What is LTE: Long Term Evolution

Tutorial & Overview

LTE Long Term Evolution was the 4G successor to 3G UMTS
that provided improved speeds and performance.
LTE was the 4G successor to the 3G UMTS system which was developed to provide a further
evolution of the mobile telecommunications system available.

Providing much higher data speeds and greatly improved performance as well as lower operating
costs, the scheme started to be deployed in its basic form around 2008.

Initial deployments gave little improvement over 3G HSPA and were sometimes dubbed 3.5G or
3.99G, but soon the full capability of LTE was realised it provided a full 4G level of performance.

The first deployments were simply known as LTE, but later deployments were designated 4G LTE
Advanced and later still 4G LTE Pro.

Not only was the radio access network improved for 4G LTE, but the network architecture was
overhauled enabling lower latency and much better interconnectivity between elements of the radio
access network, RAN.

LTE beginnings
3GPP, the Third Generation Partnership Project that oversaw the development of the UMTS 3G
system started the work on the evolution of the 3G cellular technology with a workshop that was held
in Toronto Canada in November 2004. The work on LTE started with a feasibility study started in
December 2004, which was finalised for inclusion on 3GPP release 7. LTE core specifications were
then included in release 8.

The workshop set down a number of high level requirements for the new technology:

 Reduced cost per bit

 Increased service provisioning - more services at lower cost with better user experience
 Flexibility of use of existing and new frequency bands
 Simplified architecture, Open interfaces
 Allow for reasonable terminal power consumption
In terms of actual figures, targets for the initial deployments of LTE included download rates of
100Mbps, and upload rates of 50Mbps for every 20MHz of spectrum. In addition to this LTE was
required to support at least 200 active users in every 5MHz cell. (i.e. 200 active phone calls).
Targets were also set for the latency in IP packet delivery. With the growing use of services including
VoIP, gaming and many other applications where latency is of concern, figures need to be set for
this. As a result a figure of sub-10ms latency for small IP packets has been set.
 4G LTE base station and antenna in Tonle Sap Cambodia - base station is on stilts as the lake level
rises considerably in the wet season

3G LTE evolution
Although there are major step changes between LTE and its 3G predecessors, it is nevertheless
looked upon as an evolution of the UMTS / 3GPP 3G standards. Although it uses a different form of
radio interface, using OFDMA / SC-FDMA instead of CDMA, there are many similarities with the
earlier forms of 3G architecture and there is scope for much re-use.

In determining what is LTE and how does it differ from other cellular systems, a quick look at the
specifications for the system can provide many answers. LTE can be seen for provide a further
evolution of functionality, increased speeds and general improved performance.

WHAT IS 4G LTE?
COMPARISON WITH OTHER MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGIES

WCDMA HSPA HSPA+ LTE

(UMTS) HSDPA / HSUPA

Max downlink speed 384 k 14 M 28 M 100M

bps

Max uplink speed 128 k 5.7 M 11 M 50 M

bps

Latency 150 ms 100 ms 50ms (max) ~10 ms

round trip time
approx

3GPP releases Rel 99/4 Rel 5 / 6 Rel 7 Rel 8

Approx years of initial roll out 2003 / 4 2005 / 6 HSDPA 2008 / 9 2009 / 10
2007 / 8 HSUPA

Access methodology CDMA CDMA CDMA OFDMA / SC-FDMA

In addition to this, LTE is an all IP based network, supporting both IPv4 and IPv6.

LTE basics:- specification overview

It is worth summarizing the key parameters of the 3G LTE specification. In view of the fact that there
are a number of differences between the operation of the uplink and downlink, these naturally differ
in the performance they can offer.

LTE BASIC SPECIFICATIONS

 PARAMETER DETAILS

Peak downlink speed 100 (SISO), 172 (2x2 MIMO), 326 (4x4 MIMO)
64QAM
(Mbps)

Peak uplink speeds 50 (QPSK), 57 (16QAM), 86 (64QAM)

(Mbps)

Data type All packet switched data (voice and data). No circuit switched.

Access schemes OFDMA (Downlink)

SC-FDMA (Uplink)

Modulation types supported QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM (Uplink and downlink)

Spectral efficiency Downlink: 3 - 4 times Rel 6 HSDPA

Uplink: 2 -3 x Rel 6 HSUPA

Channel bandwidths 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20

(MHz)

Duplex schemes FDD and TDD

Mobility 0 - 15 km/h (optimised),

15 - 120 km/h (high performance)

Latency Idle to active less than 100ms

Small packets ~10 ms

These highlight specifications give an overall view of the performance that LTE will offer. It meets the
requirements of industry for high data download speeds as well as reduced latency - a factor
important for many applications from VoIP to gaming and interactive use of data. It also provides
significant improvements in the use of the available spectrum.

New LTE features

LTE has introduced a number of new technologies when compared to the previous cellular systems.
They enable LTE to be able to operate more efficiently with respect to the use of spectrum, and also
to provide the much higher data rates that are being required.

 OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex): OFDM technology was used for the signal
format for LTE because it enabled high data bandwidths to be transmitted efficiently while still
providing a high degree of resilience to reflections and interference. As data was carried on a
large number of carriers, if some were missing as a result of interference from reflections, etc, the
system was still able to cope. The access schemes differed between the uplink and downlink:
OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access was used in the downlink; while SC-
FDMA(Single Carrier - Frequency Division Multiple Access) was used in the uplink. SC-FDMA
was used in view of the fact that its peak to average power ratio is smaller than for OFDMA - the
lower peak to average power ratio enabling better levels of final RF power amplifier to be
achieved - this was and is an important factor for mobile handset battery life.
 MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output): One of the main problems that previous
telecommunications systems has encountered was that of multiple signals arising from the many
reflections that are encountered. By using MIMO, these additional signal paths could be used to
advantage and were able to be used to increase the throughput.

When using MIMO, it is necessary to use multiple antennas to enable the different paths to be
distinguished. Accordingly schemes using 2 x 2, 4 x 2, or 4 x 4 antenna matrices could be used.
While it is relatively easy to add further antennas to a base station, the same was not true of
mobile handsets, where the dimensions of the user equipment limited the number of antennas
which should be placed at least a half wavelength apart.
 SAE (System Architecture Evolution): With the very high data rate and low latency
requirements for 3G LTE, it was necessary to evolve the system architecture to enable the
improved performance to be achieved. One change was that a number of the functions previously
handled by the core network were transferred out to the periphery. Essentially this provided a
much "flatter" form of network architecture. In this way latency times could be reduced and data
routed more directly to its destination. As part of the upgrade an Evolved Packet Core, EPC was
developed to ensure that the packet data was routed as efficiently as possible.
 IP data: 4G LTE is an all IP data system. 3G UMTS had included circuit switched voice, but LTE
had not provision for any circuit switched voice. Originally it had been anticipated that operators
would supply the data capability and voice would be via OTT applications. As operators would
lose out significant revenues as voice, at the time, constituted a major element of the revenue. To
overcome this GSMA set the standard for voice connectivity as the Voice over LTE scheme,
VoLTE.

VoLTE required the implementation of an IMS core and this slowed roll out of this capability in
view of the expense. To help operators overcome this, a limited implementation of IMS was
developed and this considerably reduced the capital expenditure required by operators.

4G LTE became the mainstay mobile communications technology. Both first and second generation
technologies were focussed on voice and 3G then moved towards mobile data. 4G LTE improved on
the mobile data aspects of mobile communications, focussing mainly on this aspect to enable
general mobile data connectivity.

LTE OFDM, OFDMA SC-FDMA &

Modulation
LTE uses OFDM as the basic signal format - OFDMA in the
downlink and SC-FDMA in the uplink with various modulation
formats.
OFDM forms the basic signal format used within 4G LTE. OFDM, Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplex is the basic format used and this is modified to provide the multiple access scheme:
OFDMA, orthogonal frequency division multiple access in the downlink and SC-FDMA, single
channel orthogonal frequency division multiple access in the uplink.
Using multiple carriers, each carrying a low data rate, OFDM is ideal for high speed data
transmission because it provides resilience against narrow band fading that occurs as a result of
reflections and the general propagation properties at these frequencies.

Within the basic LTE OFDM signal format a variety of modulation formats are used including PSK
and QAM. Higher order modulation is used to achieve the higher data rates: the modulation order
being determined by the signal quality.

LTE modulation & OFDM basics

The use of OFDM is a natural choice for LTE. While the basic concepts of OFDM are used, it has
naturally been tailored to meet the exact requirements for LTE. However its use of multiple carrier
each carrying a low data rate remains the same.

Note on OFDM:
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex, OFDM is a form of signal format that uses a large number
of close spaced carriers that are each modulated with low rate data stream. The close spaced
signals would normally be expected to interfere with each other, but by making the signals
orthogonal to each other there is no mutual interference. The data to be transmitted is shared across
all the carriers and this provides resilience against selective fading from multi-path effects.

Read more about OFDM, Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing.

The actual implementation of the technology will be different between the downlink (i.e. from base
station to mobile) and the uplink (i.e. mobile to the base station) as a result of the different
requirements between the two directions and the equipment at either end. However OFDM was
chosen as the signal bearer format because it is very resilient to interference. Also in recent years a
considerable level of experience has been gained in its use from the various forms of broadcasting
that use it along with Wi-Fi and WiMAX. OFDM is also a modulation format that is very suitable for
carrying high data rates - one of the key requirements for LTE.

In addition to this, OFDM can be used in both FDD and TDD formats. This becomes an additional
advantage.

LTE channel bandwidths and characteristics

One of the key parameters associated with the use of OFDM within LTE is the choice of bandwidth.
The available bandwidth influences a variety of decisions including the number of carriers that can
be accommodated in the OFDM signal and in turn this influences elements including the symbol
length and so forth.

LTE defines a number of channel bandwidths. Obviously the greater the bandwidth, the greater the
channel capacity.

The channel bandwidths that have been chosen for LTE are:

1. 1.4 MHz
2. 3 MHz
3. 5 MHz
4. 10 MHz
5. 15 MHz
6. 20 MHz
In addition to this the subcarriers spacing is 15 kHz, i.e. the LTE subcarriers are spaced 15 kHz
apart from each other. To maintain orthogonality, this gives a symbol rate of 1 / 15 kHz = of 66.7 µs.

Each subcarrier is able to carry data at a maximum rate of 15 ksps (kilosymbols per second). This
gives a 20 MHz bandwidth system a raw symbol rate of 18 Msps. In turn this is able to provide a raw
data rate of 108 Mbps as each symbol using 64QAM is able to represent six bits.

It may appear that these rates do not align with the headline figures given in the LTE specifications.
The reason for this is that actual peak data rates are derived by first subtracting the coding and
control overheads. Then there are gains arising from elements such as the spatial multiplexing, etc.

LTE OFDMA in the downlink

The OFDM signal used in LTE comprises a maximum of 2048 different sub-carriers having a
spacing of 15 kHz. Although it is mandatory for the mobiles to have capability to be able to receive
all 2048 sub-carriers, not all need to be transmitted by the base station which only needs to be able
to support the transmission of 72 sub-carriers. In this way all mobiles will be able to talk to any base
station.

Within the OFDM signal it is possible to choose between three types of modulation for the LTE
signal:

1. QPSK (= 4QAM) 2 bits per symbol

2. 16QAM 4 bits per symbol
3. 64QAM 6 bits per symbol
Note on QAM - Quadrature Amplitude Modulation:
Quadrature amplitude modulation, QAM is widely sued for data transmission as it enables better
levels of spectral efficiency than other forms of modulation. QAM uses two carriers on the same
frequency shifted by 90° which are modulated by two data streams - I or Inphase and Q -
Quadrature elements.

The exact LTE modulation format is chosen depending upon the prevailing conditions. The lower
forms of modulation, (QPSK) do not require such a large signal to noise ratio but are not able to
send the data as fast. Only when there is a sufficient signal to noise ratio can the higher order
modulation format be used.

Downlink carriers and resource blocks

In the downlink, the subcarriers are split into resource blocks. This enables the system to be able to
compartmentalise the data across standard numbers of subcarriers.

Resource blocks comprise 12 subcarriers, regardless of the overall LTE signal bandwidth. They also
cover one slot in the time frame. This means that different LTE signal bandwidths will have different
numbers of resource blocks.
 LTE DOWNLINK CARRIERS AND RESOURCE BLOCKS

Channel bandwidth 1.4 3 5 10 15 20

(MHz)

Number of resource blocks 6 15 25 50 75 100

LTE SC-FDMA in the uplink

For the LTE uplink, a different concept is used for the access technique. Although still using a form
of OFDMA technology, the implementation is called Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple
Access (SC-FDMA).

One of the key parameters that affects all mobiles is that of battery life. Even though battery
performance is improving all the time, it is still necessary to ensure that the mobiles use as little
battery power as possible.

With the RF power amplifier that transmits the radio frequency signal via the antenna to the base
station being the highest power item within the mobile, it is necessary that it operates in as efficient
mode as possible. This can be significantly affected by the form of radio frequency modulation and
signal format.

Signals that have a high peak to average ratio and require linear amplification do not lend
themselves to the use of efficient RF power amplifiers. As a result it is necessary to employ a mode
of transmission that has as near a constant power level when operating. Unfortunately OFDM has a
high peak to average ratio.

While this is not a problem for the base station where power is not a particular problem, it is
unacceptable for the mobile. As a result, LTE uses a modulation scheme known as SC-FDMA -
Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiplex which is a hybrid format. This combines the low peak to
average ratio offered by single-carrier systems with the multipath interference resilience and flexible
subcarrier frequency allocation that OFDM provides.

The LTE signal format, modulation and use of OFDM has enabled LTE to provide reliable high
speed data communications.

The use of OFDM has enabled LTE to provide reliable link quality even in the presence of reflections
and the adaptive modulation provided the ability to modify the link according to the prevailing signal
quality.