over 400 Mbpd of new capacity by the end of the decade. Latin
America is also in need of additional petrochemical capacity,
but the investments are not there. However, the US is in prime
position to satisfy the Central and South American petrochem-
icals market shortfall.
120
100
80
60
40
20
2020 2015 2021
Oil demand
Refining capacity
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 24–C
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Supply Chain
Rail’s speed of change is all about efficiency
Railroads have long played a major role
in safely and efficiently moving freight
from origin to destination. However, for
more than a decade, they have faced de-
clines and slow growth in coal and other
bulk commodities transported by carload
service. To combat this, rail lines set their
sights on new markets, such as crude oil
and refined products. However, they must
become more competitive by reducing
travel times, improving reliability and safe-
ty, and developing new service approaches.
Increasing flexibility has resulted in
improved productivity, competitiveness
and a wider variety of customers. The rail
industry constitutes approximately 20%
of the supply chain transportation process
across all industries. With regard to ship-
ping oil and refined products, rail trans-
portation constituted 5.3% of the supply
chain as recently as 2014. However, rail us-
age has dipped to 3.8% over the past 3 yr.
What drives demand for rail? Ac-
cording to the Association of American
Railroads (AAR), shipments of crude oil
dropped to approximately 1% of rail ship-
ments in 2016 and early 2017.
Several drivers are behind the drop,
including market demand. Between 2011
and 2013, crude oil shipments in the US
increased from 5 MMtpy to 40 MMtpy. A
decrease in the spread between West Texas
Intermediate (WTI) and Brent oil prices
caused crude oil rail shipments to decline
in 2014/2015 by about 900 unit trains, or
2.5 trains per day. Data from 2016 points
to a 45% reduction in crude oil shipments
vs. 2015, and the US market forecast is
that rail shipments in 2017 should mirror
trends witnessed in 2016.
Cost is another driver affecting ship-
ments. According to the US Energy
Information Administration’s (EIA’s)
Short-term Energy Outlook, oil and crude
oil prices are expected to remain low in
2017. Crude oil prices are expected to
remain suppressed due to oversupply,
which means inventories will continue
T. DONOFRIO
Argo Consulting
to remain high for the foreseeable fu-
ture. The report estimates that global
oil inventories increased by 1.9 MMbpd
in 2015, marking the second consecu-
tive year of inventory builds. Inventories
were forecast to rise by an additional 700
Mbpd in 2016, before the global oil mar-
ket becomes more balanced this year.
Meanwhile, global consumption of
petroleum and other liquid fuels was ex-
pected to surge by 1.4 MMbpd in 2016
and 2017.
Geography also plays an important
role in how oil is moved to refineries.
For example, most pipelines run north to
south—few, if any, pipelines are located
from Chicago to the East Coast. Since
the majority of domestic oil and gas pro-
duction comes from the Gulf of Mexico,
nearly half of the country’s refining ca-
pacity resides along the Gulf Coast. Most
of that refined oil is shipped by barge to
ports located along the Southeast, then
trucked to the intended destinations. For
example, Florida ships most of its refined
fuel oils to ports on the West and East
Coasts. The shipment of crude oil by rail
is cost-prohibitive vs. shipping via tanker.
Crude oil/refined products, once de-
livered by rail transport, are disseminated
to downstream customers with trucks
(fuel oil for Northeast customers and gas
for Southeast customers) or ships (for
overseas customers, as well as Southeast
customers in the Gulf states’ ports). Cus-
tomer logistics and rail interface technol-
ogy advancements enable improved coor-
dination and strategic planning crucial to
optimizing cost when moving assets.
Conversely, due to a shortage in pipe-
lines, Canada will see an increase in crude
oil rail shipments in 2017, according to the
International Energy Agency (IEA). The
net increase is driven entirely by oil sands
growth, despite new offshore volumes as
conventional oil production declines. Ca-
nadian oil output will continue to grow,
forcing producers to look ahead for a
needed expansion of the export network.
While natural gas is presently denied ac-
cess to rail shipments, the Alaska Railroad
has secured a waiver from the US Federal
Railroad Administration to ship LNG
from Anchorage to Fairbanks as a test pilot
to monitor capability for future expansion.
Transporting crude oil by rail is still
more expensive than by pipeline. For ex-
ample, shipping crude oil from the Bakken
(North Dakota) to the East Coast costs
approximately $9/bbl–$10/bbl. However,
with limited pipeline capacity, moving
crude by rail becomes a necessary option.
Meeting demand with innovation
and investment. Rail has become a more
attractive transportation option when it
comes to safety. According to the AAR, rail
safety is at an all-time high: the derailment
rate on the country’s nearly 140,000-mi
mainline network reached an all-time low
in 2015. Since 2000, the train accident rate
has decreased by 38%. Less than 1% of all
derailments involve crude oil, with nearly
100% of all tank cars containing crude oil
arriving at their destinations safely.
An increase in investments has resulted
in increased rail safety. Over the past 30 yr,
freight railroads have invested more than
$630 B in infrastructure and equipment
to maintain and modernize the nation’s
rail network—averaging approximately
$26 B/yr over the past several years.
Building adequate infrastructure also
improves operations and capacity. De-
veloping innovative ways to move more
freight with less means that assets can be
distributed in larger quantities, which im-
proves cost efficiency.
A turning point for the industry came
with the Staggers Act of 1980, which al-
lowed rail organizations to set rates and
eliminate duplicate lines through consoli-
dations. The resulting revenues were put
toward capital investments and techno-
logical advancements, such as equipment
utilization, visibility tools for customers
and key safety components impacting
track, equipment and training.
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 25
 Supply Chain
300
250
200
Index: 1987=100
150
100
50
0 ping in many ways. With river and ocean
1987 1990 1993 1996
FIG. 1. Productivity gains made within the rail industry over the past 30 yr, due to investments
in technology, infrastructure and train design. Source: US Department of Transportation’s
Bureau of Transportation Statistics.
According to the AAR, from 1980 to
2015, US freight railroads spent more
than $600 B of their own funds—not
government money—on capital expendi-
tures (CAPEX) and maintenance expens-
es related to locomotives, freight cars,
tracks, bridges, tunnels and other infra-
structure and equipment. To clarify, more
than $0.40 out of every revenue dollar
was placed right back into a rail network
that helps keep the economy moving.
Consider that the average US manufac-
turer spends about 3% of its revenue on
CAPEX. The comparable figure for US
freight railroads in recent years has been
around 19%, or six times higher—$28 B
in 2014 and a record $30 B in 2015. To
stay competitive in the triad of transporta-
tion modes—truck, barge and rail—three
new service approaches have emerged:
unit train design, intermodal service and
transflow facilities.
Unit train design. Prior to the 1980s,
railroads mainly relied on single-car ship-
ments—those with 1–25 cars. Twenty
years ago, trains were held to no more
than 80 cars. Presently, they can operate
up to 180 cars. These longer shipments
are known as unit train service, and they
became possible with the advent of dis-
tributive power, which increased locomo-
tive horsepower tractive effort.
However, the receiver must also have
the ability to handle the longer trains. Train
service can only move as much product
26 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Line-haul railroads
Air transportation
General freight
trucking, long distance
Postal service
1999 2002 2005 2008 2011
Year
as the shippers and receivers can handle.
When a major railroad was designing train
service for an oil company, the train was
designed to operate with 120 cars from
Canada to a New York port. However,
since the receiver could only handle 104
cars, the receiver’s infrastructure require-
ments limited the customer’s ability to
maximize utilization of a train move.
To take advantage of railroad’s produc-
tivity gains (FIG. 1), it has become impera-
tive for rail customers to right-size their
storage footprint. Storing product in rail
cars due to a fleet strategy based on in-
frastructure can be very expensive. For
example, offloading product is critical
to reducing cost for the customer, since
building additional infrastructure or leas-
ing additional car supply is expensive. In-
stead, oil and refined product customers
should plan to store products in tank silos
or schedule oil tankers to be available in a
timely manner.
Intermodal service. Another service
change has been the growth of intermo-
dal service—different modes of transpor-
tation working together to move high-
value, time-sensitive cargo. The classic
forms of rail intermodal transportation
are trailer-on-flatcar and container-on-
flatcar. While trucks are good for local
service, intermodal rail has the advantage
when it comes to long-haul, enabling a
shipper to potentially reduce cost by 45%,
and carbon emissions by 75%.
Transflow facilities. Another service
innovation is transflow facilities. It used
to be that railroads had team tracks and
warehouse facilities located adjacent to
yards and terminals, where a customer
could have a car sent to be unloaded into
a truck and then delivered to a local cus-
tomer. Transflow facilities located in ma-
jor metropolitan areas have replaced that
model, enabling a shipper’s product to be
sent by rail car and then trans-loaded into
a truck for local delivery. These facilities
are easily accessible, modern and man-
aged by rail leadership.
Rail transportation has also comple-
mented river barge and overseas ship-
2014 ports strategically located along rail lines,
customers who need to transport prod-
ucts from a rail car can easily transfer a
load to a barge or cargo ship. This strat-
egy creates supply chain value for both
the shipper and receiver, whereas solely
moving product by river barge can be
expensive and slow, due to the return of
empty equipment.
Takeaway. Rail’s speed of change has left
some customers behind. According to the
US Bureau of Transportation Statistics,
track mileage has decreased rapidly since
1990, as the sector has shed less-profit-
able routes. Declines in total system mile-
age have occurred primarily in parts of the
network owned by Class 1 and regional
railroads, while system miles owned by
local railroads have grown over the same
period. In 2012, Class 1 railroads owned
69% of system miles, with the remainder
split between regional and local railroads.
The rail industry is rapidly becoming
more efficient with routes. It will be imper-
ative that the rail industries leverage these
enhancements with customers, particu-
larly in the crude oil and refined product
markets. To maximize cost and cycle time,
efficient management of “the last mile” will
become more important to shippers—a
win-win for both freight line parties.
TONY DONOFRIO is the
Principal and Head of
Argo Consulting’s supply
chain practice. He has
more than 30 yr of supply
chain experience, and has
a reputation for taking on
tough challenges, creating
growth opportunities
and outperforming
the competition.
Select 59 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
 | Special Focus
FLUID FLOW AND ROTATING EQUIPMENT
Most HPI facilities are continuous processes; therefore, any problems,
disruptions or failures in the fluid flow systems will impact the entire
plant’s operation and the company’s profitability. Considerable effort is
directed to the proper design, installation, operation and maintenance
of fluid handling systems.

Compressors and pumps provide the motive force to convey various

process liquids and gases. Equally important are the support equipment
systems, such as valves, piping and instrumentation, as part of the
infrastructure to manage products and intermediate streams.

This month’s Special Focus section investigates the numerous issues

around maximizing plant/process unit uptime and reliability, and
solutions to maintain and increase efficiency.

Photo: Using 3D scanning and modeling technology, Elliott Group’s engineered

solutions team designed and built a drop-in replacement to match the existing
footprint, process piping and auxiliary connections of a vintage steam turbine.
Photo courtesy of Elliott Group.
 Special Focus Fluid Flow and Rotating Equipment
T. WIESLAW and J. NICHOLS, SASOL, Westlake, Louisiana;
N. LIEBERMAN, Process Improvement Engineering, Metairie,
Louisiana; and E. JOHNSON, Graham Corp., Batavia, New York
Troubleshooting vacuum operation of an
inter-after condenser unit in an ethylene plant
A system of compressors powered by surface condensing
steam turbines is inherent in the operation of a typical ethane
cracker unit. These turbines run by extracting work from high-
pressure steam, while a surface condenser condenses the tur-
bine’s exhaust to both maximize compressor horsepower and
recover valuable condensate. In the surface condenser, a vacu-
um is created by the condensing steam. This vacuum is main-
tained by exhausting non-condensable load from the surface
condenser via steam ejectors and inter-after condensing units.
Non-condensable gases, which must be purged from the system,
can originate from a number of sources: carbon dioxide (CO2)
entrained in the steam and air leaking through shaft seals into
the low-pressure area of the surface condenser are two examples.
The technology for exhausting non-condensable gases to sus-
tain vacuum has been in use for more than a century. While the
systems tend to have a simple layout and are not overly compli-
cated in terms of hardware, troubleshooting the loss of vacuum
or underperformance of these units is not straightforward. A
systematic approach is required to identify and rectify any issues
that contribute to deteriorated performance. A process system
operating with unstable and/or low vacuum directly affects tur-
bine performance, a turbine’s steam consumption and overall
compressor efficiency.
In an ethane cracking unit, a troubleshooting study was
undertaken to investigate an inter-after condensing unit and
vacuum instability in the surface condenser. The troubleshoot-
ing study, summarized here, consisted of field observations,
equipment review, trial runs and data collection. The goal of
the study was to:
• Evaluate the unit’s present operating conditions
• Understand its operating constraints
• Implement correction to sustain stable vacuum operation.
While ethylene plants are typically not known for the wide
utilization and operation of their vacuum systems, troubleshoot-
ing and lessons learned from steam ejectors and condensing
units span numerous process industries.
System overview. In the subject unit, a compressor turbine is-
entropically expanded high-pressure steam to a significantly low-
er pressure level. The expanded steam enters through the top of
the condenser, as shown in FIG. 1. Once it enters the shell, steam
spreads horizontally along the length of the shell while mov-
ing downward over the tube bundle. In this surface condenser,
steam condenses on the shell side of the exchanger while heating
the circulating cooling water inside the tubes. The condensed va-
por falls to the bottom by gravity into the hotwell to be pumped
out as valuable condensate. The surface condenser’s vacuum cre-
ated by the condensing steam is limited by the vapor pressure
of the water at the cooling water inlet temperature, plus some
approach temperature. Therefore, the cooling water tempera-
ture determines the best possible operating pressure—that is,
the minimum achievable vacuum pressure—of the condenser.
For example, with a cooling water inlet temperature of 90°F, a
condensing temperature of 100°F–110°F after approach is pos-
sible in the unit. This would correspond to a minimum possible
operating pressure of 66 mmHg (absolute) based on water va-
por pressure. Cooling water flow also affects the LMTD of the
surface condenser. A lower cooling water flowrate will result in
decreased LMTD across the exchanger. The unit’s surface con-
denser is a fixed tube sheet split exchanger with cooling water
on the tube side (FIG. 1). The shell is split into two independent
compartments that permit the isolation of one side and periodic
cleaning of cooling water tubes. The arrangement allows for con-
tinuous operation of the surface condenser, albeit at reduced ca-
pacity, during maintenance cleaning times.
Marginally lower pressure in the surface condenser reduces
steam consumption and improves the turbine’s efficiency. The
condensing steam creates a vacuum inside the surface condenser.
600°F steam
Turbine
To inter-after condenser unit
CW out CW in
Surface condenser
CW out CW in
Condensate
Hotwell pump
FIG. 1. Surface condenser flow diagram.
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 29
 Fluid Flow and Rotating Equipment
As the system operates under vacuum, any non-condensable gas-
es from steam or an external leak source will accumulate in the
low-pressure area. These gases will quickly increase the operating
pressure of the condenser, as the non-condensable gases that can-
not be evacuated blank the tubes and reduce the capacity of the
condenser. The gases must be vented from the condenser to help
maintain vacuum. In the plant, the main devices used to vent the
non-condensable gases are two-stage steam jet ejectors coupled
with horizontally installed inter-after condensing units (FIG. 2).
The design of ejectors E-1, E-2 and E-3 in FIG. 2 includes five
main parts each: a motive steam nozzle, suction chamber, inlet
diffuser, throat section and outlet diffuser.1 Across the motive
steam nozzle, 200 psig steam enthalpy is converted into kinetic
velocity. Similar to the steam enthalpy conversion to velocity
across the turbine’s inlet nozzle, this is also an isentropic process.
At the nozzle’s discharge, the expanded steam creates a low pres-
sure that entrains the process load into the high-velocity steam.
Steam and non-condensable gases mix as they enter the inlet dif-
fuser, where the velocity of the process flow decreases as it enters
the diffuser throat. The throat section is the transition piece be-
tween the converging supersonic inlet diffuser and the diverging
subsonic flow outlet diffuser. As the process flow moves through
the throat, it transitions to a subsonic flow, creating a supersonic
200°F steam
E-3
“hogger jet” 200°F steam
V-2
200°F steam Inter-after
From
condenser
surface
condenser V-1
E-1
first stage
FIG. 2. Inter-after condenser unit flow diagram.
300
250
200
Pressure, mmHgA
150
100
50
0 the inlet and the outlet vs. the design temperature of 17.5°F. The
0 50 100
Time, minutes
FIG. 3. Vacuum measured above the water level in the surface
condenser’s hotwell.
30 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
shockwave. In the outlet diffuser, the flow velocity is reduced
further and, essentially, is converted back into pressure.
In summary, the ejector uses kinetic energy in the form of a
high-velocity stream to push back on the pressure at the outlet
of the ejector. The outlet pressure that an ejector is subjected to
is the result of the downstream equipment and is not set by the
ejector. The ejector E-3 (“hogger jet”) in FIG. 2 is an auxiliary
ejector used primarily to evacuate the condenser and turbine
casing during startup. In the case of a performance issue with
the main holding ejectors, the auxiliary ejector can be used as a
temporary backup. Each component of the ejector is critical for
proper vacuum operation, and seemingly negligible changes in
geometry can have a significant impact on system performance.
The compressed steam and non-condensable gases from
ejector E-1 enter the fixed-tube sheet inter-condenser, where
a significant portion of that steam is condensed against cool-
ing water flowing on the tube side. The non-condensable gases
are further cooled, reducing the volume load to the second-
stage ejector E-2. The condenser unit is separated by a welded
partition that spans the entire condenser and creates two areas
called—quite logically—the inter-condenser and the after-con-
denser. Ejector E-2 maintains the vacuum of the inter-condenser
while exhausting non-condensables into the after-condenser.
The ejector compression ratio is the ratio of absolute discharge
pressure to suction pressure. Similar to the vacuum in the surface
To atmosphere condenser, an ejector’s individual compression ratio is mostly
load related. The first-stage ejector E-1 pipes directly to the shell
side of the surface condenser. If the air load is below design, the
E-2 air removal system is in good condition, and steam and cooling
second stage
water meet design conditions, the ejector E-1’s compression ra-
Vent to tio is set primarily by the surface condenser and the pressure at
atmosphere
which the surface condenser wants to operate.
The after-condenser does not contribute to vacuum and
operates at atmospheric pressure. It recovers additional steam
condensate while exhausting non-condensable via atmospheric
vent without the need for a silencer. Typically, condensate from
To the inter-condenser must be drained back to the hotwell, as the
hotwell
inter-condenser is always operating under vacuum. This may be
T-2 trap accomplished by a condensate trap or, where elevation allows,
To hotwell by a highly reliable water loop seal. In the subject plant, conden-
sate from the after-condenser was drained back to the hotwell
T-1 trap
through a float trap. The after-condenser can also be set up to
drain condensate to an open drain without a trap.
Unit operation. Prior to the troubleshooting study, when
ejector E-3 (“hogger jet”) was in operation, vacuum in the
hotwell would operate at 125 mmHg (absolute). As shown in
FIG. 3, switching the unit to inter-after condenser operation
would cause slow deterioration in vacuum.
System performance deterioration can occur in two areas
within this unit: the surface condenser and the inter-after con-
denser unit, including the ejectors. The surface condenser unit
operates with a cooling water inlet temperature of 87°F–91°F and
a cooling water temperature difference of 10°F–17°F between
150 200 250
measured hotwell temperature averages 120°F. The correspond-
ing water vapor pressure to this temperature is an indication of the
theoretical possible vacuum pressure inside the surface condens-
er, given that the non-condensable load is below design. These

measured temperatures are well within design values of the sur-
face condenser. However, if the cooling water temperature were
to rise, the surface condenser’s available LMTD would decrease.
The system vacuum would be limited by the exhaust turbine tem-
perature. The temperature of 120°F in the hotwell corresponds
to water vapor pressure of 87.4 mmHgA. This temperature-
pressure correspondence is close to the initial pressure of 90.9
mmHgA at the inlet to the inter-after condenser unit, measured
with a pressure gauge. Rather than rely on installed distributed
control system (DCS) instrumentation (pressure transmitter),
it was important to perform a pressure survey between the hot-
well and inlet to the inter-after condenser unit to ensure that no
unnecessary significant pressure drop existed between the two
units. The pressure survey between the surface condenser and
the inter-after condenser unit revealed only a small pressure drop
of about 7.6 mmHg, measured with the same pressure gauge.
An increased vapor flow and higher temperature into the
inter-after condenser unit can indicate an air baffle leak in the
surface condenser. To force steam and non-condensable vapors
to go through the entire bundle, an air baffle is used in large
surface condensers. The air baffle runs the entire length of the
surface condenser and is welded to the shell to avoid steam
bypassing the surface condenser and flowing directly into the
inter-after condenser unit. Throughout the data collection
period, an average temperature range of 103°F–115°F was re-
corded for vapor flowing into the air removal unit. A measured
temperature of 115°F corresponded to a water vapor pressure
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logo, and the “Career advancement” tagline are trademarks, service marks, or
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Select 153 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
HydrocarbonProcessing_Aug2017_QUSE-PA.indd 1
Fluid Flow and Rotating Equipment
of 76 mmHgA, which was well below the measured and dete-
riorating system vacuum (FIG. 3) when the surface condenser
was operating with a full load.
The cooling water conditions operating below design sug-
gests that load temperature from the surface condenser is not a
limiting factor. Therefore, the factors that limit performance can
either originate from high non-condensable loads (which can
be checked at the inter-after condenser unit’s vent, as discussed
later) or from a bottleneck within the inter-after condenser unit
itself. When running steam ejectors, it is important to look for
surging or loud popping sounds coming from the steam ejec-
tors. While many causes for ejector surging can exist, surging or
popping sounds can be an indication of a vacuum break. Ejec-
tor surging can often lead to very hot vapor load temperatures
flowing into the inter-after condenser, as steam will want to flow
backwards—for example, from ejector E-1 toward the surface
condenser—while the ejector recovers its shockwave. The re-
sulting hot load temperature can lead to a misleading assessment
of where troubleshooting attention should be focused.
To troubleshoot system performance, a rigorous raw data col-
lection plan was developed. The following data collection points
were identified and prepared prior to the initiation of the trial:
• Suction (inlet pipe or ejector suction chamber) and
discharge pressure on each of the two ejectors, E-1 and E-2
• Pipe surface temperature on cooling water inlet and outlet
• Cooling water inlet and outlet pressure for the condenser
• Exhaust and suction temperature on the ejector jet
™
6/20/17 12:39
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 PM31
 Fluid Flow and Rotating Equipment
• Vapor flow from the after-condenser outlet
atmospheric vent
• Motive steam pressure and temperature
• Pipe surface condensate drain temperatures.
Rather than using compound gauges to ensure both preci-
sion and accuracy, self-compensating, absolute-vacuum pressure
gauges with isolation root valves and pigtails were installed at the
two ejectors and leak-tested. It was also recommended to use a
single electronic absolute pressure gauge for consistent readings
throughout the trials.
Inter-after condenser no-load test. While the surface con-
denser was in operation running on the “hogger jet” ejector E-3,
a no-load test was performed on the inter-after condenser unit,
which was isolated by closing a load valve at the suction inlet
to the first ejector followed by opening motive steam to both
ejectors. Without load from the surface condenser, once steam
was introduced the ejector exhausted from the first stage suction
chamber to the minimum absolute pressure it was capable of
producing. Typically, if the test showed that the ejector was op-
erating at close to its design shutoff pressure before the introduc-
tion of load from the surface condenser, acceptable performance
could be assumed along the full ejector’s performance curve.
The system reached a vacuum of 99.5 mmHgA compared
to the expected design no-load vacuum of approximately
10 mmHgA. While a small amount of condenser leakage
through the isolation valve might be expected, this dramatic
performance deterioration was not rational. The compression
ratio of the primary ejector E-1 was 1.9:1, and the ratio of the
secondary ejector E-2 was 4.0:1. This indicates that, in addition
to the inter-after condenser unit being unable to sustain stable
vacuum, it was also unable to operate at no-load design vacu-
um. Based on this no-load test compression ratio result, system
troubleshooting could now be focused exclusively on the ejec-
tors and inter-after condenser unit.
Steam supply. Both higher and lower steam supply pres-
sures (vs. specified design) at 0%–20% will have detrimental
effects on the stability of any or all ejectors. For example, mo-
tive steam pressures that exceed design can create choked flow
and decrease the ejector’s capacity. On the other hand, with
lower-than-design steam pressure supply, the ejector will not
FIG. 4. Floater trap with thermostatic vent plugged.
32 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
receive sufficient energy to compress vent load from the surface
condenser. During the trials, steam pressure was measured at
210 psig, approximately 10% above design. The pressure was
deemed as acceptable and not detrimental to performance. Fol-
lowing the trial, the steam pressure to the inter-after condenser
was lowered to design specification to save on steam consump-
tion and condensate recovery.
For steam quality, a source of dry steam close to saturation is
preferable for the ejectors. Moisture in the steam will erode the
internals as well as reduce suction load capacity for the ejector.
To ensure dry steam, the insulated inlet line in the subject unit
was routed from the top of steam supply header. If such a con-
figuration is not available, or if moisture is known to be present
in the steam, a separator and floater trap can be used to improve
the steam’s quality. Measuring the temperature on the discharge
of the ejector or inspecting the internals can determine if wet
steam is present. The temperature of the vapor at the discharge of
the ejector will be much cooler if a high degree of liquid is pres-
ent.2 The steam outlet temperature was measured on the “hog-
ger jet” by inserting a thermometer into the exhaust stream. The
steam temperature measured at the outlet of the “hogger jet” was
255°F–260°F, an expected temperature range for the exhaust
steam to the atmosphere. Erosion of nozzle internals and diffus-
ers, as mentioned, is evidence of wet steam presence and requires
internal inspection of the ejector, to be performed at a later date.
Condensate recovery. It is important to ensure an unob-
structed pathway for condensate drainage. If a strainer, separator
and/or trap are present, they should be inspected and cleaned
after the lines are blown clear. During initial startup, it is easy
for a strainer to become plugged from deposits or rust within
a stagnated unit. The subject unit contained two traps: one on
the drain from the inter-condenser, and one on the after-con-
denser. Low flow of condensate to the traps due to a plugged
1-in. strainer or undersized traps will cause an eventual backup
of water into the condenser.
A flooded condenser will lower the available surface area
for additional steam condensation from the ejector and cause
unstable or deteriorated vacuum. Free water exhausting from
the vent is an obvious sign that condensate has backed up and
that the after-condenser has flooded. A flooded condenser will
produce subcooled condensate. During the trials, the traps were
opened and inspected for any mechanical issues that might
inhibit function, as well. The traps on the unit were floater/
thermostatic traps. The thermostatic part of a floater trap is
a vent spring valve that, based on measured temperature, will
vent air and non-condensable gases. The thermostatic vent in
a normal floater trap application is designed to open at a few
degrees below saturation. The thermostatic element contracts,
pulling the valve head off the valve seat. The trap opens and dis-
charges air and condensate, which is undesirable, particularly if
the trap is connected to the hotwell and the condensate is sub-
cooled. These traps are typically used to discharge condensate
in modulating conditions, such as traditional heat exchangers,
air-handling coils and typical steam header stations. In a vacu-
um system, it is recommended to use a simple floater trap (no
thermostatic element) or a loop seal. As shown in FIG. 4, the
thermostatic valve part of the condensate trap was removed and
blocked with an NPT plug during the troubleshooting trials.

It is also recommended that the condensate drain piping
from the inter-condenser not tie in to the after-condenser piping
at any point before the hotwell. This avoids condensate backup
problems in the drain lines, i.e., backing condensate up from one
condenser into the other as they operate at different pressures.
The difference in pressure may also allow air load from the after-
condenser to recycle back into the inter-condenser. In the sub-
ject unit, both lines drained condensate independently.
Ejector inspection. The primary and secondary ejector steam
chests and outlet diffusers were disconnected and inspected. The
secondary ejector diffuser was not smooth and showed signs of
some erosion, corrosion and fouling. If the motive nozzle and dif-
fuser throat have increased by about 7% (area) or 3% (diameter)
vs. the initial installation, replacement of the ejector is recom-
mended. When inspecting the steam chest, a typical mechanical
issue is a loose motive steam nozzle. During inspection, a slightly
loose motive steam nozzle was found on the second-stage ejector
E-2. A loose nozzle will easily leak steam across its threads and by-
pass discharge of the nozzle. The steam that bypasses the nozzles
becomes a supplemental and unnecessary load in the air chamber
of the ejector and decreases operational vacuum and stability. The
nozzle should be inspected for signs of wear and corrosion. To fix
a loose nozzle, the threads of the existing steam nozzle can be
temporarily wrapped with a sealing device like Teflon tape for the
duration of trials. A long-term fix is to seal weld the nozzle to the
spacer of the motive chest, or to replace the motive chest entirely.
Unit leaks. Vacuum systems are vulnerable to vacuum pressure
deterioration when the non-condensable load to a vacuum sys-
tem increases above its specified design. In addition to expected
non-condensable loads coming from condensing steam or con-
densate traps that load the surface condenser through thermo-
static vents, two possible areas were also identified where the
extraneous introduction of non-condensables might occur. The
first was ambient air, as both the exhaust of the steam turbine
and the condenser operate under significant vacuum.
The potential for air leakage into the system is always preva-
lent, and this leakage can occur through flanges, threaded pip-
ing, valve pickings or from expanding seal/joint failure on the
turbine itself. One method of testing for external leaks is with or-
dinary shaving cream. When applied to all potential leak piping
and joints, shaving cream will be sucked into any unsealed open-
ings. The unit was also checked for cooling water tube leaks. A
cooling water tube leak into the shell of the inter-after condenser
unit can overwhelm traps, back-flood the condenser and plug
condensate strainers over time. Channel head covers at each side
of the condenser unit were removed, and steam was introduced
to the shell side to check for tube leaks. A secondary option can
be to perform a hydrotest.
Another leak source can occur from the process itself. When
the inter-after condenser is operating, the ejector E-3 “hogger
jet” is offline and is isolated by valve V-2 in FIG. 2. If the isolation
valve leaks, it could easily suck in air from outside and overload
the secondary ejector. The unit also had bypass valves around
the floater traps, which were also identified as possible leak
sources. A vacuum deterioration occurred when block valves on
the condensate drain were opened to the hotwell prior to intro-
ducing motive steam to the inter-after condenser. In response,
Fluid Flow and Rotating Equipment
the bypass valves around the traps were removed and blinded
during the troubleshooting. Condensate trap bypass valves can
only be opened temporarily to drain the condensate while the
trap is being serviced. Without the trap in service, the surface
condenser pressure will be affected.
Ejectors can also get overloaded from an internal partition
failure.3,4 The inter-condenser is separated from the after-con-
denser by a partition plate welded to the shell. The secondary
ejector exhausts steam into the after-condenser, which oper-
ates at higher pressure (atmospheric) than the inter-condenser,
which operates under vacuum. A partition failure resulting in
a leak would expose the higher pressure after-condenser to the
inter-condenser operating under vacuum, leading to operational
upset on the first ejector. To offline test for any internal partition
leak, the system was set up in the following way:
• Outlet of the second stage ejector was routed to the
atmosphere
• Inlet to the after-condenser and its atmospheric vent
were blinded and blocked off
• Both shell sides of the condenser were drained and
condensate lines were isolated
• A vacuum pressure gauge was connected to the
after-condenser
• The unit was isolated from the surface condenser.
The “hogger jet” E-3 remained online to sustain the
vacuum in the surface condenser required for plant
normal operations.
When motive steam was introduced to the second ejector
only, the isolated and blinded after-condenser remained at atmo-
spheric pressure while the inter-condenser held at a stable vac-
uum. Had the internal partition been compromised, the after-
condenser pressure would fall to vacuum. Since the pressure in
the after-condenser remained near-atmospheric, the test showed
that the internal division plate had not failed.
FIG. 5. Trash bag test on the after-condenser vent to measure
the total non-condensable load from the surface condenser and
inter-after condenser units.
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 33
 Fluid Flow and Rotating Equipment
To qualitatively determine excessive total leakage throughout
the system, the non-condensable vapor flow should be mea-
sured. After the modifications mentioned above were complet-
ed, a quantitative test was used to actually measure the flow of
saturated vapor and non-condensables exiting the unit at the af-
ter-condenser atmospheric exhaust vent. Shown in FIG. 5, a 4-gal
grocery trash bag was attached to the exhaust vent with duct tape
and rubber bands. A stopwatch was utilized to measure the fill
time of the bag, giving an estimate of total volumetric vapor flow
through the 1.5-in. vent.
The flow was calculated to be about 15 sf 3/hr at 95°F. Based
on the measured temperature, the vapor was about 5.5% (vol)
saturated water. The flowrate for the non-condensable gases was
calculated to be about 1 lb/hr, well below the maximum load de-
sign value of 33 lb/hr for the inter-after condenser. For future
periodic performance checks, it was recommended to install a
permanent air leakage meter if one is not already part of the unit.
Unit fouling. Within the subject plant, surface, inter- and after-
condensers were subject to the same fouling mechanisms, as are
all other cooling water exchangers. This fouling can occur in
any portion of the condenser. Fouling on the tube side (cooling
water) or the shell side—depending on the unit’s steam qual-
ity, or magnitude of a condition known as vapor binding of the
tubes5—will lower heat transfer, condense steam at a degraded
pressure and affect vacuum performance. If severely fouled, the
condenser will be unable to condense motive steam at the de-
sign operating pressure.
The surface condenser was taken offline (one cooling water
side partition at a time) and the tubes were cleaned. Once both
shell sides were fully cleaned, the temperature inside the hot-
well decreased by an average of 8°F. Given design flexibility in
any plant, the authors recommend for routine maintenance pro-
cedures to include periodic cleaning of condenser bundles. Pri-
or to the initiation of the cleaning step, it is also worthwhile to
inspect for tube leaks in the surface condenser. If one side of the
condenser is isolated, monitor for water conductivity change
with a meter in the condensate from the hotwell. If a conduc-
tivity meter is unavailable, test for hardness with a pronated
dye solution such as the Eriochrome Black T solution, which
changes color in an alkaline environment from blue (no hard-
ness indication) to purple (hardness present) when complexed
with magnesium or calcium. A large conductivity or hardness
color change would indicate that one side of the condenser is
leaking more cooling water into the steam condensate system
than the other. If a large tube leak is detected, caution must be
exercised when opening the shell side to plug the tubes, as air
will be sucked into the surface condenser.
Inter-after condenser follow-up analysis. The inter-after
condenser unit was placed back into operation to record final
data after the trials and modifications above. The unit achieved
stable vacuum operation of 61 mmHgA–89 mmHgA upstream
of the primary ejector E-1 under full plant load operation vs.
the initial pressure of 125 mmHgA (prior to vacuum deterio-
ration, as in FIG. 3) at the beginning of the study. The suction
pressure to the secondary ejector E-2 decreased by a significant
114 mmHg. With the thermostatic vent on the floater traps
plugged, bypass around traps to the hotwell isolated, and other
34 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
leak checks completed, no high, non-condensable vapor flow
coming from the after-condenser vent was evident.
Takeaway. Ejectors and inter-after condenser units constitute
a critical part of stable turbine and surface condenser operation.
Consistent and sustainable vacuum is crucial for turbines and
the compressors they power. Without these seemingly simple
ejector/condenser units, stability is jeopardized and turbine
steam efficiency is compromised. The inherent simplicity of
operation should not be taken for granted when multiple bot-
tlenecks may be acting simultaneously to the detriment of any
system performance. Answers to operational problems exist in
the field, and will always become more visible with a systematic
approach and a good field testing plan. By establishing frequent
performance checks, the avoidance of future process problems
and the minimization of operating costs are achievable.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special thanks to Matthew Fullington (Sasol Operations Superintendent), Gary
Guidry (Sasol Operations) and the remaining ethylene unit operations team for pro-
viding assistance, resources and their full support in these troubleshooting efforts.
LITERATURE CITED
1
Birgenheier, D. B., T. L. Butzbach, D. E. Bolt, R. K. Bhantnagar, R. E. Ojala and J.
Aglitz, “Designing steam jet vacuum systems,” Chemical Engineering, July 1994.
2
Lines J. R. and R. T. Smith, “Ejector system troubleshooting,” The International
Journal of Hydrocarbon Engineering, UK, 1997.
3
Lieberman, N. P., Troubleshooting Process Operations, 4th Ed., PennWell Corp.,
Tulsa, Oklahoma, 2009.
4
Lieberman, N. P., Troubleshooting Vacuum Systems: Steam Turbine Surface
Condensers and Refinery Vacuum Towers, 1st Ed., John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken,
New Jersey, 2012.
5
Lieberman, N. P., “Improving heat transfer in reboilers and condensers,” Petroleum
Technology Quarterly, UK, 1Q 2016.
THOMAS WIESLAW is a chemical engineer for the Sasol
North America ethylene technology group. He has 10 yr of
experience in olefins, gas/liquids processing and catalytic
reforming of H2O, CO2 to H2 and CO with natural gas. His areas
of expertise range from daily operations, troubleshooting and
plant commissioning to grassroots plant process design.
Mr. Wieslaw holds a BS degree in chemical engineering
from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
JEFF NICHOLS is Ethylene Technology Manager for Sasol
North American Operations. He has 20 yr of experience
in both operations and business optimization roles, primarily
in olefins and urethanes production. Mr. Nichols holds a
BS degree in chemical engineering from Texas A&M University
and an MBA from Auburn University.
NORM LIEBERMAN is a chemical engineer with 53 yr of
experience in plant operations, design and field troubleshooting.
He served as operations supervisor, technical service manager
and plant manager in US refineries until 1985. As an independent
consultant, he has taught 800 seminars on troubleshooting
refinery process problems to 19,000 engineers and operators.
Mr. Lieberman is the author of nine textbooks on process
problems and operations. He holds a BS degree from The Cooper Union in
New York City, and an MS degree from Purdue University.
ERIC MICHAEL JOHNSON graduated from Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York with a BS degree in
mechanical engineering. He has worked for the past 7 yr as a
Service Engineer for Graham Corp., specializing in the
evaluation, troubleshooting and commissioning of vacuum
equipment. He has also acted as the Manager of Graham’s
service department, overseeing the daily operations of its
service team and providing support for vacuum systems globally.
 Special Focus Fluid Flow and Rotating Equipment
W. K. ALLAH, Saudi Aramco, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

Analyzing axial cooling fans’ high noise,

vibration and failures
Shipping pumps with 1,800 hp are equipped with five the units, as well as in the finned tubes, which can
cooling fans (FIG. 1) that cool the oil going to the lube oil adversely affect thermal performance.
pumps to lubricate the bearings. Each shipping pump is
equipped with a single lube oil cooler, with two fans per bay. Cooler fan B95 EM 0714B. The vibration readings showed
Each fan is capable of 100% of the duty requirement. After that the bearings were starting to fail. The top bearing was re-
commissioning, high noise and vibration were noticed on the moved due to the noise. The fan was removed, and an exces-
cooler units. sive amount of grease was found around the bearing, which
Several reasons exist for the high vibration and noise of the was also removed and found to be in reasonable condition.
cooler fans:
• The misalignment of the shafts and the coupling
have resulted in a significant out-of-balance force.
This was not noticed during the original startup.
• Long-term and vendor storage procedures onsite
were not followed.
• Poor installation of electrical motors and coupling
alignments was also a factor. The vendor was not
contacted during the installation.
• Four fan coolers had 5 mm machined off the length
of the fan shaft. This setup was only a precautionary
action and was not a contributing factor to the failure
of alignment of couplings and bearing failures.
The induced-draft lube oil cooling fans have an oil in-
let temperature of 160°F, while the oil outlet temperature is
140°F. The inlet viscosity of the oil is 11.7, and the outlet vis-
cosity is 16.5. The air inlet temperature is 126°F. The shipping
pumps were commissioned in December 2015. During this
time, noise and vibration in some of the air-cooled fan bear-
FIG. 1. Cooling fan.
ings were detected. The cooling fans were previously tested
in mid-2015 and showed no signs of vibrations or noise. The
vendor was asked to visit the site and investigate the issue, as
well as check all 10 cooling fans to avoid future issues.

Observations and findings. All cooling fans were inspected

with the vendor present. TABLE 1 shows the condition of each
induced-draft fan, which were checked in late January 2016.
The vendor’s observations included:
• The motor was found to be poorly aligned, and the
plastic insert in the flexible coupling was making noise.
• The quantity of grease specified by the vendor in the
installation and operation manual (IOM) was excessive
and should be decreased.
• The motors were shipped loose during transport;
therefore, the driver alignment at the site was not
completed by the vendor.
FIG. 2. Excessive amount of grease in cooler fan B95 EM 0744 A.
• A significant amount of sand and dirt was present in
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 35
 Fluid Flow and Rotating Equipment

The grease lines were checked for leaks, but none were found.
The excessive amount of grease was being pumped to the unit
(FIG. 2). It was inspected, and vibration measurements were
captured. The type of noise, along with the results from the vi-
bration tests, indicated that these bearings were starting to fail.
Thus, it was determined that the bearings should be changed.
FIG. 3 shows the bearing fault frequencies.
Cooler fan B95 EM 0744B. The fan was inspected and vi-
bration measurements were captured. There was no issue with
the bearings, but alignment was needed.
Cooler fan B95 EM 0754B. During the inspection of the
fan, vibration readings showed that the alignment on the cou-
pling was poor. After removing the coupling insert cover, it was
found that the fan shaft coupling had moved and was poorly
aligned. In addition, the key on the fan shaft had slipped down
onto the motor shaft.
FAILURE ANALYSIS
Based on the findings and observations, four cooling fans re-
quired further action. The following actions were considered to
return the cooling fans to their healthy condition:
1. Replace the bearings on lube-oil cooling fan B
on NGL shipping pump A.
2. Replace the bearings on lube-oil cooling fan A
on NGL shipping pump D.
3. Check and realign the couplings on both the lube-oil
cooling fans on NGL shipping
pump D.
4. All other units to be run tested.
The parts required included two sets
of bearings to change out on coolers B95
EM 0714B and B95 EM 0744A.

Cooler fan B95 EM 0714B, shipping

pump A. The following observations
and actions were taken:
• The top bearing was found to be
in an operable condition.
• The bottom bearing was removed
and replaced.
• Prior to the removal of the fan
shaft, the clearance between the
fan shaft and the motor shaft
was measured and was found
to be less than 1 mm (FIG. 4).
Due to the clearance being less 1 mm,
there was no further room for adjust-
FIG. 3. Bearing fault frequencies above prior shaft modification. ment to the slotted bolt holes on the mo-

TABLE 1. Summary of analysis on all cooling fans for shipping pumps

Tag status Status Problem description Action/materials
B95 EM 0714A OK Fan has no issues, but final customer requires Coupling and shaft alignment
inspection on coupling and alignment check
B95 EM 0714B Out of service Top and bottom bearing need to be replaced, as indicated Two new bearings (top and bottom),
from vibration check and inspection/removal of bearing fan bearing (requirement)
B95 EM 0724A OK Fan has no issue, but final customer requires inspection Final customer requires coupling
on coupling and alignment check and shaft alignment
B95 EM 0724B OK Fan has no issue, but final customer requires inspection Final customer requires coupling
on coupling and alignment check and shaft alignment
B95 EM 0734A OK Fan has no issue, but final customer requires inspection Final customer requires coupling
on coupling and alignment check and shaft alignment
B95 EM 0734B OK Fan has no issue, but final customer requires inspection Final customer requires coupling
on coupling and alignment check and shaft alignment
B95 EM 0744A Noisy Bearings need to be replaced (top and bottom) Two new bearings (top and bottom),
and alignment needs to be performed fan bearing (requirement)
B95 EM 0744B Noisy Found no issue on bearing, which only needs to be aligned Coupling and shaft alignment
B95 EM 0754A OK Needs shaft alignment check Coupling and shaft alignment
B95 EM 0754B Out of service Tripped for high vibration once started; the coupling Remove the motor and fan coupling,
needs to be adjusted and the coupling key is too long and cut the key to the correct length;
and touches motor shaft coupling reinstall and perform shaft alignment

36 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
 Fluid Flow and Rotating Equipment

tor frame (FIG. 5). Therefore, the vendor decided to reduce

the shaft length by 5 mm to allow for an ideal clearance of
3 mm–5 mm between shafts.
The machined shaft and new bearings were installed and
greased, and the motor coupling was aligned. A test run was INNOVATIVE VALVE TECHNOLOGY
then performed, and the fan experienced no further vibration
or noise.
ENGINEERED + PATENTED
Cooler fan B95 EM 0754B, shipping pump E. After disas-
QUARTER TURN MECHANICAL SEAL
sembling the fan drive assembly, it was discovered that the top ZERO LEAKAGE
bearing was starting to fail, and there was evidence that water ON/OFF & FLOW CONTROL
had entered the bearing (FIG. 6). The clearance between the PROTECTED SEAT DESIGN
motor shaft and the fan shaft was measured, and was found to
be less than 1 mm. Just like in the previous example, there was PIGGABLE DESIGNS
no further room for adjustment on the slotted bolt holes on the CARTRIDGE FEATURE REDUCES DOWNTIME
motor frame; therefore, 5 mm was machined off the end of the HIGH TEMPERATURE/METAL SEAT
fan shaft. The machined shaft and new bearings were installed
2”-24”

DOWNSTREAM
SEAT
UPSTREAM
SEAT

DOUBLE BLOCK & BLEED/DIB

“VERIFIABLE SHUTOFF” VALVE
DOUBLE BLOCK AVAILABLE
IN HIGH TEMP
FIG. 4. The surface clearance between the fan shaft and the motor
shaft was less than 1 mm.

15B S TRADE CENTER PKWY, CONROE, TX 77385

PH (936) 539-5770 FAX (936) 539-2990
EMAIL SALES@CHROMATICINDUSTRIES.COM
WWW.CHROMATICINDUSTRIES.COM
FIG. 5. No further room for adjustment on slotted bolt holes. API & ISO CERTIFIED
Select 154 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
37
 Fluid Flow and Rotating Equipment
and greased, and the motor coupling was aligned. The fan was
tested, and no further vibration or noise were detected.
Cooler Fan B95 EM 0744A, shipping pump D. The cou-
pling covers on both fans were removed and the couplings were
checked for alignment. The radial misalignment tolerance was
greater than the acceptable tolerance of 0.991 mm. The mis-
alignment measured around 1.5 mm on both fans. The clear-
ance between the motor shaft and the fan shaft was measured
and determined to be less than 1 mm. Both fans were machined
to allow for the ideal clearance of 3 mm–5 mm. The machined
shaft and bearings were installed and greased, and the motor
coupling was also aligned. The fan was tested, and no further
vibration or noise were detected (FIG. 7).
Takeaway. There were several reasons behind the failure of
the cooling fans:
Recommendations. The following actions are recommended
with regard to the reliable operation of cooling fans:
• The site should have two spare sets of bearing assemblies,
• If grease has been leaking excessively from the bearings, it
• The accurate alignment of the motor is critical for
FIG. 6. Evidence of water entering the bearing.
FIG. 7. Trends showing no sign of bearing fault frequencies after the modifications.
38 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
• The misalignment of the shafts and coupling resulted in
a significant out-of-balance force. This problem was not
noticed during the original startup.
• Long-term storage procedures and vendor storage
procedures were not followed onsite.
• There was poor installation of the electrical motors and
coupling alignments. The vendor was not contacted
during the installation.
• Four cooling fans had 5 mm machined off the length of
fan shaft. This was only a precautionary action, and not a
contributing factor to the failure of the alignment of the
couplings and bearing failures.
• Design problems in the fan bearings resulted in a lack
of proper sealing from environmental dust. Improved
releasable bearings with protective seals are needed to
replace the original equipment manufacturer (OEM)
bearings; otherwise, dust and water contamination will
cause a high frequency of failures.
along with coupling spares.
is recommended to check the grease lines during bearing
replacement to ensure that the grease is not contaminated
and flowing. The lubrication should be maintained by
ensuring regular intervals and that the correct quantities
are applied.
the long-term reliability of the unit. Some vendors
recommend that a dial indicator is placed on both shafts
when they are aligned, which will ensure good alignment.
While the coupling tolerates some misalignment, the
better aligned the shafts are, the less vibration there will be.
This step will increase the life of the coupling and bearings.
• To align the shafts, the motor
mount should be shimmed to
the appropriate height to ensure that
the motor shaft position and angle
matches the fan shaft.
• It is recommended to upgrade
the bearings with new and improved
sealing designs that protect from
dust and water.
WESAM KHALAF ALLAH is a Rotating Equipment
Engineer with a Bch degree from the Purdue School of
Engineering and Technology. He has 5 yr of experience,
and led the investigation process for this article.
ABDULRAHMAN AL-KHOWAITER is a Rotating
Equipment Consultant and Instructor with 25 yr
of experience covering a wide variety of machinery
engineering and troubleshooting. His experience
includes maintenance and reliability positions
covering reliability-centered maintenance
of compressors and steam.
MAZEN AL-HAZMI is a Reliability Engineer
for Saudi Aramco, and supported the commissioning
and startup activities of this equipment, as well as
the investigation analysis of this equipment.
 Special Focus
Plug the metering skills gap to ensure
measurement accuracy and safety
In all sectors of industry, the measure-
ment of flow is of vital importance. Howev-
er, in an industry that is cutting costs, what
impact will a growing skills gap have on
meter management and accuracy of mea-
surement? How can a combination of tar-
geted training and the development of new
technologies be best used to fill this gap?
Flowmeters track the progress of quan-
tities of fluids through industrial processes
and, if used properly, can identify inef-
ficiencies or problems in these processes.
Like any other precision instrument, they
must be properly operated and maintained.
Only by accurately addressing issues
such as system design, meter selection,
installation, maintenance, verification and
calibration can these meters accurately
measure the flow of oil or gas. Incorrectly
tackling any of these issues can result in
significant loss of revenue over a short pe-
riod of time. Therefore, it is important that
staff who work with these instruments are
skilled, knowledgeable and well-trained.
The growing skills gap. Over the last
few years, the proportion of staff possess-
ing the necessary flowmetering skills has
declined substantially. Consequently, com-
panies operating these meters run the risk
of losing huge amounts of revenue through
incorrect flow measurement. This is not an
exaggeration. A 1% error on the measure-
ment of a flow of 20 Mbpd of crude oil can
cost an operating company $300,000/mos.
What has brought about this reduction
in metering skill levels? It is largely related
to the level of investment in training and
the type of training that is being deliv-
ered. Reductions in prices for oil and gas
have forced many companies to reduce
the amount of money invested in training
their staff. Many experienced staff are also
retiring or being made redundant, and
are not being replaced. In this way, it ap-
Fluid Flow and Rotating Equipment
A. MACGILLIVRAY, TUV NEL Ltd., East Kilbride, Scotland, UK
pears that costs are being cut and money
saved. However, it only appears that way.
Estimating how long a metering fault
has existed in a pipeline or a refinery can
be a difficult experience for a manager;
converting that estimate into dollars can
prove even more challenging.
Another factor in the skills gap is the
type of training that is being delivered.
Recently, many companies have been
building their skills base around graduates
from engineering courses at colleges and
universities. This gives them a good theo-
retical knowledge of metering. However, it
usually offers little in the way of hands-on,
practical insight. It is common to talk to
graduates who know all about the mea-
surement principles behind the meter, but
might not recognize one in the real world.
This situation must be rectified by in-
vestment in training consisting of a bal-
anced mixture of theoretical information
and practical experience. In addition,
apprenticeship programs (which have re-
cently been either reduced or completely
phased out in the UK) should be revived
and made available to those who do not
wish to go to academic institutions. These
educational solutions provide a better mix
of skills than accepting graduates alone.
Providing targeted training is not the
only way to bridge the skills gap. Recent
developments in technology have al-
lowed operators to more effectively man-
age their meters, making the activity less
labor-intensive.
Making meter management more
effective. With targeted training, the im-
proved management of meters and meter-
ing networks can help bridge the skills gap.
With new technologies constantly coming
onstream, the engineer has an increasing
array of tools to help keep metering assets
working efficiently. For flow measurement,
among the most effective of these tools
are meter diagnostics, flow modeling us-
ing computational fluid dynamics (CFD),
risk-based calibration, network manage-
ment and the exploitation of “big data.”
The world of flow measurement is
changing. Traditional measurement tech-
nologies, such as orifice plates and turbine
meters, are gradually being replaced by
more modern instruments, such as ul-
trasonic and Coriolis meters. These new
meters exploit the availability of fast signal
processing technology, data processing
and improved communication protocols
to render the meters easier to operate and
maintain, with a reduced need for inter-
vention from the metering staff.
The use of meter diagnostics is a rela-
tively new development in flow measure-
ment. These diagnostics are parameters
generated by the meter that are used to
perform a “health check” on the instru-
ment, reducing the need for checking by
staff. For example, ultrasonic meters auto-
matically check for a range of parameters
governing the process conditions and
functionality of the meter. Any significant
changes in the values of these parameters
can act as a warning that something may
be wrong with the meter or that an upset
is occurring in the process.
Since the drop in crude oil prices, com-
panies have been searching for effective
ways to reduce costs. One of these is to
use CFD to model flow scenarios. CFD
is a computer simulation technique that
allows fluid flow through a pipe or flow
measurement device to be analyzed in
detail. These techniques can be used to
anticipate where problems may arise in a
flow measurement system. CFD also helps
in system design, greatly reducing a com-
pany’s operational risk and resulting in
fewer physical prototypes being necessary
during development.
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 39

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05.07.2017 08:47:40
Fluid Flow and Rotating Equipment
How often must a flowmeter be cali-
brated? In many countries, regulations de-
fine a fixed period between calibrations,
typically on the order of 1 yr. Recently, a
move has arisen to encourage a risk-based
approach to this activity—i.e., calibrat-
ing instrumentation as and when it is re-
quired. This approach works by consider-
ing the cost of the calibration against the
exposure caused by uncertainties and bias
errors over the given period of time. This
type of calculation will help operators tar-
get maintenance funds more effectively.
It is important to note that the intro-
duction of new technologies will only
have the desired benefit if staff are trained
to use them. Training must be updated on
a regular basis to accommodate this need.
Network management and data rec-
onciliation. Automated meter network
analysis will reduce the amount of effort
required by metering staff and allow main-
tenance efforts to be targeted where they
are most needed.
Meters rarely work in isolation; they
are usually part of a larger network of in-
struments that allow operators to track the
progress of fluids through processes. Over
the last 5 yr or so, this fact has been ex-
ploited to allow the network itself to iden-
tify instruments that are behaving incon-
sistently. In other words, if 49 instruments
in the network are reporting one piece of
information and a single instrument is re-
porting another, then it is advisable to look
at this instrument first.
The best way of identifying an anoma-
lous measurement is to use data recon-
ciliation techniques. Data validation and
reconciliation (DVR) is a network-moni-
toring technique that is being increasingly
used by operators to check the quality
and reliability of their flow measurement
data. An automated system self-check is
performed to ensure that all measuring
devices are consistent with one another.
The calculations for a system self-check
are triggered on a periodic basis (often
daily). In this way, the system can act as
an “early warning” system for instruments
drifting out of calibration or developing
other problems. Operators using this meth-
od have increased confidence in their flow
data, as it is being continuously checked for
consistency against the rest of the network.
Its use normally has the added benefit of
reducing OPEX, due to the decrease in the
level of maintenance required.
Big data. Big data is defined as large
and complex data sets from which long-
term trends and patterns may be detected
through special analytical techniques. For
both the upstream and downstream seg-
ments of the oil and gas sector, the use of
big data is still in the early stages, but there
is plenty of potential for its use in a range
of activities, including meter management.
The first area that big data may be
able to address is predictive maintenance
of metering assets. Analysis of the large
data sets (usually done in the “cloud”)
to identify a range of trends in flow mea-
surement equipment can be used to aug-
ment and improve existing maintenance
procedures. Big data can also play a major
role in the risk-based calibration of me-
ters discussed earlier. Along with suitable
analytic techniques, big data can be used
to interpret trends that can help decide
whether or not to calibrate.
Addressing the growing skills gap.
The growing skills gap in flow measure-
ment can be addressed in two separate, but
closely linked, ways. The first is to provide
targeted, hands-on and up-to-date train-
ing on relevant technologies. The second
is to use new technologies and techniques
to better manage measurement devices.
These techniques include:
• The use of meter diagnostics
• The introduction of flow modeling
to assist in system design and
augmentation of meter diagnostics
• The use of risk-based procedures to
ensure that instruments are being
calibrated only when needed
• The use of meter network
analysis techniques, such as data
reconciliation, to identify anomalies
• The exploitation of increasing
volumes of big data to identify
trends and apply them to
system maintenance.
Approaching the problem in a co-
ordinated fashion using these methods
should go a long way toward closing the
skills gap.
ALICK MACGILLIVRAY is a Senior
Flow Measurement Consultant
for NEL in East Kilbride in Scotland.
He joined NEL in 1987, initially
working in the thermal design of
industrial heat exchange equipment.
In the mid-1990s, he joined the flow
measurement group at NEL, specializing in consultancy
for the oil and gas industry. His main areas of interest
are measurement uncertainty and flowmeter auditing.

Revamp fired heaters with a common
air-preheating system to increase capacity
In any process plant, fired heaters are
generally considered to be one of the most
optimally designed pieces of equipment.
Any margin provided during the design
stage is consumed very quickly during de-
bottlenecking. Plant operators work hard
to extract every possible absorbed heat
duty from a fired heater.
In many refineries, fired heaters are of-
ten over-fired beyond their design limits,
mainly to meet increased capacity require-
ments. Once its operation has been maxi-
mized and the fired heater capacity cannot
be increased any further, the only available
option is to continually revamp the fired
heater to improve capacity and efficiency.
Revamping a fired heater is not an easy
task, and it becomes even more challeng-
ing when multiple fired heaters share a
common air-preheating (APH) system.
Any modification to one fired heater will
affect other fired heaters. This common-
ality does provide opportunities, how-
ever, as fired heaters can be used in com-
bination. It is possible for one fired heater
to compensate for another fired heater if
they are revamped carefully.
This article will detail a case study that
illustrates the concept of a revamp of fired
heaters that share a common APH.
APH system. A typical fired heater
APH system consists mainly of an APH,
an induced draft (ID) fan, a forced draft
(FD) fan, ducting and dampers. The flue
gas from the fired heater stack is diverted
to an APH, where it exchanges heat with
combustion air. The cold flue gas from
the APH is sent back to the stack through
an ID fan. An FD fan supplies combus-
tion air to the APH. The air is heated in
the APH and hot air is supplied to fired
heater burners. FIG. 1 shows a simple
Heat Transfer
S. AHAMAD and R. VALLAVANATT,
Bechtel Corp., Houston, Texas
schematic of two fired heaters with a Revamp objectives. The revamp of a
common APH system. fired heater is carried out for one or more
The primary purpose for using an of the following reasons:
APH in a process fired heater is to in- • Increasing capacity
crease the overall thermal efficiency, • Improving thermal efficiency
thereby saving on fuel consumption. The and operating severity
potential for energy savings grows with • Extending run length
an increase in fired heater size. A typi- • Reducing nitrogen oxide (NOx)
cal APH will increase the fired heater ef- emissions.
ficiency by approximately 10%. In most A fired heater revamp can achieve in-
cases, the payback period on the installa- creased capacity and efficiency at much
tion of an APH is less than 3 yr. lower costs without an extended opera-
Fuel generally contains hydrogen tional shutdown. Generally, fired heater
sulfide (H2S) or sulfur, which converts revamp costs are significantly lower com-
into sulfur dioxide (SO2)/sulfur tri- pared to installing a new fired heater for
oxide (SO3 ). The APH’s heat transfer additional capacity requirements.
surface is subject to cold end corrosion
attack caused by the condensation of Revamp options. Options to achieve
SO3 , which results in APH tube leakage. the revamp objectives for any fired heat-
The amount of sulfur in fuel limits the er include:
temperature up to which flue gas can be • Changing the tube size and
cooled in an APH. number of passes
Hot flue gas from F02
Hot flue gas from F01
Cold flue gas
from APH to stack
Hot air from APH
Air
preheater
Fired heater Fired heater
(F01) (F02)
FD fans FD fan
Hot air to F01 Hot air to F02
FIG. 1. Two fired heaters sharing a common APH system.
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 41
 Heat Transfer

• Augmenting the heat transfer area The pressure drop through the coils allow an increase in the heat transfer sur-
in the convection section increases at an approximate ratio of the face area in the radiant section.
• Increasing the radiant coil tube square of the flowrate increase. The num-
size, mainly for pressure drop ber of passes can be increased where a Increasing convection surface. The
consideration. substantial increase in flowrate exists, convection section accounts for approxi-
and the increase in the number of flow mately 30% (or more) of the total ab-
Changing radiant tube size and passes substantially reduces the fluid sorbed heat duty in a typical fired heater.
number of passes. Often, changing the pressure drop. However, other operating The convection section heat transfer sur-
radiant tube size and number of passes parameters, such as fluid film tempera- face can be augmented with additional
can increase throughput. In many servic- ture and fluid mass velocity, should be surface to further increase the absorbed
es, additional flow results in critical ve- carefully evaluated when increasing the duty. This addition is much simpler and
locity in the fired heater tube, particularly number of passes. more cost effective compared to adding
in outlet tubes. This can be mitigated by In most fired heaters, the radiant heat transfer area in the radiant section.
changing a few tubes to a larger size in the section fire box dimensions cannot be The flue gas temperature approach—
outlet section of the fired heater. In such changed. This is due to limiting consid- defined as flue gas temperature leaving
cases, critical velocity should be checked erations that include foundations, heater convection minus process inlet tempera-
for each tube to ensure that it does not structure, burner layout, heater piping ture—can be reduced to as low as 100°F
exceed prescribed limits. limitations, etc. These limitations do not of the feed inlet temperature.
The convection section heat trans-
12,400 fer area can be increased in several ways.
Some of the most frequently used revamp
12,200 options are:
• The installation of additional
tube rows (e.g., the use of future
12,000 rows space and/or installation of
additional rows by modifying the
Average radiant heat flux, Btu/hr.ft2

11,800 convection breaching section).

• Replacing bare tubes with extended-
surface tubes and/or increasing
11,600
the extension ratio of the extended
surface (i.e., increase the extended
11,400 surface area per unit length of tube
by changing the configuration).
11,200 • Increasing the number of tubes
per rows. This is an expensive but
very effective revamp option, and
11,000 can also be used to reduce flue
gas pressure drop through the
10,800 convection section. In many cases,
250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 flue gas pressure drop increases with
Flue gas ∆T across APH, °F an increase in capacity, which can
FIG. 2. Effect of APH size on radiant heat flux. result in stack limitation. An existing
stack can be reused with a wider
convection section.
TABLE 1. Existing case vs. revised case summary
Existing Revised Increasing APH duty and its effect
on the radiant section. An APH is
Heater F01 (service P1)
used to recover the residual heat from
Flowrate, lb/hr 661,700 932,200 cold flue gas. This heat from the flue gas is
Absorbed duty, MMBtu/hr 35.9 46.3 absorbed in combustion air, which is then
Heater F01 (service P2) used for combustion in the firebox. The
heat from the APH gets recycled in the
Flowrate, lb/hr 290,500 290,500
radiant section, resulting in an increase of
Absorbed duty, MMBtu/hr 13.7 * radiant heat flux. APHs are generally de-
Heater F02 (service P2) signed for an approximately 20% addition
Flowrate, lb/hr 1,101,900 1,101,900 capacity (design margin). The designers
tend to use this additional capacity during
Absorbed duty, MMBtu/hr 81.3 *
a revamp, but this option should be used
(*) Total Absorbed duty for service P2 95 95 very carefully.
42 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com

FIG. 2 shows the increase in radiant flux
with an increase in APH absorbed duty.
The radiant heat flux increases proportion-
ally with the increase in APH size. There-
fore, the preferred option is always to in-
crease the heat transfer area in convection
to cool down the flue gas to the extent pos-
sible in the convection section. This reduc-
es the APH duty, resulting in lower radiant
heat flux and longer fired heater run length.
Revamp case study system descrip-
tion. Two fired heaters (F01 and F02)
shared a common APH system. Both fired
heaters were vertical cylindrical heaters
with convection sections.
Two services were being heated in
these two fired heaters: F01 had process
service (P1) in the radiant section only,
while F02 had process service (P2) heat-
ed in the radiant and convection sections.
A side stream from service P2 was taken
to the convection section of F01.
P1’s absorbed heat duty requirement
increased by 29%, and the process fluid
flowrate increased by 41%. This increase
in absorbed duty resulted in very high
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radiant heat flux, much higher than the
allowable radiant heat flux limits for this
heater. At the same time, the increase in
fluid flowrate resulted in substantial fluid
pressure drop. Using the existing heater
with revised process conditions, the origi-
nal pressure drop was doubled and the
radiant heat flux for F01 was increased by
approximately 30%.
A substantial increase in bridge-wall
temperature led to higher-than-design
temperature for tube supports, refractory
and other components. It was infeasible
to use the existing fired heater for revised
process conditions. TABLE 1 summarizes
the existing vs. required flow and ab-
sorbed duty of F01 and F02.
Conventional scheme to achieve
revised capacity. As the absorbed heat
duty and process fluid flowrate increase
substantially, the conventional way to
achieve the revised capacity is to install
a small fired heater for additional capac-
ity for P1. This new heater must also be
connected with existing fired heaters and
the APH system. This option costs many
Select 156 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
Heat Transfer
times more than the revamp scheme de-
tailed here.
REVAMP SCHEME
A revamp scheme has been developed
to meet the revised process condition. An
overall system approach was used, and
individual equipment was evaluated in
isolation and as part of the overall system
effect, particularly considering the poten-
tial effects on other equipment. The two
main targets for this revamp—increased
fluid flowrate and increased absorbed heat
duty—required that all components be
analyzed to select the best revamp option
and ensure the performance of the revamp
fired heater and air-preheater system. The
existing and revamped heater coil configu-
ration schemes are shown in FIG. 3. The ex-
isting and revamped convection sections
for fired heater F01 are shown in FIG. 4.
F01: Increased flowrate. The increase
in feed flowrate resulted in higher mass
velocity and higher fluid pressure drop in
the existing coil configuration. For most
revamps, the number of heater passes can
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 201743
 Heat Transfer

be doubled, resulting in a revamp case transfer area in that section. Using the Use of future rows. One way to increase
pressure drop of almost one-eighth of the flue gas temperature approach, the tem- the absorbed heat duty for P2 is to use the
original pressure drop. perature difference between the flue gas future rows available in this heater con-
vection section. So, two available
future rows in the convection
A fired heater revamp becomes even more challenging section were used for P2, reduc-
when multiple fired heaters share a common air-preheating ing the flue gas temperature leav-
ing the convection section and,
system. Any modification to one fired heater will affect in turn, reducing the combus-
the other fired heaters and the overall APH system. tion air temperature leaving the
air-preheater. A lower combus-
tion air temperature helped to
Because the flowrate increased sub- exit and the feed inlet can be reduced to reduce the radiant heat flux.
stantially, the pressure drop increased. approximately 100°F. This revamp option for F01 reduced the
Therefore, the revamp option was to The absorbed heat duty requirement absorbed duty for P2 in the F01 convection
double the number of passes to reduce increased substantially for P1. This can- section. However, this was compensated
the pressure drop without the need to not be achieved by any modification in for by modification and increasing the fir-
change the existing pumps. the radiant section: because it is a verti- ing rate in F02. The overall absorbed duty
cal cylindrical heater, additional space for P2 was achieved by modifying F02.
Increased absorbed heat duty. In is unavailable to install any incremental A summary of F01 performance pa-
most heaters, it is easier to augment addi- heat transfer surface area. It was recom- rameters is listed in TABLE 2. Despite a
tional heat transfer surface in the convec- mended to use part of the convection substantial increase in capacity and ab-
tion section than in the radiant section. section to recover additional heat duty. sorbed duty for P1, F01 performance
In many cases, depending on the type of To achieve the additional absorbed duty, parameters were still within allowable de-
firebox, it is not possible to increase the the bottom six rows of the convection sign limits after revamp.
radiant section heat transfer area. Addi- section were re-tubed and used for P1. As
tional heat duty can be extracted in the a consequence of this modification, the F02: Moderate increased duty. This
convection section by increasing the heat heat transfer area for P2 was reduced. heater required few changes, but addi-
tional heat duty had to be recovered to
compensate for duty loss in F01. As men-
tioned, the installation of two available fu-
Inlet ture rows in this heater’s convection sec-
Inlet
Service: P2 Service: P2 tion accomplished this. Additional heat
Inlet
Inlet Service: P2 duty was increased by slightly increasing
Service: P2 the firing rate, which must be carefully
Outlet
Outlet Inlet evaluated to avoid adverse effects on
Inlet Service: P1
Service: P1 heater performance. By increasing the
absorbed duty in this heater, the overall
absorbed duty for P2 was achieved.
A summary of F02 performance param-
Outlet Outlet Outlet Outlet
eters is also listed in TABLE 2. F02 required
Fired heater (F01) Fired heater (F01) Fired heater (F01) Fired heater (F01) only a moderate increase in duty, and part
Existing Revamped of the absorbed duty of P2 was shifted
from F01 to F02. Without major modifica-
FIG. 3. Existing vs. revamped coil configuration.
tion, except for the additional two rows of
tubes in the convection section, the duty
Future requirement of P2 was met within allow-
rows Service able design limits after revamp.
P2
Burners. The suitability of burners for
revised firing were checked for both
Service fired heaters. The revised firing rates for
P2 Service
P1 both heaters were within allowable lim-
its. No additional burner modifications
were required.

F01-existing convection F01-revamped convection APH. The suitability of the APH was
checked for revamp design conditions,
FIG. 4. Existing vs. revamped convection section for fired heater F01.
and a summary of its performance pa-
44 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
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Select 74 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
 Heat Transfer

rameters are listed in TABLE 3. Although
the fired heaters’ absorbed duty increased
overall, the air temperature leaving the
APH was still below the existing heater
design conditions. This helped to improve
the performance of the radiant section and
the overall fired heater run length.
FD and ID fans. The suitability of the
FD and ID fans were checked for re-
vamp design conditions, and a summary
of their performance parameters is listed
in TABLE 4. There was an increase in flue
gas and air flowrates. The new operating
flowrates were slightly above the existing
heater design flowrates, but much below
the fan design flowrates. Flue gas and air
side pressure drops were also below fans
design case pressure drops. Both FD and
ID fans were suitable for the new design
conditions without any modifications.
Takeaways. A fired heater revamp can
be used for increasing capacity and/or ef-
ficiency at a much lower cost compared
to installing an additional heater. All pos-
sible revamp options should be carefully
evaluated, as any errors or omissions can
adversely affect overall performance and
increase the revamp cost.
SULTAN AHAMAD is a Senior Fired
Heater Specialist at Bechtel Corp.
in Houston, Texas. He has more than
18 yr of experience in the design,
engineering and troubleshooting of
fired heaters and combustion
systems for the refining,
petrochemical and LNG industries. He graduated from
the Indian Institute of Technology in Roorkee, India,
with a degree in chemical engineering. He is a member
of the API Sub-Committee on Heat Transfer Equipment,
and contributes to the development of API standards
and recommended practices. He is also a member
of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers
(AIChE) and the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME). He has published and presented
several papers on fired heaters and related subjects.
RIMON VALLAVANATT is the
Senior Principal Engineer at
Bechtel Corp. in Houston, Texas.
He has more than 40 yr of
experience in the design,
engineering and troubleshooting
of fired heaters, thermal oxidizers,
boilers and flares. He graduated from the University
of Kerala in India with a degree in mechanical
engineering. He also received a degree in industrial
engineering from St. Mary’s University in San Antonio,
Texas. Mr. Vallavanatt is a registered Professional
Engineer in the state of Texas, and has served on
the American Petroleum Institute’s subcommittee
on heat transfer equipment for the past 30 yr.

TABLE 2. Fired heater performance before and after revamp

F01 F02
Heater Existing op. Revamped op. Existing op. Revamped op.
Absorbed duty: Service P1, MMBtu/hr 35.9 46.3 - -
Absorbed duty: Service P2, MMBtu/hr 13.7 5.8 81.3 89.2
Total absorbed duty: Service P1 and P2, MMBtu/hr 49.6 52.1 81.3 89.2
Flue gas temperature leaving radiant section, °F 1,637 1,591 1,484 1,529
Flue gas temperature leaving convection section, °F 722 608 607 620
Radiant average heat flux, Btu/hr.ft 2
10,850 11,595 9,470 10,160
Maximum tube metal temperature, °F 713 713 555 563
Firing rate, MMBtu/hr 57.9 61 87 95.5

TABLE 3. APH performance before and after revamp

Existing heater design Existing APH design Revamped heater design
Duty, MMBtu/hr 12.5 17.6 11.5
Flue gas flowrate, lb/hr 143,130 171,750 146,570
Flue gas temperature entering APH, °F 654 704 616
Flue gas temperature leaving APH, °F 340 340 340
Air flowrate, lb/hr 136,160 163,390 144,430
Air temperature leaving APH, °F 527 594 487

TABLE 4. ID and FD fans performance before and after revamp

Existing heater design Test block case Revamped heater design
ID fan
Flue gas flowrate, lb/hr 143,130 178,910 146,570
Capacity, ft /min.
3
49,790 70,160 52,460
Flue gas temperature at ID fan, °F 340 440 340
Total pressure drop, in. WC 6.6 9.7 7.3
FD fan
Air flowrate, lb/hr 134,160 156,580 144,430
Capacity, ft /min.
3
32,526 37,405 34,502
Total pressure drop, in. WC 10.5 13.9 11.8

46 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
 Heat Transfer
E. GARRIDO, Summum Projects, Bogota, Colombia

Considerations for revamping

shell-and-tube heat exchangers
Revamp projects are complex in na- Limit (AQL)4—i.e., selecting a relatively RERATING CONSIDERATIONS
ture, and demand a great deal of resourc- small quantity of tubes to inspect, which FOR REVAMPING S&T
es for successful completion. Mechanical would guarantee overall acceptance of HEAT EXCHANGERS
equipment are key factors in a revamp the bundle. This approach leads not only
project, since the contractor’s knowledge to a reduction in inspection time, but can As a good engineering practice, S&T
and expertise will define the outcome in also convey uncertainty about the pres- heat exchangers should be designed for
terms of costs and project schedule. In ent state of the entire tube bundle, which the precise required service conditions.
general, the revamp of mechanical equip- could later impact the overall revamp. Excessive overdesigns (e.g., greater than
ment represents returning the equipment 40%) are not acceptable since they may
back to service at its original design con- Lesson learned. When inspecting a lead to operational disorders. The ther-
ditions, or rerating it to new design and tube bundle, it is important to be aware mal rating of the heat exchanger is gov-
operating conditions. FIG. 1 depicts the that selecting a sample of tubes leads to erned by the more detailed information
main variables for the revamp of shell- uncertainty about the status of the entire available, such as operating conditions,
and-tube (S&T) heat exchangers. bundle and could jeopardize the feasibil- properties of service fluids and equip-
The following are three lessons ity of the revamp. This uncertainty can ment geometry, among others.
learned regarding the revamp of S&T be mitigated by selecting an additional There are many cases where an exist-
heat exchangers for the oil, gas and petro- sample of tubes to be inspected. In cases ing S&T heat exchanger is intended to be
chemical industries. where special service conditions are pres- rerated to a different service to reuse the
ent, it is highly recommended to inspect existing equipment. These cases require
INSPECTION CRITERIA the entire tube bundle. verifying the performance of such equip-
Conducting a mechanical inspection
is the first step for assessing the mechani-
cal integrity of any piece of equipment
and its fitness-for-service. The Ameri-
can Petroleum Institute (API) provides
acceptable guidelines for the evaluation
of in-service pressure equipment.1,2 The
decisive point for the assessment of S&T
heat exchangers is the inspection of the
tube bundle. This inspection is crucial,
due to the required time to develop the
inspection and the possible impact on
the feasibility of the revamp.
The inspection of the tube bundle of
an S&T heat exchanger is a major task
that may be approached by numerous in-
spection techniques—all of which have
advantages and disadvantages.3 There-
fore, the inspection technique should be
selected on a case-by-case basis. How-
ever, due to time constraints, it is a com-
mon practice for an inspection company
to suggest a sample of the tubes to be in-
FIG. 1. Main variables for the revamp of an S&T heat exchanger.
spected, based on the Acceptance Quality
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 47
 Heat Transfer
ment, with the existing geometry, at all
new conditions. The level of detail in the
representation of the geometry will pro-
vide more information on whether the
equipment can be rerated. If the fabrica-
tion drawings of the existing equipment
are not available, then the heat exchanger
cannot be accurately represented with
thermal rating software, and the results
would not show the actual future perfor-
mance of the equipment.
Lesson learned. The thermal rerating of
an S&T heat exchanger is very sensitive to
both the quality of the new process data
and the detail of the equipment’s geom-
etry. Thermally rerating an existing S&T
heat exchanger requires consideration of
all geometric details of the existing equip-
ment, focusing on the properties of the
new service fluids at the new operating
conditions. Otherwise, the thermal rating
results would not be conclusive.
In cases where “as-built” drawings are
unavailable, it is highly recommended to
conduct a comprehensive survey of the
tube bundle to define its actual geometry.
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48 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
REVAMPING CONSIDERATIONS
FOR STACKED S&T
HEAT EXCHANGERS
The previous section presented the
need to fully represent the original ge-
ometry in detail and the new operating
conditions of the S&T heat exchangers
subject to the revamp. Consider two
stacked S&T heat exchangers that un-
dergo a mechanical inspection with re-
sults showing that one of them is unsuit-
able for returning to service. To reduce
the capital expenditure of the project,
the heat exchanger that is acceptable
should be reused, and the other should
be replaced by a new one.
Lesson learned. To reuse the existing
equipment that passed the mechanical
inspection, one of the following condi-
tions must be satisfied:
1. If the stacked heat exchangers
will operate per the original
design conditions, the geometry
of the new S&T heat exchanger
should be identical to the one that
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will be replaced. Special attention
should be provided to the location
of the top exchanger support
saddles and the equipment
interconnecting nozzles.
2. If the stacked heat exchangers will
operate at new conditions, the
geometry of the new S&T heat
exchanger should be identical
to the one being replaced, and
the thermal rating should be
performed on the two units
simultaneously. As applicable to
the design of new equipment,
independent rerating of the units
will not provide accurate results.
LITERATURE CITED
Complete literature cited available online at
HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
ERIK GARRIDO is the Mechanical
Discipline Chief at Summum
Projects. Mr. Garrido has more
than 17 yr of experience in the
engineering, procurement and
construction business, with a
wide background in heat transfer
and pressure vessel equipment.
PROUDLY SPONSORED BY:
 Maintenance
and Reliability
A. ALMAS, Palmela, Setubal, Portugal

Does your control valve talk?

Pneumatic operated control valves (POCVs) are consistent- regularly scheduled for inspection and opened up during plant
ly the most used control final element for process control across shutdown, which involves removing control valves from piping
most industries—in some cases, they are also part of the safety to a workshop for all maintenance detailed activities.
instrumented systems (SISs) layer. Independent from valve Common POCV problems that require preventive mainte-
type (globe, butterfly, ball, segmented ball, plug, gate, disc, an- nance include:
gle, etc.), control valves are key aspects of process control suc- • Valve stem/shaft fracturing or bending
cess, and can utilize 60%–70% of controls and instrumentation • Internal process material buildup on the valve shaft or in
maintenance budgeting for planned activities in most refining the plug if a balanced construction is used (FIG. 2)
and petrochemical plants under maintenance shutdown, fol- • Packing friction increase, causing valve movement to get
lowed by some specific process analyzers. stuck and leading to a quick-step release
Knowing which valves require maintenance, as well as what • Seat-plug corrosion
type of maintenance is required, to ensure correct planning for • Increased friction on plug seating
the time, resources and spare parts involved is sometimes dif- • Improper valve seating
ficult. Internal parts are subject to erosion, abrasion and corro- • Actuator springs damage
sion and require replacement. These internal components are
not immediately visible and easy to check, and differ from exter-
nal parts such as packing, actuators, current-to-pressure (I/P)
converters, positioners, solenoid valves, boosters, pilot valves
and other pneumatic control valves (FIG. 1).
Several techniques are used—including process/plant
runs—to diagnose and preventively check possible valve prob-
lems: an ultrasonic test for noise and cavitation, thermography
to check for hot spots, and packing defects or vibration for
valve friction.
Most of these techniques provide insight into valve status,
although critical valves have a lower risk of issues, as they are
FIG. 2. Process media buildup on the control valve top chamber, with
balanced construction.

50
1st- PASS
40 2nd- PASS
Best fit
Actuator presssure, psi

30
PASS
Valve closed

20

10

-10
-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
FIG. 1. An angle valve-type control valve with full pneumatic control Travel, in.
components, such as boosters, pilot valves and a double action
smart positioner. FIG. 3. A signature of a fail-closed globe control valve.

Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 49

 Maintenance and Reliability

• Actuator pressure leak
• Loose CV positioner feedback stem.
As a rule of thumb, only 30%–40% of the removed and in-
spected control valves actually require maintenance, which
means that capital is spent without real need.
In a complex petrochemical plant, refinery, reactors or hy-
drocracker unit section, there can potentially be more than
1,000 POCVs. During a plant shutdown, imagine if more than
60% of POCVs can remain in place rather than being removed
for maintenance or replacement. This reduces maintenance
costs and risk, as valves can get damaged or defected during
dismounting, elevation, transport and body-opening activities.
It is possible to equip POCVs with smart advanced diagnos-
tic positioners—a common technology that has been selected
in recent plant projects—as well as a good routine program set
FIG. 4. Defective actuator springs damaged by corrosion.
to verify valve status and retain historical data to be evaluated
as needed. Such a technique is sometimes called a “valve signa-
ture” or a “valve health checkup.”
A valve signature requires a periodic valve stroke, which
can be carried out locally (near the valve) or remotely through
digital communication (e.g., HART) by using a handheld com-
municator, a standalone PC with a specific software and HART
modem, or a fixed asset management system with specific fea-
tures for valve maintenance. Some end users would rather see
the valves in action, so field work is not a big issue if permitted
area operations and safety work allow proximity to the valve
during normal plant operation.
A signature can also detect valve mechanical friction, pack-
ing leakage or tight status, actuator malfunction, valve dead
band or hysteresis, among others. It can also be complemented
with an acoustic measure by using a wireless acoustic detector
to avoid complex and costly installations to secure data if the
valve closes tightly and does not allow more flow than the ex-
pected valve class. This technique is good to use in blow off,
venting out or compressor anti-surge depressurization control
valves, because it can accurately detect flow through POCVs in
their closed (normal) position and where no measurable flow is
expected. TABLE 1 shows different positioner diagnostic features.
The valve signature not only contributes to the real main-
tenance cost, it allows for improved and safer process control,
achieving a plant safety controlled layer before SISs act to bring
the plant to a safe position because the control layer failed. On
older plants, the same benefits can be achieved by progressively

TABLE 1. Valve diagnostics capabilities Stem motion stops; contacts open stop
80
Stem motion starts
Key performance Offline Continous Online valve
indicator (KPI) diagnostics diagnostics diagnostics
60
Actuator pressure

DVP performance ✓ ✓ ✓
DVP condition ✓ ✓ Stem never contacts open
40 Stem motion starts stop; valve not fully open
Seat profile ✓
Seat load ✓
20
Static performance ✓
Packing condition ✓ ✓
5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 22.5
Bellows condition ✓ ✓ Time, sec

Guide friction ✓ ✓ FIG. 5. Pneumatic actuator leakage.

Spring adjustment
Spring integrity
Feedback linkage
Air leak
✓ ✓
✓ ✓ 50
1st- FAIL-max-stickslip-min
✓ ✓ 40 2nd- FAIL-max
Best fit
✓ ✓
Actuator presssure, psi

30
FAIL
Valve open

TABLE 2. Cost analysis for a single 10-in. alloy globe control 20

valve maintenance activity under plant shutdown
Valve dismounting (crane usage) $2,500 10
Valve opening and inspection $1,500
0
Valve parts replacement $4,000 Note: Minimum cost and
(body gasket, seat ring, not considered the seat -10
packing) and valve testing or plug replacement 2.5 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 -0.5
Travel, in.
Valve remounting and calibration $3,000
Total maintenance CAPEX $11,000 FIG. 6. A control valve feedback arm loose in a fail open control valve.

50 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
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 Maintenance and Reliability
replacing critical control valves, conventional positioners or
even I/Ps with valves with advanced diagnostic features.
Data taken from control valve signatures provides users a
graphic display to evaluate and make decisions on valve status.
FIG. 3 shows normal air-to-open control valve behavior: As ac-
tuator air pressure increases, the valve position drives up to the
2-in. max travel in a smooth linear ramp. The two passes show
the valve opening and closing test, providing the hysteresis be-
tween both movements. The grey circle marks the evidence of
an overshoot that may be caused by excessive packing tightness,
which causes the valve to peak once the actuator air pressure
drives enough force to break the packing counter force.
Friction is another common problem in control valves that
should maintain their position under steady control, rather than
drifting out of position due to high resistance normally from
stem to packing. This common failure often affects anti-surge
control valves in process compressors, causing unintended sys-
tem depressurization, unstable pressure control and higher en-
ergy cost from the compressor to compensate for the vent out.
Pneumatic actuators also represent a root cause of valve
failures, either by air leakage under pneumatic diaphragm rup-
tures or by damaged loaded springs (FIG. 4). The most com-
mon cause is water or corrosive chemical gas entering through
the actuator vent plug and gradually coming into direct contact
with springs.
If the air leakage is significant and not compensated for by
the valve positioner, the valve cannot reach the mechanical
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stop in its final position as the air pressure on an actuator re-
mains steady over time, shown in FIG. 5.
Another common problem for POCV malfunction is the
positioner feedback arm becoming loose, causing the posi-
tioner to lose the true valve position. The feedback arm is fit-
ted in the positioner and mechanically connected to the valve
stem, providing the true valve position (travel). The arm is
directly attached or magnetically driven inside the positioner
to a potentiometer or to a hall effect sensor.
A control valve signature can also detect if the valve feed-
back arm becomes loose, as the valve position will be record-
ed as sudden travel changes and not the true valve position
(FIG. 6).
Key learnings. Frequent “communication” with the control
valve can improve the cost of plant operations by maintaining
steady process control and plant availability at a higher level.
TABLE 2 shows the maintenance costs for a 10-in. alloy
globe valve requiring the crane to be removed and re-installed
into the insulated pipeline.
ANTONIO ALMAS is a senior Lead C&I Engineer with 20 yr
of experience in plant design, field commissioning and startup
activities for petrochemical, chemical and refining processes.
He has provided expertise in engineering services in large
plant projects around the world, including South America,
the US, China, Europe and the Middle East, as an independent
engineering services provider.
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 Maintenance
and Reliability
T. TIYAWONGSAKUL, Rayong Engineering
& Plant Service Co. Ltd., Rayong, Thailand

Carburization inspection robots for radiant tubes

inside ethylene cracking furnaces
In an olefins plant, the reliability of ethylene cracking furnac- netic. This magnetic-related change due to carburization can be
es is one of the deciding factors used to indicate whether or not detected by using specifically designed sensors.
the plant can be operated at its design productivity. If a furnace
shutdown occurs due to a reliability-related issue, then ethylene Carburization inspection robot. A carburization inspection
productivity will drop and lead to opportunity loss, material and robot, shown in FIG. 1, has been developed to measure and col-
scaffolding costs, etc. For example, the cost of shutting down a lect carburization data from the radiant tube while the furnace
furnace with an ethylene productivity of 4.5 tph (tons per hour) is shut down. The robot is intentionally designed to not only
to replace one damaged radiant tube can exceed $300,000. replace the use of handheld carburization detectors to decrease
These costs can skyrocket in the event of a fire. Thus, maintain- labor hours used inside the confined working space for scaffold-
ing or enhancing the reliability of furnaces becomes one of the
crucial tasks to enable a plant to achieve its productivity target.
In accordance with a reliability centered maintenance (RCM)
program, the radiant tube—where feedstock such as naphtha,
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), etc., is cracked—is considered
one of the major components of a furnace due to its impact and
the significant consequences when it fails to function.

Carburization. While numerous damage mechanisms can

shorten the lifetime of the radiant tube,1 carburization is widely
known as the major damage mechanism.2,3,4 However, perform-
ing carburization inspection by using NACE TM0498-2006
may have some limitations, as this destructive test method is
suitable when deep investigation of tube failure is required.5
Tools and sensors for onsite carburization inspection have been
developed to detect carburization without cutting the radiant
tube.6,7 This non-destructive test (NDT) method not only re-
duces time and resources for carburization inspection, but also
significantly reduces the risk of radiant tube failure due to carbu-
rization, allowing users to identify and replace radiant tubes that
are prone to failure. As a result, carburization inspection using
an NDT method becomes a crucial task that should be periodi-
cally performed to assess the remaining life of radiant tubes.
Carburization occurs when carbon (C) from hydrocarbon
feedstock inside the radiant tube diffuses into the material ma-
trix. Carbon binds with chromium (Cr) in the material matrix
and forms primary and secondary carbides at the grain bound-
aries. These carbides decrease material ductility, toughness,
strength, etc. Moreover, when the Cr content is depleted due
to carburization, some materials—particularly high nickel- and
chromium-content alloys such as 35Ni-25Cr and 45Ni-35Cr—
FIG. 1. Carburization inspection robot.
may change their phase from non-ferromagnetic to ferromag-
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 53
 Maintenance and Reliability
ing work and carburization inspection, but also to reduce the
health hazard of working high off the ground on scaffolds.
Maintaining or enhancing the reliability
of furnaces has become one of the
crucial tasks to enable an olefins plant
to achieve its productivity target.
Maintaining radiant tube functionality
is a key component.
The carburization inspection robot is capable of climbing ra-
diant tubes with outside diameters of 60 mm–160 mm at a speed
of 3.5 m/min. The robot can be equipped with two or four sen-
sors, depending on tube spacing. The minimum accessible tube
spaces are 17 mm and 40 mm for two and four sensors, respec-
tively. While the robot is moving along the external surface of
the radiant tube, it simultaneously measures and collects a set
of carburization data with a resolution of up to 1 cm, or up to
1,400 points/min, compared to a handheld carburization detec-
tor, which can measure and collect data at about 10 points/min.
This means that the carburization inspection robot can increase
detectability by approximately 140 times over the handheld de-
tector, resulting in a substantial increase of detectability and a
significantly reduced risk of tube failure due to carburization. A
brief summary of the robot’s specifications is provided in TABLE 1.
Sensors and equations. Each sensor attached to the robot is
a Hall-effect sensor that responds to the magnetic field gener-
ated by phase change due to carburization. The higher the Cr
FIG. 2. Example of a uniformly carburized specimen.
FIG. 3. Validation of carburization sensors with a 45Ni-35Cr specimen.
54 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
depletion due to carburization, the higher the magnetic field
generated. Applying this principle, the raw data measured by
the Hall-effect sensors can be converted into the
carburization depths. The process of determin-
ing an equation for converting the raw data into
the carburization depths began with collecting the
uniformly carburized specimens with various car-
burization depths from the furnaces. Then, mac-
rostructural analysis was conducted to distinguish
the carburized zone from the non-carburized zone,
as shown in FIG. 2. The actual carburization depths
were also measured at this step, and the sensors were
used to measure the strength of the magnetic field of
each specimen. Finally, the equation for converting
the raw data from the sensors into the carburization
depths was generated by fitting the curve to a series of raw data.
Validation. The most important process for utilizing sensors
and creating equations is validation. Performing validations
will test whether the sensors and the equations are able to de-
tect carburization and are correctly and accurately measuring
the carburization depth at each location. Three pieces of 45Ni-
35Cr specimens with a thickness of 6.4 mm and non-uniform
carburization profiles (similar to the one shown in FIG. 3) were
used during the validation process, which was performed by
comparing the carburization profiles plotted by using the con-
verted carburization depths (blue solid line in FIG. 3) with the
carburization profiles plotted by using the actual carburization
depths (red dotted line in FIG. 3).
The results showed that the sensors were able to detect lo-
calized carburization. Moreover, at high degrees of carburiza-
tion (the actual carburization depths of ≥ 0.5 mm, or 8% of the
tube thickness), the converted carburization depths deviated
approximately 10% from the actual carburization depths. At
low degrees of carburization (the actual carburization depths
of < 0.5 mm), the 45Ni-35Cr specimens seemed to still be in
non-ferromagnetic regime. Carburization is difficult to detect,
and the accuracy of the converted depths seemed to decrease
using the equation mentioned earlier. Regular service may be
carried out on the radiant tubes when the carburization depth
does not exceed 50% of the tube thickness, in accordance with
API 573.8 Therefore, the carburization sensors are able to de-
tect the locations of carburization and indicate the prone-to-
failure areas due to carburization on the tubes.
TABLE 1. Brief summary of robot specifications
Item
Outside diameter 60 mm–160 mm
Maximum number of carburization sensors 4
Minimum accessible tube space
2 sensors 17 mm
4 sensors 40 mm
Average climbing speed 3.5 m/min
Resolution
2 sensors 700 points/min
4 sensors 1,400 points/min
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 Maintenance and Reliability
Onsite inspection. Normally, for a furnace with 4.5 tph of
ethylene productivity, using the handheld carburization de-
tector in carburization inspection requires two days for scaf-
folding erection and removal, and two additional days for the
manual carburization inspection. Using the carburization in-
spection robot can save furnace downtime by eliminating scaf-
folding erection and removal. Furthermore, it takes only 1 d to
complete the carburization inspection.
The carburization inspection robot is attached to a radiant
tube by coupling the driving side with the sensor side (FIG. 4)
on the reference level to ensure that each measurement begins
from the same level. The robot is controlled by an operator via
a program in a laptop computer. It takes approximately 10 min.
to inspect one pass of a radiant tube, including attaching and
detaching the robot. Inspectors can monitor the carburization
depths on the laptop computer to check whether any abnor-
malities in the measurements exist. The online monitoring al-
lows the inspection team to solve any problems immediately.
In FIG. 5, the results are shown in the 3D model, with a reso-
lution of 10 cm and a color scale (green = low degree of carbu-
FIG. 4. Carburization inspection robot inspecting a 45Ni-35Cr
radiant tube.
FIG. 5. Inspection results in 3D.
56 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
rization; yellow = medium degree of carburization; and red =
high degree of carburization). The 3D results and the color
scale help users to easily and swiftly locate what needs to be re-
placed. This also allows users to not only know the present car-
burization profile of each pass, but also enables them to predict
the carburization rate if the inspection is conducted regularly.
Benefits. Benefits of using the carburization inspection ro-
bots during the furnace shutdown fall into three major aspects:
operation and maintenance, reliability and safety. The carbu-
rization inspection robot can substantially reduce a carburiza-
tion inspection by approximately 68 hr for a furnace with an
ethylene production of 4.5 tph. This reduction is equivalent to
more than 300 t of ethylene production, aside from the cost of
radiant tube replacement. The cost of maintenance and scaf-
folding are also dramatically reduced.
The detectability of the carburization inspection robot is
much better than the handheld carburization detector within
the same timeframe, so users can gain more insights of the ra-
diant tube’s condition, decide what countermeasures to use,
and more accurately estimate the remaining life of the radi-
ant tube. Finally, the carburization inspection robot can help
olefins plants enhance human safety by decreasing time used
in the confined space and reducing work at high elevation on
the scaffold.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to acknowledge the robotic team under the supervision
of Mr. Wee Chabthanom and other related parties at Rayong Engineering and Plant
Service Co. Ltd., (REPCO), Rayong Olefins Co. Ltd. and Map Ta Phut Olefins Co.
Ltd., for technical advice and support. Moreover, the author would like to thank
the management of SCG Chemicals for granting permission to publish this paper.
LITERATURE CITED
1
“API RP 571: Damage mechanisms affecting fixed equipment in the refining
industry,” American Petroleum Institute (API), 2nd Ed., API, 2011.
2
Ul-Hamid, A., H. M. Tawancy, A.-R. I. Mohammed and N. M. Abbas, “Failure
analysis of furnace radiant tubes exposed to excessive temperature,” Engineering
Failure Analysis, Vol. 13, 2006.
3
Shen, L., J. Gong, Y. Jiang and L. Geng, “Damage prediction of HP40Nb steel
with coupled creep and carburization based on the continuum,” Acta Metallurgica
Sinica (English Letters), Vol. 25, No. 4, August 2012.
4
Wang, W., K. Liang, C. Wang and Q. Wang, “Comparative analysis of failure
probability for ethylene cracking furnace tube using Monte Carlo and API RBI
technology,” Engineering Failure Analysis, Vol. 45, 2014.
5
“NACE TM0498-2014: Evaluation of the carburization of alloy tubes used for
ethylene manufacture,” National Association of Chemical Engineers (NACE)
Intl., 2006.
6
Shinohara, T., I. Kohchi, K. Shibata, J. Sugitani and K. Tsuchida, “Development
of nondestructive technique for measuring carburization thickness and of a new
carburization-resistant alloy,” Materials and Corrosion, Vol. 37, No. 7, July 1986.
7
Kasai, N., S. Ogawa, T. Oikawa, K. Sekine and K. Hasegawa, “Detection of carburi-
zation in ethylene pyrolysis furnace tubes by a C-core probe with magnetization,”
Journal of Nondestructive Evaluation, Vol. 29, 2010.
8
“API RP 573: Inspection of fired boilers and heaters,” American Petroleum
Institute (API), 3rd Ed., API, 2013.
TIYAWUT TIYAWONGSAKUL is a Furnace Specialist and
a Modeling and Simulation Engineer with an emphasis
on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and combustion
at REPCO, a subsidiary of SCG Chemicals, in Thailand.
He has been responsible for furnace reliability improvement
and problem solving projects, including research and
development of the carburization inspection robot at
SCG Chemicals, since 2008. He earned an MSc degree in mechanical
engineering, focusing on combustion and emissions reduction technologies,
from Texas A&M University in College Station, Texas.

Role statements needed for reliability job functions
Experience shows that written role statements impart great
value to industries that have reliability professionals on staff.
Thoughtfully devised role statements provide clarity and de-
tail to all functional layers within an organization. They also
allude to optimizing outside contacts and specify other activi-
ties needed to set up companies for success. Properly written
and explained, role statements are required to achieve the
technical proficiency and productivity that are consistently
maintained by best-of-class (BOC) organizations.
What happened to role statements? The value of role
statements was recognized when, in 1984, Exxon Chemicals’
then-Vice President, W. J. Porter, Jr., wrote, “Through judi-
cious use of outside contacts, participation in relevant activi-
ties of technical societies, and publication of pertinent materi-
al, we can be sure that our technical productivity will continue
to improve.”1
Today, however, major segments of the hydrocarbon pro-
cessing industry (HPI) no longer follow the norms of commu-
nication customary in W. J. Porter’s time. Regrettably, today’s
norms tend to elaborate on bland generalities, whereas inter-
changes of useful information are discouraged for a number
of reasons. This negative trend can be costly—reliability and
safety are branches of the same tree, and both branches will
dry up unless the tree is properly watered.
Moreover, accountability diminishes or even disappears
without a written role statement. Nondisclosure of expecta-
tions (in a role statement) or lack of clarity among profession-
als often forces later generations or successors to reinvent the
wheel, figuratively speaking.
The hoarding of knowledge and unnecessary insistence
on secrecy aptly describe the situation that often exists in
the HPI today. Yet, it is generally understood that many HPI
job functions will affect plant safety and reliability. What
is less well known is that each of these job functions would
benefit from (1) a role statement, (2) a training plan and
(3) management’s tracking and quantification of the value
added by an employee in a particular job function. Item 3 is
feasible if the employee’s role includes compiling a summary
of monthly accomplishments.
Reliability engineers lacking a clear destination (i.e., a
“role”) are like sailboats without a harbor. To those with slack
sails, every breeze—meaning every new consultant-conceived
initiative or “flavor of the month”—seems a favorable wind.
These engineers may end up drifting to an unforeseen and
Maintenance
and Reliability
H. P. BLOCH, Reliability/Equipment Editor
rocky shore. Good managers make a point of examining an
employee’s achievements during performance appraisals by
revisiting their role statements.
Role statements at the job search stage. Suppose an
engineer is seeking new employment. Early in the job search,
the best value-adders set themselves apart from others by de-
scribing the role they expect to fulfill. Traditional job-seekers
prepare a resume; however, motivated professionals go beyond
this traditional approach. Instead of simply listing activities
performed in the past, seasoned professionals and highly moti-
vated job seekers describe or rephrase their qualifications in a
more relevant role statement.
A good role statement provides solid proof that a profes-
sional person fully understands the needs of BOC employers.
In a well-thought-out role statement, a competent reliability
professional (RP) conveys the overriding goal of pulling em-
ployers away from previously unforeseen risks. Among these
risks are randomly occurring equipment and process failures
that can waste precious resources.
Reliability positions can differ. Progressive companies
employ reliability administrators (RAs), with some in the dual
role of subject matter expert (SME). Although their respective
roles are nuanced, we often use the designations “reliability
professional” and “reliability administrator” interchangeably.
However, the two differ because all RAs have access to man-
agement, whereas some RPs may not have the same access.
Understandably, considerable overlap exists between RAs and
the next layer of professionals. Close cooperation between
these job functions adds great value (FIG. 1).
Depending on organizational criteria, RAs may have equip-
ment reliability engineers and process reliability engineers
reporting to them. Experienced RAs usually define the per-
centage of their time spent in an administrative role. An RA
creates viable business value by managing equipment mechani-
cal integrity according to lifecycle expectations. Steering clear
of sweeping generalizations and consultant-conceived “noise,”
RAs will delegate some of their responsibilities to other profes-
sionals. The responsibility to train by delegating is listed in the
RA’s role statement.
The next layer may include process reliability professionals
(PRPs) and equipment reliability professionals (ERPs). The
collective roles of PAs, PRPs and ERPs are to identify, define,
detect and even control process conditions that govern the
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 57
 Maintenance and Reliability

mechanical integrity of physical assets. Their job functions
clearly include risk elimination. RAs and RPs have identical
stakes in moving entire organizations toward meeting regu-
latory commitments. Neither the administrator nor the pro-
fessionals reporting to an administrator will allow safety and
environmental issues to be neglected in favor of plant produc-
tion and profits.
In other words, true professionals are the conscience of an
organization. An ethical, conscientious value-adder will not
tolerate lapses in this conscience. The role statement of the
value-adder will highlight this obligation and list it as a con-
stant reminder.
Access to management. The previously mentioned details
reemphasize why the position (or job function) of RA requires
access to plant managers. The access granted to RAs limits
their tendency to become enmeshed in turf issues—i.e., self-
ish behavioral patterns that often culminate in juggling, shad-
ing, spinning and obfuscating facts.
The guidance given and aims pursued by plant managers
must transcend counterproductive turf issues. Even today,
these patterns manifest in wrangling over benchmarking num-
bers and definitions. This wrangling continues to be referred
to as “fudging the numbers.” Spinning facts is not unusual;
alert observers can certainly detect industrial entities that
display a seemingly endless tolerance for repeat failures and
associated risks. While these entities may dispute their risky
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behavior, repeat failures are telltale facts that prove otherwise.
With greater direct access to higher management, the RA
will have ample opportunity to assist the people at the top
in defining or fine-tuning the company’s expectations, and
to list or explain the details of safety- and reliability-related
deliverables. These deliverables include, first and foremost,
adherence to the principles outlined in role statements. De-
liverables also encompass specific tasks and contributions
expected of or assigned to the RA, as well as to the RPs re-
porting to the RA:
• Define equipment operating capability (reliability)
limits to adequately reduce or avoid chronic failures
• Develop control strategies sufficient to maintain
equipment operation within specified limits
• Prioritize detection of limit deviation and definition
of response criteria according to known or anticipated
failure intervals and consequences
• Enforce and own policies and procedures
for reliability limit changes
• Document the approval of new reliability limits
and changes to existing limits
• Establish reliability limit documentation access
capabilities to retain limit purpose and history
• Set expectations for repairing equipment assigned
to limit monitoring points, and assist in creating
effective contingency plans for maintenance deviations
• Track and monitor limit compliance
• Investigate chronic limit deviations to detect and address
potential constraints that might degrade business value
• Communicate program performance measures
on a routine basis (percent in control, chronic
limit deviations, etc.)

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58 

• Reconcile limit performance against turnaround
maintenance inspection results
• Audit reliability limit database integrity.
It can be said that an RA, or the RPs reporting to the RA,
are involved in stewardship and implementation tasks that sup-
port plant management. This support role includes tracking
quantitative measures and benchmarking many kinds of data.
Although details may vary among different industries and from
plant to plant, a good role statement will list and describe these
tasks. Measuring physical assets’ mean time between failures
(MTBF), tracking unplanned economic process and mainte-
nance incidents, and contributing to the annual performance
review of others may be included in the statement.
Major ownership roles defined. In a progressive plant en-
vironment, virtually all contractors and vendors are selected
on the basis of quantifiable and demonstrated competence.
The costs of the product or service are not the only factors
considered. At progressive plants, an RP is designated as the
“quasi-owner” and represents the owner-operator’s interests at
every stage. Independent contractors have obvious responsi-
bilities that are ultimately the subject of detailed contractual
agreements between the plant’s legal staff and the contractor’s
authorized representatives.2 However, their work execution
routines are closely observed by the owner-operator’s RA or
its designated RPs (FIG. 2).
As an example, the quasi-owner of pump reliability has a
voice in selecting the facility’s mechanical seal providers. The
quasi-owner takes responsibility for the bottom-line failure
avoidance and safety achievements that come from its informed
input. The quasi-owner must expend time and effort on up-
front learning about the design and service aspects of mechani-
cal seals. Moreover, quasi-owners will cultivate access to more
than one technology provider. Access to only one such provid-
er—or the deliberate exclusion of innovative competitors—is a
disincentive for competitors to so much as visit a plant.
FIG. 2. An RP stands by, supporting and tutoring field operators
whenever a critical process pump is initially commissioned.
Image courtesy of Hydro Inc.
Maintenance and Reliability
In a similar manner, the owner-operator will designate an-
other RP as the quasi-owner to monitor a turnaround contractor
or water treatment service provider, or to process the short- and
long-term performance of a heat exchanger repair contractor.
Again, the anticipated roles are spelled out and included in the
RP’s role statement. As mentioned above, job-seeking reliabil-
ity professionals take the initiative by incorporating role state-
ments in their formal employment applications.2
The adjunct responsibilities and expectations of an RA are
closely tied to their background and training. Suppose the RA
may also qualify as the owner’s asset management software
(AMS) coordinator. This qualification deserves to be pointed
out in the role statement. If these responsibilities are the RA’s
core qualifications, then the RA would estimate the percentage
of time spent in the adjunct role of managing the activities of
the AMS service providers. The task of an AMS service provid-
er is to understand and provide access to suitable technology
updates and profitability enhancements that anchor the client
company in a leadership position.
A motivated professional will accept the role of quasi-owner
of a particular work process, procedure or contracted activity.
In their role statements, these professionals would list expecta-
tions and action measures demanded of a quasi-owner. Con-
tracted activities often include field installation, critical fabri-
cation and performance testing (FIGS. 3 and 4). Accordingly,
the quasi-owner would be present when important portions of
this work are in progress.
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 Maintenance and Reliability
FIG. 3. Final flange connection prior to witnessed testing of a large
horizontal pump. Image courtesy of Hydro Inc.
In a typical refinery, a list of expectations and measures
might include:
• Manage a unit’s chemistry, operation and
troubleshooting to adequately control process deposit
and corrosion potential, while maintaining stable
wastewater treatment plant operation
• Justify new and modified applications to increase
production value by improving process efficiency
• Continuously audit additive usage (i.e., “demand
tracking”) to detect and investigate hidden system
performance issues that precede catastrophic process
and equipment failures
• Request support from appropriate employees with
decision rights to take action on service provider advice
• Establish process and utility additive performance
measures and communicate results on a routine basis
• Audit additive control to detect possible
misapplications and incompatibilities that might
interfere with business objectives
• Diagnose and factually address the causes
of process foaming
• Track MTBF of physical assets
60 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
FIG. 4. Critical impeller fabrication is undertaken by qualified vendors,
but the quasi-owner is both informed and involved in the process.
Image courtesy of Hydro Inc.
• Track unplanned economic process and maintenance
incidents
• Derive benefit from annual performance reviews.
Takeaway. To summarize, true professionals have a calling
that manifests in personal integrity and adding value to the
enterprise. Most reliability engineers consider themselves pro-
fessionals, some deservedly so. Many have added measurable
value to a previous employer’s enterprise, and have undertaken
successive academic or non-academic educational steps to ar-
rive at their respective positions.
However, just as their role statements delineate their con-
tributions, accountabilities and value-adding responsibilities,
differences still exist in the skill sets of reliability engineers. An
employer should pinpoint and consider these differences when
interviewing job applicants.
An employer should consider subsidizing the training of
professional employees by purchasing relevant texts in paper or
electronic form. During the next performance review session,
the discourse between manager and employee should establish
how the employee has added value. Hopefully, she or he will ex-
plain best practices advocated in up-to-date conference papers
and trade journals and compare these to the present practices at
the manager’s facility.
LITERATURE CITED
1
Bloch, H. P. and F. K. Geitner, preface to Machinery Component Maintenance and
Repair, 3rd Ed., Elsevier Publishing, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2004.
2
Bloch, H. P., Petrochemical Machinery Insights, Elsevier Publishing, Amsterdam,
The Netherlands, 2016.
HEINZ P. BLOCH resides in Westminster, Colorado.
His professional career commenced in 1962 and
included long-term assignments as Exxon Chemical’s
Regional Machinery Specialist for the US. He has
authored or cowritten close to 700 publications, among
them 20 comprehensive books on practical machinery
management, failure analysis, failure avoidance,
compressors, steam turbines, pumps, oil mist lubrication
and practical lubrication for industry. Mr. Bloch holds BS
and MS degrees (cum laude) in mechanical engineering.
He is an ASME Life Fellow and was awarded lifetime
registration as a Professional Engineer in New Jersey.

Filter process streams to protect downstream
equipment and improve product quality
Throughout the petroleum industry, most discussions of fil-
tration focus on the oil itself as it is extracted from the wellhead
and refined into saleable products. However, throughout this
process, a critical and consistent component is the use of water.
Although water quality requirements depend upon the end use,
without filtration, unfiltered water can foul downstream equip-
ment and contaminate catalysts. The result is increased mainte-
nance and repair costs, a potentially downed system, and lower
conversion rates and process yields.
Due to its influence on process flow, its ability to protect
downstream equipment and piping, and its significant role in
the quality—and hence value—of the finished product, filtering
process water can play a critical role in optimizing the refining
process. The right filtration equipment can affect a company’s
environmental impact through the reduction of emissions and
waste generation. It can also safeguard employees by minimiz-
ing their exposure to hazardous materials. These factors, in turn,
impact a company’s productivity and bottom line.
Despite its significance, many refineries have not realized
the benefits of optimized filtration for process water. Installing
a system where one did not previously exist can be difficult to
justify with tight capital budgets. Decision-makers face the same
challenge when a filtration system is in place and operating.
However, a careful look at key cost factors can quickly justify an
investment that will generate a significant return. These factors
include minimizing overall maintenance costs, labor costs, the
potential costs of lost production, impact to the environment,
and the conversion and recovery of petroleum products during
scheduled and unscheduled downtime.
With an increased focus on reducing environmental impact,
greater emphasis is being placed on reducing the amount of wa-
ter used for industrial processes—particularly freshwater. One
method is to use equipment that requires less freshwater. When
the amount of water used is mandated by process requirements,
another method is water reuse. This trend is fueled by several
economic benefits that can be broken down into four separate
and specific areas of costs savings:
• Reduced cost for purchase and treatment of freshwater
• Reduced cost for heating process streams, or money
saved through energy recovery
• Reduced process losses of expensive and unspent catalyst
fines that can be reintroduced and reused
Water
Management
M. CLEMENTS, Eaton Corp., Constantine, Michigan
• Reduced waste treatment costs.
Any decision regarding water filtration should be weighed
against the relative importance of each of these factors. This
article examines specific areas for water treatment within the
petroleum industry, and potential solutions will be suggested.
Water is used for downhole injection, process cooling, steam
generation, dilution fluids, gas sweetening reactions, quench
operations, heat transfer and as a universal hydrophilic solvent.
Each of these applications is improved with cleaner water. The
cost of dirty water is seen in the short term as a process slow-
down, and in the long term as equipment plugging, under de-
posit corrosion, fouled resin and equipment erosion.
Oilfield production site. At production sites, water is often in-
jected into the producing formation to help extract oil. This wa-
ter is generally recycled water that has been previously pumped
out of the formation with the oil. The water is separated from
the oil and prepared for reinjection, and contains scale and iron
(Fe) particles. Solids in the injection water degrade high-pres-
sure equipment due to line corrosion and plugging—most sig-
nificantly, plugging the formation.
Alternatively, the filtration of produced water at the injection
site keeps formation flow high and maintains secondary recov-
ery. Clean water also extends the life of high-pressure injection
pumps and other critical system equipment. Ultimately, corro-
sion in the distribution lines is reduced, positively affecting the
overall system.
To optimize equipment protection, throughput and system
performance, the injection water should be progressively filtered
from gross strainers at the intake down to 10 microns–40 mi-
crons to protect the surface equipment, and then filtered again
to 0.5 microns–2 microns prior to the injection wellhead (FIG 1).
Prior to being sent to the wells, water is often filtered through
a large sand filter. This works reasonably well, but requires a
large footprint—high air and water volumes are required to
backwash and maintain the media. As an alternative, barrier fil-
tration can eliminate the need for air scrubbing, greatly reduc-
ing backwash volume and requiring little maintenance.
Traditional cartridge filtration remains a viable solution for
the filtration of injection water. Absolute rated media guaran-
tees 99.98% filtration to levels as low as 0.5 microns. For con-
tinuous throughput without the need to change out bags or
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 61
 Water Management
cartridges, tubular filter systems offer an alternative with clean-
able, reusable media at retentions similar to those available with
cartridge systems. In fact, 98% efficiency down to 2 microns
can be achieved with some models. This type of filter system
eliminates media and disposal costs, as well as operator time
spent changing cartridges.
Cooling systems. Cooling systems accumulate airborne dirt
and other contaminants that can affect system instrumentation
and efficiency. Dirt and Fe fouling can rob the system of the re-
quired heat transfer capacity and can increase frictional hydraulic
losses. Cooling systems with inefficient filtration can necessitate
labor-intensive tower cleanouts and heat exchanger refurbishing.
Efficient systems will extend equipment life and maintain maxi-
mum heat transfer. Removal of 98% of particles of 44 microns
and larger is recommended for effective cooling water filtration.
Tubular backwashing systems provide an economical
method of automated solids removal with minimal backwash
volumes. Clean cooling water reduces manual cleanouts and
chemical consumption, helps eliminate instrument plugging
and maximizes cooling efficiency. If space is at a premium, tu-
bular systems are available in a nonlinear configuration.
Amine systems. Another process stream that benefits from
filtration is the amine system. Amine systems require filtration
to remove contaminates such as pipe scale, iron sulfide (FeS)
and salt precipitants from the process. If the amine is dark
amber to greenish in color, the stream is dirty. For maximum
efficiency, the amine stream should be as clear as fresh water.
FIG. 1. An automatic self-cleaning strainer is used to protect
downstream heat exchangers in a polysilicon production facility’s
cooling water system.
62 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Contaminate removal increases amine efficiency and reduces
the system’s operating costs.
Problems created by dirty or unfiltered amine systems in-
clude iron sulfides that cause foaming in towers. Contaminants
that collect on tower trays reduce efficiency and increase pres-
sure drop across the tower. Solids buildup in the flash drum
reduces the available liquid area, resulting in incomplete sepa-
ration of hydrocarbons and amine. Contaminants in the surge
drum introduce a constant supply of new solids into the flow.
When particles settle out, they collect in piping, tanks, heat ex-
changers and reboilers, causing poor heat transfer and increas-
ing corrosion, plugging and fouling of the equipment.
Typically, disposable media are used on the clean amine
loop and backwashing filters on the rich amine loop. When con-
sidering disposables, proper media selection will have the most
direct effect on system efficiency and, by extension, cost effec-
tiveness. For example, nominal efficiency media are ineffective
because too much dirt passes through the filter. Polypropylene
media traps oils and can become blind before the full dirt hold-
ing capacity is reached.
The optimum flowrate is a compromise between cost and
dirt retention. The slower the flowrate, the more dirt the media
will hold. If oils are in the amine or if the temperature exceeds
180°F, cellulose or polyester media are recommended. Cellulose
media generally cost less.
If the amine system has not been filtered, or if signs of high
dirt loading are evident (again, a green or amber color), then
filtration is highly recommended. To reduce costs, stage the
cleaning process. Begin with media that will eliminate larger
micron particulate, and step the process gradually into smaller
retentions with each change-out, ending ultimately with reten-
tions in the 5 microns–10 microns range. To maintain optimum
performance, use high-efficiency, absolute rated media at a
maximum of 10 microns.
Although more prevalent on the sulfur-rich side, backwash-
ing or self-cleaning tubular systems are ideal for both the rich
and lean sides of the amine loop, as they eliminate operator ex-
posure and the disposal of often hazardous spent bags or car-
tridges (FIG. 2). The closed system benefits of a backwashing
filter are especially important on the rich side of the amine loop,
due to the elimination of operator exposure to the highly toxic
sulfur being removed.
Backwashing filters should be sized at a flux rate of ap-
proximately 4 gpm/ft2–8 gpm/ft2. The filter media should be
5 microns–10 microns, high-efficiency (> 98%) filter elements
constructed of single-layer sintered wire mesh. When the filter
is installed on a dirty system, it will typically backwash continu-
ously for the first 2 d–3 d. Then, the backwash interval will be-
gin to increase; within a week, the amine will be clean and the
backwash interval will increase to 8 hr or more.
Backwashing filters are self-correcting during and after up-
sets. During upset conditions, the filter will start backwashing
continuously. After the process returns to normal, backwash in-
terval times will also return to normal.
Selecting the correct filter. No filter is designed to remove
all particulate from a fluid stream. The size of particulate to be
removed should be determined by the quality objective or sys-
tem protection requirements. Removing particles below the
Keep calm and optimize.
Get the most from your operation.
We deliver cost effective solutions to improve Some of the services we provide:
efficiencies and recoveries, supplying and servicing a
→ Feasibility, debottlenecking and process studies
full range of midstream and downstream processing
→ Furnace optimization and life extensions
technologies: syngas, PSA, amine treatement, sulfur
→ Revamps, retrofits, upgrades and expansions
recovery, off-gas hydrogen and liquids recovery, gas
→ Controls and safety upgrades
processing, air separation, furnaces/heaters, emissions
→ Fitness for service evaluations
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 Water Management
FIG. 2. A rich amine loop shown here is used to protect the heat
exchanger in an upstream exploration and production facility. This
tubular filter replaced traditional cartridges/bags, eliminating operator
interaction with the H2S-laden fluid. In addition, the hazardous material
disposal of the cartridges/bags into the environment was eliminated,
while reducing maintenance costs and improving operating margins.
level identified for a specific system is a costly and unnecessary
exercise with little or no return on investment (ROI).
Will the stream be reintroduced into the process? If so, what
contaminate levels will yield cost-effective efficiency? The re-
sidual level of solids in the product filtrate will vary for each
application. Understanding the limitations that varying solids
levels will impose on the process is essential to determining the
cost benefits of filtration systems.
Several variables must be considered when protecting a
process through filtration. Fundamental questions include:
What size particle can cause erosion in downstream equip-
ment, and at what level of solids will deposits build up in the
low, slow-flow areas?
Two other important factors to consider when designing or
selecting a filtration system are environmental/safety concerns
and waste disposal costs. Environmental regulations governing
fugitive emissions have become increasingly stringent in recent
decades, and will be even more rigorous in the future. Companies
are also faced with increasing worries over lawsuits from workers
exposed to hazardous materials and volatile organic compounds
(VOCs). Waste disposal costs have risen dramatically in recent
years, partially as a result of stricter environmental regulations.
Disposable filter media. When final product clarification is
a key process objective, a general standard of particle removal is
retention in the 0.2 micron–200 microns range. Disposable filter
media, typically bags or cartridges, come in a wide range of mi-
cron ratings and fabrics, and many meet the retention criterion.
Two types of efficiency ratings are typically used for dispos-
able media: nominal and absolute. Nominal ratings can vary
from 50%–90% removal efficiency, depending on the product
and the manufacturer. Absolute ratings imply 100% removal of
particles at a set rating, which actually means 98.7%–99.99%,
depending on the product and the vendor.
Bag fabrication has advanced over the past few years, im-
proving the filtration capacity of bags and making them more
64 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
efficient. Multi-layer bags increase the solids holding capacity
and provide a larger surface area for filtration. These higher ef-
ficiency bags normally last longer, remove a higher percentage
of contaminants (up to 99.9%) and can be rated as low-micron.
Even with new designs in bag construction, cartridge filters
trap particulate that a simple bag cannot, such as soft particles,
which can be extruded. The “depth” design of cartridges—lay-
ers of rigid construction—have more surface area to trap the dirt
and significantly increase dirt holding capacity when compared
to a similar-size bag. This makes cartridge filters the choice for
absolute filtration.
While disposable media such as bags and cartridges usually
have a relatively low initial cost, operating costs can increase if
changeout is frequent. Media replacement and waste disposal
costs can quickly outweigh any savings from the lower acqui-
sition cost. Conversely, for applications with low processing
volumes, or where media replacement is infrequent, bag or car-
tridge filtration may be the best choice.
Cleanable filter media. Several different types of cleanable fil-
ter media are available as alternatives to disposable media, or as
a pre-filter in staged filtration systems. They include wire mesh,
wedge wire, defined pore, perforated and sintered metal filters.
Cleanable media can often be used in the same applications as
disposable bags or cartridges, sometimes with significant labor
and cost savings. Several applications make cleanable filter me-
dia a better choice, due to pressure or flow requirements. When
comparing purchase price to operational expenditures, a typical
payback can range from 6 mos to 1 yr.
Cleaning of this media type may be done manually, hydrauli-
cally or mechanically. Manual cleaning often requires the use of
expensive cleaning compounds and can carry the risk of dam-
age to the filter media. Additionally, labor is required for manual
cleaning, which raises worker safety/exposure issues. Hydraulic
cleaning involves using either the process stream or another com-
patible source of liquid to backwash the filter media. This may be
cost prohibitive if the liquid being filtered is expensive, hazardous
and/or non-compatible with an outside source of liquid.
The three main classes of cleanable filters include: vibrating
screens, backwashing filters and mechanically cleaned filters. Of
these three, only vibrating screens require manual cleaning, but
they have limited use in the petroleum process, especially for
water treatment. Mechanically cleaned filters are ideal for highly
viscous liquids. Again, this does not apply to most water treat-
ment applications.
Backwashing filters work well in high-volume applications,
typically ranging from 100 gpm and upwards. A minimum pres-
sure of 45 psi and a small volume of liquid are required for back-
washing. For these reasons, backwashing filters are often found
throughout the petroleum industry.
Ultimately, whatever the process stream application, careful
consideration and selection of filtration equipment can signifi-
cantly improve overall system performance. Although most of
the attention for filtration in the petroleum industry tradition-
ally focuses on refining crude, water is a key process component
and can help drive optimization and reduce maintenance costs,
repair costs and labor requirements. Water filtration will also
extend the life of expensive and valuable equipment, improve a
plant’s competitive position and help drive profits.
 Process Control
and Instrumentation
L. PLESS, Tracerco, Pasadena, Texas

Identify the cause of liquid maldistribution

inside packed beds
Diagnosing liquid maldistribution
problems inside packed beds that can
cause mass transfer efficiency loss is a
challenge to process engineers. In indus-
trial distillation columns, the potential
causes of liquid maldistribution include
problems with the design, manufacture
or installation of packed tower internals,
as well as complications from damage,
fouling and other process disturbances.
Gamma scan and tomography scan tech-
nologies have proven to be an essential
measurement tool to supplement operat-
ing data analysis. Process engineers and
operations personnel must know what
FIG. 1. A grid scan can detect evidence of fouling and crushed or corroded packing that often
is happening inside their process equip- result in flow distribution problems.
ment so they can consider solutions and
take corrective action.
The first step to determine liquid mal-
distribution in a packed column is to per-
form a grid scan. This provides an initial
look at the liquid distribution in the pack-
ing and the placement of packed tower in-
ternals. A grid scan consists of four equidis-
tant chords, one through each quadrant of
the tower (FIG. 1). Under ideal conditions
and uniform liquid distribution, each scan
plot will overlay closely with the others. If
more quantitative information about liq-
uid distribution is desired, or if reasonable
suspicion exists that the bed is experienc-
ing annular liquid maldistribution, then a
tomography scan is recommended.
The tomography scan technique is a
specialized horizontal gamma scan used
to generate a topographic profile of the FIG. 2. A tomography scan technique is a specialized horizontal gamma scan used to generate a
topographic profile of the internal cross-sectional density of process equipment.
internal cross-sectional density of pro-
cess equipment (FIG. 2). This profile is
useful for the detailed study of liquid Project field test. A petrochemical tained several large beds of structured
flow distribution through packed col- plant had just performed a major revamp packing. The scope of the revamp includ-
umns, as well as having applications be- of a critical distillation tower. This tower ed removing all of the old distributors
yond distillation columns. was 45 m tall, 6 m in diameter and con- and packed beds and replacing them with
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 65
 Environment and Safety
FIG. 3. Grid scan results showed slight maldistribution in all beds.
FIG. 4. Tomography scan results illustrated
that a large amount of liquid was channeling
down the center of the bed.
more efficient internals.
Upon startup, the tower was unusu-
ally unstable. The customer could not in-
crease the feed to design rates while main-
taining desired product quality. Both the
66 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
overhead and bottoms products were off
specification, even when the tower was
running at reduced rates.
The first diagnostic step taken by plant
personnel was sample analysis. Samples
were collected at each packed bed, and
the analysis of these samples indicated
that all of the beds were performing poor-
ly. However, the cause for this poor per-
formance could not be determined by the
samples. One possibility was liquid mald-
istribution throughout the beds. If liquid
distribution was adequate, then the pack-
ing was falling well short of its designed
efficiency. Another possibility was that
some type of mechanical damage might
have occurred during startup.
To help diagnose the cause of the prob-
lem, the first step was to perform a grid
scan of this tower. The results showed
that all distributors, collectors and packed
beds were in their proper places with no
evidence of mechanical damage. The grid
scan also showed slight liquid maldistribu-
tion in all of the beds (FIG. 3), but the mal-
distribution did not appear severe enough
to have caused the tower’s poor efficiency.
Liquid maldistribution had been strongly
suspected, and since the grid scan indicat-
ed that maldistribution could be an issue,
plant personnel wanted to get as complete
a picture of the distribution pattern as pos-
sible. To obtain a more detailed liquid dis-
tribution profile, a tomography scana was
performed. The most advantageous place
to perform a tomography scan is as near
the top of the bed as possible.
Project analysis. The tomography scan
results (FIG. 4) showed that a large amount
of liquid was channeling through the center
of the bed. This was undetected by the grid
scan because it was a “uniform” pattern of
maldistribution, as all chords showed sim-
ilar overall densities. This confirmed that
liquid maldistribution, rather than poor
packing performance, was the cause of the
efficiency reduction in the tower.
This study provided plant personnel
with the precise information they needed
to make the right decision to shut down
the tower and inspect the liquid distribu-
tors. Upon inspection, an error in the dis-
tributor installation was discovered. This
error was causing a large portion of the
liquid to channel down the center of the
packing. The problem was corrected, and
the tower was restarted without incident.
The tower was pushed to maximum design
rates, and the desired separation efficiency
of the new packing was achieved.
NOTES
a ThruVision technology by Tracerco.
LOWELL PLESS is Business
Development Manager of Distillation
Applications for Tracerco in
Pasadena, Texas. He has been
applying radioisotope techniques in
process troubleshooting for 30 yr,
originally with Tru-Tec Services
(acquired by Tracerco in 2006). Mr. Pless previously
held positions in Europe and North/South America as
Operations Manager, and he began the tower scanning
service for Tru-Tec in Western Europe and the Middle
East. His early engineering development came as a
Process and Systems Engineer and Unit Operations
Supervisor for Celanese Chemical Co., Calumet
Lubricants and Foxboro. Mr. Pless earned a BS degree
in chemical engineering from the University of Texas at
Austin, is a registered Professional Engineer in Texas,
participates on the Design and Practices committee for
Fractionation Research (FRI), and is a senior member
of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers.

The lost art of proportional band,
and the accidental art of performance monitoring
Most control engineers know that
proportional band and controller gain
are largely interchangeable terms—both
terms refer to the proportional setting of
a proportional-integral-derivative (PID)
controller and are commonly used by
control system manufacturers. Propor-
tional band and controller gain are in-
versely related by Eq. 1, such that a gain
of 1.0 is equivalent to a proportional band
of 100%, and larger gain values equate to
smaller proportional band values.
Gain = 100%/PB, where PB =
Proportional band, % (1)
However, most control engineers are
less aware that industry has morphed in
past decades from mainly using a propor-
tional band perspective on loop tuning to
predominantly using a gain perspective.
The difference can be important, even
crucial, to achieve reliable loop tuning
and control performance.
Gain perspective is based on the prem-
ise that optimum controller gain depends
on process gain, so that tuning becomes a
matter of conducting a process step test
and setting controller gain based on the
observed process gain by applying rules
of thumb, such as Ziegler-Nichols.
Conversely, proportional band per-
spective is based on considering the con-
trol loop in its larger process and opera-
tional context, and posing the question:
How much controller error should drive
the control valve to be fully open or fully
closed? This is an important and often
illuminating question to pose when tun-
ing any control loop, and often provides
a more reliable tuning answer, regardless
of process gain.
Process Control
and Instrumentation
A. KERN, APC Performance LLC, Phoenix, Arizona
It is especially important to consider
the proportional band question on criti-
cal loops and loops where process gain
changes dynamically (as most do). In an
industry that continues to view most tun-
ing with healthy skepticism, the propor-
tional band perspective provides a practi-
cal way to quickly gauge appropriate and
reliable tuning of any loop.
Why the change of heart? In his-
torical process control practice—before
computers—the proportional band per-
spective was the method of choice, be-
cause process gain was not well-known
and proportional-only controllers were
the main tools of industry for many de-
cades. Framing the tuning question in
terms of output response to percentage of
error was an obvious and sensible way to
arrive at a reliable proportional band set-
ting. Actual process gain was of only inci-
dental interest, however hard that might
be to imagine today.
Beginning in the 1980s, control system
computers, computer-based loop tuning
tools and model-based multivariable con-
trol drove a shift from the proportional
band mindset to a gain-oriented mindset.
These tools provided methods of collect-
ing, analyzing and visualizing process
data that had previously been impossible.
With these tools, process gain, rather
than proportional band, became the most
prominent underlying concept.
By the same token, computers added
very little to the proportional band ap-
proach to loop tuning, which, however
crucial and seemingly intuitive, is essen-
tially a process knowledge question that
does not readily lend itself to computer-
ized analysis. This approach has further fu-
eled its fall into obscurity in an increasing-
ly computerized and gain-oriented space.
Presently, competency with comput-
er-based tools and a solid grasp of gains
are considered synonymous with pro-
cess control competency, best practices
and achieving success in both single-
loop and multivariable control practice.
However, an important, often crucial
and overriding concept—the propor-
tional band perspective—has been lost
in translation by industry.
From commonplace to critical. Two
examples, one a commonplace level con-
trol and the other a critical reaction-rate
control, illustrate how the proportional
band perspective can be essential to en-
suring reliable control loop performance,
not only as an expedient for tuning of
non-critical loops, but also as an essential
check on critical control loop tuning.
Level control loops are ubiquitous in
industry and are well-trodden ground
in process control literature. Nonlinear
tank geometry, such as a round horizon-
tal drum, is often put forth in discus-
sions as a common complicating factor.
Performance objectives often include
“optimally” smoothing out flow surges.
Underlying most examples, however, are
assumptions about the magnitude of flow
inlet or outlet disturbances that are arbi-
trary and unjustified for most real pro-
cesses, thereby undermining the practical
value of the entire exercise.
Conversely, the proportional band ap-
proach solves the level control puzzle by
posing the simple question: When should
the control valve become fully open? One
sensible answer is when the level reaches
100%, which, assuming starting condi-
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 67
 Process Control and Instrumentation

tions of 50%, translates to a proportional these answers are inherently conserva- for review, and the integral term should
band of 100%, or a gain of 1. Another tive, they provide a reliable picture of reflect average vessel residence time.
good answer is when the level reaches how the controller and valve will respond Level control serves as a useful example
75%, which translates to a gain of 2. It in the event of a worst-case situation. In because it is familiar to many people, but it
should be noted that integral action will site loop tuning surveys, a level controller would be a mistake to construe from it that
provide additional control action. While gain outside the range of 1–2 is flagged the proportional band approach has value
only as an expedient for non-critical loops
Offgas (FIG. 1). To the contrary, one of the oil re-
fining industry’s most critical loops—an
Wild feed PC exothermic hydrocracking reactor temper-
120
ature control, a loop that hydroprocessing
Charge drum LC and advanced control experts alike have
101 said (to the author) cannot be tuned due
PC
114 to the non-linearly dynamically changing
FC
102 gain of an exothermic runaway reaction—
TC FC Reflux drum LC has been simply and reliably solved by ap-
110 111 112
plying the proportional band method.
Distillation In this example, as with level control,
FC
column 113 the proportional band method is easy
to apply. The question is: At what point
STM/feed FRC
ratio 103 Distillate should a hydrogen quench valve be-
TI
152 come fully open? The answer is: When
FC
LC FC
a temperature excursion reaches 20°F
103
150 151 (ca. 10°C) above normal operating tem-
perature. At that point, the reaction rate
Steam
Bottoms has roughly doubled, consuming the en-
tire reserve quench capacity (normally
ca. 100%). If the valve is not 100% open
by the point of a 20°F excursion, then the
FIG. 1. Level controls are the second most numerous in the process industries (after flow). critical quench capacity is being underuti-
This simple distillation column includes several level control loops. lized to bring the excursion under control,
and the risk of a reactor depressurization
Hot feed (oil and H2) event occurring—the final safety-system
response to an uncontrolled runaway re-
Flare
To heater action, usually triggering at approximately
control TC 30°F–40°F—is rapidly escalating.
Distillation HC Auto-
In-1
HC Depr Depr. In the hydrocracker example, while
1 process gain is unknown, the propor-
Catalyst RO
bed 1
tional band method still provides a prac-
TC Recycle H2 tical method to arrive at an appropriate
Out-1
and reliable controller gain value (FIG. 2).
Quench Taking the proportional-band approach
TC PC when loop tuning often cuts through the
In-2 Sep confusion, complexities and unknowns to
Catalyst
bed 2
Separation reveal reliable, logical answers.
TC
Out-2 LC Reliability (not accuracy) is the key
Sep
Quench to successful tuning. This discussion
TC sheds light (and doubt) on a basic as-
In-n sumption that has underpinned process
To frac.
Catalyst
bed n control ever since Ziegler-Nichols: the as-
TC sumption that optimal controller tuning
Out-n is based on process response models and
Quench H2 Bed outlet Support Feed/effluent that the primary performance criteria is
control exchangers
error minimization. Loops and multivari-
able controllers tuned on this basis can be
said to be “accurately” tuned.
FIG. 2. Hydrocracking reactor bed outlet temperature control is one of the most critical This assumption has served industry
and challenging control loops in the industry.
as the starting point for process control
68 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com

design, tuning and performance measure-
ment for decades, but accumulated expe-
rience shows that it may be more of the
exception than the rule. The persistent
prevalence in industry of “retuning” and
“remodeling” (i.e., “high-maintenance”)
and research suggest that 20 yr of aggres-
sive application of model-based methods
throughout industry has barely budged
the historical performance levels of sin-
gle-loop and multivariable control.1,2
The lesson that industry can take from
this is that reliability, not accuracy, is the
goal of process control. Reliability can be
defined as control-loop performance that
is consistent, stable and responsive, with-
out performance degradation or mainte-
nance needs over time. Most people still
find this a reasonable expectation, even
though the advanced control community
sometimes seems more committed to the
idea that performance degradation and
periodic maintenance are to be expected.
The proportional band method and
rate-predictive control (RPC) represent
two “new,” or rediscovered, process control
solutions to emerge out of the unexpected
and persistent difficulties of model-based/
error-minimization methods to provide
durable and reliable low-maintenance re-
sults.3 What these new solutions share is a
way to specify “operational” performance
criteria, independent of process gain and
error-minimization criteria, indicating that
reliable operational performance is not
always synonymous with model-based,
error-minimization methods.
One way to break the endless high-
maintenance cycle of single-loop tuning
and retuning, or of multivariable control
modeling and remodeling, is to apply
new rules and techniques for reliable op-
erational performance, such as the propor-
tional band or RPC methods.
Accidental art of performance mon-
itoring. As mentioned in the proportion-
al band discussion, operational methods
are based on process knowledge and do
not necessarily lend themselves to ready
mathematical analysis for either tuning or
performance measurement. Fortunately,
successful tuning and reliable perfor-
mance are already well-served by existing
and more fundamental metrics, such as
loops in manual and the number of alarms.
Where loops are in manual or alarm
rates are high, or where multivariable
controllers suffer from degradation or
Process Control and Instrumentation
low utilization, they can be reconsid- minimization basis—and is sending in-
ered from an operational perspective, dustry further down this rabbit hole.
rather than from a retuning or remodel- Presently, based on the concept of
ing for error-minimization methodol- operational performance, industry is in a
ogy. As industry has now seen, models position to learn its lessons and put per-
are short-lived, and model-based criteria formance monitoring in the past in favor
often conflict with operational priori- of more fundamental metrics and a fuller
ties. These are the roots of the problem, understanding of process control perfor-
which repetition does not address. mance criteria.
More advanced metrics—such as inte-
REFERENCES
gral of error or coefficient of variation— 1
Smuts, J., “Process Control for Practitioners,”
lack objective baselines and usually simply Opticontrols Inc., 2012.
identify normal healthy loops that happen 2
Jubien, G. and J. McIlwain, “Successful APC: Design
to be high in these aspects. Performance and maintain for long-term benefits,” ISA Expo, 2009.
3
Kern, A., “The history, and possible future, of model-
monitoring is, in many ways, an accidental less multivariable control,” Hydrocarbon Processing,
part of modern process control practice. October 2016.
Indeed, modern process control tools,
ALLAN KERN is a control
such as loop tuning software and model- engineering consultant with
based control, were expected to put perfor- APC Performance, LLC, where he
mance issues in the past by solving perfor- is responsible for advanced process
mance perfectly by virtue of model-based control, including XMC. He has
35 yr of industrial process
tuning and error-minimization theory. control experience and has
When this failed to materialize in prac- authored numerous papers on a wide range of
tice, performance monitoring was born practical process automation solutions. He earned
a BS degree in chemical engineering from the
to increase understanding. Unfortunately, University of Wyoming, and holds professional
performance monitoring has repeated the engineering licenses in chemical engineering
same mistake—beginning from an error and control systems engineering.
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 Environment
and Safety
S. PLANCHE, DuPont Sustainable Solutions,
Paris, France

Rethinking the risk mitigation process

and revitalizing operational safety
For the past 2 yr, oil prices have been
in free-fall. At the time of writing, the
WTI price is around $50/bbl, up slightly
since OPEC’s May 2017 announcement
to extend its September 2016 produc-
tion cut of 2.2% (FIG. 1). The industry
was slow to react, as it initially appeared
to believe that low pricing would not last,
due to slowing demand from the BRIC
economies and an oversupply of crude
oil. Companies then introduced drastic
oil and gas companies. Taking such steps and therefore continue to drive profitabil-
will enable companies to avoid costly in- ity, ensure the safety of their workers and
cidents and high insurance premiums, maintain their right to operate (FIG. 3).
Companies have not taken the opportunity
to transform themselves during this period
140
12 yr 3 yr 1 yr 2 yr
120 1996 OPEC 10% quota increase
and Asian financial crisis resulting in
–53% in oil price until end 1998
100
Brent monthly average, $/bbl

cost-cutting measures to readjust their

cost structures to deflation. 80
What has become apparent is that sharp Tepid economy
drops in crude prices are occurring in 60 Arab spring
shorter cycles. Oil producers must become
more agile in their adjustments if they wish
40 –63% Slowing demand
to remain profitable. After 2 yr of cost cut- Financial increase in supply of
ting and industry transformation, produc- crisis unconventional resources –69%
20
ers are left with the question of how to
quickly readjust their safety roadmaps and 0
risk mitigation processes to protect their ‘00 ‘01 ‘02 ‘03 ‘04 ‘05 ‘06 ‘07 ‘08 ‘09 ‘10 ‘11 ‘12 ‘13 ‘14 ‘15 ‘16 ‘17 ‘18 ‘19 ‘20
efforts to deliver cash from operations.
FIG. 1. Brent monthly average prices.
Cost-cutting measures slow to show
results. When crude prices drop, oil pro- 140 240
Modeling of UOCI based on Brent price levels and variations, R2 = 0.96

1 yr < 2 yr
ducers historically cut costs; however, the
impact of these cost-cutting exercises is 120 ~4 yr 220
slow to take effect. Like a ship with an en-
gine that has been abruptly stopped, most 100 200
Brent monthly average, $/bbl

big oil companies continue to be carried

forward by existing momentum. Tradi- 80 180
tionally, it has taken oil and gas companies $60/bbl
–10% –18%
more than 4 yr to adjust OPEX to market 60 160
deflation, due to inherent portfolio and
40 –63% –29% anticipated 140
operating constraints (FIG. 2). deflation of
–69%
It is during these times of price insta- Brent monthly average, $/bbl operating costs
bility that operational risk management 20 Anticipated deflation in a $60/bbl-oil world 120
UOCI, upstream operating cost index
(ORM)—the identification, evaluation 0 100
and control of hazards based on potential ‘00 ‘01 ‘02 ‘03 ‘04 ‘05 ‘06 ‘07 ‘08 ‘09 ‘10 ‘11 ‘12 ‘13 ‘14 ‘15 ‘16 ‘17 ‘18 ‘19 ‘20
levels of severity and likelihood of occur-
FIG. 2. Upstream operating cost index trend.
rence—should remain a top priority for
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 71
 Environment and Safety
Safety impact noticeable years later.
At present, oil companies are halfway
Sharp drops in crude prices are occurring in shorter
cycles, and oil producers must become more agile
if they wish to remain profitable. The question remains:
How can producers and operators quickly readjust
their safety roadmaps and risk mitigation processes
to protect their efforts to deliver cash from operations?
through the journey of cutting neces-
sary CAPEX and OPEX. Past experience
has shown that a drop in oil price is fol-
lowed—usually around 2 yr later—by a
rise in lost time injury frequency (LTIF).
The drop in oil prices from 2000–2002
was followed by a 6% rise in LTIF in 2002
and 2003 (FIG. 4). When the barrel price
fell sharply in 2008 and 2009, the indus-
How will you qualify your operational risk management system after 2 yr of cost-cutting measures?
Inadequate Weak
FIG. 3. Strengths and weaknesses of ORM systems.
140
120
100
Brent monthly average, $/bbl
80 +6%
60
1.3 yr
40
20
–37%
0 0.0
‘00 ‘01 ‘02 ‘03 ‘04 ‘05 ‘06 ‘07 ‘08 ‘09 ‘10
FIG. 4. Lost time injury frequency per 200,000 hr.
72 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
try experienced a 14% increase in LTIF
rates in 2012, as compared to 2010.
Several reasons exist for these increas-
es in safety incidents. Oil producers that
cut costs will lay off personnel—many
of them experienced, older workers who
would have made good mentors or coach-
es for promoting the company’s safety
culture. Cost-cutting exercises also lead to
added pressure on suppliers to cut costs.
This scenario tends to have an effect on
Good
Identification/evaluation of operational risks
Integrity of facilities
Competing priorities—i.e., production, quality, costs
Resources, both quantity and capabilities
Management of change
Compliance-to-procedures culture, operational discipline
Capacity to manage process safety risks differently from workplace safety
Audit function
Leadership and risk culture
+14%
–63%
–69%
‘11 ‘12 ‘13 ‘14 ‘15 ‘16 ‘17 ‘18 ‘19 ‘20
quality and, therefore, on the safety of ma-
terials supplied. A reduction in OPEX is
often tied to a decrease in main-
tenance; e.g., pipes that have
been shut off are not deemed to
require maintenance.
Inadequate maintenance
and other risks represent a
critical dilemma for the oil in-
dustry. Most companies know
that, when the market picks
up again, they will not have
enough personnel to address all
potential risks and problems.
Being in the middle of an oil price cri-
sis should prompt oil companies to take
urgent action to avoid problems in the
next 2 yr. They cannot afford to wait until
the oil price goes up again, otherwise fu-
ture safety incidents are likely to cost both
lives and output.
Pinpointing weaknesses to improve
safety. Identifying weaknesses requires
an understanding of the existing safety
culture of an organization. Oil companies
have seen good safety performance figures
in times of high oil prices, but the indus-
try as a whole operates within a fairly rigid
and rule-driven culture—i.e., a dependent
culture. A correlation is present between
cultural maturity and industry LTIF rates
over the years (FIG. 5).
The industry would benefit from a
move toward a more independent culture
that enables and counts on employees—
and, thereby, the whole organization—to
make safe, correct decisions in an often-
complex and fast-changing environment.
Such a culture would also allow oil com-
panies to adapt more quickly to shorten-
ing price cycles, as the entire organization
2.8 would become more self-reliant and flex-
ible. This evolution would translate into
2.4 more reliable, sustainable safety for the
company, as well as increased productivity.
Lost time injury frequency, LTIF/MMhr
2.0 Many oil companies are unaware of
their cultural weaknesses, having chosen
1.6 to focus their attention on other issues.
This leaves them open to exponential dan-
1.2 gers, as they are unaware of what hidden
risks may be lurking in a stretched organi-
0.8
zation. Are staff, in the present situation,
motivated and engaged in safety? Or have
0.4 recent cost-cutting measures come at the
expense of risk mitigation?
Safety managers must measure their
organization’s safety culture to manage
resources effectively and efficiently. One

tool that allows managers to quickly un-
cover areas in need of urgent attention is
a professional safety perception survey of
employees. In the oil industry, it is impor-
tant for this survey to focus on staff work-
ing at assets where they are immediately
affected by risks and where operations can
react quickly to identified hazards. If car-
ried out correctly, the results of such a sur-
vey provide a barometer of the prevailing
safety culture and help company manage-
ment direct their efforts at the right targets.
Best-of-class companies use regular
safety perception surveys and HSE as-
sessments of staff to evaluate the safety
culture and encourage cultural transfor-
mation, where needed. In the present
climate, a professional employee safety
perception survey offers a relatively quick
method for a cultural safety assessment.
Results take approximately 30 days to tal-
ly. The findings allow companies to take
a different approach to risk by pinpoint-
ing the top threats along the entire value
chain. This approach is effective for iden-
tifying hidden areas of risk in the present
operating climate.
Identifying and addressing the right
issues. The results of a well-conducted
employee safety survey make it possible
to differentiate between short-term risk
containment and long-term, sustainable
risk-reduction goals. A roadmap based on
the risk assessment can allow organiza-
tions to implement critical actions after
just 90 days.
One companya recently used this
method to support a number of oil and
gas companies in overcoming a technical
plateau. The risk-reduction roadmap led
to a breakthrough culture change that in-
volved securing cash from operations. This
helped prepare the companies for an even-
tual industry rebound and allowed them to
identify and stop urgent safety gaps. The
organizations could then assess and priori-
tize those areas that not only improve safe-
ty, but also offer productivity gains (FIG. 6).
In a climate where all expenditures must
be highly effective, it is critical that safety
efforts are determined by an alert approach
and a cohesive, independent culture. Oth-
erwise, the oil industry risks being hit by
safety incidents when the oil price eventu-
ally rebounds, due to unfocused safety ef-
forts at the present stage of the cycle.
Learning to be agile now will benefit oil
companies in the future, too, as crude oil
Environment and Safety
90 2.8
Interdependent
80
2.4
70 Independent
Lost time injury frequency, LTIF/MMhr
2.0
60
Bradley maturity level
50 Dependent 1.6
40 1.2
30
0.8
20
0.4
10
0 0.0
‘00 ‘01 ‘02 ‘03 ‘04 ‘05 ‘06 ‘07 ‘08 ‘09 ‘10 ‘11 ‘12 ‘13 ‘14 ‘15 ‘16 ‘17 ‘18 ‘19 ‘20
FIG. 5. Relative cultural strength (minimum/maximum/median).
Culture and Differentiated risk approach
governance Focus on top risks:
• To critical assets/processes/activities
• Along the entire value chain
Feedback for management review and action
Recognizing Differentiated between short-term risk
risks containment vs. long-term sustainable
risk reduction
Manage Manage
operations changes Integrated capabilities
Effective risk governance to overcome
Manage Manage risk management silos and foster integration with
asset integrity emergencies core asset and operations management processes
Manage Manage Move from individual capabilities to a learning
people incidents organizational process
Risk culture and operational discipline
Embed a strong and aligned risk culture
and operational discipline to drive the
Manage continuous improvement
implementation of risk-management efforts
FIG. 6. Risk mitigation model.
prices are likely to continue to fluctuate in will become increasingly critical to surviv-
shorter cycles. In June 2017, for instance, al. This flexibility will also allow organiza-
the price for Brent crude dropped by $4/ tions to react more quickly when prices rise
bbl, mainly due to increased production in again. Although this may seem like a tall or-
Nigeria and Libya. Although the US Ener- der, it is possible to achieve with the right
gy Information Administration (EIA) pre- tools to identify and prioritize risks.
dicts that the 2017 annual average Brent
crude oil spot price will be $51/bbl, it also NOTE
a DuPont Sustainable Solutions
points out that global economic and geo-
political developments can lead to signifi-
cant variations in daily and monthly prices. SEBASTIEN PLANCHE is a Senior
Advisor for DuPont Sustainable
Since so many variables come into play Solutions. With 20 yr of industry
when determining and setting Brent crude and consulting experience, he
oil prices, it is difficult to say with any con- began his career with Shell in
production operations and
fidence where prices will be in a year or maintenance. In his consulting
two. What has become clear is that they are career, he has specialized in operations excellence
no longer stable for protracted periods. transformation programs, working with oil and gas,
Given the increasingly frequent and chemical and manufacturing companies. Before
joining DuPont, Mr. Planche was Vice President for
rapid changes in oil prices, adaptability to Schlumberger SBC, leading the company’s operations
market conditions is already key for many excellence practice. Prior to Schlumberger, he served
oil companies. Flexibility in cutting costs as Vice President for Hitachi Consulting, where he led
the organizational effectiveness practice. Mr. Planche
related to production, operation and capi- holds an MTech degree from the École Centrale in
tal expenditures when the oil price is low, Paris, France and an MS degree in financial audits
without putting people and assets at risk, from the Paris School of Business.
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 73
THE SUMMIT

A NEW NAME, A NEW MEETING,

A NEW ERA OF INNOVATION

OPERATIONS & PROCESS

TECHNOLOGY SUMMIT
FORMERLY Q&A AND TECHNOLOGY FORUM
CELEBRATING 70 YEARS!

JW MARRIOTT AUSTIN · AUSTIN, TEXAS · OCTOBER 2 – 4, 2017

Q&A SESSIONS · PRINCIPLES & PRACTICES (P&P) SESSIONS ·

OPERATIONAL PLANNING, CONTROL AND AUTOMATION TECHNOLOGIES (OPCAT) SESSIONS ·
CYBERSECURITY SESSIONS · TABLETOP EXHIBITION

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Show Publication

Safety studies and the importance
of closeout reports
In various types of process industries,
processing, storage and transfer of large
quantities of hazardous materials are
inevitable. These materials can be flam-
mable, toxic, corrosive, volatile, vulner-
able to fires and explosive, and affect the
safety and the health of people onsite and
offsite, as well as the environment. There-
fore, it is necessary that designers from all
disciplines take care of health, safety and
environmental (HSE) aspects from the
conceptual design and planning stages of
their respective disciplines. The process
engineer is normally the first person to
get involved in the design aspects, and in
the preparation of process flow diagrams,
material and energy balances, piping and
instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs), con-
sidering the hazardous nature of raw ma-
terials, chemicals, byproducts and final
products. The process engineer carries out
equipment sizing and develops process
equipment datasheets, process equipment
layout drawings (plans and elevations),
unit plot plans and schemes for disposal
of effluents. They must also consider les-
sons learned from accidents that have
taken place involving similar situations to
improve the design safety feature. The les-
sons learned provide a powerful method
of sharing ideas for improving work pro-
cesses, operation, quality, safety, cost-ef-
fectiveness, etc. Thereafter, engineers of
other disciplines become involved in the
design phase to carry out their respective
engineering work. The documents gener-
ated form the basis of design specifications
for further procurement of equipment,
instruments, hardware, piping, materials,
systems and services.
“Safe by design” includes integrating
hazard identification and risk assessment
Environment
and Safety
V. A. KUNTE, TATA Consulting Engineers Ltd.,
Mumbai, India
throughout the lifecycle of the plant, in-
cluding design, construction, commis-
sioning, operation and maintenance—
and taking appropriate risk-reduction
measures from the design stage onward—
so that the risks are as low as possible. The
engineers also need to consider the design
and safety requirements given in interna-
tional, national, industry-specific and
company standards, and in government
and local statutory body regulations.
Compliance to various codes, standards
and regulations help the process engineer
ensure safety in design. The benefits of
“safe by design” extend beyond the design
phase of a project, and apply through-
out construction, operation and mainte-
nance. These benefits include:
• Prevention of injury, health-related
issues, disease and fatality to those
involved in constructing, operating
and maintaining the facility
• Improved usability of products,
systems and facilities with
compliance to regulations
• Improved productivity and
reduced operational costs
• Improved brand image of the
company.
SAFETY STUDIES
At the basic design stage, various types
of safety studies are normally carried out,
so that the implementation of recommen-
dations and findings are incorporated
during detailed engineering and design
specifications for further procurement.
The objectives of such safety studies
include:1
1. Confirm that the safety
management system of both the
company and the installation are
adequate to ensure that the
design and operation of the
installation are safe
2. Identify potential major hazards
and provide appropriate
mitigation measures
3. Make provisions for a temporary
safe refuge (TSR) for personnel on
installation, and for their safe and
full evacuation, escape and rescue
4. Carry out fire and explosion risk
analysis, using safety assessments
to determine the location and
resistance of fireproof and
blastproof walls, and the design
of water-deluge systems; also,
demonstrate the ability of deluge
systems and fire pumps to survive
severe accident conditions.
Some of the important types of safety
studies carried out for oil and gas proj-
ects and process chemical industries
are described in this article. All of these
studies were carried out by a third-party
consultant or an independent and com-
petent team leader. With the knowledge
and skills of the team leader, the teams
formed for conducting such study ses-
sions should feel that a balanced, objec-
tive and constructive approach is main-
tained during the study.2
Important types of safety studies in-
clude hazard identification (HAZID),
hazard and operability (HAZOP), safety
integrity level (SIL) and quantitative risk
assessment (QRA).
HAZID studies. A HAZID study is con-
ducted during detailed engineering for
plant systems. HAZID is a qualitative
technique for the early identification of
potential hazards and threats affecting
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 75
 Environment and Safety

people, the environment, assets or repu- are included, depending upon the type of formalized specialist method for calculat-
tation. The major benefit of a HAZID process and scope. ing individual, environmental, employee
and public risk levels for compari-
son with regulatory risk criteria.
An integrated QRA assesses
The closeout report, along with safety study reports, the impact of the complete range
become a powerful reference source for sharing of potential hazards associated
with the facility. It investigates the
ideas for improving work processes, operations, overall result of the fire support
area (FSA) program. The risk to
quality, safety and cost-effectiveness. people is calculated in the form of
individual risk for personnel and
the plant. This assessment dem-
study is to provide essential input to proj- SIL studies. An SIL study is conducted onstrates that the risk tolerability criteria
ect development decisions. It is a means during detailed engineering for plant has been met, and that it forms the basis
of identifying and describing HSE haz- systems based on the outcome of the for escape and rescue routes within a plant
ards and threats at the earliest practical HAZOP study report. An SIL study is for a safe and full evacuation. Documents
stage of a development or venture. undertaken after incorporating recom- prepared at the basic engineering design
The purpose is to identify any poten- mendations from the HAZOP study in stage are used as a basis to develop a com-
tial hazards that could arise through the relevant P&IDs of the plant, utility sys- plete assessment. The QRA considers the
detailed design by providing a database tems and packaged supply systems, as risk to personnel from all major risk con-
of process information, which can be applicable. During the design stage of tributors. The risk to personnel should be
used to pinpoint greater hazards. The the project, the safeguarding systems or expressed in terms of individual risk (IR)
HAZID report provides an auditable trail emergency shutdown systems (mechani- and potential loss of life (PLL).
of decisions about which hazards require cal or instrumented) are identified. The This study does not require separate
further investigation and which do not. A process industry is exposed to risks like study sessions involving the owner, as re-
HAZID study is carried out with active fire, explosion, injuries and accidents, etc., quired in HAZID, HAZOP and SIL stud-
participation from the owner’s experi- that cause fatalities and financial losses. A ies. A fire risk analysis (FRA) study is also
enced personnel. safety instrumented system (SIS) is one carried out to assess the consequences
of the most important layers of protection of fires initiated from failure of a process
HAZOP studies. A HAZOP study is against accidents and hazards in the chem- plant, pipelines, hydrocarbon pipe work
conducted during basic and detailed ical process industry. It is necessary that and fittings, utilities and any other signifi-
engineering for plant systems to iden- the design and implementation of a safety cant fire hazards.
tify hazards and operability problems by system meet good engineering practices.
cause and consequence analysis of the Safety performance criteria for the SIS CLOSEOUT REPORTS
various nodes of process plant, utility is defined by the SIL. The determination OF SAFETY STUDIES
and packaged supply systems prior to ap- of an SIL required helps the verification Considerable time, effort and costs are
proved-for-construction (AFC) status of of SIS configuration that meets or ex- spent in preparing various types of safety
release of P&IDs, utility flow diagrams, ceeds the required SIL and, in turn, the study reports. Whereas, some points rec-
distribution diagrams and other perti- reliability of the system. Consequences of ommended in these safety reports are im-
nent documents. failure in terms of safety, environmental mediately attended to, such as revisions of
HAZOP is usually carried out as the fi- and economic losses are assessed, along P&IDs and layouts, the concern remains
nal check, when final P&IDs from the de- with the probability of occurrence. This whether the closeout of the balance ac-
sign team are available.2 The team is sub- risk graph method is widely used, which tionable recommended points identified
jected to questioning on the use of proper helps assess the risk levels. SIL study in these safety study reports are taken care
guidewords, and visualizing the possible sessions require the involvement of the of at a subsequent stage of the project.
failure modes, reviewing the mitigation owner, consultant, contractor and system This concern requires careful preparation
measures provided and checking their vendors, as applicable. of closeout reports for these safety studies.
adequacy. A HAZOP study is a power- Ensuring completion of recommend-
ful technique for identifying hazards and QRA studies. A QRA is a valuable tool ed actions in the safety study reports
operability problems in a new facility, or for determining the risk of the use, han- must be performed systematically by in-
within an existing facility where modifi- dling, transport and storage of hazardous volving team members of different disci-
cations are proposed. A HAZOP study is substances. QRAs are used to demon- plines going through all of the actionable
carried out with active participation from strate the risk associated with the facility, points, verifying how these are addressed
personnel with suitable backgrounds that and to provide competent authorities with in new and revised documents, prepar-
are skilled in the design, operation, com- relevant information to enable decisions ing a closeout report, and submitting it to
missioning, safety and maintenance of the on the acceptability of risk related to de- the client and management for approval.
plant. The participants—the owner, con- velopments onsite, and around the estab- Closeout reports also need to address
sultant, contractor and system vendors— lishment or transport route. A QRA is a the balance actionable points for further
76 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
 Environment and Safety

follow-up, and their completion at appro-
priate stages of the project at a later date
in respective documents. The tips given
are based on the author’s experience of
preparing closeout reports for different
types of safety studies.
Tips to ensure completion of action-
able items. To ensure that recommend-
ed actions in safety study reports are com-
pleted, milestone payments can be linked
to the submission of closeout reports by
the engineering, procurement and con-
struction (EPC) contractor for actionable
points related to the contractor, and the
approval of these reports by the owner. If
the safety study reports are prepared as in-
ternal requirements within the owner’s or-
ganization, the owner needs to ensure that
the recommended actions are periodically
tracked and monitored for completion. In
both cases, closeout reports can be revi-
sion-controlled and updated periodically
during logical stages of the project.
A commissioning procedure devel-
oped for a process plant contains several
sections that provide in-depth details of
the systems and subsystems involved,
and indicates how to proceed in a logical,
stepwise manner to ensure readiness for
commissioning. In one of the sections,
“Safety and Enterprise Risk Manage-
ment,” all aspects of the studies must be
covered, including (a) regulatory safety (a
safety plan and detailed safety assessment
process); (b) operational safety (HAZID
and HAZOP); (c) enterprise risk manage-
ment, including acceptable levels of safety
(QRA and SIL); and (d) work and health-
related safety (WHS) considerations.
The personnel involved in mechanical
completion, precommissioning, commis-
sioning and startup activities should be
aware of the recommendations of vari-
ous safety studies carried out during the
initial phases of the project and closeout
reports prepared. The balance actions
from these closeout reports are expected
and required to be carried out by the com-
missioning, operations and maintenance
teams. Preparation and review of standard
operating procedures (SOPs), arrange-
ment for proper maintenance, etc., should
also be conveyed to these personnel, and
should be completed accordingly with
their involvement.
For successful commissioning, it is
important to ensure that the plant is
brought to the desired level of produc-
tion without risk to personnel, the envi-
ronment, equipment and property. Each
stage of precommissioning and commis-
sioning may involve the introduction of
high pressure, high temperature, electrical
energy, hydraulic energy, and hazardous
and corrosive process fluids, among oth-
ers, for the first time. As a consequence, it
is essential that the quality, integrity and
functionality of the systems are verified at
each of the above stages.
To achieve these measures, the neces-
sary controls, procedures and behavioral
disciplines must be in place to formally
record and smoothly hand over to the
teams involved in the next stage. For ex-
ample, a change of management process
should be applied if a piece of equipment
is to be used outside the operating win-
dow, e.g., a stainless steel vessel used to
store chlorine-containing flush liquids or
hydrotesting media.

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Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 77
 Environment and Safety

At times, any changes during the
mechanical completion may affect the
precommissioning and commissioning
activities, and could require a re-HAZOP
of the applicable section of the process to
be carried out to address the issues, fol-
lowed by their proper closeout.
Moreover, it should be ensured that
documents (such as operation and main-
tenance manuals, safety manuals, project
closeout reports) that are referred to dur-
ing the operation and maintenance lifecy-
cle of the project should make reference
of the safety study reports and their corre-
sponding closeout reports. The organiza-
tion’s document management system for
a project should also include these reports
in their archives. The ultimate purpose of
documenting these closeout reports is to
provide required information regarding
certain important design features from
safety considerations to future project, de-
sign, operation and maintenance teams. It
is also a powerful document to share ideas

TABLE 1. A HAZID study

Sl. No. Recommendations
1. Establish fire and gas (F&G)
philosophy for detecting
crude oil spillage
2. Establish procedure to evacuate
spilled crude oil from the
dyke of a crude tank, in case
there is a leakage and the
dyke is filled with crude oil
3. Locate a safety shower outside
the dyke of each tank
4. Ensure boilers are designed
for dual firing as indicated
in process design philosophy
document
5. Make appropriate material handling Temporary local system is to be
provisions for taking out side-
mounted mixer motors
on crude oil tanks
6. Develop and implement tank
line-up logic for auto operation
7. Establish SOP for pigging
operations
8. Ensure proper containment
around diesel storage tank
9. Ensure gas detectors have
adequate voting system,
with setpoints of 5%–15%
lower explosive limit (LEL)
10. Provide a fume hood for the
safe disposal of gas samples
from the laboratory area
*Note: The balance actions.
Identification of closeout
action required
Provide flame detectors at suitable
locations and include in revised
F&G design philosophy, Doc. No. __
Client to establish procedure
for the same
• A safety shower and eye wash
station to be provided outside
the dyke of each tank, and to be
shown in crude oil tank layout
drawings
• Procurement and installation of
these stations to be included in
contractor’s scope
This requirement must be
included in the revised design
philosophy document for the
steam generation system,
Doc. No. __ and tender document
provided by the client and/or
owner to take out the mixer
and motor assembly
Operation manual to include
tank lineup procedure
The client is to establish procedure
for the same
Dyke wall to be shown around the
diesel storage tank in Doc. No. __
To be included in design philosophy
Doc. No. __ for fire detection, and
in corresponding specification
Client to take necessary action
through the laboratory furniture
layout and the contractor
Agency responsible How closeout actions
for closeout were completed
Consultant Revised F&G design philosophy
(instrumentation and document by providing flame
control, I&C) detectors at suitable locations
for detecting the spilled crude oil
catching fire; revised document
submitted to client and approved
Client and/or owner Client and/or owner to ensure
necessary action*
Consultant (process • Such stations were shown in revised
and mechanical) tank layout drawings for crude oil,
submitted to client and approved
• Datasheets for safety shower and
eye wash stations were included
in contractor’s tender document
for procurement and installation
Consultant • Revised design philosophy
(mechanical) Doc. No. __ for the steam
generation system to include
the requirement; it was submitted
to client and approved
• Specification and tender document
for boiler system package included
this requirement of dual firing
Client and/or owner Client and/or owner to ensure
necessary action*
Consultant Confirm that tank lineup procedure
(process, mechanical is included in operation manual*
and I&C)
Client and/or owner The client and/or owner
to ensure necessary action*
Consultant Doc. No. __ submitted to cllient
(mechanical) and approved
Consultant (I&C) • Design philosophy Doc. No. __
for fire detection was revised,
submitted to the client and approved
• Gas detectors have been specified
with 0% to 100% LEL and adjustable
setting
Client and/or owner Client and/or owner to ensure
provision of fume hood in laboratory
layout and proper installation by the
laboratory furniture contractor*

78 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com

on improving work processes, operations,
quality, safety and cost-effectiveness, and
helps improve the management decision-
making process for future similar proj-
ects. These safety study closeout reports
are different from the project closeout re-
ports normally prepared, and also include
lessons learned from the process of per-
forming the project from various angles,
such as positive and negative experiences
and lessons from project management,
key stakeholders, budgeting, financing,
procurement, contract management, legal
compliances, etc.
Structure of a closeout report. A
typical closeout report shall consist of the
following sections:
• Introduction. This section should
include the purpose of the safety
study to be carried out, when it
happened, by whom and who were
the participants. State the purpose
TABLE 2. A HAZOP study
Sl. No. Recommendations
1. Provide an alarm for failure
of heat tracing circuits on
crude oil pipeline, and ensure
adequate power backup
2. Ensure pig receiver area
is covered by CCTV
3. Ensure that valves expected to have Relevant P&IDs to be revised
emergency shutdown (ESD) function to incorporate this requirement
are pneumatic/hydraulically operated;
motor operated valves (MOVs) are
not recommended to be ESD valves;
and valve no. XV-101 should be
changed from motor operated to
pneumatic/hydraulically operated
4. Establish SOP for periodic
inspection of tank vent
5. Ensure that oil used for flushing
of crude oil pipeline is procured
to always have a pour point below
lowest ambient temperature
at crude oil terminal location
6. Ensure there is an emergency
shutoff valve (XSV) at the pig
launcher end on dispatch lines
*Note: The balance actions.
Environment and Safety
of the closeout report, which
identifies and ensures that the
closeout actions are already
completed, and state how they
were completed. Finally, list the
balance actions to be completed
and at what stage of the project.
• Reference documents. This
section should include the
reference of the safety study
report, including the client’s and
consultant’s document number,
revision number, month and year of
submission, project title, etc. It may
also include where and with whom
it is available (for easy retrieval).
• Closeout actions. This section
should include the tabulation as
given in TABLES 1–4, indicating how
the closeout actions identified
are completed in preparing new • Balance actions to be completed.
documents or revising existing
applicable documents.
Identification of closeout Agency responsible
action required for closeout
• The heat tracing system to have Consultant
provision of generating failure (I&C and electrical)
alarms, which will be connected to
distributed control system (DCS);
alarm list to include this requirement
• Adequate power supply to be
made available from gas turbine
generators (GTGs); backup power
supply to be made available in case
of failure of GTGs
The client and/or owner to ensure Client and/or owner
provision of CCTV by pig launching
and receiving system contractor
Consultant
(process and I&C)
SOP to include periodic Client and/or owner
inspection of tank vent
Designer to include a proper Client and/or owner
pour point requirement in the
specifications of flushing oil
for procurement by client
Client and/or owner to ask the Client and/or owner
pigging system contractor to revise
P&IDs to include this requirement
o TABLE 1 provides examples of
how various closeout actions are
completed from a HAZID study
report and the balance actions
that are listed for follow-up.
o TABLE 2 provides examples of
how various closeout actions are
completed from a HAZOP study
report and the balance actions
that are listed for follow-up.
o TABLE 3 provides examples of
how various closeout actions are
completed from an SIL study
report. No balance actions remain
for follow-up in this example case.
o TABLE 4 provides examples
of how various closeout actions
are completed from a QRA study
report and the balance actions
that are listed for follow-up.
This section should include the
balance actions required to be
How closeout actions
were completed
Checked that the heat tracing
system generator’s failure alarms
are connected to DCS. Ensured that
adequate power supply is available
from GTGs. Backup power supply
is also available, in case of failure
of GTGs.
The client and/or owner to ensure
installation of CCTV in pig launching
and receiving system area.*
Relevant P&IDs were revised
to incorporate this requirement,
submitted to the client and
approved.
The client and/or owner to ensure
necessary action.*
• Specifications of flushing oil
completed by designer to have
proper pour point requirements
• Client and/or owner to ensure that
pour point requirements are met
during procurement of flushing oil*
The client and/or owner to ensure
necessary action.*
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 79
 Environment and Safety

TABLE 3. An SIL study

Sl. No. Recommendations
1. Ensure that a high temperature
of the high-pressure booster pump
bearings also trips the pump
2. Provide heat tracing on the vent
line to reduce chance of vent
blockage; demand rate can then
be taken from D3 to D2; the D2
demand rate, and the required
SIL will become SIL 2
3. Low-low pressure signal, from 2 to 3 Revise P&ID to provide tripping
PSIT-0101A/B/C (PALL), should
also trip the export booster pump
Identification of closeout
action required
• Provision of bearing
temperature to be included
in specification of pumps
• A note to this effect to be
included in P&ID and also in the
cause-and-effect (C&E) diagram
Revise P&I D to provide heat
tracing on vent line
of the pump
Agency responsible How closeout actions
for closeout were completed
• Client and/or owner • Client confirmed that specifications
• Consultant for pumps are revised to include
(process and I&C) the requirement
• Revised P&ID and C&E diagram
to include the requirement;
revised document submitted
to client and approved
Consultant Revised P&ID to include the
(process) requirement; revised document
submitted to client and approved
Consultant Revised P&ID to include the
(process) requirement; revised document
submitted to client and approved

TABLE 4. A QRA study

Identification of closeout Agency responsible How closeout actions
Sl. No. Recommendations action required for closeout were completed
1. The individual risk in the terminal does No action required Not applicable Not applicable
not fall in the “unacceptable” level.
The individual risk at the administration
building and control room is in the range
of 1 × 10–6 per year, which is broadly
acceptable. There are no issues with
the proposed locations of these buildings
with reference to the QRA study results.
2. Exposure of individual persons working To include in applicable Client and/or owner The client to confirm that these
in the flushing oil tank and pump area procedures and requirements are included in the
is limited to 1 hr–2 hr per day. during operation client’s applicable internal procedures
and during operation*
3. • The main risk contributors to group Adequate fire protection Consultant • Revised fire protection system design
risk are the events of a catastrophic system to be provided (fire protection) philosophy Doc. No. __ , submitted
rupture from flushing oil tanks and for flushing oil tanks and to client and approved
high-pressure booster pumps high-pressure booster • Fire protection system layout
(medium and large leakage). pumps area drawings were prepared accordingly,
• Adequate fire protection system is and suitable specifications were
required for the flushing of oil tanks and included in the tender document
high-pressure booster pumps area. for procurement and installation
*Note: The balance actions.

completed, the stage of the project
and which agency is responsible
for the balance actions. This section
is useful for tracking actionable
items for completion and the
exercise to be completed in the next
revisions of the closeout report.
CONCLUSIONS
The preparation of closeout reports
for various safety studies is important to
ensure that the recommended actions
are actually implemented in the relevant
documents. Management must ensure
completion of these actions as the proj-
ect progresses to incorporate the desired
safety features identified in the safety study
reports, and complete all balance action-
able points. The closeout report and safety
study reports become a powerful reference
source for sharing ideas for improving
work processes, operations, quality, safety
and cost effectiveness. These reports must
also be documented in the overall project
documentation system to create awareness
of studies carried out in the past and ac-
tions taken as a reference to all concerned
personnel at a later stage.
LITERATURE CITED
1
King, R. and R. Hirst, King’s Safety in the Process
Industries, 2nd Ed., pp. 39–40, 1998.
2
Kunte, V. A. and S. Sakthivel, “Useful tips for a
successful HAZOP study,” Hydrocarbon Processing,
November 2016.
VASANT A. KUNTE is Senior
General Manager (Chemical)
at TATA Consulting Engineers Ltd.
(TCE) in Mumbai, India. Mr. Vasant
holds an MTech degree in chemical
engineering from the Indian
Institute of Technology (IIT) in
Mumbai. He has been with TCE for more than 35 yr,
and has worked as a project engineer, specialist
engineer, project manager, HAZOP study team leader,
discipline head (chemical), quality coordinator
and training manager. He has extensive experience
in basic and detailed engineering of various refinery,
petrochemicals and chemical projects. He has
received training in conducting and leading
HAZOP studies in a “HAZOP Study Leader’s Course”
conducted by ICI UK and ICI India, and has led
HAZOP studies for more than 23 yr in India and
other countries. His areas of interest are safety
and risk management, HAZID, HAZOP, SIL, QRA
and other safety-related topics.

80 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
 ADVANCED
CATALYSIS TECHNOLOGY

Special Supplement to

Troubleshooting catalyst losses CORPORATE PROFILES

in the FCC unit CRI Catalyst Company C–87
C–82 Criterion Catalysts & Technologies C–89

COVER PHOTO
BASF offers catalyst solutions along the chemical value chain ranging
from oxidation and intermediates production to specialty applications,
such as pharmaceutical and fine chemicals. Photo courtesy of BASF.
 ADVANCED CATALYSIS TECHNOLOGY
TROUBLESHOOTING CATALYST LOSSES
IN THE FCC UNIT
R. KUO, BASF Corp., Houston, Texas; and A. TAN, BASF South East Asia Pte. Ltd., Singapore
Catalyst losses pose a significant challenge in the fluid cata-
lytic cracking (FCC) industry, and nearly all units have experi-
enced a loss problem at some point. Catalyst losses on the reac-
tor side result in high fines carryover with the products, which
can result in the main fractionator being inoperable due to
erosion in the slurry circuit or off-specification slurry product.
Catalyst losses on the regenerator side can lead to high particu-
late matter (PM) emissions or problems operating the flue gas
train or power recovery expander. Understanding the root cause
of elevated losses can prevent a unit shutdown due to excessive
catalyst additions, stack opacity that is out of consent or the in-
ability to fluidize catalyst.
Two primary causes for increased catalyst losses are:
1. Cyclone issues
2 Catalyst attrition.
Understanding cyclone fundamentals and catalyst attrition
allows the monitoring and troubleshooting of these losses.
Cyclone fundamentals. Based on an industry survey, cyclone
problems account for 12% of unplanned FCCU shutdowns1;
more than 55% of these cyclone problems were refractory related.
The survey also showed that 40% of refiners anticipated cyclone
repairs during their next turnaround. Cyclones are used in the
FCCU to separate catalyst particles from vapor. On both the
FIG. 1. Typical design of a two-stage cyclone.
C–82 ADVANCED CATALYSIS TECHNOLOGY | AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
regenerator and reactor side, the inlet gas and catalyst enters tan-
gentially, creating a swirl motion inside the cyclone barrels. Cen-
trifugal force pushes the solid particles to the walls, where they
fall through the cone into the dipleg—the pipe that returns the
catalyst back into either the regenerator bed or stripper bed below.
The gas rises up and accelerates into the outlet tube (FIG. 1).
This process allows for a very high collection efficiency; the
recovery efficiency of a conventional two-stage cyclone system
exceeds 99.99%. For example, in a typical 42-Mbpd FCCU, more
than 30 Mtpd of catalyst are circulated through the cyclones with
a catalyst loss of only 2.2 tpd.2 However, many factors can impact
this efficiency—one of them being cyclone velocity. In theory,
the cyclone collection efficiency will increase with a higher in-
let velocity. However, in practice, there is a drop off in efficiency
at very-high velocities due to an increase in catalyst re-entrain-
ment. In most cases, the cyclone efficiency improves with higher
gas throughput, but not enough to offset the increase in solids
loading, which is a function of superficial velocity. In addition, a
higher velocity will increase erosion and the amount of catalyst
attrition to micro-fines, thus increasing losses. Other factors af-
fect the cyclone collection efficiency, including the number of
spirals within the barrel and cone, the particle density and size,
and the geometry and design limits of the cyclones.
Cyclones that are well-designed can have a service life of more
than 20 yr. This even includes regenerator cyclones, which have
a shorter operating lifespan due to the more severe conditions
compared to those in the reactor. For example, the geometry of
the cyclone has a significant effect on the rate of erosion. Increas-
ing the length of a cyclone from a length/diameter (L/D) of 3 to
an L/D of 5 will decrease the erosion by half and extend the life
of the cyclone. Additionally, designing the cyclone for a velocity
comfortably below the recommended maximum will help mini-
mize high velocities that cause excessive erosion.
TABLE 1 shows commonly accepted design velocities for
cyclones. The maximum velocities for the primary cyclones are
lower because dipleg choke (when a maximum flow of solids
down the dipleg is reached) is a larger concern due to higher cat-
alyst loading. At high velocities, the catalyst can act almost like
sandpaper on the walls, leading to erosion. However, secondary
cyclones typically see more erosion because of the lower cyclone
loading. There is no thick layer or “protective barrier” of catalyst
around the perimeter of the cyclone walls to prevent erosion and
limit the velocity at which the particles impact the wall. The use
of a vortex stabilizer can significantly reduce erosion.3
Operating the regenerator below the maximum design tem-
perature increases the life of the cyclone. The most common
material for regenerator cyclones is 304H stainless steel; there-
fore, it is recommended to operate the dilute phase temperature
no higher than 1,370°F–1,380°F. Sustained operation at high
 ADVANCED CATALYSIS TECHNOLOGY
temperatures will cause sigma phase embrittlement, which re-
duces the life of the cyclone. If necessary, FCCUs should control
afterburn using a carbon monoxide (CO) promoter, and ensure
even distribution of both the air and spent catalyst to minimize
creep and embrittlement. Finally, when replacing cyclones in
the FCCU, review the cyclone design in detail and consider a
redesign. It is common for refiners to replace-in-kind, to classify
the expense as a maintenance cost rather than CAPEX, but if
the service lives of the previous cyclones were relatively short,
consider changing the cyclone design to extend cyclone life.
As previously mentioned, a higher catalyst loading lowers
collection efficiency and increases catalyst losses. For example,
on the reactor side, a higher catalyst circulation rate could in-
crease catalyst losses. On the regenerator side, a higher air rate
would increase the catalyst entrainment from the dense bed to
the inlet of the cyclone, thereby increasing losses. Additionally,
if the distance from the bed to the cyclone inlet is less than the
transport disengaging height (TDH), the entrainment will in-
crease, as well. The TDH is defined as the height where par-
ticles are no longer falling back down to the bed and a steady
density of solids is reached.
The pressure balance around the cyclones is crucial to un-
derstanding how to reduce catalyst re-entrainment and catalyst
losses. For typical negative-pressure cyclones, the pressure in-
side the cyclone is lower than the dilute phase. The dipleg exit is
sealed so that the increased pressure drop will result in a higher
dipleg catalyst level compared to the dense bed level. Typically,
the dipleg is sealed by submerging the end in the dense bed. If
the dipleg becomes flooded, and excessively-high levels of cata-
lyst backup to the dustbowl, this will result in the re-entrain-
ment of catalyst into the cyclones with increased catalyst losses
(FIG. 2).
Typical causes of dipleg flooding include:
• High cyclone differential pressure (ΔP), as a result of
high gas velocities
• A high regenerator bed level
• A high dipleg valve ΔP as a result of a blockage.
Theoretically, if gas velocities are too high, both the feed rate
and the air rate could be reduced substantially below the design
level to reduce the entrainment, but it would not be enough to
overcome the decrease in cyclone efficiency and the increase in
FIG. 2. A flooded dipleg will cause catalyst to re-entrain
into the cyclones.
HYDROCARBON PROCESSING | AUGUST 2017 | ADVANCED CATALYSIS TECHNOLOGY
losses. In this case, refiners can artificially maintain high veloci-
ties by using additional steam or air.
If the dipleg flooding is due to a dipleg blockage, many po-
tential causes exist. Some units have experienced deposits in the
diplegs that restrict, or completely block, the flow of catalyst. In
the regenerator, these deposits can be associated with iron (Fe)
and calcium (Ca) in the feed. In the reactor, these deposits can
be associated with antimony, indicating poor vaporization of
the feed. Refractory, which is an abrasion-resistant material that
protects the cyclones from erosion, can be the cause of a dipleg
blockage, as well. Refractory is most commonly anchored to the
cyclone walls by hex mesh. The hex mesh must be fully welded
along each side on the reactor to prevent coke from growing
underneath the anchor and pushing the refractory lining away
from the metal and into the dipleg. Additionally, coke will often
deposit on the outside of the reactor outlet tube. This result is
exacerbated by the fact that there is no catalyst to scour the coke
away. In the event of an upset or thermal cycling, the coke can
spall off and block the dipleg. Refiners can install vee anchors
on the outside of the gas tube to hold coke deposits in place.
Finally, the trickle valve or counterweighted flapper plate
at the end of the dipleg can also cause a blockage. On the re-
actor side, it is important to maintain a steady flow of catalyst
TABLE 1. Most commonly accepted design velocities
for FCC cyclones
Primary cyclones Maximum
Inlet velocity 65 ft/s
Outlet velocity 125 ft/s
Secondary cyclones Maximum
Inlet velocity 75 ft/s
Outlet velocity 150 ft/s
FIG. 3. The most common locations for erosion to cause a hole
are shown in red, with the most common being the base of the
dustbowl, shown in green.
C–83
 ADVANCED CATALYSIS TECHNOLOGY
FIG. 4. The two main mechanisms of catalyst attrition are fracture
and abrasion.
through the counterweighted flapper plate rather than having a
level build up in the dipleg until there is sufficient force to open
the plate. The 45° valve is a recent innovation in flapper valves
and can be used in place of traditional horizontal valves. These
valves require a lower force to open, and any debris in the dipleg
will fall out more easily to prevent blockage.
An unsealed dipleg will also cause catalyst re-entrainment
and excessive gas leakage. The valves can become eroded and
fall off or get stuck open. The bed level can also become too low
(ex., during a startup). When the dipleg is unsubmerged, the gas
will pass to the cyclone outlet due to the difference in pressure
balance, which entrains the catalyst.
Holes in the cyclone system can have a similar effect, and re-
sult in gas leakage and catalyst losses. Holes and cracks typically
occur due to high velocities and/or thermal cycling (FIG. 3).
Because the rate of erosion is proportional to velocity to the
power of 3–5, even a small increase in velocity will lead to a sig-
nificant increase in erosion. It is typical for a hole to gradually
increase in size as erosion exacerbates the issue.
Additionally, when the FCCU shuts down and restarts, ther-
mal cycling can cause cracks in the head of the plenum. This
crack allows catalyst to bypass the second stage cyclones and
increases catalyst losses.
Catalyst attrition. The second major source of catalyst losses is
catalyst attrition. The two attrition mechanisms are fracture and
abrasion4 (FIG. 4). Fracture is the breakage of a particle into
fragments (e.g., if a particle splits in half). Abrasion occurs when
very small fines (less than 2 microns (µ)–3 µ) are rubbed, or
“abraded,” off the surface of the particle. These attrition mecha-
nisms occur due to catalyst particles impacting refractory walls or
other particles. Because of this interaction, it is common to design
the velocity of gas jets (e.g., air or steam) in an FCCU to less than
300 ft/s. Excessive jet velocities and catalyst loadings can generate
micro-fines, which are less than 2.5 µ and can easily escape out
the flue gas stack, causing FCCUs to exceed environmental PM
limits and have high-stack opacity. As previously mentioned, ero-
sion is proportional to velocity to the power of 3–5. A relatively
small increase in feed rate or solids loading can cause a measurable
increase in attrition and catalyst losses. A higher fresh-catalyst
addition rate will increase the generation of fines, as well.
C–84 ADVANCED CATALYSIS TECHNOLOGY | AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
With two different attrition mechanisms, it is important to
understand the dominant mechanism in a commercial FCCU.
A mathematical analysis called population balance modeling
(PBM) determined that abrasion is the dominant mechanism
in most FCCUs. This finding is important when considering
laboratory testing for catalyst rankings. Air jet attrition tests,
such as the ASTM D5757 attrition test, have a predominantly
abrasion mechanism. Jet cup tests, such as the Davison Index,
have a higher proportion of attrition by fracture. Units that
require less attrition should request a catalyst with better at-
trition resistance. However, a lower attrition often requires
a compromise on other aspects of catalyst performance. It is
also possible to increase the fresh catalyst activity to reduce the
catalyst addition rate and reduce fines generation.
TROUBLESHOOTING CATALYST LOSSES
The best way to troubleshoot catalyst losses is to maintain
a historical baseline; otherwise, there is no way to answer the
crucial question: What has changed? Maintaining a good mon-
itoring program allows refiners to discover a loss problem early
on and take corrective measures before the problem worsens or
an environmental excursion occurs. This proactive approach
helps to better manage unit reliability. One component of pro-
active monitoring is a monthly catalyst mass balance. The mass
balance states that:
Catalyst additions = Regenerator losses + reactor losses +
withdrawals + accumulation
Fresh catalyst addition rates and spent catalyst withdrawals
can both be verified using hopper dips or loader weigh cells.
It is important to correct the fresh catalyst addition rate for
loss on ignition (LOI), which indicates the amount of chemi-
cally bound water that is driven off in the regenerator. Reactor
losses are calculated by multiplying the slurry rundown rate by
the ash content—these are typically minor so daily measure-
ment is not essential. The accumulation can be estimated by
the reactor and regenerator levels and the change in catalyst
inventory. Finally, the regenerator losses are simply calculated
by the difference.
In addition to calculating a monthly catalyst balance, it is
recommended to regularly test equilibrium catalyst (Ecat)
and fines physical properties through catalyst vendor testing
facilities. Catalyst vendors typically test Ecat samples weekly
for particle size distribution (PSD) and apparent bulk densi-
ty (ABD), regenerator fines weekly for PSD, and slurry fines
monthly for PSD, ash and basic sediment and water (BS&W).
Reviewing this data on a regular basis provides the best chance
to identify both the presence and location of a loss problem.
Of these analyses, the regenerator and reactor fines analyses
are usually the most useful for identifying the type of loss prob-
lem. The three main causes for increased catalyst losses are:
1. Blocked dipleg or loss of cyclone efficiency
2. Hole in the cyclone or plenum
3. Attrition.
In all three cases, the type of change in the PSD curves will
indicate the type of loss problem. Steady-state PSD curves typ-
ically have two peaks: one in the 1 µ–2 µ range, and one in the
20 µ range. The first peak indicates the level of attrition, while
the second peak indicates the normal loss of fines through the
 ADVANCED CATALYSIS TECHNOLOGY
FIG. 5. Typical shift in a PSD curve if there is a blocked secondary
cyclone dipleg.
cyclones. A change in the relative size of either peak allows
refineries to identify the source of catalyst losses.
In the case of a blocked secondary dipleg (FIG. 5), there
will be a step-change in the total catalyst losses. The attrition
peak will decrease, and the cyclone peak will increase with a
shift to the right. In addition, the total fines content in the Ecat
(defined as 0 µ–45 µ) will decrease.
In the case of a hole in the cyclone (FIG. 6), a gradual in-
crease in catalyst losses is typical as the hole grows larger. Both
the attrition peak and the cyclone peak will decrease, and a third
peak will appear around 70 µ–80 µ. Depending upon the extent
of the losses, the Ecat fines content may or may not decrease
as full-range catalyst will bypass the cyclones through the hole.
In the last case of attrition (FIG. 7), the catalyst losses will
gradually increase on both the reactor and regenerator sides.
The attrition peak will increase, with a relative decrease in
the cyclone peak. It may be more useful to observe the PSD
curves from the third stage or electrostatic precipitator fines,
as attrition fines are often too small to capture in a second-
ary cyclone. Depending on the mechanism of attrition, stack
opacity may increase.
Once the source of catalyst losses has been identified, the
next steps are to investigate the cause of the catalyst losses and
determine the best solution. If the problem is attrition, check
fresh catalyst properties and review operating conditions. If
air or steam rates were increased or the unit recently started
up, it is possible that a valve was not closed or a restriction
orifice was not installed. An air or steam distributor could be
damaged, causing a jet of steam that will fracture the catalyst
particles. If the FCCU must continue with a harsher operat-
ing environment, refiners can reformulate to a more attrition-
resistant catalyst. It may also be useful to inject ammonia if the
unit has an electrostatic precipitator to improve fines capture
and reduce opacity.
If the catalyst losses are intermittent and the unit is operat-
ing close to the cyclone dipleg flooding limit, check for changes
in superficial velocity or feed rate. If the catalyst losses are due
to a hardware problem, such as a blockage in the dipleg, this
can be cleared by simply adjusting operating conditions or by
conducting a pressure bump. Some refiners use gamma scans
or radio-isotope tracer studies to study the gas and catalyst
flow distribution in the unit. If the losses cannot be stopped,
then refiners can maintain catalyst inventory by adding pur-
chased catalyst, recycling fines from the electrostatic precipita-
HYDROCARBON PROCESSING | AUGUST 2017 | ADVANCED CATALYSIS TECHNOLOGY
FIG. 6. Typical shift in a PSD curve if there is a hole in
a secondary cyclone.
FIG. 7. Typical shift in a PSD curve if there is an attrition problem.
tor or third-stage separator, or by using a circulation-enhancing
additive, which contains high amounts of 20 µ–40 µ material.
TAKEAWAY
If the effects are severe enough, catalyst losses can cause an
FCCU shutdown. Some units continue to operate with high
catalyst losses until the next turnaround, which reduces profit.
Refiners can prevent a unit shutdown by troubleshooting the
cause of the losses early and making the proper operational
changes quickly. It is critical to maintain and monitor a base-
line of operations, including loss-rate and particle size distri-
butions of the Ecat and fines. It is important to understand
where and how cyclones can fail, as well as the mechanisms
of attrition. If catalyst losses are due to attrition, changing to a
more attrition-resistant catalyst will mitigate high-stack opac-
ity and/or catalyst losses.
REFERENCES
Complete references available online at HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
REBECCA KUO has been on the BASF FCC technical service team for more than
3 yr, where she provides catalyst and operational technical support to refining
customers. Prior to joining the technical service team, she worked for BASF in
various engineering roles and businesses, including production and project
engineering for the FCC catalyst manufacturing group in Savannah, Georgia.
Ms. Kuo holds a BS degree in chemical engineering from the University of Texas
at Austin.
ALVIN TAN is the Regional Technical Service Manager for BASF’s refining catalyst
business in Asia-Pacific. He has more than 12 yr of experience in FCC operations
and process engineering. Prior to joining BASF, Mr. Tan was the Lead FCC
Engineer at Singapore Refining Co. As a member of the BASF Global Technical
Service Team, he is a key player in providing quality technical service support to
meet customers’ needs. Mr. Tan holds an honors degree in chemical engineering
from the National University of Singapore.
C–85
 choose
wisely.
At CRI, we provide catalyst and process solutions tailored for the
petrochemical and refining industry. Our technology is an integral part in
helping achieve success in a customer's application. Our strengths in R&D,
catalyst manufacturing and technical service allow CRI to progress quickly
from lab scale to production to customer results. We pride ourselves on
developing lasting relationships with our customers through collaboration
and successful implementation of catalytic solutions.

It is all part of our commitment to delivering innovation.

cricatalyst.com

Select 75 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
 CRI CATALYST COMPANY

CRI CATALYST COMPANY—YOUR PARTNER

FOR OPTIMAL CATALYST SOLUTIONS
In an environment with stricter specifications, higher selectivity require-
ments and challenging economic demands, how can CRI partner with
you to deliver higher value?
CRI Hydrogenation and Specialty Catalysts, formerly KataLeuna, is a
division of CRI which develops and markets hydrogenation and specialty
catalysts. With more than 90 years of catalyst development and manu-
facturing capability in Leuna, Germany, CRI has a wealth of experience
in developing and delivering valuable catalyst solutions to the industry.
By listening to our customers and partnering with them, CRI has
combined the knowledge of its deeply experienced staff, state-of-the
art testing facilities and world class manufacturing facilities to develop
solutions for the customer’s selective and full hydrogenation needs. The
solutions provided include high performance catalyst products designed
to address our customer’s specific concerns, such as stability, activity,
selectivity, robustness towards operational swings, pressure drop and/or
cycle length. In addition, specific tools such as detailed kinetic modeling
enable CRI to quickly assess customer’s hydrogenation challenges, and
provide optimal solutions.

SELECTIVE HYDROGENATION CATALYSTS

CRI offers catalyst for the selective hydrogenation of acetylene, for
both front-end and tail-end applications. In front-end applications, CRI
acetylene hydrogenation catalysts have proven performance in numerous
process designs, including C2 minus, C3 minus, and Raw Gas, in both
adiabatic and isothermal reaction systems. The catalysts are characterized
by exceptional stability in terms of both selectivity and activity.
For C3 streams, CRI offers a portfolio of catalysts for the removal of
methyl acetylene and propylene diene (MAPD) for both gas and liquid
phase applications.
For selective hydrogenation (and isomerization) of C4s in alkylation
pretreat streams, the portfolio uniquely includes both palladium and nickel
catalyst products for this application. Again, CRI has proven commercial
experience for all the various reaction systems designs, including up-flow,
down-flow, liquid and gas phase.
For the hydrogenation of Pyrolysis Gasoline (Pygas) streams, CRI
combines its catalyst knowledge and expertise with operating experience
(from Shell in-house Pygas units), process design experience (from Shell
Global Solutions’ licensing division) and world-class modeling abilities to
become a recognized leader in providing Pygas solutions. A full portfolio
of 1st and 2nd stage Pygas catalysts are available to address typical
challenges in Pygas unit operations, such as balancing 1st and 2nd stage
reactions, pressure drop mitigation, activity optimization, and minimization
of aromatic saturation.
FULL HYDROGENATION CATALYSTS
A portfolio of catalysts is available for the full hydrogenation of hydro-
carbon streams. These catalysts are designed to have high poison toler-
ance while minimizing the potential for any side cracking reactions. Appli-
cations served include C4/C5 streams, benzene saturation and aromatic
hydrogenation in light oils to heavy solvents. A full array of catalysts is avail-
able, giving customers options for treating a wide range of feed streams.
SPECIALIZED HYDROGENATION CATALYSTS
CRI offers a wide range of specialized hydrogenation catalysts for use
in specific chemical applications, including phenol hydrogenation, alcohol
polishing, nitriles to their corresponding amines, poly-alpha olefins and
phenyl acetylene to styrene.
PARTNERS
CRI brings decades of catalyst experience to its customers with stan-
dard or specialized needs. Together with our global technical support
group, we look forward to work with our customers, providing tailored
solutions, application knowledge, operational and start-up assistance,
routine performance monitoring, and/or additional technical services as
needed to help get the most out of the customer’s application.
At CRI, by “Delivering Innovation”, we are committed to improving your
processes. Contact us today to discuss your specific needs.
CONTACT INFORMATION
Kaspar Vogt, CRI Catalyst Company
+1 (713) 241-1877
Kaspar.Vogt@cri-criterion.com
www.cricatalyst.com

SPONSORED CONTENT HYDROCARBON PROCESSING | AUGUST 2017 | ADVANCED CATALYSIS TECHNOLOGY C–87

POLE POSITION
ANNOUNCING
TM

Criterion announces the newest catalyst generation in

performance... our scientists have used our R&D expertise to
secure the pole position to launch the CENTERA GT™ high
performance catalyst! We continue to innovate to increase
performance and quality, and CENTERA GT takes another
leap forward. This next generation, along with the SENTRY™,
ASCENT™ and ZEOLYST™ catalysts, will help refiners keep
on winning. Our advanced portfolio of products protects
and performs, adding value with customized solutions for the
complex needs of refineries.

SENTRY: Ultimate protection from feed poisons and

pressure drop
Hydrotreating: Performance in quality meeting strict fuel
standards and maximizing advantaged feeds
Hydrocracking: Increasing the quality and yields for high
value products processing heavier feeds

With technical customer service second to none, Criterion

continues to race ahead for catalyst performance and value.
We look forward to working with you.

Leading minds. Advanced technologies.

www.CRITERIONCatalysts.com
Select 87 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
 CRITERION CATALYSTS & TECHNOLOGIES

ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY
FOR INTEGRATED SOLUTIONS,
IT IS WHAT WE DO
Criterion is the world’s largest supplier of
hydroprocessing catalyst providing complete
process solution offerings though its integra-
tion with Shell Global Solutions, Zeolyst Inter-
national, and CRI Catalyst. Criterion along
with our affiliates has deployed technology
solutions in virtually in every region of the
world specializing in refining and petro-
chemical operations to include hydrotreating,
hydrocracking, residue upgrading, hydroge-
nation, and isomerization units. With more
than 50 years of experience in the end to end
catalyst business, Criterion has a reputation of
delivering value to its customers through lead-
ing products, top notch technical support and
process solution services used in every type of
hydroprocessing operation.

INDUSTRY LEADER
Criterion specialises in cobalt and nickel
promoted molybdenum and tungsten on alu-
mina based catalysts for a wide range of
hydrotreating applications, including
• naphtha hydrotreating
• distillate hydrotreating and distillate
Dewaxing
(for kerosene, jet and ULSD production)
• Hydrocracking, hydrocracker feed
pretreatment
and mild hydrocracking
• FCC feed pretreatment and robust
poison guard
• residue upgrading (fixed and
ebullated-bed)
• lube oil performance improvement
• tail-gas treating with cooperative sulfur
solutions.
Criterion is an industry leader in these area’s
and retains notably commanding market share
positions in many of these refining segments.
Research has resulted in a string of technology
advances over the past 2 decades enabled
by high throughput R&D testing culminating in
the introduction of the company’s CENTERA™
and ASCENT ™ technology platforms, which
includes a series of catalysts boasting a step
out performance, in many cases unmatched,
combination of activity and stability.
Now in their second and third generation,
CENTERA GT™, CENTERA™ and ASCENT™
catalysts have clearly demonstrated value and
with third generation CENTERA GT continue
to add to this industry leading performance
in helping refiners to process more challeng-
ing feedstocks, raise product slate flexibility,
added value in downstream units and, not
least, produce ultra-low-sulphur diesel with
superior fuel properties.
INNOVATION
Zeolite-based hydrocracking catalysts are
the focus of Criterion’s Zeolyst International
joint venture with Philadelphia Quartz Corp.
Both companies contribute research and devel-
opment efforts to maintain Zeolyst’s status as a
leader in this valuable refining area. The intro-
duction of Advanced Trilobe eXtra™ (ATX) tech-
nology improved throughput without sacrifice
to active or selectivity and thereby improve die-
sel yield and volume is a commercially proven
example of Zeolyst’s innovative capabilities.
INTEGRATION
Criterion’s integration with Shell Global
Solutions and CRI catalysts is important for
several reasons. It provides Criterion with a
deep insight into industry needs and trends,
a real feel for the business from the viewpoint
of a refinery and petrochemical plant owner/
operator perspective. It also provides access
to an outstanding science and engineering
resource, which is particularly valuable for
research and development. But, most impor-
tantly, the Shell connection opens the way
for genuinely integrated refinery solutions
that encompass process technology, reactor
internal engineering and catalysts—all three
elements providing world class refining and
petrochemical plant solutions from leading
minds and advanced technologies.

SPONSORED CONTENT HYDROCARBON PROCESSING | AUGUST 2017 | ADVANCED CATALYSIS TECHNOLOGY C–89

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Tight-fitting thief
hatch for low-pressure
storage tanks
Emerson Automation Solutions has
introduced the Enardo ES-665 spring-
loaded thief hatch (FIG. 1) for use on low-
pressure storage tanks in oil and gas and
other industries. Storage tanks can emit
vapors into the environment, and this
has resulted in tighter regulations and
the need for improved emissions control
from storage tank devices.
To address this challenge, the ES-665
hatch has been engineered with increased
sealing forces, as well as with a tight and
consistent fit of the sealing surfaces. The
resulting emissions performance of the
Enardo ES-665 thief hatch is said to be
an industry-leading 0.1 standard cubic
feet per hr (scfh) at 90% of setpoint. The
Enardo ES-665, along with Emerson’s
other tight-sealing storage tank solutions,
helps conserve tank contents.
The ES-665 provides tank access, as
well as pressure and vacuum relief, to ac-
commodate tank pressure changes that
occur under normal conditions. The
ES-665 also limits hatch emissions when
pressure or vacuum relief is not required.
In addition to its ultra-tight emissions
performance, the ES-665 includes:
• An available center assembly
for improved performance of
previously installed models
• Multiple relief settings and material
options for application flexibility
• A latching and lockable lid for
added security and safety.
Select 1 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
Wide-viscosity range
real-time viscometer
Based on their Nametre Model 600
and 1810 transmitter, Galvanic Applied
Science’s ViscoSite (FIG. 2) viscometer
adds Modbus communication, and is now
ATEX/IECEx rated for Class 1 Div. 2 ap-
plications. ViscoSite can measure viscosi-
ties from 0.1 cP to 106 cP, and can be used
for the following refinery applications:
• Control of vacuum tower efficiency
• Reducing costs in visbreaking
• Control of catalytic and
hydrocracking processes.
Galvanic’s ViscoSite viscometers are
dual-component systems consisting of
the transmitter and the sensor. The sen-
sor is hermetically sealed from the pro-
cess, and welded to a base installed in the
reactor, tank or pipe. Since the sensor can
be installed at the point in the process
where the critical viscosity measurement
must occur, it ensures that the desired
product quality will be achieved.
Viscosity control is important in these
applications since precise, real-time
viscosity measurements are critical to
ensuring product consistency and qual-
ity. In today’s competitive environment,
well-placed viscosity measurements al-
low refiners to optimize their processes
for increased efficiency and lower costs.
Select 2 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
Converting food waste
into biogas
The Wasatch Resource Recovery
(WRR) project in North Salt Lake City,
Utah, selected GE’s Monsal advanced an-
aerobic digestion technologies to convert
FIG. 1. Spring-loaded thief hatch with
ultra-tight emissions performance.
Innovations
food waste into biogas to generate re-
newable energy and fertilizer. Once both
phases are operational, WRR will supply
enough renewable natural gas (RNG) to
meet the needs of approximately 15,000
homes. Per the UN, approximately one-
third of the food produced annually in
the world for human consumption is
lost or wasted. The WRR project will be-
come a food waste digestion facility that
will divert 180 Mtpy of food waste from
area landfills, which will extend the life
of these landfills, and reduce greenhouse
gas emissions equivalent to taking 12,000
cars off the highway.
GE is providing the main components
of the digestion system, specifically its
Re:Sep 2.0 (FIG. 3) separation technol-
FIG. 2. Dual-component panel and sensor
real-time viscosity measurement.
FIG. 3. Separating food waste components
ahead of the anaerobic digester.
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 91
 Innovations
ogy for removing contaminants, such as
plastics and paper; its sequential gas mix-
ing technology; a pump mixing system for
the digestion tanks; and heat exchangers
for the heating process. Plastics, metals
and glass will be recovered and recycled.
Phase 2 of the project is being planned.
Using GE’s technology, the organic
material entering the facility will be me-
chanically separated and made into a di-
gestible slurry, which will mix with other
liquid wastes and be anaerobically digest-
ed to generate biogas and a marketable
fertilizer product. The biogas will be cap-
tured and purified, converted into RNG
and fed into the nearby gas pipeline. Af-
ter Phase 2 is completed, the facility will
have the ability to utilize the biogas in gas
engines for power generation and heat re-
covery, or to export to the grid.
The facility is scheduled to begin op-
erations in 3Q 2018. Phase 1 of the proj-
FIG. 4. ControlEdge programmable logic
controller by Honeywell.
FIG. 5. Aerial view of Formosa Petrochemical
and the Mao-Lin power plant.
FIG. 6. Serial device servers and gateways–
serial protocols via Ethernet.
92 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
ect will process 180 Mtpy of source-sep-
arated organics, with Phase 2 increasing
processing capacity to 250 Mtpy.
Select 3 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
New programmable
logic controller
Honeywell Process Solutions an-
nounced the newest release of its Con-
trolEdge (FIG. 4) programmable logic con-
troller (PLC). This product, combined
with Honeywell’s Experion distributed
control system (DCS), provides a signifi-
cant reduction in integration efforts and
project costs, as well as an increase in se-
curity and availability through enhanced
cybersecurity for industrial facilities.
The PLC is used in a variety of
balance-of-plant applications, such as
equipment and device level control. It is
part of the ControlEdge next-generation
family of controllers offering secure con-
nectivity through all levels of process and
business operations. Experion and Con-
trolEdge PLC leverage a common hu-
man machine interface platform, provide
faster field device commissioning and im-
prove device diagnostics.
The PLC is being offered to end us-
ers, original equipment manufacturers
(OEMs) and engineering, procurement
and construction (EPC) companies, par-
ticularly those in global refining, oil and
gas, power, chemical, water management
industries and infrastructure applications.
ControlEdge PLC provides an IIoT-
ready open platform that uses OPC Uni-
fied Architecture (UA) as a communica-
tion protocol, and enables users to better
leverage data across their assets.
Select 4 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
Low-boron desalination
plant technology
IDE Technologies has been select-
ed by Formosa Petrochemical Corp.
(FPCC) to build its Seawater Reverse
Osmosis (SWRO) desalination plant.
The 105-Mm³pd plant will be located
at the Mai-Liao Power Corp. in Yunlin
County, Taiwan (FIG. 5). The plant will
produce high-quality water for industrial
applications.
IDE is providing FPCC with a cost-
effective solution that optimizes energy
and chemicals consumption. The Tai-
wanese government recently reduced
water rights for Formosa from natural
sources to support agriculture, requir-
ing the company to seek an independent
water supply. IDE’s solution in this new
SWRO desalination plant, which will
help the Mai-Liao Power Plant meet
its water requirements and comply
with local regulations for discharge of
blowdown water. Due to the water pu-
rity requirements of its pharmaceutical
and semiconductor industries, Taiwan
requires all water treatment plant dis-
charges to meet boron levels of less than
1 parts per million (ppm).
Using IDE’s boron-removal system,
the desalination plant is said to be the
world’s first to reach the extremely low
and challenging boron concentration
level requirement of less than 0.01 ppm.
Although 100 times lower than govern-
mental requirements, the technology will
enable the cogeneration plant to use less
makeup water. IDE will design the plant,
supply and install equipment, commis-
sion the plant and supervise operation
and maintenance for 2 yr.
Select 5 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
Serial device servers
and gateways make
network migration easy
Phoenix Contact has introduced a new
line of serial device servers and gateways
(FIG. 6) that provide automation engi-
neers an easy and cost-effective way to
connect control systems and field devices.
Performing routine maintenance,
upgrades or expansion of control sys-
tems can lead to a communication gap
between legacy devices and emerging
technologies. Many companies have tra-
ditionally depended on serial-system
connectivity, and are now trying to in-
tegrate controls that communicate via
Ethernet. This new family of serial device
servers and gateways support the most
common industrial protocols, with vari-
ous combinations of HART, HART IP,
Profinet, Modbus TCP, Modbus RTU,
Raw/ASCII and EtherNet/IP.
A serial-device server connects serial-
only devices (those with only an RS-232,
RS-422 or RS-485 serial interface) to a
local area network (LAN). This connec-
tivity brings the serial devices into the
world of Ethernet, without disrupting
the communication method. A gateway
converts the protocol of one device to
the protocol suitable for interoperability
with another device or tool. It is some-
times referred to as a protocol converter.

Variants are available with one, two or
four D-SUB 9 serial ports, and one or two
RJ45 Ethernet ports. Startup and con-
figuration is simple using an embedded
web server. To ensure secure communi-
cation, the devices include 256-bit AES
encryption and optional authentication.
The servers and gateways can operate be-
tween –40°C–70°C and have hazardous
location approvals.
Select 6 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
Electric actuator certified
for functional safety
exida, a global leader in functional
safety certification for the process in-
dustries, has certified Emerson Valve
Automation Inc.’s TEC2000 (FIG. 7) with
TEC2 electronics (SIL Option) electric
actuator for functional safety, ensur-
ing that it meets the functional safety
requirements for safety integrity level
(SIL) 3 capability, per IEC 61508: 2010.
The TEC2000 Electric Actuator with
TEC2 electronics delivers configurable,
non-intrusive, total electronic control to
the process and controls industry. exida
paid special attention to details, and gave
clear guidance during the certification
process. The manufacturer demonstrated
a high-quality design process that met
the rigorous IEC 61508, with a thorough
development process that helps ensure
delivery of products that achieve high
levels of functional safety.
Select 7 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
Automation streamlines
operations and
troubleshooting
for 250-acre oil tank farm
An independent US liquid petroleum
distributor operates a marine oil terminal
on 250 acres on the East Coast. In 2012,
the company expanded its operations
with the acquisition of a 4-MMbbl termi-
nal. The tanks at the acquired terminal are
strategically located in a major US harbor
for easy transportation access via water,
pipeline, rail and truck. The smooth flow
of oil—especially through the network
of pipes that stretch away from the termi-
nal—depends on accurate control of the
oil and other products in storage.
Like many tank farms in operation,
the terminal was operated manually
when it was acquired. As such, operators
would drive or walk across the facility,
opening and closing valves by hand, and
checking meters and other instrumenta-
tion devices. The manual process had
the potential to cause multiple opera-
tional discrepancies across the facility.
With no way to accurately track the hun-
dreds of valves and meters, valves could
be open or closed at the wrong time.
This predicament could not only cause
plant upsets, but could lead to the shut-
down of the downstream pipeline.
After acquiring the facility, the oil
distributor decided to implement a stan-
dardized, easy-to-use operation across
the terminal. The distributor also wanted
a way to easily track and trace data to ease
operator troubleshooting if and when
faults occurred. In addition, the facility’s
servers and other information technol-
ogy were damaged during a recent hur-
ricane. To avoid similar damage in the fu-
ture, redundancy needed to be built into
the new automated system.
The oil distribution company worked
with Maverick Technologies, a Rock-
well Automation company, to design
and implement a virtualized PlantPAx
process automation system from Rock-
well Automation. Keeping in mind that
terminal operators had little familiarity
with automation, the engineers chose the
PlantPAx solution because of its usability
and intuitive platform. Leveraging the
Rockwell Automation library of process
objects—a pre-defined library of con-
troller code, display elements and face-
plates—Maverick eased system program-
ming and implementation. The standard
PlantPAx system code is vetted by Rock-
well Automation engineers on the front
end, allowing for rapid configuration.
To ease operator onboarding and
training, Maverick used Mimic simula-
tion software—from Mynah Technolo-
gies, a Rockwell Automation Encompass
Product Partner—for process and I/O
simulation of the PlantPAx system. Us-
ing the software, facility managers could
pre-test the control system and alarms
before full implementation, as well as
train operators through a realistic simu-
lation of the plant.
Integrated historian and production
intelligence software provides operators
a window into system performance data.
The historian software collects valuable
data, such as process flow and statisti-
cal valve information, and archives it for
reporting and troubleshooting. The pro-
Innovations
FIG. 7. Electric actuator certified for functional
safety by exida.
duction intelligence software interprets
the data into comprehensive trends and
produces real-time, electronic reports.
The software also provides a robust secu-
rity model to help enable secure, remote
system access and monitoring. Through
a 24/7 service agreement, Maverick
Technologies can monitor the system for
any aberrations or alarm notices from a
remote site. This isolated security model
provides all the distributor company’s
clients individual remote access to data
surrounding their own products stored
at the facility.
Lastly, Maverick’s engineering team
deployed fully redundant PlantPAx serv-
ers on VMware virtualized architecture.
Servers onsite are completely backed
up by remote machines. The new sys-
tem eased integration at the marine oil
terminal. The pre-configured library of
process objects aided Maverick during
the system design and implementation
process. The system’s intuitive platform
and embedded simulation software eased
the process of operator training. Whereas
a traditional DCS requires deep system
knowledge to operate and a high-level
skillset to configure devices, the Plant-
PAx system is easy to use.
The new system can automatically
control valves, freeing operator time spent
manually opening and closing each valve
throughout the day. In addition, opera-
tors have direct insight into real-time op-
erational data, and can easily track what
valves are open, when they are opened,
how long they have been open, etc. With
the ability to track all data, operators can
see when and how plant upsets occur, sav-
ing time during troubleshooting.
Select 8 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
An expanded version of
Innovations can be found online
at HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 93
 AMERICAS
Onsite

In mid-July, Hydrocarbon Processing

held its International Refining and Pet-
rochemical Conference (IRPC) in Hous-
ton, Texas. IRPC Americas marks the
10th iteration of the IRPC conference
series, which covers technical innovations
and explores the challenges and opportu-
1 nities found in today’s hydrocarbon pro-
cessing industry. The July event was the
first time that Hydrocarbon Processing has
2 featured IRPC in the US. The following
are some scenes from the two-day techni-
cal conference.

1 A packed audience listened intently

to the Day 1 keynote presentation.

2 Antonello Dicugno spoke with

3 Ben Gonzalez of Phillips 66 and
Meredith Caray of AIA about
Filtrex’s filtration systems.

3 Antonello Dicugno of Filtrex

joked with Brian Alexander and
4 Chuck Munro of Spraying Systems.

4 Exhibitor row during IRPC Americas:

Chromalox, Pentair, Clearview Sensing
and Spraying Systems.

5 An informative panel discussion

focused on how refiners and shippers
can adhere to the IMO 2020
5 sulfur cap regulation.

6 During a networking break,

Jenifer Barrientes of Wood Group
6 spoke with John Wilson of TDS,
as his colleague, Afua Kwayie, provided
an attendee more information on TDS.

7 Philip Oberbroeckling, LyondellBasell;

Buddy Tucker, Hunter Buildings;
Miles Buckhurst, Jotun; and
Darshan Sachde, Trimeric Corp. enjoyed
good conversation during the IRPC
America’s welcome reception.
7
8 Jonathan Perry of Pentair Valves
8 spoke with an attendee during
the networking reception.
9
9 Aashish Bansal and Ankur Pariyani
posed for a quick picture during one
of the busy networking breaks.

10 Attendees that exchanged ideas

during a networking break included,
from left to right: Alexis Shackleford
and Rebecca Kuo of BASF;
Yanan Sui, Sabin Metal Corp.;
10 and Melissa Clough, BASF.

94AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
 MARKETPLACE / Gerry.Mayer@GulfPub.com / +1 (972) 816-3534

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Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 201795

ADVERTISER INDEX  /  HydrocarbonProcessing.com
The first number after the company name is the page on which an advertisement appears. The second number is the Reader Service Number. There are two ways readers can obtain product and service information:
go to www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS, follow the instructions on the screen, and your request will be forwarded for immediate action, or go online to the advertiser's website listed below.

Company Page RS# Company Page RS# Company Page RS#

Website Website Website
AFPM......................................................... 74 Dresser-Rand............................................... 5 (68) Merichem Company.....................................16 (84)
Ametek Process Instruments ....................... 45 (74) www.info.hotims.com/66265-68 www.info.hotims.com/66265-84
www.info.hotims.com/66265-74 Graham ..................................................... 70 (95) Metrix ....................................................... 22 (152)
API.............................................................31 (153) www.info.hotims.com/66265-95 www.info.hotims.com/66265-152
www.info.hotims.com/66265-153 Gulf Publishing Company Neste Jacobs Oy ......................................... 43 (156)
Ariel Corporation.........................................18 (55) Circulation ..............................................90 www.info.hotims.com/66265-156
www.info.hotims.com/66265-55 Construction Boxscore Database............... 77 NISTM ........................................................ 52
Auma Riester Gmbh & Co KG .......................40 (155) Events—WGLC .........................................48 Paharpur Cooling Towers, Ltd. ......................14 (99)
www.info.hotims.com/66265-155 Gulf Data ................................................ 99 www.info.hotims.com/66265-99
Axens .......................................................100 (51) HP Marketplace ....................................... 95 Spraying Systems Co ................................... 11 (67)
www.info.hotims.com/66265-51 US Gas Processing Plant Directory............. 69 www.info.hotims.com/66265-67
China Petrochemical Technology Co. Ltd ...... 27 (59) Harsco Industrial Air-X-Changers/Hammco ...51 (56) Yokogawa Electric Corporation ......................6 (60)
www.info.hotims.com/66265-59 www.info.hotims.com/66265-56 www.info.hotims.com/66265-60
Chromatic Industries ...................................37 (154) Idrojet ....................................................... 58 (157) York Process Systems ................................... 2 (61)
www.info.hotims.com/66265-154 www.info.hotims.com/66265-157 www.info.hotims.com/66265-61
CRI ........................................................ C–86 (75) Leistritz Advanced Technologies Zwick Valves .............................................. 59 (158)
www.info.hotims.com/66265-75 Corporation ............................................ 20 (151) www.info.hotims.com/66265-158
Criterion ................................................ C–88 (87) www.info.hotims.com/66265-151 ZymeFlow Decon Technology ...................... 55 (93)
www.info.hotims.com/66265-87 Linde Engineering ..................................... 63 www.info.hotims.com/66265-93

This Index and procedure for securing additional information is provided as a service to Hydrocarbon Processing advertisers and a convenience to our readers. Gulf Publishing Company is not responsible for omissions or errors.

ITALY, EASTERN EUROPE INDONESIA, MALAYSIA, SINGAPORE,

Fabio Potestá THAILAND
Mediapoint & Communications SRL Peggy Thay
Phone: +39 (010) 570-4948 Publicitas Singapore Pte Ltd
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Phone: +1 (713) 520-4421 E-mail: Singapore@GulfPub.com
E-mail: Catherine.Watkins@GulfPub.com RUSSIA/FSU
Lilia Fedotova JAPAN—TOKYO
www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com Yoshinori Ikeda
Anik International & Co. Ltd.
SALES OFFICES—NORTH AMERICA Phone: +7 (495) 628-10-333 Pacific Business Inc.
E-mail: Lilia.Fedotova@GulfPub.com Phone: +81 (3) 3661-6138
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Phone: +1 (713) 520-4421 Marco Antonio Monteiro
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Mobile: +1 (617) 594-4943 E-mail: Iris.Yuen@GulfPub.com E-mail: Gerry.Mayer@GulfPub.com
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96 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
ALISSA LEETON, CONTRIBUTING EDITOR
Alissa.Leeton@GulfPub.com
AUGUST
HCSMRP 11th Annual
Maintenance and Reliability
Symposium, Aug. 9–11,
Moody Gardens, Galveston, Texas
P: 832-876-3226
CCedro@hunterbuildings.com
www.smrphouston.org
NAPE, Aug. 16–17,
George R. Brown Convention
Center, Houston, Texas
P: 817-847-7700
info@napeexpo.com
napeexpo.com
SEPTEMBER
EUROCORR 2017—International
Corrosion Congress, Sept. 3–7,
Prague Congress Centre,
Prague, Czech Republic
P: +42 0-284-001-444
eurocorr2017@guarant.cz
www.prague-corrosion-2017.com
Annual ECC Conference,
Sept. 6–9, Boca Raton Resort
and Club, A Waldorf Astoria
Resort, Boca Raton, Florida
info@eventsiaregistration.com
www.ecc-conference.org
AIChE Annual Safety in Ammonia
Plants and Related Facilities
Symposium, Sept. 10–14,
New York Marriott at the Brooklyn
Bridge, Brooklyn, New York
P: 1-800-242-4363
tinam@aiche.org
www.aiche.org
Turbomachinery & Pump
Symposia, Sept. 11–14,
George R. Brown Convention
Center, Houston, Texas
P: 979-845-7417
info@turbo-lab.tamu.edu
tps.tamu.edu
National Aboveground Storage
(NISTM), Sept. 13–14, Moody
Gardens Hotel, Galveston, Texas
P: 1-800-827-3515
janelle@nistm.org
nistm.org
National Safety Council (NSC),
Sept. 25–27, Indiana Convention
Center, Indianapolis, Indiana
P: 1-800-621-7619
congress.expo@nsc.org
congress.nsc.org
Easyfairs, Tank Storage Asia,
Sept. 27–28, Marina Bay
Sands, Singapore
(See box for contact information)
Petrochem Canada,
Sept. 27–28, Holiday Inn,
Sarnia, Ontario, Canada
P: 1-888-799-2545
jesstzhao@dmgevents.com
petrochemcanada.com
OCTOBER
AFPM Operations and
Process Technology Summit,
Oct. 2–4, JW Marriott Austin,
Austin, Texas
P: +1 202-457-0480
meetings@afpm.org
www.afpm.org/Conferences
Polyurethanes Technical
Conference, Oct. 2–4,
New Orleans Marriott,
New Orleans, Louisiana
online@americanchemistry.com
www.americanchemistry.com
Emerson Global Users
Exchange, Oct. 2–6,
Minneapolis Convention Center,
Minneapolis, Minnesota
EmersonExchange@Emerson.com
www.emersonexchange.org
Nexo Solutions Technical
Training Seminar, Oct. 3–4,
Research Forest Convention
Center, The Woodlands, Texas
P: +1 832-510-8191
Support@NexoSolutions.com
www.nexosolutions.com
Lubricants and Base Oils
Symposium, Oct. 18–20,
Hotel Esplanade,
Zagreb, Croatia
P: +385-1487-3549
goma@goma.hr
www.lubricants.goma.hr
Gas Asia Summit, Oct. 25–27,
Marine Bay Sands Expo and
Convention Centre, Singapore
P: +65 6422-1159
MakikoKamata@dmgevents.com
gasasiasummit.com
HP Forecast Breakfast, Oct. 27,
Gulf Publishing Company Events,
River Oaks Country Club,
Houston, Texas
(See box for contact information)
Events
NOVEMBER FEBRUARY 2018
Women’s Global Leadership Egypt Petroleum Show (EGYPS),
Conference in Energy, Nov. 1–2, Feb. 12–14, New Cairo Exhibition
Gulf Publishing Company Events, Centre, Cairo, Egypt
Hyatt Regency Houston, P: +971 0-2697-0504
Houston, Texas varkhaisrani@dmgeventsme.com
WGLConference.com/2017 www.egyps.com
(See box for contact information)
Easyfairs, StocExpo China, MARCH 2018
Nov. 2–3, Shanghai World
Expo, China Eastern Mediterranean Gas
(See box for contact information) Conference (EMGC), March 6–7,
Gulf Publishing Company Events,
International Gas Union (IGU) Nicosia, Cyprus
Safety Summit, Nov. 6–7, EMGasConference.com
Washington, District of Columbia (See box for contact information)
www.igu.org
Asia Turbomachinery & Pump
CRU, Sulphur Conference & Symposium, March 12–15,
Exhibition, Nov. 6–9, Suntec Singapore Convention
Hilton Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia & Exhibition Centre, Singapore
P: +44 0-207-903-2444 P: 979-845-7417
conferences@crugroup.com info@turbo-lab.tamu.edu
www.crugroup.com atps.tamu.edu
API Cybersecurity Conference
for the Oil & Natural Gas Industry, APRIL 2018
Nov. 7–8, Marriott Woodlands
Waterway, The Woodlands, Texas NACE Corrosion Conference
(See box for contact information) & Expo., April 15–19,
Phoenix Convention Center,
Latin American Petrochemical Phoenix, Arizona
Annual Meeting, Nov. 11–14, P: +1 800-797-6223
Royal Tulip Hotel, nacecorrosion.org
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
www.apla.com.ar/en/
reuniones/17/RA-37 JUNE 2018
API Fall Refining and Equipment IRPC Europe, June 5–6,
Standards Meeting, Nov. 13–16, Gulf Publishing Company Events,
Hyatt Regency Dallas Milan, Italy
at Reunion, Dallas, Texas HPIRPC.com/Europe
(See box for contact information) (See box for contact details)
Downstream Caspian and Central
Asia, Nov. 28–30, Baku, Azerbaijan Hydrocarbon Processing/
www.globuc.com/ Gulf Publishing Company
downstream-centralasia Events
P: +1 713-520-4475
Easyfairs, Tank Storage Germany, Melissa.Smith@GulfPub.com
Nov. 29–30, Hamburg Messe und EnergyEvents@GulfPub.com
Congress, Hamburg, Germany
(See box for contact information) American Petroleum
Institute (API)
P: +1 202-682-8195
DECEMBER 2017 registrar@api.org
www.api.org
ASME Gas Turbine India,
Dec. 7–8, Sheraton Grand Easyfairs
Bangalore at Brigade Gateway, P: +44 0-208-843-8800
Bangalore, India uk@easyfairs.com
herreral@asme.org www.easyfairs.com
www.asme.org
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2017 97
MIKE RHODES, TECHNICAL EDITOR
Mike.Rhodes@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Dr. Béla Kelemen has
been named President of
the European Petroleum
Refiners Association
for the next 2-yr term.
The Brussels-based
association represents
the interests of nearly
all EU refiners and
actively contributes to
the development of EU
policies. Dr. Kelemen has
held leading positions for
20 yr at MOL Group, and
now serves as the VP of
the Center of Business
Excellence, leading
process and performance
improvement across the
company’s asset portfolio.
Since the founding of
the association in 1989,
this is the first time that
the top position has
been a representative
of a Central and Eastern
European company.
ASTM International’s
committee on petroleum
products, liquid fuels and
lubricants will present its
highest recognition for
individual contributions
to developing standards,
the Award of Merit, to
Dr. Andy L. Pickard.
The committee is honoring
Dr. Pickard for his
dedication and knowledge
of standard specifications,
classifications and test
methods within committee
D02. Dr. Pickard was a
Senior Fuels Specialist
of Petro-Canada until
2003, and is a member of
the Canadian Society for
Chemistry, the Association
of the Chemical Profession
of British Columbia, and
the Society of Automotive
Engineers Intl.
98 AUGUST 2017 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
The supervisory
board of GEA Group
Aktiengesellschaft has
appointed Martine Snels
to GEA’s executive board,
where she will assume
responsibility for GEA’s
regions and countries
organization. She has held
a number of management
positions in various
multinational companies,
and brings more than
20 yr of global business
experience to the board.
In 2012, she joined Royal
FrieslandCampina N.V.,
where she now serves
as Chief Operating
Officer (COO), Ingredients,
and as a member of the
executive board.
A.W. Chesterton Co. has
added Bronson Pate
and Beau Stander as
Global Environmental
Consulting Managers
for FluidEfficiency, a
Chesterton business group.
Mr. Pate has
more than 10 yr of
professional experience
in environmental
consulting, and has
launched/participated
in numerous domestic
and international
environmental programs
in China, Malaysia,
Argentina, Bolivia, Peru,
Brazil, Mexico, Europe and
the US. Before making his
transition to Chesterton,
Mr. Stander was an
environmental specialist
for Chevron Global
Downstream. He is a Lean
Six-Sigma Green Belt and
an incident investigator
trained in root-cause
analysis and corrective
action implementation.
People
Flow-Cal Inc.’s President, HIMA Paul Hildebrandt Carlos Conerly has joined
Michael Squyres, has been has appointed Stefan Linde Engineering North
appointed to serve as the Basenach as head of the America (LENA) as
President of the board new process business President of the natural
of directors for the 2017 unit. Mr. Basenach studied gas and refining division
ASGMT (American School engineering cybernetics in Tulsa, Oklahoma.
of Gas Measurement at the University of He will report directly
Technology). Mr. Squyres Stuttgart, and then worked to President and CEO
has served on the general at the Swiss automation Jason Cooper, and will
committee for 20 yr and corporation ABB for 24 join LENA’s executive
on the board of directors yr, starting as an engineer leadership team. Over
since 2013, and also for power plant control his nearly four decades
serves as an instructor at systems and subsequently of experience, Conerly
the annual measurement working in various local has led teams in sales,
school. He has 30 yr of and global management marketing, strategic
experience in the field of positions. His last planning, engineering,
hydrocarbon measurement, position at ABB was design, fabrication and
designing and developing EPC Business Manager, construction of process
measurement software with responsibility for plants for the oil, natural
applications. As the substations in the gas and refining industries.
President of Flow-Cal EMEA region. His previous roles include
Inc., Mr. Squyres has positions with Thomas
worked directly with Russell, Exterran and,
SCADA vendors, meter Anu D. Vij has joined Ship most recently, ISTI
manufacturers and & Shore Environmental Plant Services.
standards organizations Inc. as Chief Operating
to pioneer better ways Officer, bringing more
to validate, calculate and than two decades The Dow Chemical Co.
report measurement data. of experience in the has made changes in
He is an active and voting environmental, chemical, key executive leadership
member of the American petrochemical and roles. Pedro Suarez,
Petroleum Institute (API). air pollution control Dow’s North American
industries, particularly Geographical President,
in a full range of process has been named Chief
BCCK Holding Co. (BCCK), and mechanical systems Commercial Officer.
a leader in engineering, and thermal oxidation R. Matt Davis, Dow’s
procurement, fabrication technologies. He joined corporate VP of public
and field construction Ship & Shore from and government affairs,
services, has appointed AEREON, where he will add North America
Tony Canfield as VP of served as VP of enclosed Geographical President to
engineering to support combustion systems. his existing responsibilities
company growth in the He previously served as and has been named a
process and mechanical Director of engineering Senior VP.
engineering fields. He and a thermal oxidizer Mr. Suarez has served
joins BCCK from DCP expert at OnQuest Dow in a variety of global
Midstream, where Inc. (part of Primoris commercial, marketing
he served as Project Services Corp.). Prior to and leadership roles
Engineering Manager in OnQuest, Vij was Director since joining the company
the Midland area. With of operations at Pro- in 1979. Mr. Davis has
36 yr of oil and gas Environmental Inc. from served in a variety of
experience, Mr. Canfield 2007 to 2009, where he communications, public
has worked in various headed thermal oxidation and government affairs
locations throughout the and environmental leadership roles since
US and the UK. engineering projects. joining Dow in 1987.
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 Technology and Business Information for the Global Gas Processing Industry

GasProcessingNews.com | JULY/AUGUST 2017

SMALL-SCALE
PROCESSING
SOLUTIONS
Small-scale LNG in transport and power markets
Addressing gas flaring with small-scale GTL and LNG

ENGINEERING AND CONSTRUCTION

Optimizing molecular sieves
for gas dehydration
Special Supplement to
LNG
Design innovations and
technology selection for LNG
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 JULY/AUGUST 2017
GasProcessingNews.com

SPECIAL FOCUS:
15
SMALL-SCALE
PROCESSING SOLUTIONS
19 Executive Q&A Viewpoint:
Small-scale LNG makes
inroads in transport
and power markets
A. Trent

21 Integrally geared
MR compressors reduce
CAPEX and boost efficiency
of small-scale LNG
T. Patel

ENGINEERING
6 AND CONSTRUCTION
25 Optimal design and
operation of molecular
sieve gas dehydration
units—Part 1
R. H. M. Herold and
S. Mokhatab

LNG
31 Process selection and
recent design innovations
21 41
for LNG plants—Part 2
I. S. Al-Mutaz, I. Wazeer,
DEPARTMENTS R. Khan and A. Chafidz
Gas Processing News .................................................................................... 6
US Industry Metrics ..................................................................................... 14
PIPELINES
37 Manage risks
New in Gas Processing Technology .......................................................... 41
for trans-country
pipeline projects:
COLUMNS India case study—Part 1
Editorial Comment ................................................................................................... 4
A. Moitra
New routes for Gas Processing

Business Trends ............................................................................................ 12

Small-scale processing solutions
tackle associated gas flaring

Regional Focus..............................................................................................15
Russian Novatek charges ahead with
Yamal LNG, Arctic LNG 2 projects Cover Image: Lyse Gass’ mid-scale LNG plant
in Stavanger, Norway has a liquefaction capacity
of 900 tpd and came onstream in 2010.
 EDITORIAL COMMENT

www.GasProcessingNews.com
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New routes Houston, Texas 77252-2608, USA

Phone: +1 (713) 529-4301
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for Gas Processing Editorial@GasProcessingNews.com

PUBLISHER
Catherine Watkins
Catherine.Watkins@GulfPub.com

EDITORIAL
Gas Processing and Hydrocarbon Processing are pleased
Editor
to announce that as of August 2017, Gas Processing will be
Adrienne Blume
distributed along with both Pipeline & Gas Journal and Hy-
drocarbon Processing. The addition of Pipeline & Gas Journal Managing Editor
to Gulf Publishing Company’s portfolio of publications will Mike Rhodes
give Gas Processing a more complete reach into the mid- Technical Editor
stream, including the pipeline sector. Bob Andrew
Editor/Associate Publisher,
Controversy broiling over European pipeline. Gas Pro- Hydrocarbon Processing
cessing is not the only entity working to broaden and diver- Lee Nichols
sify its reach in the market. Russia remains one of the world’s MAGAZINE PRODUCTION
A. BLUME, Editor
most-watched areas for pipeline expansion and LNG startups, Vice President, Production
as explored in this issue’s Regional Focus column on Novatek’s Arctic LNG 2 project. Sheryl Stone
However, the country’s moves have been fraught with much deliberation and con-
Manager, Advertising Production
troversy. One hot-button example is Gazprom’s Nord Stream 2 pipeline project, which
Cheryl Willis
seeks to carry gas supplies from Russia under the Baltic Sea to Germany. The project
Manager, Editorial Production
is supported by Austria’s OMV, Anglo-Dutch Shell and France’s Engie, among other
Angela Bathe Dietrich
European firms.
Russia touts the project as a way to “…enhance security of supply, support climate Assistant Manager, Editorial Production
goals and strengthen the internal energy market.”1 However, some EU officials have ex- Lindsey Craun
pressed worry over the project’s aim to enhance the EU’s reliance on Russia’s geopoliti- Artist/Illustrator
cally sensitive gas supplies. Concern has also arisen that support for the pipeline could David Weeks
undermine the EU’s opposition to Russia’s annexation of Crimea. Graphic Designer
Andreina Keller
US mulls legislative retaliation. A new angle on the pipeline controversy has
ADVERTISING SALES
emerged: A US bill (S.722) containing language supporting the imposition of sanc- See Sales Offices, page 42.
tions on European companies backing the Nord Stream 2 project. Although the pro-
Copyright © 2017
posal has not yet been signed into law by the US President at the time of writing, it has by Gulf Publishing Company.
also come under scrutiny and skepticism. All rights reserved.
Some EU officials say the bill is largely a US push to promote its own LNG exports
to Europe. The German and Austrian governments countered the US measure in a
joint statement issued on June 15, asserting, “Political sanctions should not in any way
be tied to economic interests.” The passage of such legislation, the statement says, could
“impact European-American relations in a new and very negative way … Europe’s en- President/CEO
ergy supply network is Europe’s affair, not that of the United States of America!”2 John Royall
The EU appears to be caught in the middle of Russia’s eagerness to boost its gas CFO
exports and the ramp-up of the US LNG export industry. Germany and Austria’s ir- Pamela Harvey
ritable response to the US bill underlines a growing sense of imbalance between the Vice President
three regions, as the US and Russia continue to compete for supply dominance in the Andy McDowell
global gas industry. GP Vice President
Ron Higgins
LITERATURE CITED
Vice President, Production
1
Nord Stream 2, “Supplying natural gas to Europe: Rationale,” project website: https://www.nord-stream2.com/
Sheryl Stone
project/rationale/
2
Auswärtiges Amt, “Press release: Foreign Minister Gabriel and Austrian Federal Chancellor Kern on the impo- Other Gulf Publishing Company titles include:
Hydrocarbon Processing ®, World Oil ®,
sition of Russia sanctions by the US Senate,” June 15, 2017, online: http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/EN/ Petroleum Economist ©, Pipeline & Gas Journal
Infoservice/Presse/Meldungen/2017/170615_Kern_Russland.html and Underground Construction.

4 JULY/AUGUST 2017 | GasProcessingNews.com
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 GAS PROCESSING NEWS
B. ANDREW, Technical Editor

GE in Romanian Syngas process for

gas project Uzbek GTL project
GE has been awarded Topsoe’s synthesis gas
an order from the consortium technology has been chosen
Duro Felguera—Romelectro for Oltin Yo’l GTL, a 38-Mbpd GTL
(DF Energy) for core technology plant in Uzbekistan. The company
in a new combined-cycle power will deliver proprietary equipment
plant from Romgaz in Iernut, for two synthesis gas trains, each
Romania. With a planned power including autothermal reformers
generation capacity of 430 MW, (ATRs), waste heat boilers, steam
the Iernut project is southeastern drums, CTS burners, refractory
Europe’s largest gas project materials and HTZR target tiles.
in 5 yr. Oltin Yo’l GTL will produce
GE’s technology will be synthetic diesel, jet fuel, and
capable of generating the naphtha from local natural gas.
equivalent power needed In English, Oltin Yo’l means
to supply 1 MM Romanian “golden road.” The project is
households. In addition, the anticipated to set Uzbekistan on
project is Romania’s largest public a “golden road” of development.
investment in conventional power Site preparation work for the
in 20 yr, with a total investment facility is already underway.
of €268 MM from Romgaz. The GTL facility will be one
The plant will feature four of GE’s 6F.03 gas turbines, two steam turbines and four heat recovery steam of the most advanced energy
generators (HRSG) as part of an expanded scope of solutions from GE’s portfolio, following the acquisition of plants in the world. Based on
the former Alstom Power business. GE technology is expected to boost the plant’s gross efficiency to 56.4%—
Uzbekistan’s rich natural gas
an increase of 18%—and reduce CO2 emissions by 38% compared to current levels.
resources, it will produce high-
The new combined-cycle power plant will be built within the existing gas-fired power plant site. Work will
quality synthetic fuels that release
commence later in 2017, and the new plant is expected to replace the existing plant upon completion in 2019.
GE’s technology is anticipated to benefit the Romanian grid in several ways. In addition to flexible startup fewer emissions when burned
times of less than 15 min, the power plant will bring more stability to the grid by providing faster and more as transport and aviation fuel,
accessible energy reserves. thereby improving air quality.
Also, the strategic location of the Iernut power plant—close to high-voltage lines connecting Romania’s Topsoe’s synthesis gas
different geographic regions—will enable energy providers to respond quickly to grid demand fluctuations in technology is the first fundamental
the region with minimal transmission and distribution loss. step of Sasol’s Slurry Phase
Distillate Process, which is the
core process of the plant. Sasol
Wood Group in New LNG carrier to be equipped Technology has been appointed
Greek LNG project with Mark III Flex containment the single-point licensor, and
Hyundai Engineering Co. is the
GTT has received an order engineering, procurement and
from Hyundai Heavy Industries construction (EPC) partner.
(HHI) to equip a new LNG carrier
with its Mark III Flex containment
system. Hyundai’s shipyard,
Gazprom to fund
based in Ulsan, South Korea, will Turkish Stream
build the 180,000-m3 vessel on behalf of Norwegian shipping company Investment in the Turkish
Norspan LNG XII AS (Knutsen). Delivery is scheduled for 2019.
Stream gas pipeline project
At present, the Knutsen fleet contains 10 large-scale LNG carriers in
is estimated at $6 B, but the
service and one on order. All of the LNG carriers are equipped with GTT
project can be implemented
membrane containment systems. Mark III Flex, the technology adopted
for this new LNG carrier, represents an evolution of the Mark range. It only at the expense of Gazprom,
allows a boiloff rate of 0.085 vol%/d. Deputy Chairman of Gazprom
Management Committee Andrey
Wood Group has secured a
Kruglov said at a press conference.
new FEED contract with Gastrade Gazprom to start gas supplies to China Gazprom does not intend
SA for the Alexandroupolis
Independent Natural Gas System via Power of Siberia in December 2019 to involve other entities in the
Turkish Stream pipeline within the
(INGS) offshore Greece. framework of the first thread, as
Gazprom has announced that
The project, to develop a the gas is intended only for Turkey.
it will start supplying natural
floating LNG receiving, storage gas to China via the Power of Shell or OMV may enter the
and regasification unit (FSRU), Siberia pipeline in late December second string, Gazprom said.
will create a new natural gas 2019. According to Gazprom, the Gazprom commenced
gateway to the markets of $400-B pipeline will transport construction of the offshore
southeastern and central Europe. natural gas from the Irkutsk and section of the Turkish Stream
Wood Group’s subsea team Yakutia gas production centers to consumers in Russia’s Far East and gas pipeline along the bottom of
will perform the design and China. The pipeline will provide China with up to 38 Bcmy of natural gas the Black Sea on May 7. The first
engineering definition of the supplies for up to 30 yr. string of the pipeline will bring gas
Alexandroupolis FSRU and its The construction of the eastern route pipeline will be complemented to Turkish consumers, while the
subsystems, which will support by the construction of the $12.7-B Amur gas processing plant. The plant second string will deliver gas to
the final investment decision (FID) will have a processing capacity of 49 Bcmy. Once completed, the plant southern and southeastern Europe.
for the project. FID is planned will be Russia’s largest gas processing facility, and will constitute an Each string will have a throughput
for late 2017. integral part of natural supplies to China. capacity of 15.75 Bm3/yr.

6 JULY/AUGUST 2017 | GasProcessingNews.com
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Golar, Delfin
to develop
Delfin LNG
Delfin Midstream and Golar
LNG Ltd. have signed a joint
development agreement (JDA)
to develop the Delfin LNG project
off the coast of Cameron Parish,
Louisiana, utilizing Golar’s
FLNG technology. The JDA
will facilitate the financing,
marketing, construction,
development and operation
of Delfin LNG.
Delfin LNG is the first and
only permitted floating LNG
(FLNG) export project in the
US. Delfin LNG is a brownfield
deepwater port requiring
minimal additional infrastructure
investment to support up to
four FLNG vessels producing
up to 13 MMtpy of LNG.
Delfin purchased the UTOS
pipeline, the largest natural
gas pipeline in the Gulf of
Mexico, in 2014 and submitted
its Deepwater Port license
application in 2015.
Delfin LNG received a positive
record of decision from MARAD
on March 13. On June 1, Delfin
received approval from the
Department of Energy for long-
term exports of LNG to countries
that do not have a free trade
agreement with the US.
Golar has successfully
designed, financed, contracted,
and built its first FLNG vessel,
the FLNG Hilli Episeyo, which
is scheduled to sail away from
Keppel shipyard in Q3 2017.
A second vessel of the same
FLNG design, the FLNG
Gandria, is soon to be converted
subject to a final investment
decision (FID) by the
Fortuna project partners.
Golar is developing the
Mark II next-generation floating
liquefaction solution that is
based on its Hilli and Gandria
designs. The Mark II solution, as
used at the Delfin LNG project,
will have more than 3 MMtpy of
liquefaction capacity and will
be the lowest-cost liquefaction
solution in North America.
It is expected that FID on
the Delfin project will take place
in 2018, with first LNG to be
delivered in 2021–2022.
8 JULY/AUGUST 2017 | GasProcessingNews.com
GAS PROCESSING NEWS
B. ANDREW, Technical Editor
Lithuania signs first deal for US LNG
Lithuania’s state-owned gas
trader, Lietuvos Duju Tiekimas
(LDT), has signed a deal to buy
LNG directly from the US for the
first time. It expects to receive
a delivery in the second half of
August. The deal was made
with a unit of Cheniere Energy
and is part of Lithuania’s efforts
to diversify its gas suppliers
and reduce its reliance on
Russia’s Gazprom.
LDT, part of state-owned
energy group Lietuvos Energija,
signed a deal last year with
Koch Supply & Trading for LNG
supplies throughout 2017. The
LNG terminal at the Klaipeda port
broke Russian Gazprom’s gas
supply monopoly in the Baltic States when it came online in 2014, and now provides Lithuania with
roughly half of its gas supply. Gazprom supplies the rest, but it can no longer charge monopoly prices.
Lithuania will store the LNG gas at its Incukalns underground gas storage facility, LDT said. Litgas,
also owned by Lietuvos Energija, and Lithuanian fertilizer producer Achema import LNG through the
terminal from Norway’s Statoil.
Compressor technology for offshore China Sinopec, Linde
to supply air
gases to China
Sinopec, the biggest
integrated refining and chemical
company in China, and The Linde
Group announced that they
have established a €145 MM JV.
Under the terms of the JV, they
will supply vital industrial gases
to local customers from key
industries, such as petrochemicals,
steel and electronics, within the
Ningbo Chemical Industrial Zone
in China’s Zhejiang province.
Sinopec Zhenhai Refining &
Chemical Co. (ZRCC) and Linde
will each hold a 50% stake in the
newly formed Ningbo Linde-ZRCC
Gases Co. Ltd. (Linde-ZRCC), the
sixth consecutive JV between
the companies. The agreement
will see Linde-ZRCC acquire
The Zhanjiang branch of CNOOC China Ltd. has commissioned two existing air separation units
MAN Diesel & Turbo to supply a total of six compressor trains for the (ASUs) from ZRCC and construct
Dongfang 13-2 Gas Fields Development Project in the South China Sea. a third, for a combined 150,000
The compressor trains from MAN Diesel & Turbo Schweiz AG are to m3/hr of O2 capacity.
be used in gas reinjection and export on new platforms in the Dongfang The new ASU, expected to
13-2 gas field, located in Yinggehai Basin of the Beibu Gulf, with an come onstream in 2018, will
average water depth of approximately 70 m. incorporate Linde’s intelligent
The total order comprises three wet gas and three dry gas solutions for remote operation,
compressor trains with intercooled barrel-type compressors, all driven diagnostics and analytics, as
by electric motors with a variable frequency converter. The wet gas well as a modular design to
compressor trains will be built as standardized and modularized increase efficiency, reduce energy
upstream packages. requirements and enhance
Today’s oil and gas industry is asking for best value solutions to flexibility of production.
tackle cost constraints, and for fast delivery times to start production These three additional ASUs
as soon as possible. MAN’s standardized upstream packages address will double Linde’s production
these requirements to the full extent without compromising on safety or capacity for air gases in the
reliability. Ningbo cluster and will be
The modular approach of these packages makes it possible to cut connected to Linde’s pipeline
costs and lead time considerably. The size and weight of the compressor supply network across Ningbo.
packages are also reduced, resulting in additional benefits, especially Linde’s Engineering Division will
for offshore application customers. design and construct the new ASU.
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 BUSINESS TRENDS

Small-scale processing solutions

tackle associated gas flaring
A. BLUME, Editor

The small-scale GTL (SSGTL) and
small-scale LNG (SSLNG) sectors are
gaining ground, providing alternative
sources of power generation and trans-
portation fuel in remote regions and ar-
eas not connected to major gas pipeline
routes. According to the International
Gas Union (IGU), as of 2015, global
SSLNG installed production capacity was
approximately 20 MMtpy, spread among
more than 100 SSLNG facilities.1 The
IGU defines SSLNG facilities as those
producing less than 1 MMtpy of LNG.
A number of economic, geopolitical
and environmental factors combine to
make SSGTL and SSLNG viable solu-
tions for specific demand and supply
scenarios. Natural gas is widely touted as
a relatively inexpensive and environmen-
tally friendly source of fuel. Compared to
other fossil fuels, natural gas emits sig-
nificantly smaller quantities of CO2 , SOx ,
NOx and particulate matter (PM) when
burned as fuel.
However, a problem exists in the
widespread flaring of associated gas by
oil producers around the world. Several
initiatives, standards and regulations
have been established by international
partnerships and individual govern-
ments to reduce gas flaring, but more so-
lutions are needed. SSGTL and SSLNG
are being touted as two ways of mon-
etizing associated gas while also cutting
down on flaring.
the Caspian Sea region (approximately
50 Bm3/yr–60 Bm3/yr), Africa (more
than 30 Bm3/yr) and the Middle East
(approximately 30 Bm3/yr).2
The World Bank’s Zero Routine Flar-
ing by 2030 initiative aims to end routine
flaring of associated gas by the end of the
next decade. A number of governments,
oil companies and development institu-
tions have endorsed the initiative (FIG. 2).3
Among the participating governments is
Iraq, which joined the initiative in 2017
in what The World Bank called “a remark-
able and bold decision.” The GGFR part-
nership previously named oil production
increases in Iraq (which has been a mem-
ber of the GGFR since 2011) as a signifi-
cant possible source of increased flaring.2
The World Bank wrote in May 2017,
“The volume of gas currently flared in
Iraq represents an estimated annual eco-
nomic loss of about $2.5 B and would be
sufficient to meet most of the country’s
unmet needs for gas-based power genera-
tion.” Shortages of gas-based power cost
the country an estimated $6 B/yr–$8 B/
yr in imports of alternative fuels, although
the volume of power that could be gener-
ated by Iraq’s flared associated gas is esti-
mated at approximately 8.5 GW.4
Iraq established Basra Gas Co. (BGC)
in 2013 as a partnership between state-
owned South Gas Co., Shell and Mit-
subishi. BGC aims to capture, process
and monetize associated gas from its
southern oil fields and could eventually
become the world’s largest gas flaring re-
duction project.4
Meanwhile, shale-heavy production
areas in the US, such as the Bakken shale
in the Dakotas, or the Marcellus forma-
tion in the Appalachian basin, saw the
implementation of methane flaring and
venting regulations by the US Bureau of
Land Management (BLM) under the
Obama administration. The US Senate
has upheld the BLM’s methane flaring
rule under the Trump administration,
drawing criticism from the American Pe-
troleum Institute and other organizations.

Drivers to reduce associated gas

flaring. According to The World Bank’s
Global Gas Flaring Reduction (GGFR)
private-public partnership, established
at the World Summit on Sustainable
Development in 2002, an estimated
140 Bm3/yr of gas is flared around the
world. This volume equates to more than
360 MMt of CO2 emitted into the atmo-
sphere (FIG. 1). The regions with the larg- FIG. 1. Global gas flaring intensity per m3/bbl of oil produced. Source: The World Bank’s GGFR
partnership.3
est volumes of gas flared are Russia and
Gas Processing | JULY/AUGUST 2017 11
BUSINESS TRENDS

TABLE 1. GGFR qualitative assessment of associated gas utilization options, 2013

Gas reinjection Pipeline transport CNG SSLNG SSGTL Gas-to-power
Gas composition
Production profile
Revenue/product uplift
CAPEX
Technology maturity
Transport to market Not applicable
Energy and carbon efficiency
Operational safety considerations
Community interdependency
Note: Green boxes indicate favorable factors, yellow boxes indicate uncertain/developing factors, and red boxes indicate challenging factors.
Source: The World Bank’s GGFR partnership2

TABLE 2. Gas Processing qualitative assessment of associated gas utilization options, 2017
Gas reinjection Pipeline transport CNG SSLNG SSGTL Gas-to-power
Gas composition
Production profile
Revenue/product uplift
CAPEX
Technology maturity
Transport to market Not applicable
Energy and carbon efficiency
Operational safety considerations
Community interdependency
Note: Green boxes indicate favorable factors, yellow boxes indicate uncertain/developing factors, and red boxes indicate challenging factors. A split cell with two colors indicates a
status halfway between favorable and developing (red/yellow) or developing and challenging (yellow/green).
Structure of table sourced from The World Bank’s GGFR partnership.2

Challenges to reducing flaring vary
among geographies and regions, but in
some cases they have been magnified
as shale oil production technology has
improved. If gathering lines are pres-
ent, they may be undersized to accom-
modate the amount of gas flared from
expanded oil sites. This scenario is seen
in the Williston basin in the US Dakotas
and Montana. Additional infrastructure
and compression capacity are needed to
handle the large volume of associated gas
coming from plays like the Williston. Al-
though gas processing plant capacity in
the US has increased by several hundred
percent over the last decade, the installa-
tion of additional infrastructure still takes
time. Stop-gap solutions are needed.
Flaring regulations and initiatives in
the US and around the world have pro-
vided small-scale gas processing tech-
nology firms with an opportunity to
offer solutions to the problem of excess
flaring. SSGTL may prove an especially
12 JULY/AUGUST 2017 | GasProcessingNews.com
attractive option in areas where flaring is
not allowed, aiding oil production when
no other associated gas utilization meth-
ods are available.
The scaling down of GTL technology
to under 2 Mbpd is anticipated to open
up a significant percentage of the world’s
untapped gas fields to economic feasi-
bility. The opportunities for small-scale
gas processing will increase as oil and
gas prices improve after the past 2 yr of
sharp declines.
SSGTL, SSLNG offer alternative so-
lutions. The small-scale gas process-
ing market is growing as technology
improvements make the installation of
SSLNG and SSGTL facilities easier and
more economically viable. In 2013, the
GGFR named a number of challenges for
the small-scale monetization of associ-
ated gas, including:
• Distance to market
• Lack of local infrastructure
• Small gas reserves often change
in volume
• Price distortion due to local fuel
subsidies
• Availability of capital
• Need to develop modular,
skid-mounted monetization
technologies that can be deployed
and redeployed close to the gas
source in a phased manner
• Associated gas monetization is
traditionally viewed as requiring
economies of scale.2
In the 5 yr since the GGFR report, a
number of technology solutions have
emerged to address these challenges
and change the conventional thinking
on associated gas monetization. These
solutions include modularization and
standardization of production units and
construction plans. A number of small-
scale technology providers are touting
“off-the-shelf ” and “plug-and-play” units
as answers to reduce costs and speed time

Canada*
*Federal/tribal
lands; and
offshore
California
(US) United States*
Mexico
French
Guiana
Peru
FIG. 2. Map of endorsers of The World’s Bank’s Zero Routine Flaring by 2030 initiative. Source: The World Bank.3
to market for SSLNG and SSGTL facili-
ties. Modular construction also reduces
risk, enhances flexibility and encourages
higher efficiency.
These units have small footprints, are
usually mobile and can sometimes be
hooked up directly to the wellhead. Pipe-
line, trucking and/or shipping solutions
support the transport of the captured
gas to facilities for further processing, or
to distribution networks for delivery to
end-users.
Other solutions for associated gas
monetization include gas reinjection
into reservoirs, pipeline transport (where
infrastructure is present), CNG, gas-
to-power and gas-to-chemicals, such as
methanol and DME. In 2013, the GG-
FR’s feasibility assessment of the various
drivers of associated gas monetization for
fuel and power appeared to favor gas-to-
power and CNG (TABLE 1).
In 2017, however, the picture has
shifted (TABLE 2). A number of SSGTL
and SSLNG companies have made great
strides in their technology offerings, cre-
ating solutions that are more economi-
cally and logistically feasible. A number of
small-scale gas processing projects are in
Norway Russian Federation
Netherlands
Denmark
Germany
Kazakhstan
France
Uzbekistan
Azerbaijan Turkmenistan
Iraq
Bahrain
Oman
Cameroon
Nigeria Rep. of
Gabon Congo
Angola
Endorsing country/government (24)
Other country with oil production > 0.5 MMbpd
Endorsing oil company (31)
Endorsing development institution (15) (not shown on map)
commercial operation in the US, China,
Europe, South America and Central Asia,
and others will soon advance beyond the
pilot plant and demonstration stages.
Factors to consider for small-scale
development. Not surprisingly, capital
cost is the most critical factor for these
developments, particularly in a down-
ward price cycle. Products with high en-
ergy densities—i.e., liquid fuels produced
through SSLNG or SSGTL processes—
are generally more desirable and lucrative.
SSLNG and CNG compete mainly
with other hydrocarbon fuels (i.e., oil,
coal, LPG) for power generation, while
SSGTL fuels compete directly with other
transportation fuels (i.e., diesel, DME).
Stricter International Maritime Orga-
nization (IMO) marine regulations are
also stimulating demand for SSLNG as
a bunker fuel in Europe. Operating costs
for SSLNG and SSGTL are primarily in-
fluenced by operating complexity (which
has seen simplification in recent years),
distance to market and energy efficiency.
Some SSGTL and SSLNG opportuni-
ties are only viable when a complete sup-
ply chain is developed, from the wellhead
BUSINESS TRENDS
Indonesia
to the end-user. Designing, building and
operating all components of a supply
chain effectively and competitively are
continuing challenges for small-scale gas
processing companies.
These challenges must be met while
accommodating each project’s available
gas supply and local demand, existing and
required infrastructure, technology de-
mands and limitations, and environmen-
tal considerations, among other factors.
The development of standardized, flex-
ible, cost-effective supply networks will
be crucial to meeting these challenges. GP
LITERATURE CITED
1
International Gas Union, Program Committee D3,
“2012–2015 triennium work report,” June 2015.
2
Svensson, B., “Best practices for evaluating and
reducing emissions from oil and gas production: An
evaluation of flare gas reduction opportunities,” The
World Bank’s Global Gas Flaring Reduction partner-
ship, presented at the Methane Expo, Vancouver,
British Columbia, Canada, March 12–13, 2013.
3
The World Bank, “Zero Routine Flaring by 2030,”
2017, online: http://www.worldbank.org/en/pro-
grams/zero-routine-flaring-by-2030
4
The World Bank, “Amid ongoing conflict, Iraq to
begin snuffing out flares,” May 9, 2017, online:
htt p://w w w.world bank .org/en/new s/fea-
ture/2017/05/09/amid-ongoing-conflict-iraq-to-
begin-snuffing-out-flares
Gas Processing | JULY/AUGUST 2017 13
 US INDUSTRY METRICS
A. BLUME, Managing Editor

In the US, Henry Hub natural gas spot prices remained around
$3/MMBtu in July, according to US EIA data, showing strength

INNOVATIVE VALVE TECHNOLOGY in their stabilization from volatile price increases and decreases
earlier in the year. Hot weather in the US is driving up demand
ENGINEERED + PATENTED for cooling, which is boosting power burn and consumption
of natural gas. Exports to Mexico via pipeline, and to other
areas via LNG tanker from Sabine Pass, are also on the rise.
QUARTER TURN MECHANICAL SEAL Meanwhile, US production of NGL, LPG, ethane/ethylene and
ZERO LEAKAGE propane/propylene slid slightly in April after across-the-board
ON/OFF & FLOW CONTROL increases in March. GP

PROTECTED SEAT DESIGN

US gas production (Bcfd) and prices ($/Mcf)
PIGGABLE DESIGNS
100 7
CARTRIDGE FEATURE REDUCES DOWNTIME
6
HIGH TEMPERATURE/METAL SEAT 80
5

Gas prices, $/Mcf

Production, Bcfd
2”-24” 60 4
40 3
Monthly price (Henry Hub) 2
20 12-month
12-monthprice
priceavg.
avg.
Production 1
0 0
J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J
2015 2016 2017
Production equals U.S. marketed production, wet gas. Source: EIA.

DOWNSTREAM US natural gas spot prices at Henry Hub

SEAT and NGL spot prices at Mont Belvieu, $/MMBtu
UPSTREAM 25
SEAT Natural gasoline
Isobutane
20 Butane
NGPL composite
Propane
15 Ethane
Natural gas spot prices (Henry Hub)
DOUBLE BLOCK & BLEED/DIB
$/MMBtu

“VERIFIABLE SHUTOFF” VALVE 10

DOUBLE BLOCK AVAILABLE

IN HIGH TEMP 5

0
June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March April May June July
2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017
Source: US EIA

US natural gas plant field production of NGL,

LPG, ethane/ethylene and propane/propylene, Mbpd
40

35
US gas plant field production, Mbpd

30

25 NGL
15B S TRADE CENTER PKWY, CONROE, TX 77385 LPG
Ethane/ethylene
PH (936) 539-5770 FAX (936) 539-2990 20 Propane/propylene

EMAIL SALES@CHROMATICINDUSTRIES.COM 15
WWW.CHROMATICINDUSTRIES.COM 10
April- May- June- July- Aug.- Sept.- Oct.- Nov.- Dec.- Jan.- Feb.- Mar.- April-
API & ISO CERTIFIED 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2017 2017 2017 2017
Source: US EIA

14JULY/AUGUST 2017 | GasProcessingNews.com
 REGIONAL FOCUS

Russian Novatek charges ahead with

Yamal LNG, Arctic LNG 2 projects
E. GERDEN, Contributing Writer

Novatek, Russia’s largest independent

natural gas producer, plans to invest up
to $11 B in the large-scale Arctic LNG
2 project. The project involves the con-
struction of an LNG plant on the Gydan
Peninsula—a geographical feature of the
Siberian coast of the Kara Sea (FIG. 1).
The company is conducting prelimi-
nary design work for the project, which was
previously threatened with cancellation
by the imposition of Western sanctions
on Russia. However, the Russian govern-
ment’s promise to support Novatek’s first
LNG project, Yamal LNG, as well as the
ongoing recovery of the country’s econo-
my, convinced Novatek to move forward
with the Arctic LNG 2 project.
The capacity of the Arctic LNG 2 ter-
minal will be similar to the Yamal LNG
project on the Yamal Peninsula. The Ya-
mal LNG project will source gas from FIG. 1. The new Arctic LNG 2 plant will be built on the shores of the Kara Sea,
the South Tambeyskoye field and pro- part of the Arctic Ocean north of Siberia.
duce an estimated 16.5 metric MMtpy of
LNG. Arctic LNG 2 will draw from the tions. Novatek’s shipyard will house ca- investment announced by the company
Salmanovskoye and Geophysycheskoy pacities for the production of concrete, as for the project is too small. The Ministry
oil and gas condensate fields; LNG pro- well as the steel structures and formwork. expects the final spending figure to be as
duction of 70 metric MMtpy is expected Domestic and imported building materi- much as twice as high.
with adequate gas reserves. The resource als will be utilized. The technical concept for Arctic
base of the second project is estimated at Arctic LNG 2 has already received a li- LNG 2 was provided by Kvaerner, KBR
1.2 Tm3 and 56.5 metric MMt of C1 and cense to export LNG abroad, and construc- and Linde. Novatek may face problems
C2 liquid hydrocarbons. tion is planned to commence at the begin- sourcing technical materials during proj-
ning of 2018. The first stage of Arctic LNG ect implementation, however, due to the
Design of Arctic LNG 2 project. The 2, with a capacity of 5 metric MMt–5.5 impacts of sanctions. Funding will largely
Arctic LNG 2 plant will be built through metric MMt, is slated for launch between come from private investments, rather
modular construction on gravity-based 2019 and 2020. The second stage, with than from the Russian National Wealth
platforms in the Kara Sea (FIG. 2), rath- a capacity of 5 metric MMt–5.5 metric Fund, as in the case of Yamal LNG. Ma-
er than onshore. Other equipment for MMt, is anticipated to launch between jor investors in Arctic LNG 2 are expected
the plant will be built by Novatek at its 2019 and 2024, and the third stage will to be European export credit agencies,
own shipyard, which is located on the be put into operation between 2023 and as well as Chinese financial corporations
Kola Peninsula. 2025, with a similar capacity. and institutions, such as China National
Novatek believes that the use of The new LNG plant is expected to be Petroleum Corp. (CNPC). The Chinese
gravity-based platforms will help avoid one of the world’s least expensive in terms company is reportedly in talks to partici-
high logistics costs associated with the of production costs. Lower infrastructure, pate in the project.
delivery of large-scale equipment to the design and building costs will reduce the
remote Arctic region. The modular, plat- project’s overall CAPEX compared to Continuing progress on Yamal LNG. In
form-based construction will also save Yamal LNG. However, Russia Ministry September 2016, Novatek signed a memo-
on building costs amid permafrost condi- of Energy analysts believe that the $11-B randum of cooperation (MpC) with the
Gas Processing | JULY/AUGUST 2017 15
REGIONAL FOCUS
Japan Bank for International Cooperation
( JBIC) for the provision of $400 MM
for the Yamal LNG project. According to
JBIC’s executive director, the bank will also
consider participating in Arctic LNG 2.
According to Novatek’s assessments,
the Yamal LNG project will be profitable
at an average gas price of $7/MMBtu.
To date, almost all future production of
Yamal LNG has been contracted. Supply
agreements have not yet been signed for
Arctic LNG 2, which is anticipated to sell
most of its product on the spot market.
FIG. 2. A ship delivers the first batch of equipment for the construction of the foundation
for the Arctic LNG 2 terminal.
FIG. 3. Delivery of the Yamal LNG engineering unit on a self-propelled platform,
which marks the beginning of the second stage of project implementation.
16 JULY/AUGUST 2017 | GasProcessingNews.com
Novatek is considering signing con-
tracts at 11% of the oil price, which is
significantly lower than the initial expec-
tation of 13%–14%, when oil prices were
higher than $100/bbl. With ever-increas-
ing competition in the global LNG mar-
ket, it is increasingly difficult to link prices
for oil and LNG. However, Novatek main-
tains that both the Yamal LNG and Arctic
LNG 2 projects will be competitive, with
lower-than-average construction costs.
The company plans to launch the first
stage of the Yamal LNG project by the
end of 2017. The total cost of the project,
which will be implemented by the Russian
company with its foreign partners—Total
(20%), CNPC (20%) and Chinese Silk
Road Fund (9.9%)—is estimated at $27 B.
If total LNG production from the
Yamal LNG and Arctic LNG 2 projects
reaches 33 metric MMt by 2025, it could
give Russia up to a 7% share of the global
LNG market. To date, the first stage of Ya-
mal LNG has reached 88% completion,
and the entire project has achieved 75%
completion (FIG. 3).
The majority of the production of both
plants will be exported abroad, mainly to
China and other Asia-Pacific countries.
Novatek has already reached an agree-
ment with Chinese CNPC for the supply
of at least 3 metric MMtpy of LNG. Ac-
cording to the Russian Ministry of Energy,
LNG imported from Yamal could account
for up to 1.6% of China’s total gas con-
sumption, which is expected to reach 257
Bm3 in 2018. However, these forecasts do
not take into account planned Chinese
imports from Gazprom, which recently
signed a 30-yr contract with the Chinese
government for supplies of 38 Bm3/yr of
LNG from 2018.
Russia races to cater to LNG market.
The country’s LNG output is small at
present, lagging behind major competi-
tors such as Algeria (with production of
12 metric MMtpy), Nigeria (20 metric
MMtpy), Malaysia (25 metric MMtpy)
and others.
Domestic LNG production comes
from the Sakhalin-2 plant, which is oper-
ated by Gazprom and produces approxi-
mately 10 metric MMtpy. This capacity is
expected to increase in the coming years.
In addition, Russian oil producer Rosneft
plans to build two LNG plants by 2024—
Pechora LNG and Far East LNG.
The Russian government hopes that
the successful implementation of both
Novatek LNG projects will allow the com-
pany to significantly strengthen Russia’s
position in the global LNG market. GP
EUGENE GERDEN is
an international
contributing writer
specializing in the
global oil refining and
gas industry. He has
been published in a
number of prominent
industry publications.
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VISUALIZE GLOBAL ENERGY DATA
Gulf Publishing Company’s Energy Web Atlas (EWA) visualizes energy data
from the international oil and gas industry. The ESRI-based platform launches this
Fall with comprehensive datasets focusing on US gas processing plants and
international LNG and pipeline facilities.

Gas Plant Data

The platform’s mapping, search and query tools
allow users to interrogate real-time facility and
project data and find the information needed
for major decisions. Data points include:

• Owner/Operator • Key contacts

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• Plant type/flow, BTU
content, infrastructure • Gas storage capacity.

• Plant Status

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Built for ease of use, the platform facilitates
access to the most relevant data, with
functionality including:

• Custom reporting, charting and graphing

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Including LNG/pipeline data and Downstream construction project data.

D I S C O V E R M O R E AT E N E R G Y W E B AT L A S . C O M

Small-scale LNG makes inroads
in transport and power markets
ALICIA TRENT, Product Leader, Oil and Gas Processing, Baker Hughes, a GE Company, Houston, Texas
ALICIA TRENT is the Product Line Leader for
the oil and gas processing division of Baker
Hughes, a GE Company. Appointed to this
position in January 2015, she leads the global
growth in these areas of the business. She has
broad experience in the gas industry, including
technical, marketing and management expertise.
Ms. Trent is a graduate of the Georgia
Institute of Technology, where she earned a BS
degree in chemical and biomolecular engineer-
ing, and an MS degree in mechanical engineer-
ing. She serves on the steering committee for GE
Houston Women’s Network and co-leads GE’s
Asian Pacific American Forum Myconnections.
Gas Processing spoke with Alicia Trent,
Product Lead for small-scale LNG for
Baker Hughes, a GE Company, about
the state of the small-scale gas process-
ing market. Numerous drivers are lead-
ing the development of small-scale LNG
projects around the world, with many
of these drivers addressing specific and
SPECIAL FOCUS: SMALL-SCALE PROCESSING
SOLUTIONS/EXECUTIVE Q&A VIEWPOINT
niche markets, as well as the push to make
use of isolated and stranded gas reserves.
GP. As crude oil prices improve,
how will smaller-scale LNG compete
against petroleum-based fuels?
Trent. The transition toward a low-
carbon world is progressing, with compa-
nies testing different strategies to develop
the optimal solution for each small-scale
LNG application. These solutions have
evolved into simpler, more precise appli-
cations fit for a large range of needs, from
the source and final end-use to project-
specific considerations, such as weather
and construction details.
This process results in a deeper under-
standing of which LNG solutions are com-
mercially and technically suitable, and
when each project may become feasible
(i.e., arbitrage in fuel prices and availabili-
ty of supply and demand). These develop-
ments, combined with the improvement
in crude oil prices, will see LNG compete
globally in a less ad hoc and more focused
way, especially outside of China, which
has already seen an increase in small-scale
LNG due to regulations. Furthermore, as
technology applications and the evolu-
tion of solutions grow, the skepticism and
barriers for LNG adoption lessen.
GP. What are the main advantages
to smaller-scale LNG that are
attracting investors? Do you see
these advantages expanding
for technology developers,
and if so, how?
Trent. At the heart of small-scale LNG
is the liquefaction process. It enables the
economic transport and/or storage of
natural gas to drive its commercial com-
petitiveness and ease of market adoption
for fueling and industrial needs vs. incum-
bent fuels. Small-scale LNG is particularly
interesting, as it provides more flexibility
in applications that would be a challenge
to meet using traditional baseload LNG.
For instance, many operators have an
interest in quick-to-market solutions to
monetize gas sooner and increase com-
petitiveness by quickly testing solutions.
Small-scale LNG allows for quicker time
to market because the equipment is “off-
the-shelf ”—the designs can be modular-
ized to allow for fast installation and fewer
site issues. The designs are also simpler, al-
lowing for reductions in project time and
potential project risk. In addition, a range
of execution strategies exist for small-
scale plants that can be tailored to the cus-
tomer and site economics. These plants
can be completely built into the field
(“stickbuilt”) or, on the other end of the
spectrum, made completely “plug-and-
play” to allow for versatility in installation
in even the most challenging conditions.
Whatever the conditions, flexibility in de-
sign and execution is available to drive a
specific project’s competitiveness.
The philosophy of small-scale LNG is
interesting, as the focus is on CAPEX and
de-risking projects to prevent cost over-
run. For a small project, a slight overrun
can have severe economic consequences,
so very careful measures are taken to en-
sure a fully integrated solution, both com-
mercially and technically, to drive project
profitability. This focus and rigor can be
applied to all ranges of LNG to drive its
uptake in the global market. Whether it
is one small-scale LNG train or multiple
mid-scale LNG trains, the approach of
small-scale LNG provides the flexibility
to drive the right solution for each project.
GP. In which markets or applications
do you see smaller-scale LNG as
being more versatile, efficient and/or
cost-effective than larger-scale LNG?
Gas Processing | JULY/AUGUST 2017 19
SPECIAL FOCUS: SMALL-SCALE PROCESSING SOLUTIONS/EXECUTIVE Q&A VIEWPOINT
Trent. Liquefying natural gas enables
a wider range of uses for natural gas.
These uses vary drastically in application
(from small export to domestic use), ca-
pacity, frequency of use (batch or con-
tinuous) and customer specifics. There-
fore, different solutions are warranted to
drive each project forward. Where long-
term, large-scale supply and demand are
secured, and local or regional dynamics
(such as labor costs and site conditions)
are favorable, large-scale facilities have
evolved to become effective and com-
petitive solutions.
Conversely, multiple applications ex-
ist where the aforementioned dynamics
are not clear and require different solu-
tions to move a project forward. For in-
stance, there is a growing need to find
smaller-scale, flexible solutions to drive
projects in countries facing energy pov-
erty, particularly where a gas source ex-
ists nearby. In many cases, this is a wast-
ed gas source that is being flared and can
be captured in a small-scale LNG facility.
Present demand in these areas is not
significant enough to warrant larger-scale
At RedGuard, we build the world’s safest blast-resistant
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20 JULY/AUGUST 2017 | GasProcessingNews.com
solutions. Small-scale LNG provides the
flexibility to begin the adoption of natural
gas to provide electricity to these villages
and towns. These applications are also
consistent with the size of the demands
of mining and drilling operations, as well
as the growing need for fueling in marine
shipment and long-haul trucking. Lastly, a
need exists for flexible LNG solutions for
small export applications, such as island
nations. Small-scale LNG project eco-
nomics help make these projects possible.
The growth of LNG is widespread,
and the different needs for each project
are wide-ranging. Small-scale LNG is one
solution that provides versatility to an-
swer some of the most challenging issues.
GP. The transportation applications
for smaller-scale LNG are large
and growing. Which areas of the
world will see the most significant
developments for truck refueling
and ship bunkering from smaller-
scale LNG production?
Trent. The adoption of LNG as a
fuel is evolving, and a range of different
factors determine the solutions that are
a best fit for each application. LNG has
not only evolved differently, but has also
grown disproportionately around the
world. For example, the initial growth in
the US was encouraged by the fuel pric-
ing differential, but this has slowed due to
the lower differential in recent years.
In China, LNG growth has been stim-
ulated by government regulations. The
same situation is being seen in Europe.
The significant potential for growth in
Europe is due, in large part, to the grow-
ing push to reduce greenhouse gases, as
well as government support for alterna-
tive fuels.
In countries with limited energy avail-
ability, an opportunity exists for fueling
applications as governments look for
economically viable ways to power their
towns. As different solutions are tested,
LNG will become increasingly viable
and economically competitive.
Although the exact growth rate is
unclear, the factors that lead to LNG
growth are known, and the growth of
LNG remains positive. GP

Integrally geared MR compressors reduce
CAPEX and boost efficiency of small-scale LNG
T. PATEL, Atlas Copco Gas and Process Division, Houston, Texas
While lower natural gas prices have created challenges for
large-scale LNG liquefaction plants, they are creating oppor-
tunities for the industry’s small- to mid-sized counterparts.
From small-scale LNG (SSLNG) projects in the US spurred
on by shale-gas development to early adopters in Europe and
Asia, many operators are taking advantage of the benefits of
going small-scale.
SSLNG applications have expanded throughout fuel mar-
kets, ranging from transportation hubs for long-haul vehicles,
buses, trains and shipping fleets to remote commercial and
residential heating networks. Other applications include cost-
effective, stand-alone power generation in remote locations,
peakshaving plants and even virtual pipeline systems to deliver
energy to off-grid areas. Since the gas volume is being reduced
by 600 times, SSLNG poses an attractive alternative to CNG, as
it enables less frequent refueling.
Yet, just as SSLNG is helping expand the options for LNG’s
availability and scope beyond what the larger counterparts can
provide, it is important to understand that small-scale projects
have a different set of technical and logistical requirements.
Quick deployment, scalability, redeployment capability and fast
response to market demand are important factors. Often, the
technologies used in larger plants cannot be efficiently scaled
down, including the compressors running the refrigeration cycle.
Integrally geared centrifugal compressors (IGCs) are more
economically attractive, offering both a lower initial investment
and lower operating costs. The small size of IGCs and their abili-
ty to accommodate interstage cooling and greater process control
allow operators to make full use of agile plant deployment and to
more efficiently run the plant once it becomes operational. With
the added potential of standardizing compressor aerodynamics
due to the similar molecular weight of available mixed refrigerant
(MR) mixtures, the benefits become stacked in favor of IGCs.
Cycle options and compressor solution for MR. The most
common liquefaction process for SSLNG liquefaction trains
with a capacity of less than 1 MMtpy is the single mixed refrig-
erant (SMR) cycle. SMR uses various hydrocarbons (ethylene,
methane and i-butane and/or i-pentane) in place of the pure
hydrocarbon refrigerants used in the discrete cooling steps of
a cascade refrigerant cycle. In basic terms, SMRs condense a
hydrocarbon gas mixture to a liquid, and then use cooling
through its vaporization to chill natural gas close to its boiling
point of –162°C (–260°F). The final phase change into LNG is
often achieved with a valve utilizing the Joule-Thomson effect.
SPECIAL FOCUS: SMALL-SCALE
PROCESSING SOLUTIONS
Several proprietary SMR processes are available on the mar-
ket. These processes typically employ a single-pressure MR
cycle (i.e., the refrigerant is compressed to its highest pressure
before being sent to a series of condensers and separators, and
finally to the heat exchanger to chill the LNG). To boost effi-
ciency, some SMR processes vaporize the MR in two steps (a
high-pressure and a low-pressure stage), which can be driven by
either two compressors or, preferably, by a single compressor
with two separate stage groupings.
Depending on the specific process, ammonia and propane
precooling and/or subcooling may be added, along with frac-
tionation of the refrigerant early in the cycle (FIG. 1). Choos-
ing which process is right for a specific plant usually requires a
balance between the initial capital expenditure (CAPEX) and
long-term efficiency savings—in short, a lifecycle cost analysis.
“Hot-to-cold” startup time, particularly for plants running in-
termittently, and targeted capacity may also be deciding factors.
Although some variety exists in the application of the SMR
concept, from the standpoint of compression technology the
specific processes are quite similar. They utilize a mixed hy-
drocarbon refrigerant with a molecular mass ranging from
32 kg/mol–37 kg/kmol.
The somewhat narrow range of compression requirements
allows for standardization of the compressor’s aerodynamic de-
sign. Since impeller blade geometry and other aerodynamics do
not need to be fully customized to each process, CAPEX and
manufacturing time is reduced; the compressor is delivered for
LNG
LP MR HP MR
Natural gas
FIG. 1. Example of a process flow with interstage gas cooling.
Gas Processing | JULY/AUGUST 2017 21
SPECIAL FOCUS: SMALL-SCALE PROCESSING SOLUTIONS
commissioning faster, at a lower initial investment. Considering
that the liquefaction process can account for upwards of 50% of
the total project costs, lower investment costs for the compres-
sor can go a long way toward plant viability.
Energy savings through integral-gear technology. Inte-
gral-gear technology is based on a central (integral) gearbox,
inside which a main bull gear drives several separate pinions
(FIG. 2). These pinions supply rotational power to compression
stages that are paired sequentially into stage groups of two.
One of the primary benefits of IGCs is the ability to set the
optimal speed for each two-stage grouping during the design
process. This optimal speed is, in turn, determined by the ro-
tor and aerodynamic properties of the impeller, diffuser and
volute—the parts of the machine that compress the gas. This
speed is translated into the gear ratio between the bull gear and
the corresponding pinion for its stage group.
This type of stage optimization is not possible on a single-
shaft machine, where all stages are arranged into one, or some-
times two, housings and are run off the main shaft at the same
speed. Instead, a single-shaft compressor relies on a compro-
FIG. 2. Integrally geared compressor gearbox.a
FIG. 3. MR compressor.a Photo courtesy of Atlas Copco.
22 JULY/AUGUST 2017 | GasProcessingNews.com
mise: The design attempts to set as many stages as close to
their respective optimal speeds as possible. However, the dis-
crepancies between the optimal and actual rotational speed at
each stage are compounded, leading to reduced efficiency for
the entire compressor; i.e., more energy is required to drive the
machine, requiring more power.
As an additional benefit, the improved aerodynamics that
IGCs can obtain at each stage, further enhanced by optional
intercooling, typically translate into higher per-stage pressure
ratios. The result is that fewer compression stages are necessary
to reach a target outlet pressure. This means lower material and
manufacturing costs, which, in turn, help keep the price tag of
an IGC below a comparable single-shaft, inline compressor.
In general, compressors requiring gas or electric drives de-
livering up to 25 MW (33,000 hp) are good fits for integral-
gear technology. In a reference case study, a non-intercooler-
equipped MR compressor delivering a mass flow of 61,824
Nm3/hr (36,388 ft3/m) for a refrigerant with a molecular weight
of 36.223 kg/kmol saw a power savings of 3.2% vs. a base single-
shaft compressor design when running at full availability. At the
competitive local electricity price of roughly $0.06/kWh, this
resulted in a cost savings of nearly $80,000/yr.
Boosting efficiency with intercooling. In addition to stage-
speed optimization, an integral-gear compressor design also
supports intercooling, which is optionally installed between
the stages of the MR compressor. By comparison, intercooling
is more complicated and costly in a single-shaft inline compres-
sor, requiring that the housing be divided into sections.
Intercooling is essential for high isentropic efficiency, a mea-
sure of the deviation of the actual compression process from
an ideal, theoretical compression process. The temperature of
a gas rises when it is put under pressure, which requires an in-
creased amount of work—and thus, more energy—in the next
compression stage to further compress the gas. By cooling the
gas between stages, the compression more closely mirrors an
ideal isentropic process because fluid friction is reduced.
In the case study, intercooling increased efficiency by 6% and
contributed to a total power savings of around 9.3%. Running at
100% availability, this could save the equivalent of $220,000/yr
in power costs.
IGVs/DGVs for improved process control. In cases where air-
cooled condensers are used, when the ambient temperature ris-
es, the refrigerant condensing temperature will also rise as pres-
sure increases in the cycle. To maintain the same level of cooling,
the system will require increased flow at higher pressures.
To effectively control mass flow and power consumption,
two control types are incorporated into IGCs: either variable in-
let guide vanes (IGVs) or variable diffuser guide vanes (DGVs),
according to process characteristics and specifications. For
liquefaction trains that primarily operate at 80% capacity and
higher (which is mostly the case for water-cooled condensers),
IGVs provide excellent efficiency, helping regulate spikes and
troughs in inlet pressure so that the compressor can deliver a
constant mass flow.
For processes that see frequent startup and turndowns, and
where high adjustability to fluctuations in LNG output is re-
quired, variable DGVs provide a great answer.
 SPECIAL FOCUS: SMALL-SCALE PROCESSING SOLUTIONS

Further boosting process control, one MR compressora seg-
regates its four stages into two groupings. This is particularly
attractive for MR plants running processes that vaporize their
refrigerants at two different levels of pressure (a high-pressure
and a low-pressure stage). The segregation allows for each stage
grouping to be independently controlled with IGVs and DGVs
and for precise control when, for example, refrigeration must be
adjusted to match increased or decreased LNG throughput.
Through aerodynamic enhancements such as IGVs and
DGVs, overall compressor efficiency can routinely reach 82%–
84%. When integral-gearing technology’s inherent efficiency
gains are added to the savings that IGVs/DGVs and intercooling
provide, then total energy savings reach 13%–14%.
which is standard. The option of using tandem dry face seals is
also available; this allows for minimization of the seal leakage and
improves machine reliability. Internal carbon ring and labyrinth
seals minimize seal gas flow and prevent oil mist from entering
the chamber. The seal design helps reduce MR leakage by up to
50%, saving approximately $17,000/yr in refrigerant top-ups, ac-
cording to case study data.
IGCs offer comparably low maintenance requirements and
a reliability of 99.8%. IGCs deliver continuous uptime and help
simplify servicing. The gearbox casing allows for easy access
when bearing replacements are needed, and also for effective
monitoring of gears and pinions. Apart from this, maintenance
does not differ greatly from standard single-shaft designs.

Additional features for MR applications. IGCs can build
upon CAPEX, efficiency and process control benefits through
their small size, convenient skid frame and tight sealing technol-
ogy. Since integral-gear technology is the most compact com-
pressor design in the industry, a four-stage MR compressor can fit
onto a small skid measuring 10 m × 6 m (32 ft 9 in. × 19 ft 8 in.)
(FIG. 3). The skid can accommodate a motor, instrumentation
and peripherals like lube oil, seal support and control systems. In-
stallation is simple and the skid can be easily accommodated into
modular plant design for rapid setup and commissioning.
Taking advantage of the gas-tight characteristics of dry gas
seal technology and integrally geared compressor design, an MR
UEC_BornWireless_GasProcess_07-17.pdf 1 7/10/17 12:12
compressor requires only a single external facing dry gas seal,
Takeaway. Integrally geared MR compressors deliver a more stan-
dardized, CAPEX-friendly compressor approach that takes into
account the agile and flexible nature of the SSLNG landscape. GP
NOTES
a Atlas Copco’s mixed refrigerant compressor
TUSHAR PATEL is Business Development and Marketing
Manager for Atlas Copco’s Gas and Process Division.
With vast experience in global manufacturing, a BS degree
in mechanical engineering and an MS degree in marketing
management, he oversees global product marketing and
business development for centrifugal and direct-driven
turbocompressors, as well as expanders used in oil and gas
PM
and chemical/petrochemical processes, industrial gases and power generation.

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Gas Processing | JULY/AUGUST 201723

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Optimal design and operation of molecular
sieve gas dehydration units—Part 1
R. H. M. HEROLD, Contributing Writer, Amsterdam, The Netherlands;
and S. MOKHATAB, Gas Processing Consultant, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
Molecular sieve technology is widely used for the simul-
taneous removal of water and mercaptans from both gas and
liquid feed streams. However, a better understanding of the
design principles and the operation of molecular sieve units is
needed. For economic reasons, it is important not to overde-
sign the molecular sieve unit. At the same time, it is essential to
ensure that the unit does not become the bottleneck of the gas
processing plant at the sieve’s end-of-run condition.
Details of the design and operation of molecular sieve units
used for natural gas dehydration are discussed here. The ap-
plication of expert know-how and practical recommendations
can provide an effective way to maximize molecular sieve life-
time and performance. Part 1 focuses on the design principles
and practices of molecular sieve units.
Molecular sieves background. When treating a gas or liq-
uid stream so that it can be processed by a specific unit, one of
the commonly used treating units is an adsorption unit. These
units are commonly used to remove water from a feed stream,
but they can also remove additional contaminants (e.g., mer-
captans). Specifically, when deep removal is required (below 1
ppmv), molecular sieves—an adsorbent composed of a zeolite
and, typically, a clay binder—are the preferred adsorbent.
Adsorption units are capable of reaching extremely low
specifications, which makes them viable pieces of equipment
for incorporation into a process lineup. A major advantage
of molecular sieves is that they can be regenerated, which re-
duces the required amount of molecular sieve to economically
feasible quantities.
This article examines the use of molecular sieve units for
natural gas dehydration, as they are critical components in the
operation of an LNG or gas processing plant (typically com-
bined with NGL extraction by cryogenic separation), and any
limitation or loss in capacity of this unit can have a significant
effect on overall plant economics.1,2
An adsorption unit used for water removal is called a de-
hydration unit (DHU). A DHU often consists of two or more
vessels, filled with molecular sieves, that adsorb water during
an adsorption period and are subsequently regenerated using
a heated stream of treated gas. A sketch of a typical molecular
sieve DHU is shown in FIG. 1.
The high temperature during regeneration causes water to
desorb from the molecular sieve, a process called temperature
swing adsorption (TSA). Although TSA is a discontinuous
process, the overall DHU behaves like a continuous process be-
ENGINEERING AND CONSTRUCTION
cause one or more vessels are always in adsorption mode, while
another vessel(s) is in regeneration mode.
In a typical DHU, the regeneration gas used is a side (slip)
stream of the product stream (typically approximately 10%).
Downstream of the adsorber vessel, the wet regeneration gas is
cooled, and water is condensed and subsequently removed in a
knockout (KO) drum. When a molecular sieve unit is used for
dehydration, it is possible to send the regeneration gas back to
the feed after compression is performed to negate the pressure
drop. Sending the regeneration gas back to the feed minimizes
valuable product losses. Note: This type of lineup is possible
only for DHUs designed for water removal, as knocking out the
water in the regeneration KO drum provides a “drain” from the
system. Components that cannot be removed from the loop
in such a manner (e.g., sulfur species, such as mercaptans) will
build up in the regeneration gas loop. Consequently, in such a
lineup, the regeneration gas must first be treated by an appro-
priate absorption unit before it can be reinjected in the feed gas.
Providing a cost-effective and reliable design, as well as
optimizing the performance of the DHU, require a detailed
understanding of the DHU’s operation, as discussed in the fol-
lowing sections.
Basic design rules and operational requirements. As
mentioned previously, an adsorption unit is a discontinuous
process, since adsorption is essentially a batch process. One of
the most important design parameters of an adsorption vessel is
the available water uptake capacity of the molecular sieve bed.
However, a few factors make this important design parameter
less straightforward.
In adsorption, gas usually flows from top to bottom. Dur-
ing the adsorption period, the amount of water that can be ad-
Feed gas
Dry gas
FIG. 1. Sketch of a typical molecular sieve DHU.
Gas Processing | JULY/AUGUST 2017 25
ENGINEERING AND CONSTRUCTION
sorbed on the molecular sieve is dictated by both the capacity
that can be reached in the limit of reaching equilibrium, and the
capacity that results from the competition between adsorption
kinetics and the flow of gas past a molecular sieve pellet.
In the adsorbing bed, two zones can be identified. The capac-
ity-limited portion is situated at the top. It is saturated with water
under the feed conditions of temperature, pressure and water
concentration, and is referred to as the saturation zone (SZ).
The part of the bed below the SZ that is engaged in dehydrat-
ing the gas from feed water concentration (wet) to effluent wa-
ter concentration (dry) is called the mass-transfer zone (MTZ)
(FIG. 2). During adsorption, the MTZ migrates from the top of
the bed to the bottom of the bed, thereby lengthening the SZ.
Once the MTZ leaves the bed, breakthrough occurs and the bed
must be taken offline for regeneration.3,4,5
Another important parameter to take into account is that the
capacity of the adsorbent decreases over time as a function of the
number of regeneration cycles; therefore, end-of-run (EOR) ca-
pacity must be used when considering the required amount of ad-
sorbent. When the capacity of the adsorbent falls below the level
where all water in the feed can be adsorbed during the minimum
adsorption time, then the adsorbent must be replaced (FIG. 3).
Another important design parameter is the ability to predict
the rate of deactivation. It is important to understand the main
FIG. 2. Mass transfer zone in an adsorption vessel.
25
20
Uptake capacity, wt%
15
Minimum required uptake capacity
10
5
0 As the capacity of an adsorbent is limited and the vessels
0 200 400 600 800
Number of cycles
FIG. 3. Typical deactivation and molecular sieve changeout profile.
26 JULY/AUGUST 2017 | GasProcessingNews.com
factors contributing to the deactivation of the molecular sieve. In
general, these contributing factors are consequences of the ther-
mal regeneration process.6
During regeneration of the water-saturated molecular sieve,
hot dry gas is passed upward through the molecular sieve bed,
and water desorbs. If the beginning of the regeneration cycle
were started with dry gas at the maximum temperature, then
water would first desorb from the bottom portion of the bed,
using much of the heat of the gas. Subsequently, water that de-
sorbed from the bottom portion of the bed would be carried
to the top portion, which would not yet have been heated by
the regeneration gas. The top portion of the bed would still be
cold and saturated with water, so the desorbed water from the
bottom portion of the bed could condense to form liquid wa-
ter. The formation of hot liquid water in the bed could cause
the clay binder of the molecular sieve to dissolve, subsequently
forming cake during the regeneration step.2,5–12
Caking due to hot liquid water formation during regenera-
tion can be avoided by using a well-designed heating profile
during the regeneration cycle. If the temperature of the regen-
eration gas entering the bed is slowly increased, then the top
portion of the bed can be preheated before much water desorbs
from the bottom portion of the bed. Preheating the top portion
of the bed prevents condensation of liquid water when the wa-
ter from the bottom portion of the bed is finally desorbed. If a
non-ideal temperature profile is used during regeneration, then
degradation of the molecular sieve might still occur without the
formation of a large solid cake.
The characteristics of the temperature profile required to
avoid liquid water formation depend on a number of factors.
The flowrate and composition of the regeneration gas dictate
how much heat is delivered to the molecular sieve bed. The di-
ameter and materials of the vessel determine how much heat
is transferred to the vessel, and at what rate, as opposed to the
amount of heat that is transferred to the molecular sieve. Fur-
thermore, the amount of water adsorbed on the molecular sieve,
taking into account the MTZ, dictates the gas-phase concentra-
tion profile of water moving upward through the bed.
Another form of molecular sieve deactivation is through
coke deposition on the molecular sieve. If the feed to the unit
is heavy, then the heavier hydrocarbons can be adsorbed onto
the molecular sieve binder during adsorption. A portion of the
hydrocarbons will be desorbed during regeneration, but the
residual will remain on the binder, decompose and irreversibly
form coke under hot regeneration conditions, which can lead to
pore blocking that results in a lower water uptake capacity.
The least contributing factor is the effect that continual ther-
Changeout of mal cycling has on the molecular sieve. Some thermal degrada-
moleculor sieve required tion, and the subsequent loss in water removal capacity of the
molecular sieve, will occur. The extent of this degradation and
loss is dependent on the thermal stability of the molecular sieve.
The regeneration process also causes degradation of the binder
material. The expansion and contraction experienced during
thermal swings lead to dust production and an increase in pres-
sure drop that is detrimental to LNG production.
1,000 1,200 1,400
become more expensive as the diameter (i.e., the required wall
thickness) increases, a significant economic driver exists to keep
the vessels as small as possible. One way to achieve this is to op-
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Organized by:
ENGINEERING AND CONSTRUCTION
erate at high pressures (typically 60 bara), as the mass flow to be
treated is then compressed in a smaller volume. Another way is
to reduce the amount of water deposited on the bed by cooling
the feed stream and knocking out excess water in the feed KO
drum. The temperature reduction is limited by the hydrate for-
mation temperature, and the operating temperature is chosen
for safe operation above that temperature.1 Another reason to
operate at a low temperature is that the uptake capacity of the
molecular sieve is higher.
Not yet discussed is the type of molecular sieve to be
used.2,5,7,13 For dehydration, and especially for molecular sieve
units used in LNG application, type 4A is used. As previously
mentioned, a molecular sieve is composed of a zeolite and a
binder, typically clay. The binder is used as a glue to strengthen
the particles. The type of zeolite typically used for dehydration
is the Linde Type A (LTA). A refers to Angstrom, indicating the
diameter of the zeolite channels where the water is adsorbed;
i.e., 4A refers to a zeolite with a channel diameter of 4 Angstrom.
Apart from 4A, 3A LTA and 5A LTA sieves are also used. In
these sieves, the type of cation determines the channel diameter
(K+ for 3A, Na+ for 4A and Ca2+ for 5A).
The effectiveness of zeolites for water removal is based on
two important characteristics:
1. The channel diameter acting as a filter, which limits
the number of species that can co-adsorb
2. The polar environment created in the channels,
which creates an environment in which preferentially
polar molecules are adsorbed.
Water is the molecule that is adsorbed the strongest; con-
sequently, water will displace all other adsorbed molecules.
For LNG applications, a 4A sieve is more stable and has higher
water uptake capacity than a 3A sieve, and less coadsorption
will occur compared to a 5A sieve. However, in gas processing
plants that process pipeline gas, a 3A sieve is typically used. The
reason is that if methanol is added to the feed gas to prevent
hydrate formation, it will pass the 3A sieve bed, since metha-
nol does not fit into the pores. The methanol can be recovered
downstream of the beds in the part of the lineup where heavier
hydrocarbons (e.g., propane and butane) are separated from the
natural gas. Furthermore, coadsorption of methanol on larger-
pore sieves will adversely affect the effectiveness of the molecu-
45
Molecular sieve
40 Silica gel
Alumina
35
30
Water uptake capacity, wt%
25
20
15
10
5 consumed. In such cases, it is common practice to limit
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Relative humidity,%
FIG. 4. Typical isotherms of some adsorbents.
28 JULY/AUGUST 2017 | GasProcessingNews.com
lar sieve with regard to water removal.
The question of why molecular sieves are best suited for
deep dehydration is illustrated in FIG. 4, where typical isotherms
of adsorbents used for dehydration are shown.2,13,14 Although
molecular sieves have a lower saturation capacity than alumina
or silica gel, that capacity is much less dependent on the par-
tial water pressure, which enables deeper specifications to be
reached (< 0.1 ppmv H2O).
This characteristic also results in a shorter MTZ, enabling
more efficient use of the adsorbent bed. In this context, it
should be noted that the length of the MTZ is also determined
by the particle size. For that reason, molecular sieve beds are
typically layered, with the larger particles (e.g., 1⁄8 in.) used in
the top layers to minimize the overall bed pressure drop and the
smaller particles (e.g., 1⁄16 in.) in the bottom layer.
Another reason to select molecular sieves for dehydration is
that the water uptake capacity is less dependent on feed tem-
perature in comparison to silica gel and alumina. Furthermore,
in contrast to molecular sieves, alumina and silica gel are large-
pore adsorbents and, therefore, more co-adsorption of hydro-
carbons will occur. Similar to molecular sieves, water will dis-
place the coadsorbed components since it adsorbs stronger to
the adsorbent; however, co-adsorption will also influence the
length of the MTZ. More importantly, when regenerating the
adsorbents, these co-adsorbed species will leave the adsorbent
as peaks. If the regeneration gas must be treated, then the treat-
ing unit must be sized such that it can process these peaks. This
factor significantly increases the cost of such a unit.
The majority of topics discussed to this point are related to
the chemistry involved in the process. However, other factors
are equally important from a design point of view—more specif-
ically, those determined by process engineering and economics.
In gas processing, a plant is typically designed and operated
with a single purpose: to process natural gas so that the maxi-
mum amount of condensates can be recovered, and so that pro-
duced gas adheres to certain specifications. In general, the gas is
produced for use in the natural gas grid or for liquefaction and
transport to markets. The economic aim for such a lineup is to
minimize the number and size of vessels, process steps and plot
space. From an engineer’s point of view, that means safely push-
ing as much mass flow as possible through the smallest possible
vessels. The total amount of gas and liquids to be processed is
the economic basis of such a project. The design of the vessel
must adhere to maximum flow and minimum flow criteria.
In gas phase systems, gas flow during adsorption moves
downward to prevent fluidization of the bed under abnormal
flow conditions. The diameter of the bed can be calculated once
the superficial velocity is determined.1 The superficial velocity
must be chosen so that the following criteria are met:
• The maximum velocity is determined by a maximum
absolute gas velocity criterion that is typically around
0.2 m/s. In LNG/NGL extraction plants, there is a
significant price on each unit of pressure drop (∆P)
the ∆P to < 60 kPa. The end-of-run pressure drop is
70 80 90 100
typically twice this value. For other cases, the designer
should evaluate the economic benefit of a larger pressure
drop. Note: A large pressure drop will also increase the
risk of retrograde condensation occurring.
 ENGINEERING AND CONSTRUCTION

• The minimum velocity is determined by several criteria. flow path due to the lower pressure difference in the part of the
The pressure drop per unit length should be at least 230 bed referred to as a “channel.” If a channel is created in a bed,
Pa/m.1 This criterion will ensure that the pressure drop then the mole sieve in and around that path will be depleted
over the packed bed determines the gas flow, and that much more quickly than the surroundings, since a larger part of
proper radial distribution of the flow is promoted. When the flow moves through it. This depletion will ultimately result
the gas flow is divided into more than one bed during in an early breakthrough of the bed.
adsorption without individual flow control, it is desirable As the capacity of a molecular sieve bed is limited and de-
to have an “appreciable” ∆P to ensure equitable flow clines as a function of the number of regeneration cycles, an
distribution (i.e., ∆P > 20 kPa). The minimum velocity important design criterion is the required lifetime (i.e., how
is also limited by turbulent flow considerations, as long the bed must last before a changeout of the inventory is re-
expressed by the Reynolds number (e.g., Re ≥ 40 > 100) quired). That depends somewhat on the application; in general,
Note: Molecular sieve vendors do not always apply this molecular sieve beds are changed out during a major shutdown
criterion in the way it is formulated. of the plant. Major turnarounds are planned every 2 yr–3 yr, as
Some of these criteria are of importance to the main process various pieces of kit require maintenance.
flow, but they should also apply to the regeneration gas flow (in For an LNG site, turbine and compressor maintenance
each stage of the temperature profile), which, for gas process- needs determine when a major shutdown occurs. For most
ing vessels, is typically upflow. Apart from these criteria, the sites, the timing is every 4 yr. Although this timing provides
regeneration gas flow must carry enough heat into the system
to ensure that the beds are properly regenerated. Sufficient flow
will ensure the stripping efficiency of the desorbed molecules,
and the beds should be cooled within the time frame available. Inlet distributor
Within these constraints, the objective is to secure a regen-
eration gas flow that is as small as possible—typically around Minimum distance requirement
Ceramic balls ½-in.
10% of the feed flow. Particularly when the regeneration gas Guard layer ⅛-in.
Floating mesh screen
is sent back to the feed, a minimum regeneration flow ensures
minimum-size regeneration loop equipment and, even more Adsorbent layer ⅛-in.
importantly, helps reduce the size of the adsorber vessels. For
lineups such as those shown in FIG. 1, the flow passing through
the main process line units is the feed flow combined with the
regeneration flow. As the regeneration flow is upflow, another
Adsorbent layer 1⁄16-in.
important design constraint is to avoid fluidization of the bed.
The length (L) and diameter (D) of the beds are limited
mainly for practical and economic reasons. One important limi- Ceramic balls ⅛-in.
tation is the strength of the adsorbent particles, especially those Ceramic balls ¼-in.
at the bottom of the bed. These should be sufficiently strong Ceramic balls ½-in. Layers of mesh screens
Bottom support
to withstand the sum of the pressure drop over the bed, the Minimum distance requirement
weight of the bed above them when saturated with water, and
the weight of the pressurized gas. Outlet distributor
A more practical observation is that bed heights of more than
10 m are rarely observed. In such cases, the adsorber vessels tend
to become the highest units at the site. Minimizing the diameter FIG. 5. Sketch of a regenerable adsorber vessel. Note: Sketch is not
is an important economic constraint. A larger diameter is associ- to scale. Dump ports, manholes and probes are not included.
ated with greater wall thickness, which will increase the cost of
the vessel. A rule of thumb that is often applied in vessel sizing
350
is the L/D > 2 criterion. With a lower ratio, the result is often a Ramp-up Heating Ramp-down Cooling Standby
so-called “pancake reactor.” In this type of reactor construction, 300
most of the steel (i.e., cost) used for the vessel ends up in the top
and bottom domes, where the curvature is more or less fixed. 250
A sketch of a typical adsorber vessel is shown in FIG. 5.7 A
Temperature, °C

200
certain distance between the bottom of the inlet distributor
and the top of the bed is required to ensure pressure and flow 150
equalization. The flow is reversed during regeneration, and the
same requirement applies to the bottom portion of the bed. A 100
careful observer will notice that the difference in size between 50
the ceramic ball layers never exceeds a factor of 2. This ratio is
preserved to lower the probability that smaller particles will mi- 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
grate between larger particles. Time, min.
In a worst-case scenario, such migration could lead to a small
FIG. 6. Typical regeneration temperature profile.
depression in the top of the bed, thereby creating a preferential
Gas Processing | JULY/AUGUST 2017 29
ENGINEERING AND CONSTRUCTION
A pacity is available as the bed heights are
Dryer beds
B It is possible to minimize this effect
C where the cycle time is adjusted at regu-
Time, hrs
Adsorption Ramp-up Heating Ramp-down
FIG. 7. Cycle time sequence.
23
Design capacity
21 Capacity deactivation profile
19 Design capacity used
Capacity used for fixed cycle design
Uptake capacity, wt%
17
15
13
11
9 Additional comments. Only the main design elements were
0 discussed for a fairly typical molecular sieve unit. Not discussed
0 200 400 600 800 1,000
Cycles
FIG. 8. Graphic presentation of variable cycling.
the process engineer with a time frame for designing a molecu-
lar sieve bed, a translation to the number of cycles that fits into
that period is required because the beds must retain sufficient
water uptake capacity at the end of the 4-yr period.
An adsorption cycle comprises several steps. The major
steps are adsorption and regeneration, whereby the regenera-
tion step can be subdivided in heating, cooling and standby
steps.2,5,9,12,15 The highest temperature to which the molecular
sieve can be exposed during regeneration is determined by the
thermal stability of the molecular sieve. For a 4A sieve, the tem-
perature limit is 320°C.
Although regeneration can take place at lower temperatures,
the consequence is that more water will remain on the molecu-
lar sieve, thereby reducing the effective water uptake capacity. A
typical regeneration profile is shown in FIG. 6. The step during
ramp-up is inserted to prevent an overly rapid heating, which
can result in hot water formation.
A typical adsorption time is 16 hr. Although TSA is a dis-
continuous process, the overall DHU behaves like a continu-
ous process because one or more vessels are in adsorption
mode, while another vessel(s) is in regeneration mode. Con-
sequently, there is a limit to the time available for regenera-
tion. With an adsorption time of 16 hr, in a 1+1 lineup, 16 hr
are available for regeneration (cycle time is 32 hr), while in
a 2+1 lineup (FIG. 1), only 8 hr are available for regeneration
(cycle time is 24 hr). A cycle time sequence for a 2+1 lineup
is depicted in FIG. 7.
The timing in a cycle time sequence is critical, as the trans-
fer of beds from adsorption to regeneration must happen flaw-
lessly. A mistake in the timing could result where one bed is
coming out of the adsorption step while the bed being regener-
ated is still in the heating step, thereby creating a forced shut-
down. Most sites work with fixed cycle times, which means
30 JULY/AUGUST 2017 | GasProcessingNews.com
that when the beds are “fresh,” excess ca-
designed for end-of-run conditions.
by applying a “variable cycling” design,
lar intervals in such a manner that these
changes roughly follow the deactivation
Cooling Standby
profile shown in FIG. 8. In this way, small-
er beds can be designed, or the lifetime
of the beds can be somewhat extended
by reducing the overall number of cycles
during troubleshooting or debottlenecking, thereby slowing
the deactivation rate of the adsorbent.
As a consequence of this mode of operation, the minimum
required capacity illustrated in FIG. 8 is essentially determined
by the minimum time needed for regeneration—i.e., the fastest
time heating and cooling can be achieved while ensuring that
the beds are fully regenerated.
1,200 are the various other permutations possible—for example, the
number of vessels deployed (e.g., 1+1, 3+1, 3+2, 4+2 lineups),
the choice and the routing of the regeneration gas, regenera-
tion gas heating options, regeneration at lower pressures, exter-
nal or internal insulation of the vessels, etc. Although these op-
tions will influence vessel sizing and the total cost of the unit,
the basic design elements discussed here will be the same.
Takeaway. The main design elements required for designing
and operating a molecular sieve DHU are well understood.
When taking these elements into account, it is possible to de-
sign molecular sieve units that are reliable, that deliver on speci-
fication and with required lifetime, and that require relatively
little operational attention. GP
LITERATURE CITED
1
Mokhatab, S., W. A. Poe and J. Y. Mak, Handbook of Natural Gas Transmission
and Processing, 3rd Ed., Gulf Professional Publishing, Burlington, Massachusetts,
2015.
2
De Bruijn, J. N. H., M. A. Huffmaster, J. M. van de Graaf, P. F. A. van Grinsven and
H. Grootjans, “Maximizing molecular sieve performance in natural gas process-
ing,” GPA Annual Convention, Dallas, Texas, March 11–13, 2002.
Complete literature cited available online at GasProcessingNews.com.
RUUD H. M. HEROLD was formerly a Senior Process Engineer
at Shell Global Solutions International BV in Amsterdam,
The Netherlands. He joined the company in 1986 and began
working in the gas processing group in 2001, where he
specialized in adsorption and catalytic processes used in
gas and liquids treating. Mr. Herold holds an MSc degree in
chemical engineering from the University of Amsterdam.
SAEID MOKHATAB is one of the most recognizable names in the
natural gas processing industry. He has been actively involved in
the design and operation of several gas processing plants around
the world, and has contributed to gas processing technology
improvements through 300 technical papers and two well-
known handbooks (published by Elsevier in the US). He founded
Elsevier’s Journal of Natural Gas Science & Engineering, and
has given invited lectures on gas processing technologies worldwide. As a result
of his work, Mr. Mokhatab has received a number of international awards and
medals, and has been listed in prestigious biographical directories.
 LNG

Process selection and recent design

innovations for LNG plants—Part 2
I. S. AL-MUTAZ, I. WAZEER and R. KHAN, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia;
and A. CHAFIDZ, Semarang State University, Central Java, Indonesia

Different types of natural gas liquefac- and downstream of the LNG terminal; Thermal efficiency. The ratio of the
tion plants have been developed across and utility and offsites costs. total higher heating value (HHV) of the
the world to meet rising demand for The process design selection for LNG liquefied product to the total HHV of the
LNG. The selection of LNG technol- is an optimization among the elements of feed gas is known as thermal efficiency.
ogy involves parameters such as equip- refrigerant selection and composition, the Various factors affect thermal efficiency,
ment (e.g., compressors, turbines, heat design of the heat exchanger and the heat including feed gas pressure and tempera-
exchangers, etc.) and process definitions transfer area. Also, the refrigerant power ture, gas composition, site temperature
(e.g., pressure levels, temperature range, consumption must be matched to acces- and pressure. Thermal efficiency is a trad-
type of refrigerant, etc.). sible compressor/driver capacity. eoff between capital costs and lifecycle
However, LNG technologies are cost- For mid-scale LNG plants, mixed- costs. When calculating liquefaction ther-
intensive, as they require a large amount refrigerant (MR) cycle plants are the best mal efficiency, it is necessary to include
of energy for the processes of compres- choice. Propane-precooled MR, cascade the selection of the gas turbine driver,
sion and refrigeration. Therefore, further or dual-refrigerant cycles are preferred for end-flash design and waste heat recovery
developments are required to save costs baseload LNG plants, due to their higher in the calculation.24
and improve the efficiency of existing gas efficiency.23 Important parameters for se-
liquefaction processes. lecting LNG technology are described in Equipment selection. The selection of
Here, existing and future traits of LNG the following sections. appropriate equipment for the LNG ter-
processes are analyzed in view of recently
constructed plants. The authors also ex-
amine process selection criteria for LNG TABLE 1. Technical specifications of LNG compressors
plants, as well as developments and inno- Model Rpm Flowrate, m3/hr Side streams Maximum power, MW LNG duty
vations in LNG technology. 3MCL1800 2,200 200,000 1–3 120 Propane
precooling
3,600 380,000
PROCESS SELECTION CRITERIA
The technology selection for an LNG MCL1800 2,200 200,000 N.A. 120 Methane and
terminal is based on technical and eco- MR subcooling
nomic considerations. Before beginning 3,600 380,000 Ethylene and
a project, sufficient process details must MR liquefaction
be established to describe the core equip-
ment and standard operating parameters TABLE 2. Different types of aeroderivative and heavy-duty gas turbines,
(SOPs), to assess possibilities using appli- with energy efficiency and ISO power29
cable norms and to define the capital and Gas turbine Model Type ISO power, MW Efficiency, % Vender
operating costs for each licensor.
LMS100 LMS100 Aeroderivative 100.2 44.1 GE
The liquefaction process selection is
tied to project economics. For this reason, LM6000 LM6000PD Aeroderivative 43.9 43 GE
it should be addressed at an early stage of Trent 60 Trent 60 Aeroderivative 51.4 42.6 Rolls-Royce
the project, preferably during the feasibil- LM2500+ PGT25+ Aeroderivative 31.4 41.1 GE
ity report and pre-FEED phases. Technical
RB211 RB211 6762 Aeroderivative 30.4 38.8 Rolls-Royce
considerations include licensor experi-
ence, consistency, reliability and availabil- SGT5-2000E SGT5-2000E Heavy-duty 168 34.7 Siemens
ity; the productivity of the process; eco- Frame 9 Frame9E Heavy-duty 130.1 34.6 GE
logical factors and factors associated with SGT6-2000E SGT6-2000E Heavy-duty 113 33.9 Siemens
site location. Economic considerations in-
Frame 6 Frame6B Heavy-duty 43.5 33.3 GE
clude capital investment; operational and
lifespan costs, including units upstream Frame 7 Frame7EA Heavy-duty 86.2 33 GE

Gas Processing | JULY/AUGUST 2017 31

LNG

minal is the most important step in the
economic consideration of the project.
Equipment is selected on the basis of ef-
ficiency, cost and the licenser’s successful
track record and experience. The technol-
ogy should also be able to accommodate
step changes in the plant, such as increas-
es in size and efficiency improvements. It
is also important to consider factors like
gas composition, molecular weight, tem-
perature, pressure, compression ratio and
flowrate of the refrigerant when selecting
rotary equipment.
Compressor. In baseload plants, the se-
lection of the centrifugal compressor is
normally an economical choice of a refrig-
eration compressor, due to its high volu-
metric flow. Axial compressors are more
favorable for higher flowrates, but they
must be operated at lower pressure ratios
as compared to MR compressors. If the
refrigeration process is subjected to pass
from a high-efficiency axial compressor,
then the compressor can be utilized as
first-stage compression, with some opti-
mization of design and compression train.
The larger models of compressors used
are shown in TABLE 1, along with their re-
spective technical specifications.
Driver selection. Early on, steam turbine
drivers were used in baseload liquefaction
plants due to their reliability. Later, steam
turbine drivers were replaced with gas tur-
bine drivers due to the increase in size and
efficiency. Gas turbines are easy to operate
compared to steam turbines, which are
more complex and not appropriate for re-
mote areas. Based on their efficiency and
weight, gas turbines can be classified as
heavy-duty industrial types (i.e., frame tur-
bines) and aeroderivatives.25,26 Aeroderiv-
ative gas turbines are lightweight, easy to
maintain and can be operated with a high-
er compression ratio and higher thermal
efficiencies (about 25%), compared to
industrial gas turbines.27,28 Different types
of aeroderivative and heavy-duty gas tur-
bines are listed in TABLE 2.29
Heat exchanger. The main heat ex-
changers used in gas liquefaction process
trains are: plate-fin heat exchangers (PF-
HEs) and spiral-wound heat exchangers
(SWHEs). The main advantages of PF-
HEs are their compactness, low equip-
ment weight, small footprint and typically
lower capital cost. They can be configured
to accommodate different processes with
multiple exchangers. However, since PF-
HEs are made of aluminum, they are also
more vulnerable to mechanical damage
and damage from thermal shocks.
SWHEs are designed with a greater
internal heat transfer area and, therefore,
can operate within a larger tempera-
ture gradient. In addition to the wider
surface area, an advantage of SWHEs is
their higher proven tolerance to thermal
shocks. However, because of the fixed
heat exchange configuration, the SWHE
design has a limited flexibility to handle
different feed gas compositions.

Cooling medium. The cooling medium

of an LNG plant refers to the cold-side
fluid in the refrigerant condensers. Ap-
proximately 70% of operating LNG plants
use seawater as a cooling medium directly
or indirectly; the remainder use air-
cooled condensers for cooling purposes.
The main differences between seawater
condensers and air condensers are listed
FIG. 1. Flow diagram of the APX process. in TABLE 3.
DEVELOPMENTS AND
TABLE 3. Comparison of cooling medium, seawater vs. air30
INNOVATIONS IN LNG
Medium Seawater Air To meet increasing demand for LNG,
Reliability Depends on proper materials Depends on environmental new liquefaction plants must be built to
selection (fouling, corrosion); good conditions; good take advantage of unconventional gas
Maintenance Periodic cleaning required; continuous No cleaning required sources, as well as new discoveries. Effi-
self-cleaning systems also available ciency and environmental impact must be
Production Stable Varying daily; affected given special consideration. To this end,
by weather conditions new ideas, developments and innovations
Environmental Limitations on amount of processed Not important; in the LNG supply chain are described in
seawater to be returned; discharge high noise level the following sections.
temperature restricted, marine life safety Important factors, such as improved
liquefaction equipment design, larger and
TABLE 4. Average train capacity by process higher-efficiency drivers, NGL recovery,
LNG regasification and LNG cold utili-
Processes SMR Cascade C3MR DMR PMR, APX
zation are discussed with regard to detail
Train capacity, MMtpy 1.5–3 2–5 2–6.5 2–7 5–10.5 and application.
32 JULY/AUGUST 2017 | GasProcessingNews.com
 LNG

LNG imports and exports. Major LNG-
importing countries include South Korea,
Japan, Taiwan and some European coun-
tries.32 Japan is the largest LNG importer
worldwide.33,34 Major LNG exporters in-
clude Qatar, Malaysia, Australia and Indo-
nesia.31,35 It is expected that Australia will
become the largest LNG exporter in the
world by 2018.33 Historically, the leading
market for LNG is the Asia-Pacific region.
Larger LNG trains. Substantial improve-
ments have been made in the LNG indus-
try to increase the capacity of trains by
applying a proprietary, three-cycle pro-
cess. The three cycles consist of propane,
MR and nitrogen. In 2008, six trains with
a total capacity of 7.8 MMtpy were con-
structed in Qatar. Average train capacities
by different proprietary LNG processes
are listed in TABLE 4.
The configuration of the proprietary,
three-cycle process is shown in FIG. 1.
The propane cycle is used for precooling,
while the MR is used in the main cryo-
genic heat exchanger (MCHE) to liquefy
natural gas. The third cycle—the nitrogen
expander loop—allows final subcooling.
A train size of greater than 10 MMt-
py is now achievable with large heat ex-
NGL recovery and liquid expanders. Future LNG plants. Large LNG trains
A scrub column design can be used to in the 8 MMtpy–9 MMtpy capacity range
combine the LNG liquefaction process can be located only where gas reservoirs
with NGL recovery. One cryogenic pro- are sizable. In the future, LNG trains in
cess using single-column overhead recy- the range of 3 MMtpy–6 MMtpy will
cle technology has been applied around become more prominent. The LNG in-
the world for propane recovery. Up to dustry is focusing on methods to increase
99% of propane can be recovered using
this process. Around 40% of ethane is
recovered by applying the process in “in-
cidental” mode.40
Annual plant revenues can be in-
creased by adding liquid expanders to an
LNG processing train. In a typical LNG
process, a Joule-Thompson valve is used
to reduce pressure in refrigeration units.
Recently, however, liquid expanders
have been introduced in new liquefac-
tion plants. The liquid expanders func-
tion like pumps in reverse. Liquid enters
at a higher pressure and leaves at a lower
pressure. Process efficiency can be im-
proved with the use of flashing liquid
expanders (FIG. 2).41–43 FIG. 2. Assembly of LNG liquid expander.44
0.34
0.29 Air-
cooled
Emissions from fuel, t CO2/t LNG

changer designs and the latest gas tur- –30% Water-

bine drivers. By using all three cycles, cooled
it is possible to achieve low production 0.24
cost and high efficiency. Literature has
claimed that maximum efficiencies can
be achieved using the APX, DMR and 0.19
C3MR processes, with the POCP pro-
cess offering around 90%.36–38

Main heat exchanger. In the past, 0.14

Next- Conventional
the MCHE was limited to a maximum generation approach
Water-cooled projects
weight of 310 metric t and a diameter
of 4.6 m, due to the limited power avail- FIG. 3. Reduction in CO2 emissions from LNG plants in future.
able from the compressor drivers. Larger
trains have been developed by increasing
driver sizes for maximum power. TABLE 5. Comparison between plate-fin and spiral-wound heat exchangers39
At present, two major types of heat PFHEs SWHEs
exchangers are widely used in the LNG Main characteristics Very compact, up to 10 streams Compact, extremely robust
industry—PFHEs and SWHEs. PFHEs
have a low weight, small size, low cost, Heating surface density 300 m2/m3–1,400 m2/m3 20 m2/m3–300 m2/m3
high effectiveness and high thermal ca- Fluid Clean and non-corrosive Clean
pacity. SWHEs are used in single-phase Material Aluminum Aluminum, carbon steel,
and two-phase applications, and they stainless steel
have a wide pressure and temperature Design temperatures –269°C to 65°C All
range. LNG production increases with
Design pressure Up to 115 bar Up to 250 bar
higher tube-side design pressure, and
specific power decreases.22 A compari- Prices 25%–35% 100%
son between PFHEs and SWHEs is giv- Applications Limited installation space, smooth High temperature differences,
en in TABLE 5. operation, cryogenic plants high temperature gradients

Gas Processing | JULY/AUGUST 2017 33

LNG

energy efficiency, minimize overall envi-
ronmental impact and reduce CO2 emis-
sions. Efficient gas turbines, large motor
drivers, combined-cycle power plants
and efficient NGL/LNG integration are
important for next-generation liquefac-
tion plants. Innovative developments will
reduce CO2 emissions in next-generation
plants, as illustrated in FIG. 3.7
GE Frame 5
Industrial
FIG. 4 shows relative CO2 emissions
from gas turbines. Due to their higher
thermal efficiencies, aeroderivative gas
turbines yield lower CO2 emissions
than industrial gas turbines. However,
combined-cycle power plants—in which
exhaust heat from the gas turbine is re-
covered and used in power generation—
produce the lowest CO2 emissions. Until
recently, these combined-cycle power
plants were considered as the most ef-
ficient power plants. Aeroderivative gas
turbines are more favorable for remote
and offshore installations because they
can be started under settle-out pressure
and without helper motors.45,46
LNG regasification. The Organic Ran-
kine power cycle produces power by us-
ing LNG as a cooling medium.47–49 An
LNG cryogenic energy cascade process

GE Frame 6 has been developed to supply refrigera-

tion to numerous operators, including
GE Frame 7 power plants, LPG storage, petrochemi-
cal plants and oil refineries. An LNG Btu-
Coberra 6761
conditioning system can be used instead
Aeroderivatives

GE LM25000+ of a nitrogen-injection unit, and can be

integrated to the LNG plant as shown in
GE LM6000 FIG. 5. The purpose of a Btu-conditioning

RR Trent 800
system is to remove ethane, propane and
heavier hydrocarbons to produce a lean
Combined-cycle LNG. Almost 97% of propane and 70%
of ethane can be recovered using this pro-
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 cess. It also reduces the Wobbe Index, as
FIG. 4. Relative CO2 emissions from industrial gas turbines and aeroderivative gas turbines. shown in TABLE 6.50
As a transportation fuel, LNG has be-
come more attractive because it is cheaper
than oil. A configuration for the copro-
duction of vehicle-grade LNG and CNG
is shown in FIG. 6. To facilitate the power
supply, an expander cycle-based cryogen-
ic power generator can be used in the de-
sign. TABLE 7 shows the production of 59
MMscfd of ethane, 200 Mgpd of vehicle-
quality fuel and 51 Mbpd of rich LPG at
an integrated plant.51

TAKEAWAY
This work outlines different aspects
of and developments in LNG production
processes. One important new trend is the
combination of an LNG regasification unit
with a power plant. Significant research
FIG. 5. LNG terminal with BTU control. has been performed on the LNG produc-
tion chain and the management of related
TABLE 6. LPG production and ethane balance50
security risks in the storage, handling and
transport of LNG. The efficiency of the
Component, mole fraction LNG feed Ethane LPG fraction Pipeline gas LNG production chain can be improved
C1 0.8976 0.0215 0 0.9439 by optimizing process components, es-
C2 0.0501 0.9585 0.01 0.0517 pecially those related to the regasification
and liquefaction processes.
C3 0.0316 0.02 0.6277 0.0009
To meet growing demand for LNG,
IC4 0.0069 0 0.1442 0 continuous developments have been
NC4 0.0103 0 0.2160 0 made to improve process technologies for
NC5 0.0001 0 0.0021 0 liquefaction. Technical (e.g., process, reli-
ability, efficiency, site and environmental
N2 0.0034 0 0 0.0036
conditions, etc.) and economic (e.g., life-
Bpd NA 31,200 40,700 NA cycle costing, operating costs and capital
34 JULY/AUGUST 2017 | GasProcessingNews.com
 LNG

costs) factors must be considered during

process and equipment technology selec-
tion. Research work is being carried out
to introduce innovative methods for in-
creasing energy efficiency, reducing CO2
emissions and minimizing overall envi-
ronmental impact.
Aeroderivative gas turbines are rec-
ommended for remote and offshore in-
stallations because they are lightweight
and more energy efficient than industrial
gas turbines. Also, although no major in-
cidents have been reported in the LNG
industry, continuous improvements are
required to maintain safety records. Over
the past decades, most research studies
have concentrated on improving process
efficiency without estimating capital costs.
Further research studies and improve-
ments are required to maximize profits in
combination with process efficiency. GP
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to extend their sincere
appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at FIG. 6. Flow diagram of integrated LNG regasification and CNG production.
King Saud University for its funding of this research
through Research Group Project number RGP-224.
TABLE 7. Overall balance of integrated LNG and CNG facility51
LITERATURE CITED
23
Finn, A., G. Johnson and T. Tomlinson, Component, LNG LPG Pipeline LNG CNG
“Developments in natural gas liquefaction,” mole fraction feed Ethane fraction gas motor fuel motor fuel
Hydrocarbon Processing, Vol. 78, 1999. C1 0.8816 0.0243 0 0.9868 0.9868 0.9868
24
Yates, D., “Thermal efficiency—Design, lifecycle and
environmental considerations in LNG plant design,” C2 0.0522 0.9657 0.0053 0.005 0.005 0.005
Gastech, October 13–16, 2002, Doha, Qatar. C3 0.0328 0.0092 0.5399 0.0007 0.0007 0.0007
25
Avidan, A., F. Richardson, K. Anderson and B.
Woodard, “LNG plant scale-up could cut costs fur- iC4 0.0071 0 0.1208 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001
ther,” Petroleum Economist, March 2001. NC4 0.0107 0 0.1821 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001
26
Kleiner, F., S. Rausch and J. Knabe, “Increase power
and efficiency of LNG refrigeration compressor driv- iC5 0.004 0 0.0675 0 0 0
ers: All-electric-driven plants can offer many ben-
NC5 0.002 0 0.0338 0 0 0
efits,” Hydrocarbon Processing, Vol. 82, 2003.
27
Meher-Homji, C. B., D. Messersmith, T. Hattenbach, C 6+ 0.003 0 0.0507 0 0 0
J. Rockwell, H. Weyermann and K. Masani,
N2 0.0065 0 0 0.0073 0.0073 0.0073
“Aeroderivative gas turbines for LNG liquefaction
plants—Part 1,” ASME Turbo Expo 2008: Power for Flow, MMscfd 1,200 59 70 1,046 12 12
Land, Sea, and Air, 2008.
Btu/scf (HHV) 1,153 1,745 2,985 1,000 1,000 1,000
Complete literature cited available online at
GasProcessingNews.com.
His research interests center on the applications of Saud University in 2015. He has also worked in the
IBRAHIM S. AL-MUTAZ is a Professor of Chemical ionic liquids and deep eutectic solvents. He has also petrochemical industries of Pakistan and the UAE.
Engineering at King Saud University in Riyadh, been involved in projects for water desalination,
Saudi Arabia. His expertise lies in process engineering, natural gas processing and liquid-liquid extraction. ACHMAD CHAFIDZ MAS SAHID is a Lecturer in the
process plant troubleshooting and rehabilitation, He earned his BSc degree in chemical engineering Chemical Engineering Department at Semarang
process equipment, process plant performance from the University of Engineering and Technology in State University in Semarang, Indonesia. Previously,
and efficiency, process technology, simulation and Lahore, Pakistan. He was also awarded a fully funded he worked as a Researcher at the SABIC Polymer
optimization of desalination processes, desalination scholarship from Saudi Arabia’s Ministry of Higher Research Center at King Saud University. His research
and water treatment, optimum production of Education to attend King Saud University, where areas include processing and characterization
water and power, groundwater pretreatment he earned his MSc degree in chemical engineering. of polymer nanocomposites; application of
facilities and environmental protection. He has supercritical CO2 fluid in the pharmaceuticals
published approximately 200 papers in journals RAWAIZ KHAN is a Researcher in the Chemical industry; development of portable, solar-powered
and conferences, as well as 13 books. Dr. Al-Mutaz Engineering Department at King Saud University. membrane distillation systems for remote areas;
earned his BSc degree in chemical engineering from He graduated from Hamdard University in Karachi, and development of flotation reagents for Saudi
King Saud University in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Pakistan in 2009. In 2012, he joined King Saud phosphate ores. He received his BSc degree in
He earned his PhD in chemical engineering from University as a Research Scholar on a fully funded chemical engineering from the Sepuluh Nopember
Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut. scholarship offered by Saudi Arabia’s Ministry of Institute of Technology in Surabaya, Indonesia
Higher Education, under the Attracting Outstanding in 2007. He earned his MSc degree in chemical
IRFAN WAZEER is a Researcher in the Chemical Faculty and Researchers Program. He completed engineering from King Saud University in 2011. He has
Engineering Department at King Saud University. his MSc degree in chemical engineering at King also published several papers in industry journals.

Gas Processing | JULY/AUGUST 2017 35

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 PIPELINES

Manage risks for trans-country

pipeline projects: India case study—Part 1
A. MOITRA, Indian Oil Corp., New Delhi, India

The World Bank’s “South Asia Economic Focus” report, re-
leased in October 2016, predicted that India’s GDP growth of
7.6% in 2016 would persist or even strengthen in 2017. How-
ever, the challenge remains in extending this economic growth
to a broader range of human development outcomes.
India’s per-capita energy consumption (in kg of oil equiv-
alent) is less than 600, compared with 1,000 for developing
countries like China and Brazil. Data from the World Bank
and the International Energy Agency (IEA) on per-capita en-
ergy consumption predicts that achieving energy security will
be a daunting task for India.
Oil demand has traditionally been driven by the power,
fertilizer and refining/petrochemical industries. However, de-
pleting sources, volatile prices and associated environmental
concerns have shifted the preference toward natural gas. Natu-
ral gas is environmentally friendly and comparatively cheaper
than crude oil, opening an alternate avenue to improve per-
capita energy consumption at a lower cost.
India eyes trans-country gas pipeline. India’s Petroleum
and Natural Gas Regulatory Board (PNGRB) predicts a 6.8%
increase in natural gas demand growth between 2010 and
2025 (CAGR) and a 9% rise in the share of natural gas in the
energy mix.
While these predictions support the Indian government’s
vision to improve per-capita energy consumption, they also
raise feasibility, reliability and sustainability concerns related to
sourcing gas. Proposals for sourcing gas through trans-country
pipelines have been under discussion for some time. However,
the multibillion-dollar TAPI pipeline project signed by Turk-
menistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India in July 2014 is char-
acterized by complexity and uncertainty due to the conduit’s
cross-country route, geopolitical imbalances and projected
difficulties in sustaining trade relations. The TAPI project, and
others like it, involve high risks that require diligent analyses.
The following case study examines the challenging aspects
associated with trans-country projects. Such challenges in-
clude diversifying the energy mix to improve per-capita en-
ergy consumption, and qualitative and quantitative project
risk assessments. The study also illustrates a framework and
technique to assess risks for complex projects by using the
weighted scoring model as a decision-making tool.

TABLE 1. Consolidated demand of natural gas by segment, 2012–20301

Demand, 2012–2013, Demand, 2016–2017, Demand, 2021–2022, Demand, 2026–2027, Demand, 2029–2030,
Segment MMsft3d MMsft3d MMsft3d MMsft3d MMsft3d
Power 86.5 158.88 238.88 308.88 353.88
Fertilizer 59.86 96.85 107.85 110.05 110.05
City gas 15.3 22.32 46.25 67.96 85.61
Industrial 20 27 37 52.06 63.91
Petrochemical/refining/ 54 65.01 81.99 103.41 118.85
internal construction
Sponge iron/steel 7 8 10 12.19 13.73
Total realistic demand 242.66 378.06 516.97 654.55 746.03

TABLE 2. Consolidated supply of natural gas by source, 2012–20301

Source, MMsft3d 2012–2013 2016–2017 2021–2022 2026–2027 2029–2030
Domestic sources 101.1 156.7 182 211 230
LNG imports 44.6 143 188 214 214
Gas imports (cross-border pipelines) 0 0 30 30 30
Total 145.7 299.7 400 454 474

Gas Processing | JULY/AUGUST 2017 37

PIPELINES
Pipeline scenario analysis: The macro picture. India de-
pends heavily on crude oil, which raises its import bills. Of late,
alternative sources of energy have attracted focus and redefined
global priorities. In December 2016, The Economic Times re-
ported on a $25-B pipeline project that would source gas from
Russia and involve gas swapping between Russia and China,
and Myanmar and India. However, the agreements were char-
acterized by uncertainties and risks.
The primary project options being discussed include sourc-
ing gas from Turkmenistan, the Middle East, Iran, Myanmar or
Russia. The proposed Iran-Pakistan-India (IPI) pipeline and
the TAPI project were also on the fray. The perceived risks of
the TAPI project included non-conformance of governments to
hold necessary meetings, changes in government priorities, and
insurgencies or external political conflicts.
At present, efforts to improve India’s energy mix by invest-
ing in trans-country natural gas pipeline projects seem evenly
poised between opportunity and threat. The following sections
illustrate the motivations for the proposed projects.
Supply and demand. The PNGRB’s “Vision 2030 natural gas
infrastructure in India” report1 detailed consolidated demand
FIG. 1. Existing and planned network of gas pipelines in India.
TABLE 3. Projected energy mix in India for 20251
Percentage of Percentage of
Energy source energy mix, 2010 energy mix, 2025
Coal 53 50
Oil 30 25
Gas 11 20
Hydro 5 2
Nuclear 1 3
38 JULY/AUGUST 2017 | GasProcessingNews.com
by segment and consolidated supply of natural gas by source,
as shown in TABLE 1 and TABLE 2, respectively. Expected gas de-
mand was approximately 242.7 MMsm3d in 2012–2013 and
around 746 MMsm3d from 2029–2030 (TABLE 1).
Natural gas supply is expected to grow by 400 MMsm3d
by 2021–2022 and by 474 MMsm3d by 2029–2030. Fore-
casts suggest that the gap between demand and supply will be
maintained into the future. Boosting gas supplies via a trans-
country pipeline is, therefore, a strategic fit to improve India’s
energy mix.
TABLE 3 outlines India’s projected energy mix for 2025. Es-
timates indicate that the share of natural gas in the energy mix
will increase from 11% in 2010 to 20% in 2025.
Alternative avenues for energy sector. The power sector
relies on high-priced, high-quality, imported coal. By contrast,
the power, fertilizer and refining/petrochemical sectors have
traditionally relied on gasoline, naphtha, diesel and fuel oil.
Natural gas has been a cheaper alternative fuel due to lower de-
mand. However, with the expansion of the natural gas base and
processing technology, preferences have shifted to larger plants
with higher efficiency and bigger economies of scale.
Natural gas emits 45% less carbon dioxide than coal and
30% less carbon dioxide than oil, making it an environmentally
attractive substitute. By adopting natural gas, industry could
circumvent the risk of price volatility associated with tradi-
tional fuels, allowing companies to protect their bottom lines.
Infrastructure. Natural gas cannot be stored for a long
time. The infrastructure of the pipeline network ensures unin-
terrupted supply for continuous consumption by users.
At present, India has a network of gas pipelines spread
across the country. The ability to use the existing gas grid in-
frastructure for the further distribution of sourced gas was an
advantage of the pipeline project. FIG. 1 shows the existing and
planned network of gas pipelines in India.
Economic perspective. Energy is inexorably intertwined
with economy. It is involved in the supply and demand of nearly
all goods and services, and holds the key to sustaining econom-
ic growth. Volatile crude oil prices not only pose risks to the en-
ergy sector, but they also severely affect the country’s economy.
Internal External
Strength Opportunity
• Bridge demand and supply gap in energy • Address energy security
• Improve energy mix • Job creation in the region
• Increase per-capita energy consumption • Economic benefit circumventing the risk
• Availability of environmentally of volatile oil prices and foreign
Positive
friendly fuel exchange outflows
• Competitive advantage for industry • Improved trade relations with neighboring
from low-cost alternative fuel countries
• Improvement in value chain of industry • Sustained relations with countries from
from low-cost, environmentally enhanced commerce
friendly fuel
• Expansion of India's energy basket
Weakness Threat
• Gas price increase due to rising demand • Insurgency could threaten the project
Negative
• Improper risk management and • Wavering bilateral ties
project implementation • Changed priority of country due to
• Resource crunch of the project geopolitical factors
• Uncertainty in project approvals due to
changing priorities of governments
FIG. 2. A SWOT analysis shows that the strengths and opportunities of
the proposed TAPI pipeline project outweigh its weaknesses and threats.
 PIPELINES

The uninterrupted availability of energy sources and af-
fordable prices for those energies are two aspects of energy
security, as defined by the IEA. India’s integrated energy policy
aims to improve the reliability of energy services for all eco-
nomic sectors, and to cater to the energy needs of vulnerable
households around the country with safe, clean and conve-
nient energy at a low cost. The pipeline project objective was,
therefore, in alignment with policy. India’s power, coal and pe-
troleum sectors are poised to witness radical growth and help
boost natural gas demand.
International aspect. The proposed trans-country pipeline
projects have earned the attention of both supplier and con-
sumer countries, including the US. Turkmenistan, meanwhile,
would benefit from the further development of its gas fields for
the TAPI pipeline. China is sourcing an estimated at 65 Bm3y of
gas from Turkmenistan.
Pakistan may have already tapped 40% of its gas reserves,
according to analyst reports. The remaining resources are not
expected to last more than 15 yr–20 yr. Therefore, securing gas
supplies from Iran and Turkmenistan to meet future demand
makes sense.
As seen from the situational analysis, these mega-projects
seem to be attractive from both a social cost-benefit aspect and
a financial benefit aspect, in addition to bridging the supply/
demand gap.
However, the risks involved in the TAPI project necessitate
consideration, particularly when evaluating investment decisions.
SWOT analysis. A SWOT analysis was conducted to explore
major strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the
project, and to examine project risks (FIG. 2). It can be con-
cluded that strengths and opportunities outweigh weaknesses
and threats, and the downside risk requires additional critical
analysis and review.
Part 2 of this article will delve into qualitative and quantita-
tive risk analyses, and present a project risk assessment using
the weighted scoring model for decision-making, considering
project risk for competing options. GP
LITERATURE CITED
1
India Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board (PNRGB), “Vision 2030
natural gas Infrastructure in India,” 2013, online: http://www.pngrb.gov.in/
Hindi-Website/pdf/vision-NGPV-2030-06092013.pdf
ANINDITA MOITRA, Deputy General Manager—Projects at Indian
Oil Corp. Ltd., has more than two decades of experience in
project management. She is presently pursuing a PhD in business
management (corporate governance) and holds a first-class
MTech degree from Calcutta University in Calcutta, India,
as well as a first-class MBA degree, with specialization in general
management, from ICFAI Business School in Hyderabad, India.
Ms. Moitra was a GATE scholar, and received honors with her BSc degree from
Calcutta University. She was also the recipient of the Best Performer medal during
the Hybrid Certificate Program in project management from U21 Global in
Singapore, and holds an executive diploma in project management. She has also
received a number of women executive awards for her work in the Indian oil and
gas sector, particularly with regard to project management. Ms. Moitra has
presented papers on project risk management at events organized by Hydrocarbon
Processing in Houston, US and on corporate governance at the Business School
(Kolkata). She is a member of the All India Management Association (AIMA).

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ORDER TODAY
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MarketView wins
award second
year in a row
The 2017 Data Management
House of the Year award is
presented by Energy Risk, and is
awarded to the most exceptional
offering in enterprise data for the
energy and commodity industry.
Earlier this year, the
MarketView by DrillingInfo
solution also topped several
categories in the Energy Risk
Rankings survey of energy and
commodities companies:
• No. 1 in Ease of Using
System
• No. 1 in Preferred Data
Management System
• No. 1 in Best Data
Management Customer
Service
• No. 3 in Best at Integrating
with Other Systems
• No. 3 in Best Data Analytics
and Charting
• No. 3 in ETRM Software
Customer Support Services.
In 2016, MarketView
made significant updates and
improvements to its offering,
including a derived data analytics
service with newly created
data points and curves, and an
updated version of the DrillingInfo
proprietary data hub.
MarketView has become a
leader in the oil and gas analytics
field for its unique ability to
accurately provide intuitive access
to a comprehensive collection of
global energy and commodity
market data. MarketView helps
users visualize, track, and analyze
real-time and historical market
data, as well as global news and
proprietary data.
With markets becoming
more complex and intertwined,
MarketView provides clarity for
users to make the most profitable
decisions in a relatively short
amount of time.
info.drillinginfo.com
Drillinginfo
expands outside
US markets
DrillingInfo’s DI International
platform has the same principles
as its US model, which earned
Drillinginfo’s reputation as the
oil and gas industry’s leading
SaaS and data analytics company.
The platform integrates all of
DrillingInfo’s international
datasets into one platform.
info.drillinginfo.com
NEW IN GAS PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY
B. ANDREW, Technical Editor
Pipeline integrity risk management platform
Pipeline integrity managers
striving to maintain security of
supply, safe operations and asset
reliability must continually rely on
data from many different sources
to fully understand potential
threats to the network.
Data quality and transparency
across organizations are constant
concerns. Determining risks and
mitigating actions can be like finding and removing a needle in a haystack. Integrity managers need a system
that integrates data in real time to proactively turn risk into action.
The 7.1 release of Synergi Pipeline software from DNV GL is based on a completely new performance-
based architecture, where risk and integrity analytic calculation times are reduced by up to 60%. Results are
displayed in built-in dashboards with visual cues highlighting abnormal conditions, data quality issues and
other factors. Users can quickly identify threats and easily drill down to determine root causes. The interface is
rich in capability while providing a new level of usability.
Synergi Pipeline is a risk-and-integrity-management platform that enables users to work proactively on the
safe and efficient operation of distribution and pipeline systems. The analytical framework provides the ability
to maintain risk and integrity models according to changing regulations and best practice standards, including
ASME, DNV, BS and more.
Users can plan, execute, trace and evaluate activities during all stages of the integrity management process
in support of the PDCA (plan, do, check, act) cycle. Integrity managers get a clear quantitative or relative
digital view of integrity across their distribution networks or pipeline systems.
The web-based architecture of Synergi Pipeline enables corporate access via web browser, providing ease
of access to a single source for all integrity data available across the organization at any time, from anywhere.
The architecture aligns with the Esri server-based technology and is compatible with the new UPDM
data model, in addition to other industry-standard data models. For customers focused on reducing IT costs,
Synergi Pipeline provides a cloud-enabled architecture via Microsoft Azure.
www.dnvgl.com/services/pipeline-integrity-management-synergi-pipeline-1363
Gas chromatograph with touch-panel interface
Shimadzu Scientific Instruments (SSI) recently
released its new Nexis GC-2030, an instrument that
incorporates several technologically advanced features.
These features enable a modernized instrument that
is said to improve user connectivity and ease of use,
increase throughput, produce superior results, and
ultimately yield a higher return on investment.
Engineered with the analyst in mind, the GC-2030
provides users with information at their fingertips
through a touch panel interface with clear graphics
and instantaneous display. This user-friendly interface,
with intuitive graphic icons, encourages easy
monitoring of the system’s operating status.
Ethernet-based communication allows the user
to remotely connect to the GC via PC or the operator’s
mobile device. This flexibility allows the operator to
monitor run status or launch a new batch of analyses
from a remote location. Other conveniences include
tool-free column installation and inlet maintenance,
and a built-in oven light.
The GC-2030 instrument offers versatility and expandability to help realize a faster ROI. It allows up to
three analytical lines for greater productivity, or for the versatility of more analyses to be packaged into one GC.
A choice of four inlets, six detectors, and specialized valve accessories enables configurations tailored
to fit the needs of laboratories in areas such as petrochemical, environmental, food and pharmaceuticals.
Innovations that reduce operating costs include an “Eco Mode” to optimize the use of carrier gas, such as
helium, and to reduce electricity use when idle. The Nexis GC-2030 also includes day and time programming,
a system self-check feature, and automatic notification of when to replace consumables.
Hydrogen can be a safe and highly effective carrier gas. It maintains its separation efficiency across a
wide range of linear velocities, making it a suitable substitute for helium and a good choice for speeding up
an analysis. The GC-2030 has an optional, built-in sensor to monitor real-time levels of hydrogen in the
oven. The GC will respond to elevated levels by shutting down the hydrogen flow, thereby maintaining
a safe working environment.
Further enhancing productivity is LabSolutions’ workstation software, which integrates LC and GC
functionality. It offers ease of operability and high functionality, and includes a new data browser. It is
said to be convenient for comparing multiple sets of data simultaneously. A Quick-Batch Function simplifies
the process of creating injection sequences.
www.ssi.shimadzu.com
Gas Processing | JULY/AUGUST 2017 41

Off-grid power
source for outdoor
wireless networks
Simark Controls Ltd.
has partnered with KNS
Communications to distribute
SFC Energy’s EFOY Pro fuel cells
in critical off-grid applications.
KNS uses EFOY Pro fuel cells
as an off-grid power source for
engineered, high-performance,
outdoor wireless networks in
mining, oil and gas, agriculture,
utilities and other environments.
The fuel cells are hybridized with
solar to ensure reliability. When
solar is unable to deliver enough
power, the fuel cell automatically
switches on and compensates for
the shortfall in energy to ensure
that the battery bank always
remains charged to provide power
for the off-grid equipment. Large,
oversized solar arrays and battery
banks are avoided, and system
reliability is increased significantly
with years of fuel autonomy
vs. the traditional few days of
battery autonomy.
www.efoy-pro.com
Catherine Watkins, Publisher
Phone/Fax: +1 (713) 520-4421
E-mail: Catherine.Watkins@GulfPub.com
www.GasProcessingNews.com
SALES OFFICES—NORTH AMERICA
IL, LA, MO, OK, TX
Josh Mayer
Phone: +1 (972) 816-6745
E-mail: Josh.Mayer@GulfPub.com
AK, AL, AR, AZ, CA, CO, FL, GA, HI, IA,
ID, IN, KS, KY, MI, MN, MS, MT, ND, NE,
NM, NV, OR, SD, TN, TX, UT, WA, WI, WY,
WESTERN CANADA
Ryan Akbar
Phone: +1 (713) 520-4449
Mobile: +1 (713) 504-9695
E-mail: Ryan.Akbar@GulfPub.com
CT, DC, DE, MA, MD, ME, NC, NH,
NJ, NY, OH, PA, RI, SC, VA, VT, WV,
EASTERN CANADA
Merrie Lynch
Phone: +1 (617) 357-8190
Mobile: +1 (617) 594-4943
E-mail: Merrie.Lynch@GulfPub.com
DATA PRODUCTS
J’Nette Davis-Nichols
Phone: +1 (713) 520-4426
E-mail: Jnette.Davis-Nichols@GulfPub.com
42 JULY/AUGUST 2017 | GasProcessingNews.com
NEW IN GAS PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY
B. ANDREW, Technical Editor
MultiPoint flowmetering for large-diameter pipes
Large-diameter pipes and ducts present unique challenges to
achieving successful flowmeter installation and performance. Hot,
moist and/or dirty gases; distorted flow profiles; low flowrates; and
wide turndown rates are common performance challenges for many
flowmetering technologies.
FCI’s MT100 Series air/gas flowmeters combine state-of-the-art
electronics technology with application-proven precision flow sensors
in a rugged package designed for the most demanding plant operating
environments. They provide temperature-compensated direct mass flow
measurement of air and gases for precise, repeatable measurement
with low maintenance requirements in large-diameter pipes, stacks and
rectangular duct installations.
The MT100 air/gas flowmeters are available with 2–8 flowrate
sensing points to overcome these issues. Multiple sensors are inserted at
various depths within a pipe or duct, and their outputs are multiplexed
and averaged to produce the flowrate within the process line.
The MT100 meter’s sensors can be installed across a mast, or they can be inserted at multiple points
around the process line in a single plane. In large stack applications, this means that the instrument installation
can be carried out at a single platform location to achieve major savings over other technologies, such as
ultrasonic meters, which require the installation of transducers at precise offset angles. In hot, dirty, moist or
corrosive stack gases, the MT100 flowmeters work well because there are no moving parts, orifices or glass
windows to foul or clog. The instrument can measure air/gas processes operating up to 850°F (454°C).
The instrument also features a calibration drift check, which can be initiated on user demand or
programmed to run automatically. Results of the test are provided with simple pass/fail messages presented
to the operator on the LCD readout. If run automatically, the results are recorded to the onboard data logger.
Available with an optional Continuous Emissions Monitoring System (CEMS) package, the MT100 Series
flowmeters meet requirements for the US Environmental Protection Agency’s CEMS and Continuous Emissions
Rate Monitoring System (CERMS) applications.
www.fluidcomponents.com
SALES OFFICES—EUROPE ADVERTISER INDEX
FRANCE, GREECE, SPAIN, PORTUGAL,
THE NETHERLANDS, BELGIUM, LUXEMBOURG, Air Products & Chemicals Inc. .................. 10
SWITZERLAND, GERMANY, AUSTRIA, TURKEY
Hamilton Pearman Ametek Process Instruments ....................17
Phone: +33 608 310 575
Hamilton.Pearman@GulfPub.com Atlas Copco Gas and Process ..................43
ITALY, EASTERN EUROPE Chromatic Industries....................................14
Fabio Potestá Gulf Publishing Company
Mediapoint & Communications SRL
Phone: +39 (010) 570-4948 Circulation ...................................................24
E-mail: Fabio.Potesta@GulfPub.com
Events—EMGC ........................................... 27
UNITED KINGDOM, SCANDINAVIA
Patrick Djuma Events—WGLC ...........................................39
Phone/Fax: +44 20 3409 2243
E-mail: Patrick.Djuma@GulfPub.com
Gulf Data EWA............................................18
US Gas Processing Plant Directory..... 40
SALES OFFICES—OTHER AREAS
Kobelco Edti Compressors Inc ................... 9
CHINA—HONG KONG
Iris Yuen
Linde Engineering ......................................... 7
Phone: +86 13802701367 (China) Merichem Company ...................................... 2
Phone: +852 69185500 (Hong Kong)
E-mail: Iris.Yuen@GulfPub.com Pentair Filtration & Process ..................... 44
INDIA Redguard........................................................20
Manav Kanwar
Phone: +91-22-2837 7070/71/72 SNC-Lavalin ..................................................... 5
Mobile: +91-98673 67374
E-mail: India@GulfPub.com
United Electric Controls Co.......................23
World Gas Conference ...............................36
JAPAN—TOKYO
Yoshinori Ikeda
This index and procedure for securing additional information are
Pacific Business Inc.
Phone: +81 (3) 3661-6138 provided as a service to advertisers and a convenience to our readers.
E-mail: Japan@GulfPub.com Gulf Publishing Company is not responsible for omissions or errors.
Handle the Pressure
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