EPRI Underground Transmission Systems

Reference Book
2006 Edition

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EPRI Underground Transmission
Systems Reference Book
2006 Edition

1014840

Final Report, March 2007

EPRI Project Manager

S. Eckroad

ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

3420 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304-1338 ▪ PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303-0813 ▪ USA
800.313.3774 ▪ 650.855.2121 ▪ askepri@epri.com ▪ www.epri.com
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES
THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION(S) NAMED BELOW AS AN
ACCOUNT OF WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH
INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI). NEITHER EPRI, ANY MEMBER OF EPRI, ANY COSPONSOR, THE
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PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT.

ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT

Electric Power Research Institute

NOTE
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e-mail askepri@epri.com.

Electric Power Research Institute, EPRI, and TOGETHER…SHAPING THE FUTURE OF ELECTRICITY
are registered service marks of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.

Copyright © 2007 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.
CITATIONS

This report was prepared by

Electric Power Research Institute

3420 Hillview Avenue
Palo Alto, CA 94304

Principal Investigator
S. Eckroad

The authors of each chapter of this book are listed with the chapters. This document describes
research sponsored by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI).

This publication is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following
manner:

EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book: 2006 Edition. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
2007. 1014840.

Photographs on cover are reprinted courtesy of (clockwise from upper left): South Carolina
Electric & Gas, ITCTransmission, BC Hydro, and Southwire. Center: Prysmian Cables and
Systems.

iii
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION

This report is an updated edition of the Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book,
which was originally published in 1992. Published in the first edition with a green cover, the
book has become commonly known throughout the industry as “the Green Book.” The book
provides a desk and field compendium on the general principles involved in the planning, design,
manufacture, installation design, installation, testing, operation, and maintenance of underground
cable systems.

Results & Findings

This book is a state-of-the-art guide to underground cable systems. The content of the earlier
edition has been significantly expanded and updated. The new edition provides information to
better reflect the latest technology, new materials and methods, recently issued standards and
regulations, and current utility needs and practices. Separate chapters have been developed to
provide detailed information on extruded-dielectric, pipe-type, and self-contained fluid-filled
cables. Special application cables—gas-insulated lines, dc cables and long-length submarine, and
superconducting cables—are given coverage. New chapters have been added on hydraulic design
and grounding and cathodic protection.
In all, information is provided on the history of underground cables, different cable types, basic
design considerations, the construction of cables, cable accessories, hydraulic design and
equipment, grounding and cathodic protection, ampacity, installation design, cable system
construction, testing, operation and maintenance, cable system considerations, and the future of
underground transmission.
Efforts have also been taken to make the book more user friendly, including reorganizing
chapters to make information easier to find and expanding the glossary and index.

Challenges & Objectives

Today companies that own and operate underground transmission systems face a number of
challenges. They must reduce costs, improve system reliability, increase power throughput, and
ensure health and safety. At the same time, many of these companies are losing their core of
experienced cable engineers. Since its publication, the Green Book has provided underground
transmission companies with a valuable tool for meeting these challenges. However, despite the
value and popularity of the Green Book, some elements of the book’s content have become
increasingly outdated over the years since its publication and do not reflect the latest
developments in technology and utility practices. For example, in recent years, there has been an
increased use of extruded dielectric cable at higher voltages, a trend not reflected in the 1992
edition. In addition, there is a need today for the book to incorporate more of an international,
rather than an exclusively U.S., perspective on underground transmission design and use.

v
Applications, Values & Use
The book provides a desk and field compendium on underground cable systems. The new edition
will enable energy companies to simplify the design and reduce the cost of new extruded and
traditional pipe-type cable systems. Although the Green Book compiles a wealth of information,
it is not intended to provide an exhaustive treatment of all subjects associated with the
underground cable industry—more detail is available in the references cited in the book. Instead
the book serves as a handy reference guide, compiling a large amount of information in one
place. For example, design engineers can use the book as a checklist to determine the relevant
design phase issues that must be addressed in the design phase of a project; the tradeoffs are
identified but not necessarily solved. The book can also serve as basis for training new cable
engineers. When used in conjunction with EPRI’s Underground Transmission Workstation, it
enables new cable engineers to come up to speed more quickly, thereby saving time and money.

EPRI Perspective
The Green Book is one of a series of landmark EPRI transmission reference books, first
published in the 1980s and 1990s and currently being updated. These books—on overhead line
transmission, underground transmission, wind-induced conductor motion, and compact line
design—brought together leading experts to compile state-of-science information on the design,
construction, and maintenance of these systems. This much needed revision to a popular and
well used standard reference work brings together the combined wisdom and practical
experience of today’s acknowledged experts in the field and does so in a convenient format that
was designed to meet the needs of utility company underground transmission engineers and
planners, and the consultants who serve them.

Approach
To capture the current state-of-the-art in the field of underground cables, EPRI initiated a three-
year research project. EPRI assembled a team of international experts to review the existing
edition of the Green Book, propose a plan for revision and expansion, and write an updated
edition. The new edition was peer-reviewed by members of the team, EPRI member advisors,
and other experts in the field.

Keywords
Extruded dielectric cables
Pipe-type cables
Self-contained fluid-filled cables
Transmission
Underground transmission

vi
 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Foreword
The Electric Power Research Institute is pleased to
present the EPRI Underground Transmission Systems
Reference Book–2006 Edition. This book covers all
stages of cable system design and operation, from ini-
tial planning studies to failure analysis. It contains con-
tributions from many of the industry’s experts, and
represents practices both in North America and inter-
nationally.
Energy companies must achieve a number of objectives
to satisfy performance-driven expectations from inves-
tors and customers: cut costs, improve transmission
system reliability, increase power throughput, and
ensure health and safety. EPRI’s Underground Trans-
mission (UT) Program has historically provided its
members with valuable research results and guidance
for the planning, design, construction, operation, and
maintenance of UT systems. The EPRI Underground
Transmission Systems Reference Book–2006 Edition
continues a valued tradition of providing transmission
engineers and planners with a ready reference to under-
ground cable design, as well as theory and practical
application knowledge for construction, operation, and
maintenance.
This 2006 Edition is a thorough revision and updating
of the widely used and popular 1992 Edition of the
same title, commonly known as the “EPRI Green
Book” because of its green case binding. In turn, the
1992 Green Book was an outgrowth of the oft-
referenced 1957 Edison Electric Institute Underground
Systems Reference Book. In publishing this revised
edition, we recognize that, although many of the basic
principles and practices described in the 1992 Edition
are unchanged, there is a need to accurately and more
fully reflect the innovations and recent changes in the
transmission cable industry, as well as the changing
needs of utility companies that face a business environ-
ment very different from that of the late 1980s and
early 1990s.
vii
AUDIENCE AND SCOPE
In planning for and producing the 2006 Edition of the
Green Book, EPRI and its utility advisors decided to
generally follow the approach of the earlier edition with
respect to audience and scope. The intended users of
the Green Book are primarily utility UT design engi-
neers and consultants. Addressing issues related to the
aging workforce and continuing loss of utility expertise,
the Green Book strives to preserve the institutional
knowledge that is being eroded in today’s downsized
and restructured industry. Engineers in utility organiza-
tions with even modest or minimal preparation or
background in the specifics of underground transmis-
sion systems will benefit from the “tutorial” nature of
the book, while experienced professionals will find the
technical depth they need to carry out their assign-
ments. To make it manageable in size, the book does
not include fundamental derivations and tables, as
these are widely available in standard textbooks and
other references. The minimal technical preparation
needed to fully utilize the book would be third-year col-
lege engineering or physics. Finally, recognizing that a
significant portion of today’s design and manufacturing
of transmission cable systems occurs outside of North
America, attempts were made to expand the focus of
the Green Book to include international practice and
terminology. To that end, a number of chapters have
international co-authors or reviewers.
PROCESS
Production of the 2006 Edition began with a thorough
review of the 1992 Edition. Thirteen UT professionals,
many of them contributors to the earlier edition, per-
formed individual reviews of each of the 1992 Green
Book chapters. These reviews focused on identifying
outdated or inaccurate text and/or figures, proposing
new material to reflect more recent developments, and
suggesting overall enhancements. Additionally, some
reviewers provided detailed outlines of entirely new
chapters. This stage was completed at the end of 2004,
and the results were published in the EPRI report
Foreword
Review of the Underground Transmission Systems Refer-
ence Book (1008718). An extended three-day workshop
held in March 2005 led to consolidation of the com-
ments for each chapter and consensus on the required
changes. Results included a detailed description of and
specification for major revisions required to existing
chapters, content and scope of new chapters, new infor-
mation to be provided across chapters, chapters to be
removed, etc.
In the second phase of the project, expert teams of one
to four experts (depending upon chapter complexity
and resources) were formed to rewrite each chapter or
compose new chapters. The text was then indepen-
dently reviewed by other experts as well as utility engi-
neer members of the EPRI Underground Transmission
Task Force. Contributors to the book were drawn from
among those who conducted the chapter reviews; how-
ever, others were selected as well, often upon the rec-
ommendation of the reviewers. An effort was made to
represent all major stakeholders, both domestic and
international, on the author/reviewer teams, including
consultants, engineering and construction companies,
cable system equipment and services suppliers, and
utilities.
A second three-day workshop was held in early 2006
with utility advisors and all authors and reviewers. The
structure of the book and the content of each chapter
were finalized, and areas requiring coordination across
chapters were defined. A publications editor was
assigned to the project to coordinate writing/reviewing
activities and assist authors with the drafting and layout
of each chapter. The editor also secured copyright per-
missions for the many photos and graphics provided by
third parties to enhance the book’s effectiveness and
interest.
Writing began in April 2006, and a draft of the book
was completed by December 2006. An independent
“whole book” review by an engineer not associated
with the initial writing and review process was con-
ducted in early 2007. This review focused on ensuring
the “unity” of technical depth and content across the
17 chapters, particularly where similar or identical
material was discussed in more than one place. The
final review helped eliminate many inconsistencies and
overlaps in the book and corrected errors that
remained. A further round of corrections and edits was
undertaken before submitting the text for final layout.
In this way, every effort was made to ensure that the
material is accurate and complete.
viii
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
NEW MATERIAL AND ORGANIZATION
A number of important changes from the structure and
content of the 1992 Edition were incorporated in the
2006 Edition, some of which are highlighted below.
Foremost among these was significantly expanded
coverage of extruded dielectric cable systems. These
cable systems, at transmission voltages, were in their
infancy when the 1992 Edition was written. In order to
enhance the coverage of extruded dielectrics as well as
make the content more manageable, the chapter on
cable construction, which in the 1992 Edition covered
all cable types, was expanded into four distinct chapters
in the present work: extruded dielectrics, pipe-type, self-
contained fluid-filled, and special applications. The
latter includes gas-insulated line (GIL), dc and subma-
rine, as well as superconducting cables.
Another significant enhancement in the 2006 Edition is
the addition of two new chapters: Hydraulic Design
and Equipment (Chapter 9), and Grounding and
Cathodic Protection (Chapter 10). Although some of
the material in these two chapters was covered in other
chapters in the 1992 Edition, much of it is new.
An important change in the chapter on Ampacity
(Chapter 11) was the decision to use an approach
focused on the IEC standard methods—generally rec-
ognized as providing better accuracy for ac losses with
a larger variety of cable systems and being easier to fol-
low—while accounting for cyclic loading by using the
“loss factor” approach from Neher-McGrath, for any
arbitrary load shape. The IEC standards are also sub-
ject to regular maintenance and improvements.
A new Appendix provides an extensive, annotated list
of EPRI reports to aid in further exploration of specific
areas of interest. Research conducted by EPRI over the
past two decades has resulted in a significant body of
literature on underground transmission systems,
including their design, construction, operation and
maintenance, and condition assessment. The results of
much of this work are still valid today, and the reader
will find in these resources additional in-depth informa-
tion on many of the topics covered in the Green Book.
Additionally, a Glossary has been added to the 2006
Edition, and the Index has been expanded.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
During the three-year course of this project I had the
very distinct pleasure of meeting and interacting with
many world-renowned transmission cable engineering
professionals. These men and women sacrificed much
of their professional and personal time and put much
of their hearts into the development of this reference
work. They can be rightfully proud of the results. Per-
sonally, I am proud to have had the rich opportunity to
work with them and learn from them. I would like to
make special note of the contribution of Rachel Mosier
of Power Delivery Consultants, who performed the
“whole book” review under a very demanding schedule
and working at times with difficult text files. The
authors and reviewers of this book are further acknowl-
edged by name and organization in the Acknowledg-
ments section.
Without the financial and technical support of the
EPRI Underground Transmission Task Force (UTTF),
the project to revise the Green Book would not have
succeeded. I am grateful for the confidence that the
members of the UTTF placed in both EPRI as an orga-
nization and me personally to bring this project to com-
pletion, in spite of schedule and budget constraints. In
particular, I would like to thank Mohammad Pasha of
United Illuminating Company and Ron Knapwurst of
American Transmission Company for their persistence
in reviewing all the chapters and their assistance in
obtaining both the quality and timeliness desired for
this product. I also want to acknowledge the chairman
of the Task Force, Nirmal Singh of Detroit Edison, who
supported this project from the outset and contributed
Foreword
significantly as both an author and a reviewer. Finally, I
want to express my appreciation for the support and
assistance, especially in the early stages of the book’s
development, of Walter Zenger, who was the Program
Manager of EPRI’s UT Program until May 2006.
Last but not least, this book would never have been
published without the incredible efforts of Jonas Weisel
of Jonas Weisel and Associates. Besides his excellent
work of technical editing and assistance to authors with
formatting and other textual and graphics problems,
Jonas very persistently goaded all of us to get our mate-
rials in on time and faithfully followed up resolutions
to the many obstacles that we encountered along the
way. Jonas was ably assisted by Lee Lehrman, who laid
out the entire book and solved many issues related to
placement of figures and tables. Brian Fies, an associate
of Jonas, also helped during peak periods of editorial
work. I am most grateful to each of these individuals
and their unnamed team members who ensured that
this book was published on time.
It is my aspiration that this 2006 Edition of the EPRI
Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book will
serve well the electric utility industry and the men and
women who energize it for many years, and will come
to be regarded with at least the same high esteem as its
predecessor, if not greater.
Steven W. Eckroad
Electric Power Research Institute
Charlotte, North Carolina
USA
ix
Contents EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

x
 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Acknowledgments
This book reflects the efforts of many cable industry
engineers and experts over a period of three years.
Thirty expert authors and reviewers took time from
their very busy schedules to prepare text; review the
contributions of others; resolve issues of content, com-
pleteness, and accuracy; and finalize text and figures to
produce the highest quality results. These authors and
reviewers are listed below (an asterisk indicates that the
individual also participated in the review of the 1992
Edition). Brief profiles of the authors also appear at the
start of each chapter.
Pierre Argaut, Silec Cables
Phil Bolin, Mitsubishi Electric Power Products, Inc.
Earle C. (Rusty) Bascom, III, Power Delivery
Consultants, Inc. (PDC)*
John H. Cooper, Power Delivery Consultants, Inc.
(PDC)*
Steven W. Eckroad, Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI)
Anthony Ernst, Underground Systems, Inc. (USi)
Stephen J. Galloway, Cable Consulting International
Limited
Reza Ghafurian, Consolidated Edison Company
of New York, Inc.*
Brian Gregory, Cable Consulting International Limited
Frank L. Kuchta, Prysmian Cables and Systems
Dennis E. Johnson, POWER Engineers, Inc.*
W. Graham Lawson, Energy Cable Consultants, Inc.
David Lindsay, Southwire, Inc.
Allen MacPhail, BC Hydro
Rachel I. Mosier, Power Delivery Consultants, Inc.
(PDC)
Frank Musick, WA Chester, LLC (WAC)
Deepak Parmar, Geotherm, Inc.
Mohammad A. Pasha, The United Illuminating
Company
Dave Purnhagen, Underground Systems, Inc. (USi)*
John S. Rector, Black & Veatch, Inc. (B&V)
xi
Adriano Santini, Consolidated Edison Company
of New York, Inc.
Axel Schlumberger, Southwire HV Solutions
Nirmal Singh, Detroit Edison Company*
Stephen E. Turner, Underground Systems, Inc. (USi)*
Milan Uzelac, G&W Electric Co.
Steven P. Walldorf, Underground Systems, Inc. (USi)*
Thomas B. Welles, Advanced Testing Systems Inc.
Jay A. Williams, Power Delivery Consultants, Inc.
(PDC)*
Ernesto Zaccone, Prysmian Cables and Systems*
Joseph T. Zimnoch, Consultant
Also assisting in reviewing the 1992 Edition were: Paul
Cinquemani of Prysmian Cables and Systems; Robert
B. Gear and John S. Engelhardt of Underground Sys-
tems, Inc. (USi); and David Notman of Cable Consult-
ing International Limited.
Members of the EPRI’s Underground Transmission
Task Force (UTTF), chaired by Nirmal Singh of
Detroit Edison Company, took an active role in guiding
and supporting the development of this book. Many of
the UTTF members served on the Green Book Work-
ing Group that met with authors and reviewers in
extended, three-day planning sessions on two occasions
and participated in numerous teleconferences during
the writing of the book. The members of the UTTF
Green Book Working Group over the three-year course
of the project were (listed alphabetically by company):
Howard Jones, American Electric Power (AEP)
Ron Knapwurst, American Transmission Company
(ATC)
Takashi Kojima, BC Hydro
Richard Raymond, CenterPoint Energy
Erich F. Schoennagel, CenterPoint Energy
Reza Ghafurian, Consolidated Edison Company of
New York, Inc.
Nirmal Singh, Detroit Edison Company
Don Koonce, Dominion–Virginia Power
Acknowledgments EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Mark R. Smith, Georgia Power Company Rachel Mosier, Northeast Utilities

Staci Beckwith, Georgia Transmission Company Peter L. Tirinzoni, Northeast Utilities
Vince Curci, Los Angeles Department of Water and Jerry Ruschkofski, South Carolina Electric and Gas
Power (LADWP) Mohammad Pasha, United Illuminating Company
Ed Hahn, New York Power Authority (NYPA)

xii
 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Preface
This EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Refer-
ence Book–2006 Edition is intended to serve as a desk
and field compendium of the general principles
involved in the planning, design, manufacture, installa-
tion design, installation, operation, and maintenance of
underground transmission cable systems. It is not
intended to provide an exhaustive treatment of all sub-
jects associated with the underground transmission
industry but, rather, a basic understanding of the issues.
More detailed information is available in the many ref-
erences cited throughout the text and elsewhere. For
example, the design engineer could use the book as a
checklist to determine the relevant design issues that
must be addressed in the design phase of a project; the
tradeoffs are indicated, but not necessarily solved. The
many possible variations and contingencies involved in
each individual cable project preclude a more detailed
approach.
The book is organized by chapters, sections, and sub-
sections. Although a common overall structure was
attempted, each chapter reflects the unique style and
presentation of its authors. Chapters are self-contained
and may be read independently, for the most part, but a
conscious effort was made to avoid repetition of con-
tent. During the chapter content planning phase, a
number of common, or “core,” topics were identified. It
was recognized that these topics would be germane to
more than one chapter but, rather than provide a com-
plete treatment in each chapter, the authors decided
which chapter should contain the more detailed treat-
ment of a particular core topic. Thus, where needed,
the book employs cross-referencing to direct the reader
to additional information. Likewise, within a chapter,
material common to that chapter’s major subsections is
treated at the beginning of the chapter rather than
being repeated throughout.
Figures and tables are numbered sequentially within
each chapter. References are listed immediately follow-
ing the text of each chapter and are intended to be as
current and inclusive as possible, but an exhaustive bib-
xiii
liography for each topic was neither planned nor pre-
sented. For the reader’s convenience, the symbols used
in the equations in Chapters 11 and 16 are listed and
defined at the end of those chapters.
With regard to the units of measure used within, in
most cases, the units most commonly used by cable
engineers are provided first, followed by their equiva-
lents—i.e., English units are followed by SI (metric)
units in parentheses. Where SI units are more com-
monly used, such as in forced-cooling calculations, they
are presented first, followed by their equivalent English
units. Because international engineering approaches
can vary substantially from U.S. practice, “hard metri-
cation” was not utilized. When unit conversions are
presented, the exactness of the conversion is related to
its engineering significance. For example, 10 feet might
be converted to 3 meters in one instance, but 10.00 feet
would be converted to 3.05 meters in another.
To provide users with a handy reference, Section 2.11
provides a summary of industry specifications and stan-
dards related to underground cables, updated to the
present time.
Every effort has been made to locate, identify, and give
credit to the source for previously published material
(especially figures and tables) used within, even for
public-domain material. If any sources were not identi-
fied or credited, it was by inadvertent error. We are very
grateful for the use of all previously published material
and apologize for any omissions.
Comments and suggestions for improving the presenta-
tion or content of the book should be addressed to Mr.
Steven W. Eckroad, Electric Power Research Institute,
1300 West WT Harris Boulevard, Charlotte, NC 28262.
These contributions will be addressed prior to the pub-
lication of any revised editions, although none is
planned at present.
Jonas Weisel
Contents EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

xiv
 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Contents
Chapter 1 Historical Perspective
1.1 INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
1.2 EARLY CABLE SYSTEMS IN EUROPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
1.3 BEGINNINGS OF THE U. S. UNDERGROUND
CABLE INDUSTRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
1.4 PROGRESS THROUGH THE 1950s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6
1.5 PROGRESS THROUGH THE 1960s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7
1.6 PROGRESS THROUGH THE 1970s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8
1.7 PROGRESS THROUGH THE 1980s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8
1.8 PROGRESS THROUGH THE 1990s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10
1.9 PROGRESS THROUGH THE 2000s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-13
Chapter 2 Cable System Types
2.1 INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-3
Features of Underground Cable Systems . . . . . . . . . . . .2-3
2.2 CONSIDERATIONS FOR SELECTING AN
UNDERGROUND CABLE SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-3
2.3 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-4
2.4 CABLE COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-4
Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-4
Semiconducting Shield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-5
Insulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-5
Outer Layers, Shielding, and Sheath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-6
2.5 EXTRUDED-DIELECTRIC CABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-7
2.6 PIPE-TYPE CABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-8
2.7 SELF-CONTAINED FLUID-FILLED CABLE SYSTEMS .2-9
2.8 SPECIAL APPLICATION CABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
Gas-insulated Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
Submarine Cables and Dc Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
High-temperature Superconducting Cables . . . . . . . . .2-13
2.9 CABLE ACCESSORIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-14
Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-14
Terminations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-15
Link Boxes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-16
Fluid-handling Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-16
Pipe-type Cathodic Protection and Grounding . . . . . . .2-17
Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-17
xv
2.10 SELECTING CABLE TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17
System Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-18
Installation Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-19
Considerations for Cable Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-20
Environmental Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-21
Cost Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-21
2.11 INDUSTRY SPECIFICATIONS AND STANDARDS . . . 2-22
Utility Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-22
Specification Listing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-23
Contact Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-24
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-26
Chapter 3 Basic Design Considerations
3.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
3.2 CABLE SYSTEM DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Circuit Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Circuit Cross Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Ancillary Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Bonding Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Thermal Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Thermomechanical Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Installation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Operation, Maintenance, and Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
3.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Electrostatic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
3.4 POWER RATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11
Direct Current (DC) Cable Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
Alternating Current (AC) Cable Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13
3.5 CURRENT RATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15
Continuous Steady-State Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15
Short-Circuit Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16
Emergency Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17
3.6 CABLE DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18
Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18
Conductor Shield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23
Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23
Insulation Shield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-34
Ground Return Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-34
Jacket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-36
Cable Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-37
Contents
3.7 CABLE ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-37
Cable as a Two-Port Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-38
Inductance L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-39
Conductor Resistance, R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-43
Positive, Negative, and Zero Phase Impedances . . . . .3-46
Characteristic Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-46
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-47
Chapter 4 Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
4.1 INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-3
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-3
Technological Position of Extruded Cables . . . . . . . . . . .4-3
Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-4
4.2 PE CABLE: BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES . . . . . . . . .4-5
Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-5
Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-5
4.3 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF POLYETHYLENE
INSULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-5
4.4 LANDMARKS IN PE CABLE TECHNOLOGY. . . . . . . . .4-9
Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-9
Water Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-12
4.5 XLPE CABLE: BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES . . . . . .4-13
Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-13
Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-13
4.6 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF XLPE INSULATION . . .4-13
Chemical Crosslinking Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-15
4.7 LANDMARK DEVELOPMENTS IN XLPE CABLE
TECHNOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-17
Worldwide Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-17
Japanese Landmarks in XLPE System Technology . . .4-18
Commercial Applications of XLPE Cable Systems . . . .4-19
4.8 ELECTRICAL DESIGN STRESSES FOR XLPE
SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-21
4.9 PROPERTIES OF XLPE CABLE INSULATION . . . . . .4-23
Electrical Breakdown Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-23
Electrical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-24
Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-25
Thermal Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-25
4.10 EPR CABLE: BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES. . . . . . .4-26
Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-26
Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-27
4.11 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF EPR CABLE . . . . . . . .4-27
Formulation of EPR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-28
Mixing of High-Voltage EPR Insulation Compounds . . .4-29
Cable Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-29
4.12 LANDMARK DEVELOPMENTS IN EPR CABLE . . . . .4-30
4.13 PROPERTIES OF EPR INSULATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-31
EPR Electrical Breakdown Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . .4-31
EPR Electrical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-31
EPR Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-31
EPR Thermal Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-32
4.14 CONSTRUCTION: CONDUCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-33
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4.15 CONSTRUCTION: CONDUCTOR AND INSULATION
SHIELDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-34
4.16 CONSTRUCTION: INSULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-36
Insulation Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-36
Calculation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-36
Selection Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-37
4.17 CABLE CONSTRUCTION: OUTER LAYERS. . . . . . . . 4-39
Bedding Tapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-39
Water-blocking Tapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-40
Metallic Shields and Sheaths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-41
Shield Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-42
Wet Designs of Cable with Metallic Shields . . . . . . . . . 4-42
Metallic Sheaths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-43
Other Sheath Considerations for Extruded
Dielectric Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-46
4.18 CONSTRUCTION: JACKETS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-47
4.19 MANUFACTURE OF COMPOUNDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-49
Manufacture of XLPE Insulating Compound. . . . . . . . . 4-49
Manufacture of Semiconducting Compound. . . . . . . . . 4-50
4.20 MANUFACTURE OF EXTRUDED CABLE CORE . . . . 4-51
Extruders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-51
Types of CV Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-54
VCV (Vertical Continuous Vulcanization) . . . . . . . . . . . 4-55
CCV (Catenary Continuous Vulcanization)-Nitrogen . . 4-57
CCV (Catenary Continuous Vulcanization)-
Silicone Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-59
MDCV (Mitsubishi Dainichi Continuous Vulcanization). 4-59
Degassing Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-60
4.21 QUALITY CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-60
Materials Inspection (XLPE and EPR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-61
Materials Inspection Specific to EPR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-62
Quality Control of CV line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-63
Inspection of Cable Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-64
Tests on Extruded Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-67
Electrical Tests on Main Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-68
4.22 SHIPPING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-69
4.23 DESIGN STRESS AND SERVICE LIFE. . . . . . . . . . . . 4-69
Factors Affecting Design Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-70
Comparison with Other Manufacturers’ Experience . . . 4-71
Mechanistic Approach to Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-71
Statistical Breakdown Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-72
Endurance Tests on Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-73
Endurance Estimation on Full-Sized Cable Systems,
CSEM Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-73
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-75
Chapter 5 Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
5.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3
General Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3
5.2 CONDUCTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3
5.3 SHIELDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5
Conductor Shield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5
Insulation Shield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
5.4 INSULATION AND IMPREGNANT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-5
Background—Paper and Laminated Paper Polypropylene
Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-5
Impregnated Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-7
Laminated Paper Polypropylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-10
Cable Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-10
Insulation Electrical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-12
Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-16
Breakdown Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-17
Impregnating Liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-17
5.5 CABLE OUTER LAYERS AND FILLING MEDIUM . . . .5-18
Outer Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-18
Pipe-Filling Medium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-20
5.6 QUALITY CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-29
Cable Manufacturing Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-29
Quality Control of Dielectric Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-30
5.7 SPECIFICATIONS AND STANDARDS RELEVANT TO
PIPE-TYPE CABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-32
AEIC Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-32
ASTM Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-32
IEEE Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-32
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-33
Chapter 6 Cable Construction:
Self-Contained Fluid-filled
6.1 INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-2
6.2 SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-2
SCFF Cable Landmarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-2
Description of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-4
6.3 CONDUCTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-5
6.4 CONDUCTOR SHIELD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-6
6.5 INSULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-6
6.6 INSULATION SHIELD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-8
6.7 LAYING UP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-9
6.8 DRYING AND IMPREGNATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-10
6.9 METAL SHEATHING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11
6.10 REINFORCEMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11
6.11 JACKETING OR OVERSHEATHING . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-12
6.12 ROUTINE TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-12
6.13 SHIPPING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-12
6.14 ELECTRICAL TESTS APPLICABLE TO
FLUID-FILLED CABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-13
High-Voltage Withstand Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-13
Measurement of Dielectric Loss Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-13
6.15 HYDRAULIC AND FLUID QUALITY TESTS. . . . . . . . .6-13
Expulsion Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-13
Impregnation Coefficient Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-14
Flow Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-14
Residual Gas Pressure Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-15
Fluid Cleanliness Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-15
Fluid Electrical Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-16
Contents
6.16 CABLE FLUID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16
6.17 SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS FOR
SUBMARINE USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17
6.18 SELF-CONTAINED FLUID-FILLED CABLES FOR
OPERATION ON DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-18
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-21
Chapter 7 Cable Construction: Special Applications
7.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
7.2 GAS-INSULATED LINES (GIL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
SF6 Gas and SF6-N2 Mixtures for High-Voltage
Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
Epoxy Spacers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5
Enclosures, Enclosure Joints, Mechanical Design, and
Corrosion Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6
High-Voltage Conductor and Conductor Joints. . . . . . . . 7-7
Factory-assembled and -Tested GIL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7
Field-assembled and -Tested GIL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
Field Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
Operation and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
7.3 DC CABLES AND LONG-LENGTH SUBMARINE . . . . . 7-9
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9
A Review of Worldwide Submarine Cable Experience . 7-11
A Review of HVDC Underground Cable Experience . . 7-13
HV Submarine and Dc Cable System Design . . . . . . . 7-14
HVDC and Submarine Cable System Tests . . . . . . . . . 7-20
Reliability in Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-22
7.4 SUPERCONDUCTING CABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-24
Superconducting Materials and Cable Systems . . . . . . 7-24
HTS Cables—Design Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-26
Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-29
Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-32
Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-33
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-34
Chapter 8 Cable Systems Accessories
8.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3
8.2 JOINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3
Theory and General Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3
Joints for Extruded-Dielectric Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11
Pipe-Type Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20
Self-Contained Fluid-Filled Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-34
Industry Specifications and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-38
8.3 TERMINATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-41
Theory and General Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-41
Terminations for Extruded-dielectric Cable . . . . . . . . . 8-45
Pipe-type Cable Terminations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-51
Self-Contained Fluid-Filled Terminations . . . . . . . . . . 8-63
Industry Specifications and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-66
8.4 OTHER ACCESSORIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-66
Sheath Bonding, Sectionalizing, Link Boxes, and Sheath
Voltage Limiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-66
REFERENCES 8-70
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Chapter 9 Hydraulic Design and Equipment
9.1 INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-2
9.2 ENGINEERING DESIGN PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-2
Cable System Pressure Limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-2
Basic Hydraulic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-3
Thermal and Hydraulic Driving Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-4
9.3 HYDRAULIC CALCULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-5
Expulsion Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-5
Demand Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-5
Pressure Drop Due to Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-8
9.4 PRESSURIZATION EQUIPMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-8
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-8
Pressurization Plants (HPFF /SCFF Cable Systems) . . .9-9
Reservoir Systems (SCFF Cables) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-15
Gas Cabinets (HPGF cables) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-17
Computing Reservoir Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-17
9.5 FORCED-COOLING EQUIPMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-18
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-18
System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-18
Overall Cooling Plant Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-21
9.6 SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . .9-23
Pressurization Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-23
Forced-Cooled Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-26
9.7 WORKED EXAMPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-28
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-29
Chapter 10 Grounding and Cathodic Protection
10.1 INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10-3
10.2 GROUNDING OF SINGLE-CORE CABLES . . . . . . . . .10-3
Sheath Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10-3
Structure Grounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10-8
Design Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10-9
10.3 CORROSION AND CATHODIC PROTECTION . . . . . 10-12
Corrosion Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-12
Corrosion Coordinating Committees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-15
Corrosion Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-15
Cathodic Protection Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-16
Applying Cathodic Protection to Pipe-type Cables . . . 10-16
Stray Current Mitigation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10-23
Pipe to Soil Potential Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10-26
Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10-27
Disbonded Coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10-28
Atmospheric Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10-29
Casings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10-30
Lead-Sheathed Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10-31
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10-33
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Chapter 11 Ampacity
11.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2
Ampacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2
11.2 STEADY-STATE AMPACITY CALCULATIONS. . . . . . 11-2
Calculation Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2
Utility System Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7
Cable Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-9
Installation Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-11
Calculation Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-14
Cables in Air and Tunnel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-40
Ampacity for Trenchless Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-43
Ampacity Implications for Crossing External
Heat Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-45
Fault Current Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-46
11.3 TRANSIENT RATING AND TEMPERATURE
CALCULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-48
Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-48
Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-48
Considerations for Distributed vs. Lumped Thermal
Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-48
Selection of Solution Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-48
Multisection R-C Network Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-49
Composite R-C/Exponential Integral Method . . . . . . . 11-50
Special Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-56
11.4 FORCED COOLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-56
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-56
Units, Nomenclature, and Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . 11-57
Calculating Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-57
Thermal-Hydraulic Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-58
Axial Thermal Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-61
Pressure-Loss Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-63
Alternative Calculation Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-64
11.5 AMPACITY VERIFICATION AND UPRATING . . . . . . 11-65
Ampacity Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-65
Uprating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-66
11.6 WORKED EXAMPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-69
Example 1 – 230-kV Crosslinked Polyethylene Cable
Normal Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-69
Example 2 – 230-kV Crosslinked Polyethylene Cable
Emergency Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-78
Example 3 – Calculation of Shield/Sheath Fault Current
Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-81
Example 4 – 345-kV Pipe-Type Cable Normal Rating 11-82
11.7 NOMENCLATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-89
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-95
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Chapter 12 Installation Design
12.1 INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12-3
12.2 COMMON DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . .12-3
Cable-Type Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12-3
Route Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12-3
Surveying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12-6
Rerouting Existing Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12-7
Overhead-to-Underground Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12-7
Soil Thermal Properties and Special Backfill . . . . . . . .12-9
Mechanical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-17
Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-19
Grounding/Cathodic Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12-21
12.3 INSTALLATION MODES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12-21
Splices: Directly Buried vs. in Manholes . . . . . . . . . .12-21
Trenching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12-22
Trenchless Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12-25
Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12-31
Underwater Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12-32
12.4 CABLE SYSTEM DESIGN CALCULATIONS . . . . . . .12-38
Steady-State, Transient, and Emergency Ampacity . .12-38
Cable-pulling Tension and Sidewall Pressure . . . . . . .12-39
12.5 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12-46
Chapter 13 Cable System Construction
13.1 INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13-3
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13-3
Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13-3
Project Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13-3
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13-3
Quality Control/Inspection of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13-4
Contractor Licensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13-4
Permitting/Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13-4
Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13-4
13.2 TRENCHING AND MANHOLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13-4
Survey of Route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13-5
Excavating the Trench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13-6
Water Removal/Well Pointing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13-6
Shoring/Sheeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13-7
Traffic Control/Protective Barriers and Signs . . . . . . . . .13-7
Bed of Trench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13-8
Backfilling the Trench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13-8
Street and Highway Crossings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13-9
Manhole Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-10
13.3 TUNNELING, JACK-AND-BORE, AND DIRECTIONAL
DRILLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-11
Tunneling and Microtunneling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-11
Jack-and-Bore Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-12
Horizontal Directional Drill Installations. . . . . . . . . . . . 13-13
13.4 CONDUIT INSTALLATION FOR SCFF AND EXTRUDED-
DIELECTRIC CABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-14
Joining Sections of Conduit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-14
Field Bends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-15
Proof Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-15
Contents
13.5 DIRECT-BURIED CABLE INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . 13-16
Trench Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-16
Cable Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-16
Direct-Buried Cable Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-17
13.6 HIGH-PRESSURE FLUID-FILLED (HPFF) PIPE
INSTALLATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-17
Pipe Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-17
Corrosion Coatings and Repairs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-20
Electrical Tests on Pipe Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-20
Typical Work Area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-21
Field Bends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-21
Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-22
Installing Pipe in Tunnels or Casings and on Bridges. 13-23
Installing Pipe in Manholes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-23
Installing Termination Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-24
Cleaning and Testing the Installed Pipe System. . . . . 13-24
13.7 BACKFILLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-25
Placing of Backfill Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-25
Surface Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-26
13.8 CABLE INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-26
Storage of Cable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-27
Extruded-Dielectric Cable Installation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-27
Pipe-type Cable Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-28
Self-Contained Fluid-Filled Cable Installation. . . . . . . 13-31
13.9 SPLICING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-31
Extruded-Dielectric Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-32
High-Pressure Pipe-Type Cable Splice. . . . . . . . . . . . 13-32
Self-Contained Fluid-Filled Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-33
Link/Grounding Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-33
13.10 TERMINATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-33
Extruded-Dielectric Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-34
Pipe-Type Termination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-34
Self-Contained Fluid-Filled Termination . . . . . . . . . . . 13-35
13.11 DIELECTRIC FLUID INSTALLATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . 13-35
HPFF Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-35
SCFF Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-35
13.12 NITROGEN GAS INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-35
13.13 INSTALLATION OF PRESSURIZATION PLANTS . . . 13-36
High-Pressure Fluid-Filled Pressurization Plants . . . . 13-36
Gas Cabinets for High-Pressure Gas-Filled Systems . 13-37
Self-Contained Fluid-Filled Pressurization Cabinet . . 13-37
13.14 AFTER INSTALLATION TESTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-37
Extruded-Dielectric Cable Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-37
High-Pressure Pipe-Type and SCFF Tests . . . . . . . . . 13-38
13.15 INSTALLATION OF PIPE FREEZES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-39
13.16 INSTALLATION OF FIBER-OPTIC CABLES . . . . . . . 13-39
13.17 SUBMARINE CABLE INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-39
Installing Extruded-Dielectric and Self-Contained
Fluid-Filled Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-40
Installing Pipe-Type Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-42
Repair of Damaged Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-42
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-43
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Chapter 14 Testing
14.1 INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-2
General Testing Categories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-2
Test Standards and Guides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-4
Standards Organizations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-4
14.2 HIGH-VOLTAGE TESTS AND MEASUREMENT
PROCEDURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-5
AC Voltage Withstand and Step-Breakdown Tests . . . .14-5
Dc Hi-Potential Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-7
Impulse and Switching Surge Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-7
Insulation Dissipation Factor Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-8
Factory Partial-discharge Measurements . . . . . . . . . . .14-9
Field Partial-discharge Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . .14-12
14.3 TYPE/QUALIFICATION TESTS AND FACTORY
PRODUCTION TESTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-16
Qualification/Type Tests for Extruded-Dielectric Cables
(ICEA S-108-720-2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-16
Production Tests for Extruded-Dielectric Cables
(AEIC CS9-06 and ICEA S-108-720-2004). . . . .14-17
Routine, Special, Type, and Prequalification Tests for
Extruded Cable Systems
(IEC 60840 and IEC 62067) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-18
Qualification Tests for Pipe-type Cables
(AEIC CS2-97) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-20
Production Tests for Pipe-type Cables
(AEIC CS2-97) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-21
Qualification Tests for Compressed-Gas-Insulated
Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-22
Tests for Cable Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-22
Tests for Cable Terminations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-23
14.4 AFTER-INSTALLATION TESTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-24
Extruded-dielectric Cable After-installation Tests . . . .14-25
HPFF and HPGF Cable After-installation Tests. . . . . .14-26
SCFF Cable System After-installation Tests . . . . . . . .14-26
Sheath-bonding Verification Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-27
Series Impedance Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-27
14.5 FIELD MAINTENANCE/PROOF TESTS . . . . . . . . . . .14-28
Electrical Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-28
Other Maintenance Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-29
14.6 SPECIAL-PURPOSE TESTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-29
Long-Term Accelerated Life Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-29
Mechanical Bending Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-30
Thermomechanical Bending Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-30
Longitudinal Water Penetration Tests
(ICEA T-34-664) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-30
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-32
Chapter 15 Operation and Maintenance
15.1 INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15-2
15.2 SYSTEM OPERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15-2
15.3 ROUTINE MAINTENANCE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15-2
Cable Installed in Pipe or Duct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15-3
Pipe Coating Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15-3
Manhole and Joint Casings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15-4
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Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5
Dielectric Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6
Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7
Terminations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7
Pressurization System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8
15.4 ELECTRICAL FAULT LOCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-10
Electrical Faults on Underground
Transmission Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-10
General Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-10
Pinpointing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-11
Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-11
15.5 ELECTRICAL FAILURE REPAIR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-12
Extruded-Dielectric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-12
Pipe-Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-13
Self-Contained Fluid-Filled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-16
15.6 FAULT REPAIR MATERIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-17
Extruded-Dielectric Cable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-17
Pipe-type Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-17
Self-Contained Fluid-Filled Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-18
15.7 LEAK MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES FOR
FLUID-FILLED FEEDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-18
Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-18
Causes of Leaks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-19
Leak Detection Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-19
Leak Location Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-20
Pinpointing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-21
PFT Leak Location Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-21
Field Trial Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-22
Leak Prevention Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-23
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-24
Chapter 16 Cable System Considerations
16.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-2
16.2 IMPEDANCE CALCULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-2
Shunt Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-3
Series Symmetrical Component Impedances . . . . . . . 16-4
Single-Conductor Cable Symmetrical Component
Series Impedance Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-4
Generalized Calculation Method for Symmetric Component
Series Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-7
Worked Examples—Single-Conductor Cable
Sequence Impedances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-9
Symmetrical Component Series Impedances for
Pipe-Type Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-13
16.3 INTEGRATION OF CABLES INTO THE
UTILITY SYSTEM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-16
Capacitance and Reactance Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-16
Reactive Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-17
Load Sharing and Power Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-20
Hybrid Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-22
System Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-23
System Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-23
Harmonic Resonance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-24
Insulation Coordination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-25
System Protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-29
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Contents

16.4 MAGNETIC FIELDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16-31
Cables without Ferromagnetic Components . . . . . . . .16-31
Cables with Ferromagnetic Components . . . . . . . . . .16-34
Magnetic Field Management Methods . . . . . . . . . . . .16-36
16.5 INDUCTIVE COORDINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16-41
Industry Standards and Guides for Inductive
Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16-42
Calculation of Induced Voltages and Currents . . . . . .16-43
Inductive Coordination with Pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . .16-44
Inductive Coordination with Fences . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16-48
Inductive Coordination with Communications Lines . .16-49
Railway System Inductive Coordination . . . . . . . . . . .16-51
16.6 NOMENCLATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16-53
17.4 RESEARCH IN CABLE INSTALLATION DESIGN . . . . 17-6
Construction Cost Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6
Subsurface Structures Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6
17.5 FUTURE CABLE SYSTEMS—HV/EHV DC CABLES . 17-6
The SuperGrid Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6
17.6 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-8
Appendix 1 EPRI Reports Related to Underground
Transmission Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . A1-1

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16-55
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .G-1

Chapter 17 The Future of Underground Transmission

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I-1
17.1 INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3
17.2 CURRENT RESEARCH IN CABLE TECHNOLOGY . . 17-3
Dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3
Dry-type Terminations and High-Stress Splices . . . . . . 17-4
Superconducting Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4

17.3 IMPROVEMENTS IN DESIGN AND OPERATION . . . . 17-5

Educational Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5
Thermomechanical Bending in Pipe-type Cables . . . . . 17-5
Recabling Upgrades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6

xxi
Contents EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

xxii
 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

CHAPTER 1 Historical Perspective

Author: Nirmal Singh, Detroit Edison Company
Reviewer: Reza Ghafurian, Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc.

This chapter presents an overview of the history of underground transmission—from the

early development of underground insulated communication and electric power distribu-
tion and transmission lines in the early 1800s to the present.

1-1
Chapter 1: Historical Perspective
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter reviews the history of underground electric
transmission systems. Section 1.2 describes early cable
systems in Europe, including the development of new
materials, constructions and landmark installations.
Section 1.3 outlines the start of the cable industry in the
United States, including the first use of paper-insulated
cable and the development of oil-filled and gas-filled
cables from low to high pressures. Sections 1.4 through
1.9 summarize developments in the underground trans-
mission industry decade by decade from the 1950s
through the first years of the twenty-first century.
Section 1.4 introduces the users to the potential of poly-
ethylene and crosslinked polyethylene as an alternative
insulation to oil-paper systems and other natural and
synthetic rubbers. Section 1.5 shows the acceptance of
high-pressure fluid-filled (HPFF) cable systems up to
the 345-kV level, largely as a result of the successful
completion of field trials at Cornell University.
Section 1.6 covers the dominance of pipe-type cable sys-
tems and lack of enthusiasm of U.S. utilities for
extruded cable systems, including the commencement of
active involvement of the newly formed EPRI in under-
ground transmission. Section 1.7 highlights the develop-
ment and installation of laminated paper polypropylene
insulated HPFF cables in the United States, continued
confidence in HPFF cable systems, and strides being
made in extruded cable systems in Europe and Japan,
including the discovery of high temperature supercon-
ductivity (HTS). Section 1.8 includes the growing inter-
est and acceptance of extruded cables, increasing focus
on condition and life assessment of HPFF cables and
means for better use of their capacity, as well as evalua-
tions of alternative HTS cable designs. Section 1.9
marks the introduction of long-length extruded cable
systems with a large number of splices at 230-345 kV,
and the launching of several commercial demonstration
projects of HTS cable systems, including a few extruded
HVdc cable installations.
1.2 EARLY CABLE SYSTEMS IN EUROPE
A history of cables has to start with the technique of
making wires by drawing metal through dies, which
dates back to the fourteenth century. Wires were gauged
by numbers in the early eighteenth century, laying the
foundation of the geometric system, which forms the
basis of current practices.
According to early references, cables were utilized in
mining and telegraphy, with the latter providing the
impetus for the development of insulated cables in the
early-to-mid 1800s for this emerging mode of communi-
1-2
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
cation. In 1812, Baron Schilling, a Russian, fired a mine
under the River Nava in St. Petersburg with an electric
impulse sent through a rubber-insulated cable. This
application represents the first record of a continuously
insulated conductor. Following the successful efforts of
Schilling, in 1886, Francis Ronalds in Hammersmith,
England, used bare copper wires drawn into butted
glass tubes and joined by sleeves, which were placed in
wooden troughs—a kind of wooden pipe—for a tele-
graphic system. This design was intended to allow ready
access to the wire and the localization of faults.
Gutta percha or gutta taban, a natural latex extracted
from trees, was the predominant form of insulation in
cables from the early 1840s to the late 1860s. Dr. Will-
iam Montgomerie, a physician to the British Governor
in Malaya, introduced gutta percha to the West in 1843,
and Sir Michael Faraday suggested its use as an insulant
to Williams Siemens, whose brother was involved in mil-
itary underground cables in Germany.
In 1847, Werner Siemens invented a machine for apply-
ing seamless gutta percha to wire because his previous
effort to cover the wire with strips of this material expe-
rienced moisture ingress at the strip-interface. In 1847,
Siemens produced telegraphic wire insulated with gutta
percha, and in 1850, similar telegraphic cable was
placed across the English Channel. In 1848, a process
was developed in England covering copper wire with
vulcanized (or crosslinked) natural rubber strips, and in
1859, it was used for telegraph cables in England. In
1879, Francois Borel of Switzerland invented a lead
press for extruding a lead sheath directly over an insu-
lated core, and this made a product satisfactory for use
in power cables. In 1884, Borel also made two 2-kV
cables for Vienna, which were insulated by a combina-
tion of paraffin-impregnated jute. By 1890, single-core,
underground dc power cables, insulated with this mate-
rial and covered with lead, rated for 3-kV service, were
installed in Paris. Siemens also installed similar cables,
rated at 2 kV, in 1886 in Vienna, Rome, and Milan.
The successful installation by Sebastian Ferranti of
England, of a 30-mile, 10-kV high-voltage paper-insu-
lated cable with about 7500 joints in 1890 is an epochal
event in the history of high-voltage cables. This cable
consisted of 20-ft lengths of concentric copper tubes,
insulated with ordinary rag paper soaked or impreg-
nated in ozokerite, which is a naturally occurring min-
eral for m of paraffin wax. This cable marks the
introduction of paper to high-voltage cable. An overall
lead sheath was provided. This installation, connecting
the Deptford Generating Station to Grosvenor Gallery
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Generating Station, was commissioned on February 15,
1891, and the last length was only removed in 1933—the
42-year service offered by the Ferranti cable might have
incidentally led to the general acceptance of a 40-year
cable life.
Following the introduction of impregnated paper cable
for high-voltage cables by Dr. Ferranti, paper-insulated,
lead-covered cable was used extensively in Europe for
underground transmission at increasingly higher volt-
ages. By 1911, paper-insulated cable was installed in
Germany for operation at 60 kV and in Spain at 50 kV.
In 1914, Martin Hochstadter of Germany invented the
use of a metallic shield over the insulation; this was a
major advance in the reliability of solid-type, paper-
insulated cable. In fact, this concept is still the basis of
all high-voltage cable design today.
In 1920, Luigi Emanueli of Italy introduced a hollow-
conductor cable in which low-viscosity mineral oil could
be fed from external, pressurized reservoirs. The oil per-
meated the paper insulation and filled voids; this design
soon extended the operating range of paper-insulated
cable up to 138 kV. In 1931, gas-pressurized, oil-impreg-
nated paper cable was introduced by M. Hochstadter
and W. Vogel in Germany and by Bowden in Great Brit-
ain for use at 66 to 132 kV. A thin lead sheath separated
the cable insulation from the external gas pressure,
which deformed the lead and prevented voids in the
insulation during contraction. The external gas pressure
of 200 psi (1380 kPa) was contained by a steel pipe or by
a second reinforced lead sheath. European practice was
to bury power cables directly in the ground, which is still
favored today.
1.3 BEGINNINGS OF THE U. S.
UNDERGROUND CABLE INDUSTRY
The transmission of electrical energy by means of
underground cable in the United States generally paral-
leled the European evolution, beginning with the tele-
graph industry. In 1841, Samuel B. Morse designed a
cable insulated with rubber, hemp, tar, and pitch for use
in a submarine telegraph line between the Battery and
Governors Island, New York, and it was placed success-
fully in operation in 1842. Vulcanized rubber-insulated
cable came into general use by 1860 for the telegraphy
industry, thanks to the pioneering efforts of Charles
Goodyear in rubber processing, and by 1890 for street
and other lighting cables. Subsequently, rubber-insu-
lated cables were successfully developed for high-voltage
underground feeder cables up to 138 kV.
Chapter 1: Historical Perspective
The first use of paper tape, applied helically as a conduc-
tor insulation, is attributed in 1872 to John Wortendyke,
a Virginia paper manufacturer, for a bell system in his
home. In 1884, Edwin McCracken improved on Wor-
tendyke’s crude taping machine and patented the con-
cept of paper-insulated wire. The following year, Jacques
patented a process combining vacuum-drying and hot
oil impregnation under pressure to provide the manufac-
turing process, which was later extensively used for
paper-insulated power cable suitable for high voltages; it
is still an integral part of paper-cable manufacturing.
The first oil-impregnated paper cable made with helically
applied paper tapes, and covered with a lead sheath was
a telephone cable designed by Barrett of the American
Telephone and Telegraph Company in the late 1880s.
The Norwich Wire Company, founded by McCracken,
commenced manufacturing impregnated-paper cables in
1892. This Norwich company later became the National
Conduit and Cable Company.
The impetus for underground transmission was supplied
by Thomas Alva Edison with the invention of the incan-
descent lamp in 1879. Prior to Edison, telegraph, tele-
phone, and arc-lighting companies installed their cables
above ground on poles. After a demonstration at Menlo
Park, New Jersey in 1880, the Edison Tube Works began
the installation of a rigid-tube dc system emanating
from the Pearl Street Station, New York City. The sys-
tem was energized in 1882 and consisted of 10.5 miles
(16.8 km) of underground mains. This was followed by
the first three-wire, 240-V, underground, Edison-tubed
system in Brockton, Massachusetts, which was placed in
service in 1883. The tubes and the necessary splice boxes
were placed underground, and the system operated at
+/-120 V dc. By 1907, New York City had 54 miles
(86.4 km) of such two- and three-wire feeders, and
approximately 180 miles (288 km) had been installed
in various cities in the United States. Edison-tubed,
dc cable use then declined as flexible, duct-type cable
and ac transmission became more popular, due to
the pioneering efforts of Nikola Tesla and George West-
inghouse in ac transmission and distribution in the
United States.
The Edison low-voltage dc, underground cable system
was supplied from a central generating station and had
two insurmountable disadvantages: the voltage could
not be regulated within reasonable limits, and heavy
transmission losses made the system uneconomical. The
ac system devised in Europe by Lucien Gaulard and
John Gibbs overcame both of these disadvantages. This
system, using overhead cable and operating at 1 kV ac,
was initiated by Westinghouse and installed in Buffalo
in 1886.
1-3
Chapter 1: Historical Perspective
Paper-insulated cable for lighting and power took the
form initiated by John Barrett for telephone use, and
was later adapted to the power industry by Edwin
McCracken and his associates of the Norwich Wire
Company. It was composed of narrow paper tapes
applied helically around the conductor and impregnated
wi t h o i l u n d e r p r e s s u r e. I t i s n o t ewo r t hy t h at
McCracken’s patent on wire being insulated with paper
tapes was already six years old at the time of the cele-
brated Ferranti rigid cable installation in England. Oil-
impregnated paper insulation quickly became the most
common for voltages above 5 kV, and even today there
are enormous quantities of paper cables, ranging from
5 to 525 kV. By 1897, the Chicago Electric Company
(now Commonwealth Edison and part of Exelon) had
installed three-conductor, belted-paper-insulated cable
rated 4.5 kV, Brooklyn Edison Company had installed
similar cable rated 6.6 kV, and the first 13-kV paper-
insulated cable, made by the National Conduit and
Cable Company, was installed in Minneapolis and St.
Paul. In later decades, belted cables up to 24 kV were
made, with some still in use.
In 1900, a 25-kV system using paper-insulated cable was
installed in Minneapolis and St. Paul. The impregnating
oil used in these early installations was a mixture of rosin
oil and wood rosin, which was compatible with paper
and sufficiently viscous that it would not drain exces-
sively from the insulation structure during normal load
cycle. Thus rosin, which is derived from trees, served as a
viscosity modifier. Compared to Europe, rosin found less
favor in the United States, where the use of Petrolatum
was more prevalent. All Petrolatums are derived from
paraffinic oils. Rubber-insulated cable was also installed
Figure 1-1 Mechanized cable pulling into manholes, 1916
(courtesy of Detroit Edison Company).
1-4
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
on part of the Minneapolis and St. Paul 25-kV system.
However, after this installation, power utilities in general
favored paper-insulated cable for service over 5 kV. For
secondary networks, rated 120–280 V, rubber-insulated
cable has been the preferred cable.
In 1902, General Electric (GE) Company introduced
varnished cambric insulated cables for general power
purposes, up to 15–27 kV. The varnished cloth consisted
of cotton cloth, coated with baked films of varnish, both
applied helically around the conductor. These cables
are still found on utility systems, particularly in generat-
ing plants.
Figures 1-1 and 1-2 show early cable trucks and mecha-
nized equipment from 1916.
The inherent suitability of paper cables was such that
three-conductor cables were introduced within about a
decade of the introduction of such one-conductor cable.
Around 1910, the first sector-shaped conductor, paper-
insulated cable was installed in the United States by
New York Edison. By 1920, three-conductor, shielded,
paper-insulated cable (Type H, so called after Dr. Hoch-
stadter), began to replace three-conductor, belted cable
as the preferred design. The first type H cable used com-
mercially in the United States was made by Standard
Underground Cable Company and installed at Fall
River, Massachusetts for 25-kV service in 1920. During
the 1920s, the use of Type H cable rapidly expanded to
many cities in the United States at voltages up to 35 kV,
and even higher. The U.S. efforts culminated in 1923
with the installation of the world’s first 66-kV impreg-
nated-paper cable (solid-type) with oil reservoirs at each
Figure 1-2 Cable truck with incorporated winch and
removed cable pieces, 1916 (courtesy of Detroit
Edison Company).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
joint at the Cleveland Electric Illuminating Company
(now FirstEnergy) (see Figure 1-3).
In the early 1920s, the phenomenon of “wax” formation
in oil-paper cables was discovered by Charles Hirschfeld
of Detroit Edison Company (Dunsheath 1929). This
unusual substance, which is formed as a result of the
polymerization of the impregnant due to ionization
activity, drew a lot of attention in the industry at that
time. Because of the material’s insulating properties, it
was concluded that this material does not lead to cable
failure, a conclusion that still holds today. The applica-
tion of pressure eliminated wax formation in oil-paper
cables altogether.
The paper-insulated cable manufactured during most of
the 1920s had disadvantages in that, during normal load
cycle in service, the impregnant had a tendency to drain
from the insulation, and the lead sheath expanded when
the cable was hot and did not contract to its original size
due to a marked differential between the lead and the
impregnant. This problem was overcome by the afore-
mentioned oil-filled cable invented by Luigi Emanueli.
Instead of the viscous oil, the “oil-filled” cable used an
oil of low viscosity, which could move in and out of the
insulation as the cable was exposed to daily thermal
cycling. In 1927, Commonwealth Edison of Chicago
placed in service the first low-pressure, oil-filled (LPOF)
132-kV underground cable in the world. The LPOF
cable is now referred to as self-contained liquid filled or
self-contained fluid filled (SCLF or SCFF) cable. This
was an oil-filled cable of the Emanueli design, and later
in the same year, Consolidated Edison Company of
Figure 1-3 The world’s first 66-kV solid-type cable,
Cleveland Electric Illuminating Company, 1923 (courtesy of
General Cable Catalog, 1949).
Chapter 1: Historical Perspective
New York placed a similar 132-kV oil-filled cable in ser-
vice. The cables operated at a nominal pressure of 15 psi
(105 kPa).
Work in the 1920s through 1940s resulted in reducing
dielectric losses in the insulation, which permitted using
paper insulation for higher voltages. In 1927, H. W.
Fisher and Ralph Atkinson demonstrated that oil-
impregnated paper insulation could operate at higher
voltage stresses if the impregnant is maintained at pres-
sures in the range of 150–225 psi (1035–1550 kPa). In
1933, the concept of the radial evaluation of the electri-
cal and mechanical properties of paper tapes removed
from manufactured and in-service cables introduced by
Detroit Edison Company readily allowed examination
of such cables. This approach facilitated a proper under-
standing of the aging of oil-paper cables, leading to
product improvements.
This discovery led the way to extend the voltage range of
oil-filled cable above 132 kV. But, more importantly, for
the United States, it led to the introduction of pipe-type
cable by Charles Bennett of Okonite. The first installa-
tion of high-pressure, fluid-filled (HPFF), pipe-type
cable in the United States was in 1932 at the Plymouth
Meeting, Pennsylvania substation of Philadelphia Elec-
tric Company by Okonite. This was an experimental
installation, which operated at 69 kV, with an internal
pressure of 200 psi (1380 kPa). Okonite then supplied
the first commercial installation in 1935 at a higher
138 kV operating voltage to the Pennsylvania Railroad
in Baltimore, Maryland. Three paper-insulated conduc-
tors were pulled into a steel pipe having a corrosion pro-
tective covering. This design of HPFF pipe-type cable
soon became the preferred cable for transmission volt-
age of 115–345 kV in the United States. The designation
of this cable was eventually changed to high-pressure,
fluid-filled in the 1970s, recognizing the widespread use
of synthetic insulating fluids. The HPFF terminology
will be used in this book.
The first full-size installation of low-pressure, gas-filled
(LPGF) cable was placed in service in 1938 in Yonkers
and New York City. This three-conductor, lead-covered
cable was designed to operate at 13–35 kV and 8–15 psi
(55–103 kPa). Dry nitrogen was used to prevent mois-
ture ingress in the event of a sheath leak. Later, medium-
pressure, gas-filled cable (MPGF) was placed in service
for 35–40 kV and 69 kV operation, using pressures from
24–40 psi (165-245 kPa). Such nitrogen-assisted cables
are still in use today, particularly at voltages up to 40 kV
at several U.S. utilities. However, because of age, nitro-
gen leaks, and lack of maintenance, these cables are gen-
erally replaced with extruded cables.
1-5
Chapter 1: Historical Perspective
For operation at 69–138 kV, the principle of high-
pressure, gas-filled cable (HPGF) was applied to pipe-
type cable. In this design, the pressurizing medium is
dry nitrogen. The first HPGF pipe-type cable was
placed in service in 1941 at the Detroit Edison Com-
pany for operation at 120 kV (see Figure 1-4). This
cable belongs to the 138-kV class. However, it was
placed in service at 120 kV, the prevalent voltage level at
Detroit Edison Company. After 20 years of operation, a
major portion of this cable was changed from nitrogen-
filled to oil-filled, permitting 230-kV operation and the
resultant increase in power transfer. This cable is still in
service today, a testimony to longevity of the pipe-type
cable system, irrespective of the nature of the pressuriz-
ing medium.
In January 1943, the wartime concern arose regarding
obtaining maximum use of materials and facilities con-
sistent with tolerable rates of failures, and new conduc-
tor temperature guidelines were issued. During this
time, many cables found repeated applications of higher
current loadings, particularly at lower voltage levels.
1.4 PROGRESS THROUGH THE 1950s
Until the late 1940s, underground transmission and dis-
tribution cables were similar to those of the late 1930s.
The highest voltage in service was 132 kV. At this volt-
age, two types of cable were in operation: the single-con-
ductor SCFF cable, and the HPFF pipe-type cable with
three conductors in a common pipe. The latter type ulti-
mately became the most widely accepted in the United
States. Both types were installed with oil-impregnated
paper, as were practically all other cables in service
above 15 kV. In the voltage range of 5–69 kV, both
single-conductor and three-conductor, paper-insulated
Figure 1-4 The world’s first 138-kV class high-pressure
gas-filled pipe-type cable, Detroit Edison Company, 1941
(courtesy of Detroit Edison Company).
1-6
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
cables were in operation. Although most of these cables
were of the solid-type, there also were LPGF and SCFF
cables in service.
The solid-type cable proved to be somewhat marginal in
operation above 27 kV and unsatisfactory at 69 kV
because of its large diameter, ionization, and lead sheath
fatigue problems. The LPGF cables were satisfactory for
operation up to 27 kV, but for 40 kV, the nitrogen pres-
sure had to be increased from 8-15 psi (55–105 kPa) to
24–40 psi (165–275 kPa), and even then the cable
(MPGF) was not generally accepted because of its low
margin of safety at operating voltage. There was limited
use of gas-compression, paper-insulated cable, where
nitrogen gas was applied outside an oval-shaped poly-
ethylene sheath. This design, used in the voltage range
of 69–138 kV, was not widely accepted, although
161-kV and 230-kV designs using oil pressurization
remain in service.
Mineral-base and oil-base, natural-rubber-insulated
cables continued to be used occasionally up to 25 kV. In
the 1950s, GR-S (Buna-S) and GR-I (butyl) became
commercially available and were suitable for under-
ground cable insulation. Because they were lower in
cost, easier to process in the factory, and formulated to
provide better performance, they quickly began to
replace natural rubber insulation. By 1960, butyl-
insulated cable, which has good heat, water, and ozone
resistance, was used extensively rather than oil-base rub-
ber and paper-insulated cables for voltages up to 15 kV
and occasionally up to 35 kV. However, this type of
cable was not suitable for voltages at 69 kV and higher.
The use of polyethylene, developed in England in 1933
by ICI (Imperial Chemical Industries), was first
employed in British tanks during World War II. Its use
in the United States began in 1942 for cables up to 5 kV
in industrial plants, residential distribution-type circuits,
and street lighting. Polyethylene was being used for cir-
cuits rated 15 kV by 1947, and by 1955 at 35 kV. In
1957, Consolidated Edison Company of New York
installed its first polyethylene-insulated, 15-kV cable as
a replacement for the sector-conductor, paper-insulated
cable. However, it experienced early service failures, as
did similar 24-kV cable that was installed shortly after.
Other utilities installed other forms of polyethylene-
insulated cable for operation up to 35 kV, without a pro-
tective metallic covering. Most of the cable installed
underground during the 1950s did not have a metallic
covering; some, however, had polyvinyl chloride, poly-
ethylene, or extruded lead as the outer protective cover-
ing. The successful crosslinking of polyethylene by GE
(Al Gilbert and Frank Precopio), a landmark develop-
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
ment in the late 1950s, was indispensable in furthering
the cause of extruded cables that gained increasing
acceptability in the following decades.
The 1950s saw great strides in underground cables and
tremendous growth in underground transmission.
Extensive research in cable ratings, soil thermal proper-
ties, and cable characteristics resulted in a large number
of technical papers, many of which are classics today. In
1957, the Underground Systems Reference Book was
published, and there were many innovations in cable
design and installation. It was also in this decade that
the plans for the field testing of full-size 345-kV paper
cables at Cornell University were launched by AEIC
(Association of Edison Illuminating Companies) in
cooperation with the then four leading U. S. cable man-
ufacturers, of which only one is still active in transmis-
sion paper cables today.
1.5 PROGRESS THROUGH THE 1960s
Principally because of lower installed cost, pipe-type
cable generally superseded self-contained, fluid-filled
cable, which had been introduced about 10 years earlier
than pipe type. The early installations of fluid-filled
cable, beginning in 1932, were of HPFF pipe-type in the
voltage range of 69-138 kV. By 1954, the voltage was
extended to 230 kV, and by 1964, the voltage was
extended to 345 kV. Both SCFF and HPFF 345-kV
cables and their accessories were proven acceptable in
an extensive test program at Cornell University. As a
result of the Cornell University program completed in
1964, utilities began to increasingly accept 345-kV
HPFF cable systems.
Fluid circulation in HPFF cable, to smooth hot spots in
the transmission system or to increase the circuit capac-
ity above the self-cooled level, was initiated in 1948 and
became used on an increasing scale during the 1950s.
Slow fluid circulation generally was used for tempera-
ture averaging, where the fluid is circulated between two
parallel feeder circuits. Forced cooling was used for
increasing capacity as well as temperature averaging. In
this case, the pipe fluid was circulated through an exter-
nal heat exchanger and returned in a separate pipe.
The first 345-kV, HPFF pipe-type cable was installed by
Consolidated Edison Company in New York City and
was put into service in 1964. Since that time this com-
pany has added many 345-kV circuits, including some
under the East and Hudson Rivers. Several other utili-
ties—such as NSTAR, Commonwealth Edison, Ari-
zona Public Service Company, and Public Service
Electric & Gas Company—have installed forced-cooled
Chapter 1: Historical Perspective
HPFF cables for 230-kV and 345-kV operation, all pro-
viding satisfactory service.
In the early 1960s, the development of crosslinked poly-
ethylene (XLPE) insulation made possible by the earlier
GE work, greatly increased the use of extruded cable for
underground transmission circuits rated up to 69 kV. In
1963, GE extended its earlier chemical crosslinking
techniques to include fillers in polyethylene, and trade-
named the material Vulkene. Although some of the min-
eral-filled XLPE cables did not perform well, a 69-kV
mineral-filled crosslinked polyethylene of the first gener-
ation cable has been operating satisfactorily at Ameri-
can Electric Power Company (AEP) since 1968.
The crosslinked variety closely resembles polyethylene
in its excellent electrical characteristics, with the addi-
tional advantage that it is thermosetting, thus permit-
ting higher-temperature operation. The earliest
commercial use of chemically crosslinked polyethylene
(XLPE) insulation for cable was in 1961. Its use up
to 1963 was limited to 15 kV; however, by 1965, many
utilities were using XLPE cable for voltages up to 46 kV.
A few utilities used 69-kV XLPE cable, in many cases
replacing solid-type, paper-insulated cable. For the most
part, there was no outer covering such as a lead sheath,
as is used with paper-insulated cables. It was felt that the
extra cost of the lead sheath would negate economic
advantages of extruded cables over paper cables, all the
more at distribution voltage levels.
Some use of polyethylene-insulated (PE) cable at trans-
mission voltages continued during the 1960s, but it
began to lose favor when compared to XLPE cable. The
first 115-kV voltage-stabilized polyethylene cable
(VSP), by Simplex Wire and Cable, was installed at the
Baltimore Gas & Electric Company in 1965. Subse-
quently, numerous 115 to 138-kV cables were installed
by utilities during this period, encompassing VSP,
XLPE, high-molecular-weight polyethylene, and EPR
(ethylene-propylene-rubber).
Prior to 1969, there were several installations of XLPE-
insulated transmission cable in the voltage range of
69–138 kV at utilities such as Tampa Electric, Common-
wealth Edison Company, Sacramento Municipal Utility
Department, City of Lakeland, and Florida Power &
Light. For new circuits, there was a trend to use XLPE
cable in place of LPGF, MPGF, and SCFF cable in the
voltage range of 15–69 kV. Some rubber-insulated cable
continued to be used, particularly for industrial applica-
tions. In addition, ethylene-propylene-rubber (EPR)
began to be produced commercially in the late 1960s,
offering a marked improvement over butyl rubber and
1-7
Chapter 1: Historical Perspective
oil-based rubber as a cable insulant. The properties of
EPR were deemed suitable for cables rated up to 138 kV.
The Department of Energy (DOE) initiated efforts to
develop low-temperature superconducting cables in the
mid-1960s, laying the foundation of the technology that
came to fruition in the following decades at the high-
temperature superconducting level. Helium and hydro-
gen were utilized in these efforts, along with several
metal alloys based on niobium.
1.6 PROGRESS THROUGH THE 1970s
During the 1970s, HPFF pipe-type, paper-insulated
cable continued to dominate the voltage range of
115–345 kV. Aluminum, rather than copper, was used in
some cases as the conductor, largely for economic rea-
sons. The potential of sodium as a conductor was
addressed and soon given up. Polybutene, a synthetic
fluid, was employed increasingly as the impregnant or
as the pipe-filling fluid. In the early 1970s, a two-year
acceptance test program was performed at the Waltz
Mill Test Site on HPFF cable systems. This program
demonstrated that conventional HPFF cable systems
were satisfactory for operation at 550 kV, further
strengthening the position of HPFF cable systems. Nev-
ertheless, a few significant extruded cable (XPLE)
installations at 138 kV level, the highest voltage that
U.S. utilities would consider, were made at Cincinnati
Gas and Electric (now Duke) and Cleveland Electric
(now FirstEnergy); both are operating satisfactorily,
although the latter experienced a few termination prob-
lems that were taken care of by replacements of the
same termination design. It is noteworthy that the
FirstEnergy extruded cable has no metallic sheath.
Unlike the Duke cable, the FirstEnergy cable has no
splices and is exposed to water due to close proximity to
a river.
During the 1970s, investigations were conducted on
replacing paper insulation with polymeric tape insula-
tion, but did not result in any commercial cable produc-
tion in this decade. The research was conducted under
the sponsorship of the Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI), which was established in 1973 to serve as the
research and development arm of member utilities. This
work culminated in the development of laminated paper
polypropylene (LPP or PPP) tapes for insulation appli-
cations in the 1980s.
Although HPFF pipe-type cable remained the preferred
transmission cable during the 1970s, one of the longest
ac fluid-filled submarine cable crossings in the world
(Long Island Sound Crossing) was an SCFF cable
1-8
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
placed in service in 1970 for 138-kV operation between
the Connecticut Light and Power Company and the
Long Island Lighting Company (now LIPA). In addi-
tion, two self-contained cables at 525 kV, still the high-
est cable voltage in the United States, were installed at
the Grand Coulee Dam.
The first domestic, underground, gas-insulated trans-
mission line (GITL) was installed by Consolidated Edi-
son Company in 1972 in Westchester County, and by
1975, an underground GITL cable system was installed
by Bonneville Power Administration for operation at
550 kV. The prevalent design was three isolated-phase
aluminum pipes, each containing a coaxial aluminum
conductor, supported by epoxy insulating spacers, and
pressurized with sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) gas, usually
at 50 psi (345 kPa). These aluminum pipes were placed
in a common trench and were protected with a suitable
anticorrosion coating.
Late in the 1960s, the Edison Electric Institute’s Electric
Research Council, the predecessor of EPRI, set up a
development program for 138-kV extruded-dielectric
cable, and by 1971, five XLPE cables and one EPR cable
from six manufacturers were installed at the Waltz Mill
Test Site for field trial. The field trial later was extended
to include 230-kV XLPE cable. These cables did not
perform satisfactorily, and reduced U.S. utility enthusi-
asm for extruded-dielectric transmission cables.
The formation of EPRI greatly accelerated the transmis-
sion cable research and development in the country,
covering a very broad range of cable issues. Some
projects of note included Elastimold’s 138-kV splice for
extruded cables, forced-cooling studies, LPP investiga-
tions, extruded dc cable development, and cable oil
studies prompted by the oil embargo by the Organiza-
tion of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in 1973.
DOE cooperated with EPRI on several projects at Waltz
Mill and elsewhere.
1.7 PROGRESS THROUGH THE 1980s
The dominance of HPFF pipe-type cable for under-
ground transmission continued in the 115–345 kV volt-
age range. However, Sun Oil Company, the major
mineral oil supplier to the U.S. cable industry, discontin-
ued this product line in 1982, resulting in the nonavail-
ability of mineral oil from U.S. sources. The U.S. utilities
commenced the use of alkylbenzene fluid, which was
first introduced by the Italians for SCFF cables in the
late 1960s, as a pipe-filling fluid for circulating and static
HPFF cables. For the latter cable types, alkylbenzene
was blended with polybutene fluid to raise its viscosity.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
The highest voltage for pipe-type cable at this time was
345 kV, and—except for special SCFF and GITL cable
circuits rated 525 kV—it continues to be the highest
voltage used for underground transmission in the
United States. Changes during the 1980s in paper-
insulated cable designs were in components and in the
modification of some pipe-type cable circuits. Cable
manufacturers and material suppliers also undertook
efforts to develop laminated paper propylene film insu-
lation, and by the early 1980s, such HPFF pipe-type
cable for service up to 765 kV was under test at Waltz
Mill with EPRI support. The first LPP (or PPP) cable at
345 kV was installed at Boston Edison in 1987, and it
was followed by LPP cable installations at Consolidated
Edison Company of New York and Public Service Elec-
tric & Gas Company. Work to increase the capacity of
existing circuits continued in the 1980s. As expected, the
Europeans focused on SCFF cables insulated with LPP
in the 400–500 kV range, resulting in the first commer-
cial 500-kV installation in 1986 in the Far East. The
majority of these LPP installations are in the United
Kingdom, Japan, Hong Kong, and Singapore.
In 1982, Detroit Edison Company reported the conver-
sion of 138-kV HPGF pipe-type cable to 230-kV HPFF
by replacing nitrogen gas with dielectric liquid, based on
experimental work that had started in the mid-1970s. In
1983, Florida Power & Light Company reported recon-
ductoring an existing 69-kV HPFF pipe-type cable to
operate at 138 kV by using a smaller conductor and
reduced insulation thickness. In 1987, United Illuminat-
ing Company reported an increase of 35% in ampacity
by converting an existing 115-kV HPGF pipe-type cable
to an HPFF cable by replacing the nitrogen gas with
dielectric liquid to smooth a serious thermal bottleneck.
The use of GITL transmission cable systems continued
for short applications through the 1980s. Typical instal-
lations have been for station get-aways, risers, links
inside substations, and systems inside tunnels and verti-
cal shafts. Considerable development effort was
expended to improve components, increase corrosion
protection, provide flexibility, and confirm the feasibil-
ity of raising the voltage range to 1100 kV.
The use of XLPE and EPR cable for transmission cable
rated 115–138 kV was very limited during the 1980s,
probably due to the unsatisfactory outcome of extruded
cable testing at Waltz Mill. This understandably led to
reduced extruded cable manufacturing activity, with
some suppliers even discontinuing the extruded cable
line, particularly at transmission voltage level. However,
the European (particularly the French) and Japanese
manufacturers did not slacken, making great strides.
The French focused on low-density uncrosslinked poly-
Chapter 1: Historical Perspective
ethylene and installed several 225-kV extruded systems
and one 400-kV system. The Japanese relied on XLPE
and reported short connections without joints at 275
and 500 kV.
Most installations at this time employed HPFF pipe-type
cable, which continued to provide virtually trouble-free
service. Nevertheless, the inherent advantages of
extruded systems were gradually being appreciated by
U.S. utilities. As a result of worldwide efforts, extruded
dielectric cables underwent improvements in material
cleanliness, manufacturing, testing, and quality control.
The most notable improvements involved super-clean
and extrudable insulation and shielding compounds, tri-
ple extrusion, dry curing, increased acceptance test levels,
dramatically increased partial discharge detection sensi-
tivity, use of jacketed constructions for XLPE and EPR
cables, and, in some cases, sealed-strand and/or laminate
radial water barriers. In 1986, Iowa Power & Light Com-
pany installed underground XLPE cable for service at
161 kV in duct, the highest voltage rating of XLPE cable
in the United States at that time. The cable did not have
an outer moisture barrier other than the polyvinyl chlo-
ride jacket, and the installation included several field-
molded joints with prefabricated terminations.
The changing utility business brought about by compe-
tition forced utilities to address operating and mainte-
nance issues in an effective manner and run the aging
equipment harder. As a result, great progress was made
in condition assessment techniques, particularly for
H P F F a n d S C F F c abl e s y s t e m s t h ro u g h D G A
(dissolved-gas analysis). Under the leadership of Con-
solidated Edison and EPRI, plans were formulated to
assess the condition and remaining life of the HPFF
cable systems, about 25% of which were approaching or
had exceeded a 40-year life. HPGF cable systems were
receiving increasing attention due to the absence of a
dielectric liquid and the recognized ruggedness and reli-
ability of pipe-type cable systems. However, EPRI-spon-
sored efforts to extend the 138-kV operating voltage of
HPGF cable systems to the 230-kV level were not suc-
cessful. EPRI research did address the problem of TMB
(thermomechanical bending) in HPFF cables and iden-
tified and implemented mitigating measures. Under
EPRI sponsorship, significant progress was made in the
generation of accurate information on the thermal
properties of the soil along a cable’s route and an effec-
tive Soil Thermal Property Analyzer developed. EPRI
also issued a Designer’s Handbook on forced-cooling of
HPFF cable systems.
This decade saw the installation of the world’s first
3 4 5 -k V L P P H P F F c ab l e a t B o s t o n E d i s o n
1-9
Chapter 1: Historical Perspective EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

(now NSTAR). Several major submarine installations number of splices. The Japanese extruded system consti-
were made, including the 525-kV ac connection between tuted the world’s first 500-kV XLPE cable system, with-
Vancouver Island and the Canadian mainland and the out any splice. This installation is far above the then
400-kV dc link between Sweden and Finland. existing extruded voltage level of about 300 kV. Consid-
ering the growing importance of extruded cable systems,
The discovery of high-temperature superconducting EPRI continued its focus on such cable systems, and
(HTS) cable in 1986 by IBM scientists in Switzerland participated in the testing of three 345-kV extruded cable
renewed worldwide interest in superconducting cables, systems at IREQ (Institut de recherche d’Hydro-
and both EPRI and DOE made significant contribu- Québec), and diagnostic testing of 138-kV extruded
tions, laying the foundation for future work in HTS cable systems at NEETRAC (the National Electric
cable systems. Energy Testing Research & Applications Center). The
results of the latter project were not conclusive.
1.8 PROGRESS THROUGH THE 1990s
The HPFF cables continued to receive favor at 230 kV
This decade saw growing interest and gradual accep-
and above, and the renewed interest in HPGF cables at
tance of extruded cable systems. The absence of a dielec-
the 138-kV level persisted. Utilities that made major
tric fluid and the inherent simplicity of extruded cable
HPGF installations included Colorado Springs, AEP,
systems had a great deal of appeal. Exelon embarked on
and South Carolina Electric & Gas. Under EPRI spon-
the replacement of its aging 138-kV SCFF system with
sorship, an effective HPFF cable leak location technique
extruded cables that had built-in fiber-optic capability
using perfluorocarbon tracers was developed and uti-
and prefabricated splices. Although 138-kV extruded
lized at Consolidated Edison Company. To make opti-
cables offered enough confidence, there was concern at
mum use of HPFF cable systems, EPRI sponsored the
the 230-kV level for the accessories. In fact, problems of
development of the Dynamic Feeder Rating technique
extruded accessories have been reported from time to
in cooperation with Consolidated Edison. This system,
time at 138 kV, although the number of such problems
which emanated from an earlier EPRI project called
has been decreasing significantly in recent years.
DRUMS (Dynamic Rating and Underground Monitor-
ing System), has been effectively employed by Consoli-
A 230-kV extruded cable installation, with splice-free
dated Edison, and several other utilities such as Public
extruded XLPE, was undertaken in 1992 at the Orlando
Service Electric & Gas, NSTAR, and Arizona Public
Utilities Commission for a substation connection. Such
Service. To ameliorate the erosion of cable expertise at
a cautious approach to evaluate new types of high-volt-
utilities, EPRI continued the development of design
age equipment is not uncommon with both North
tools and software for underground transmission.
American and overseas utilities. The experience at
Orlando Utilities on their 230-kV extruded cable system
The advancing age of pipe-type cables, coupled with
was not entirely satisfactory. This was followed in 1994
the need to make the most of cable assets brought about
by another splice-free 230-kV extruded cable substation
by deregulation, placed increasing focus on condition
connection at Colorado Public Service (now Xcel
and life assessment of such cables. EPRI sponsored a
Energy), without any problems.
six-year HPFF Cable Life Management study at Waltz
Mill. The project drew significantly from a previous
The most significant 230-kV extruded cable system,
comprehensive EPRI study sponsored at Detroit Edison
with a 1.75 mile circuit-length, was installed at Arizona
relating to condition assessment of fluid-filled cables
Public Service in 1999. It was installed in duct and had
through DGA and related paper testing, including the
12 joints with 12 outdoor terminations; the moisture
development of EPOSS (EPRI Pressurized Oil Sam-
barrier consisted of an aluminum foil radial moisture
pling System) and its modification EDOSS (EPRI Dis-
barrier. No problems have been reported on this Ari-
posable Oil Sampling System)—both developed
zona installation.
specifically for HPFF cable systems. As the owner of the
largest HPFF cable system in the United States, Consol-
Of the many extruded cable installations made in Europe
idated Edison played a significant role in all the key
and Japan at transmission-class voltage levels, two are
EPRI projects relating to pipe-type cable systems.
noteworthy: a Danish and a Japanese installation put
into service in 1997 and 1998, respectively. The 400-kV
HTS cables continued to receive increasing attention,
Danish system consisted of 66 km of cable, 72 joints, and
and EPRI sponsored feasibility studies at Philadelphia
12 terminations. This was the first direct-buried 400-kV
Electric and South Carolina Electric & Gas, including
XLPE cable system in the world containing a significant

1-10
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 1: Historical Perspective

the testing of prototype HTS cable designs at the constraints to improve overall reliability. The incorpora-
138-kV level. These efforts led to an HTS cable project tion of low levels of properly chosen, treated, and pro-
at Detroit Edison. cessed inorganic fillers into XLPE and EPR has shown
outstanding improvements in critical properties relating
1.9 PROGRESS THROUGH THE 2000s to design stresses, defect tolerance, and reduced losses.
This EPRI-sponsored effort has the potential to revolu-
This decade marks the extensive installation of extruded
tionize extruded materials for cable applications.
cable systems at 230 kV and their introduction at
345 kV in the United States, including some practical
Mention should be made of a major 500-kV extruded
HTS cable systems and a few extruded dc cable installa-
tunnel system with 240 splices commissioned in 2000
tions. Despite this long-awaited acceptance of extruded
by the Japanese. This decade also includes the develop-
cable systems by U.S. utilities, this decade also saw the
ment of extruded cable manufacturing capability by
installation of major HPFF cable systems at NSTAR,
a domestic U.S. manufacturer at the 230-kV level,
Northeast Utilities, Dominion Resources, and Potomac
resulting in some 230-kV installations, a change from
Electric. To reduce environmental concerns posed by
the earlier decades when even 138-kV domestic fabrica-
cable fluid spills, EPRI addressed the characteristics of
tion was abandoned.
cable fluids, including risk-based cleanup goals in the
early 2000s, the first such study of its kind. In addition,
Following various paper and experimental studies car-
a 115-kV HPGF cable system was installed by South
ried out by EPRI and DOE in conjunction with HTS
Carolina Electric and Gas including a 7200-ft (2195 m)
material suppliers, cable manufacturers, utilities, and
successful directional boring underwater in the Charles-
refrigerant suppliers, several designs were identified and
ton area.
refined, and their relative merits fully addressed. These
sustained efforts led to several HTS cable system dem-
In this decade, U.S. utilities launched in earnest evalua-
onstration projects at Detroit Edison, AEP, Niagara
tions of the first, long-length XLPE extruded cable sys-
Mohawk (now part of National Grid), and Long Island
tems containing many joints at 230 kV and above. In
Power Authority (LIPA), with promising results. Chap-
2001, the Los Angeles Department of Water & Power
ter 17 provides brief descriptions of the latter three
(LADWP) successfully installed a 5.5 circuit-mile,
projects. Such cables have also been gaining broader
230-kV extruded cable system, with 78 prefabricated
acceptance worldwide due to the international scope of
joints. EPRI also played a role in the commissioning
HTS cable efforts, including China and Mexico.
tests of this LADWP cable system, deemed to be the
first significant 230-kV extruded installation in the
HTS cables, capable of carrying three to five times more
United States. This has been followed by several
power than conventional cables, can meet increasing
extruded 230- and 345-kV cable systems at many utili-
power demands in urban areas though retrofit applica-
ties such as Mystic Station, Reliant Energy, Calpine
tions and improvements in capacity, flexibility, and reli-
Corporation, Public Service of Colorado (now Xcel
ability. The Detroit Edison project consisted of the
Energy), Northeast Utilities, United Illuminating, and
design, manufacturing, installation, and operation of a
ITC Transmission Company. PGE installed the longest
24-kV, three-phase warm dielectric EPR cable replacing
230-kV extruded cable system (24 circuit-miles) in the
existing paper-insulated lead-covered (PILC) cables at
United States—a system with 2500 kcmil copper and
its Frisbie Station, which fed a large industrial customer.
234 prefabricated splices. Although such cables started
This pioneering commercial effort met most of its goals.
as short-length get-aways or substation connections, as
It included the HTS cable with a splice being success-
confidence increased, cables with splices and sufficient
fully pulled through demanding ducts having six right-
lengths were introduced. The significant extruded cable
angled bends. Although the system was never put in
installations that are providing satisfactory service
operation because of problems with leaks in the cry-
across the world in the 220- through 500-kV range are
ostat, its positive outcome and the lessons learned paved
too numerous to mention, demonstrating the strong
the way for HTS cable projects that soon followed.
confidence being placed in these easy-to-install cable
systems, which require minimum maintenance.
Although HVdc cables, based on mass-impregnated
paper and other types of oil- or gas-filled cables, have
EPRI-sponsored work should lead to the minimization
served the electric power industry well for several
of risk of thermomechanical damage to extruded cable
decades, the interest in harnessing the advantages of
systems installed in pipe or duct-manhole systems. The
extruded cables for this application has been gaining
benefits of this significant project include cost savings
strength. The modification of polyethylene or another
through proper selection of cables, joints, and manhole

1-11
Chapter 1: Historical Perspective
polymer through additives to control resistivity holds
great promise as regards such cables. Several extruded
HVdc cables have been installed in the world. The sole
U.S. installation is a 150-kV, 330-MW submarine con-
nection across Long Island Sound. It employs an alter-
native HVdc system based on extruded-dielectric cable,
which has also been used in Sweden, Norway, and Aus-
tralia. The Japanese have also been active in extruded
HVdc cables and have put several HVdc extruded cables
in service. A recent EPRI report (EPRI 2004) covers the
application of HVdc to extruded cables.
The history of cables is intertwined with the evolution of
insulating materials. As various insulations became
available, related cables became available. Since the mar-
1-12
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
ket for cable insulating materials is so limited, these
materials need to have other uses. The HTS cable is an
exception to some extent in that it is the revolutionary
conductor that makes such a cable possible. If the past is
any guide, refinements in materials, processing, and
cable manufacturing techniques coupled with the never-
ending search for revolutionary materials would ensure
an exciting future for cable systems. The need for reli-
able and cost-effective underground electric transmis-
sion, dictated by the escalating cost of overhead line
rights-of-way and the unwanted visual intrusion, is only
going to sharpen the focus on cables in the years to
come. The industry seems to be well placed to address
underground transmission with available and emerging
cable system options and technologies.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
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Barnes, C. C. 1964. Electric Cables. Sir Isaac Pitman &
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Barnes, C. C. 1966. Power Cables: Their Design and
Installation. Chapman & Hall. London.
Bartnikas, R. and K. D. Srivastava. 2000. Power and
Communication Cables: Theory and Applications. IEEE
Press Series on Power Engineering.
Del Mar, W. A. 1924. Electric Cables: Their Design,
Manufacture and Use. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Dunsheath, P. 1929. High Voltage Cables, Theory and
Practice of their Design and Operation. London. Sir
Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd.
Edison Electric Institute. 1957. Underground Systems
Reference Book. Prepared by the Editorial Staff of the
Transmission and Distribution Committee.
Chapter 1: Historical Perspective
EPRI. 1992. Underground Transmission Systems Refer-
ence Book. TR-101670. Palo Alto, CA.
EPRI. 2004. DC Cable Systems with Extruded Dielec-
trics. 1008720. Palo Alto, CA.
Gilbertson, O. I. 2000. Electrical Cables for Power and
Signal Transmission. John Wiley & Sons.
Moore, G. F. 1997. Electric Cables Handbook. BICC
Cables Limited.
National Electric Light Association. 1931. Under-
ground Systems Reference Book. Prepared by an Edito-
rial Staff of the Underground Systems Committee,
Engineering National Section.
U. S. Department of Interior and Electric Research
Council. 1971. Underground Power Transmission. Pre-
pared by Arthur D. Little for Project No. RP78-8.
Winspear, G. G. 1968. The Vanderbilt Rubber Hand-
book. R.T. Vanderbilt Company, Inc.
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 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

CHAPTER 2 Cable System Types

Authors: Jay A. Williams, Power Delivery Consultants, Inc.
Allen MacPhail, BC Hydro
Reviewer: Brian Gregory, Cable Consulting International

Chapter 2 summarizes basic components of ac transmission cable systems, describes

cable construction for the major types of transmission cable used in North America and
overseas, and discusses system implications of installing underground cables. The chapter
addresses typical conditions when a cable would be installed rather than an overhead line
and provides a summary of design, installation, and operating considerations for the
cable system itself.

This chapter is an overview of underground transmission cable systems; subsequent

chapters provide additional details on various topics. Chapter 3 discusses basic design
considerations, and Chapters 4, 5, and 6 discuss extruded-dielectric cables, pipe-type
cables, and self-contained fluid-filled cables, respectively. Chapter 7 addresses special
cable applications (submarine cables, dc cables, gas-insulated transmission lines, and
superconducting cables). Sections 2.5–2.8 of the present chapter describe each cable type.

Jay Williams has degrees from Brown University and New York Univer-
sity. He worked in the cable section at Con Edison in the 1960s and
early 1970s when the utility was installing major lengths of 345-kV
cable. He was part of the design team for the Waltz Mill Test Facility,
and was in charge of the utility advisory committee for early EPRI
superconducting cable projects. Mr. Williams spent 20 years at Power
Technologies, Inc., where he headed the cable engineering group. He co-
founded Power Delivery Consultants, Inc. in 1992, and has continued
to specialize in underground transmission cable systems. He was technical editor and
principal author of the 1992 edition of the Underground Transmission Reference Book,
and was project engineer for several other major EPRI projects including the original
Underground Transmission Workstation. Mr. Williams is a Fellow of the IEEE and a reg-
istered Professional Engineer in New York and Ohio.

G. Allen MacPhail graduated from the University of British Columbia,

Vancouver, with a BApSc (EE) in 1972. He then joined BC Hydro, spe-
cializing in underground and submarine cable engineering for most of
his career. Mr. MacPhail’s experience includes most phases of a typical
project cycle from feasibility studies through to commissioning tests
and maintenance, for cable systems ranging from 15 to 525 kVac and up
to +/-450 kVdc. It also includes HV and EHV cable condition assess-
ment, life expectancy and extension; up-rating feasibility studies; real-
time dynamic rating and fiber optic distributed temperature sensing systems. In addition
to in-house responsibilities, Allen has been active with BC Hydro International subma-
rine cable projects in Central America, Alaska, Ireland, Egypt, and Jordan, at voltage lev-
els from 35 to 400 kV. Activities also include acting as an advisor to EPRI’s Underground
Transmission Task Force. He is a contributor to the IEEE ICC as past Vice Chair of the

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Chapter 2: Cable System Types
Accessories Subcommittee, past Chair of the Cable
Construction and Design Subcommittee, and partici-
pant in many discussion and working groups. He is also
a CIGRE member and past Chair of AEIC’s Task
Group for developing CS9 "Specification for Extruded
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Insulation Power Cables and Their Accessories Rated
above 46 kV through 345 kVac." Since retiring from BC
Hydro in 2006, Mr. MacPhail has formed a small con-
sulting company, Cabletricity Connections, specializing
in power cable application engineering.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses cables in general and their acces-
sories. A cable system consists of the installed cable,
which includes pipe for a pipe-type cable, splices, termi-
nations, grounding/bonding, and fluid-pressurizing
systems if needed. The term “cable system” implies that
all components—including civil works—have been
evaluated and designed to meet the requirements for
normal operation as well as emergency and transient
voltages and currents. Typically, the cable system
consists of all components from the top of the
termination at one end of the cable to the top of the
termination at the other end of the cable. Many North
American utilities include the high-voltage (HV) surge
arrester as a cable system component.
Chapter 2 provides an overview on underground cable
systems. Section 2.2 summarizes a number of consider-
ations for selecting an underground cable system. Sec-
tion 2.3 reviews electrical characteristics of underground
cables, and Section 2.4 discusses cable components and
their functions. Sections 2.5 through 2.8 briefly discuss
four basic types of cables—extruded dielectric, pipe-
type, self-contained fluid-filled, and special application
(gas insulated, dc and long-length submarine, and
superconducting). Section 2.9 covers cable accessories.
Section 2.10 provides information on a few factors to be
considered when choosing among the different types of
cable. Section 2.11 offers a summary of industry specifi-
cations and standards related to underground cables.
2.1.1 Features of Underground Cable Systems
Underground cable systems have the following features
relative to other power system components:
Nonobtrusive
Cables are installed out of sight underground, in tun-
nels, or under water. Terminal ends are often the only
visible evidence of an underground cable’s presence.
Immune to Weather
Buried cable systems are unaffected by weather
extremes, except for aboveground terminal ends.
High Reliability
Cable systems must be highly reliable because most
components are inaccessible for visual inspection and
maintenance; they are installed in a hostile environ-
ment, usually underground; and they require a long out-
age repair time following electrical failure.
Vulnerability to Third-Party Damage
Cables are vulnerable to third-party dig-ins. Protection
for extruded-dielectric and self-contained fluid-filled
(SCFF) cables is provided by encasing ducts in concrete,
Chapter 2: Cable System Types
by laying concrete cover slabs directly above buried
cables, or by installation in tunnels. Pipe-type cables
enjoy the protection of steel enclosure pipe. In spite of
this protection, dig-in is the largest single cause of
forced outages for transmission cables.
High Energy Efficiency
Electrical losses are a very small proportion of power
transmitted. A conductor with low electrical resistivity
must be selected to limit the temperature rise when heat
is dissipated through the insulation and ground. This is
achieved by selecting a large conductor area—for exam-
ple, 2000 to 5000 kcmil (1000 to 2500mm2)—of high
purity copper or aluminum. Additionally, modern
designs of transmission class cables employ low-loss
insulations such as extruded crosslinked polyethylene
(XLPE) or laminated paper-polypropylene tapes.
Extruded and SCFF circuits are specially bonded to
achieve high current ratings by eliminating the sheath
circulating current loss in solidly bonded systems.
High Short-Time Rating
High transient and emergency ratings result from the
high mass and specific heat of the conductor, insulation,
duct, or pipe enclosures—and the earth itself for emer-
gency durations longer than several hours. These pro-
duce a slow rate of temperature rise and extended
emergency operation time before the limiting tempera-
ture is reached. In addition, industry specifications per-
mit a higher-than-normal temperature for certain
durations during emergencies.
Low Electro-Magnetic Field (EMF)
The electric field outside a cable is essentially zero
because of the grounded cable shield/sheath and the
grounded steel pipe for pipe-type cables.
The magnetic field from underground extruded and
SCFF cables can be higher than that for overhead lines,
directly over the cable itself. However, the field attenu-
ates much more quickly than that for overhead lines.
Magnetic fields for pipe-type cables are very low
because of the closeness of the three phases and the
attenuation due to the steel pipe (CIGRE 2001, 2005).
2.2 CONSIDERATIONS FOR SELECTING AN
UNDERGROUND CABLE SYSTEM
There are a great many considerations required for
selecting an underground cable system versus an over-
head line and for selecting among cable system types.
This chapter and other chapters describe considerations
in more detail, but a few important considerations com-
mon to all cable system types are summarized below:
• Power transfer levels are lower than those for over-
head lines because heat from buried cables must pass
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Chapter 2: Cable System Types
through the earth before reaching air—which is the
ultimate heat sink. Therefore, the cable might require
two cables per phase (essentially two cable systems)
to match the capacity of the overhead line.
• The cable’s coaxial electrodes and outer shielding cre-
ate a capacitance that affects power transfer, equip-
ment requirements, and system operation.
• Dielectric losses in cable insulation are present any
time the cable is energized and reduce the amount of
power transfer.
• Cable installation will affect every part of the route,
whereas overhead lines require foundations every
600-1200 ft (183-366 m) or farther apart.
• Even though the cable itself may be buried and out of
sight, termination structures are required at each end
to connect to overhead lines or substation equipment.
In addition, HPFF cable systems require pumping
plants and/or fluid tanks at one or both ends.
• Cables have a lower forced outage rate than over-
head lines, but the outage durations are typically
much longer.
• Cables may be the only feasible approach for some
installations such as downtown urban areas or long
underwater crossings.
• Cable installations are almost always more expensive
than equivalent power-transfer overhead lines—and
are sometimes significantly more expensive.
Four cable systems can be considered for underground
installations. These systems are described in greater
detail in other chapters, and are summarized as follows:
• Extruded-dielectric with XLPE or EPR insulation
• Self-contained, either fluid-filled (SCFF), gas-filled
(SCGF), or mass-impregnated (MI)
• Pipe-type, either fluid-filled (HPFF) or gas-filled
(HPGF)
• Special (Gas-Insulated Lines [GIL], High Tempera-
ture Superconducting [HTS] and Submarine)
2.3 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Electrical characteristics of underground cables differ
from overhead lines—and these differences should be
taken into account when evaluating underground versus
overhead lines and when comparing types of under-
ground lines.
High Capacitance
High capacitance is a consequence of thin insulation
and higher dielectric permittivity than air—for example,
2.3-3.5 or higher. A cable circuit installed in an ac over-
head line network, which is naturally inductive because
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
of widely spaced conductors, provides capacitive reac-
tive compensation and increased stability (stiffness)
under transient operation. Disadvantages of cable
capacitance are additional inductive compensation may
be required in a long all-cable ac network, an overvolt-
age may result at the end of an overhead line feeding an
off-load cable, and the magnitude of harmonic overvolt-
ages present in the network may be increased.
Low Inductance
The close spacing of phase conductors significantly
reduces external magnetic flux linkages and yields a low
inductance. Inductance is further reduced under tran-
sient operation as an impulse of voltage and current
travels in co-axial mode principally between the conduc-
tor and the annular shield/sheath conductor. Coaxial
geometry gives the lowest possible inductance.
Low Impedance
The ac cable exhibits low impedance in power frequency
operation and is predominantly capacitive. This results
from low-inductive reactance in series with a higher-
capacitive reactance in parallel. Because the capacitive
and inductive reactances are nearly equal and in
opposite time phase in a gas-insulated line, they nearly
cancel, producing in an ac system a near-ideal
resistive impedance.
Low Characteristic Impedance
Characteristic impedance is proportional to the ratio of
inductance to capacitance. Characteristic impedance is
low, in the range of 10-40Ω, compared to 400Ω for an
overhead line, a ratio of 10-40:1.
Chapter 16 provides a great deal of additional informa-
tion on cable system electrical characteristics.
2.4 CABLE COMPONENTS
All cable types have the same basic components since
they all are required to carry current, safely support
steady-state and transient voltages, carry occasional
fault currents, withstand the rigors of installation, and
operate satisfactorily for many decades under thermal
and mechanical stresses. Chapter 4 on extruded dielec-
trics, Chapter 5 on pipe-type cables, Chapter 6 on self-
contained fluid-filled cables, and Chapter 7 on special
cable constructions provide details specific to each cable
type. The present section discusses component functions
in general and provides comparative information among
cable types.
2.4.1 Conductor
The purpose of the conductor is to carry the required
current for the cable system. Conductor material, size,
and construction are selected to achieve the required
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
current for installation and operating conditions with-
out exceeding allowable temperatures and with consid-
eration of effects on cable system operation and cost.
Copper and aluminum are used as conductor materials.
Copper has lower electrical resistivity but also has
higher cost and weight. Generally, copper conductors
are employed for high-power transfer such as tie lines
and major generator leads and form a large percentage
of new installations. Aluminum conductors are used for
lower power-transfer applications and where their
lighter weight gives an advantage. Almost all conduc-
tors are stranded to reduce ac losses and give greater
flexibility, but solid aluminum conductors have been
used for sizes as large as 4000 kcmil (2000 mm2).
Conductor constructions are optimized for cable types
and specific applications. The most common types for
flexible cables are described below. Chapter 7 describes
the tubular aluminum conductor used for gas-
insulated lines.
• Compact segmental: four to six segments are used for
extruded-dielectric and pipe-type cables. A layer of
insulating or semiconducting paper is placed between
segments to reduce ac losses due to skin and proximity
effects in the conductor. Compact segmental conduc-
tors are used in high-current capacity applications
with large conductor sizes.
• Compact round has the same number of strands as
concentric conductors, but the strands are compacted
to 90% the size of the equivalent concentric conduc-
tor. This conductor is used for smaller extruded-
dielectric and pipe-type cables since ac loss effects are
lower for these smaller conductors.
• Compressed conductors, which are concentric round
conductors passed through a die to flatten the outer
strands, are specified for many extruded-dielectric
cables. These conductors are about 97% the size of
the equivalent concentric conductor.
• Concentric conductors, which are essentially compact
round conductors without the compaction, are used
principally at distribution voltages, but are sometimes
used for transmission-voltage conductors.
• Hollow-core (annular) conductors have a central
hollow core to allow fluid passage for self-contained
fluid-filled cables. Several constructions are used. See
Chapter 6.
Conductors for extruded-dielectric cables sometimes are
specified to have a strand-block material, often applied
to distribution-voltage conductors. A water-swellable
powder, gummy material, or water-swellable tape is
applied to prevent longitudinal water penetration dur-
Chapter 2: Cable System Types
ing installation or in the event of damage during opera-
tion. Chapter 4 provides more details.
Insulating individual conductor strands reduces the ac
resistance of copper conductors (aluminum oxide
quickly forms on stranded aluminum conductors, giving
the same effect.) Enamel coatings may be applied to the
strands, or the strands may be intentionally oxidized.
Chapter 11 quantifies the benefits on cable ratings.
Conductor binders, often consisting of stainless steel
tapes, are tightly wound around many conductors to
ensure that the conductor stays round during the
manufacturing process. Shifting of strands or segments
could lead to a non-round conductor and intensify
electrical stresses.
2.4.2 Semiconducting Shield
Semiconducting materials are applied over the conduc-
tor (including binder, if present) and over the cable insu-
lation to form an equipotential surface that smoothes
irregularities and protrusions from the conductor or
outer cable shielding. This is necessary to avoid areas of
high electrical stress in the insulation.
As described in Chapter 4, extruded-dielectric cables use
a semiconducting compound. Paper-insulated cables use
carbon black or metallized paper tapes, as described in
Chapters 5 and 6.
2.4.3 Insulation
The insulation forms the heart of a cable and is the
primary differentiation among cable types. Insulation is
required to reliably withstand normal and transient
voltages over the lifetime of the cable in the presence of
thermo-mechanical stresses imposed by cable loading.
Subsequent chapters describe in detail insulation
systems for each cable type. A brief summary is
provided below.
Extruded-dielectric
The insulation material is extruded over the conductor
shield and then crosslinked for crosslinked polyethylene
or ethylene-propylene rubber. Chapter 4 describes the
material and manufacturing procedures. Note that a
true triple extrusion is universally employed for extra-
high-voltage (EHV) extruded-dielectric cables (conduc-
tor shield, insulation, and insulation shield are applied
in a common set of extrusion heads) and that dry curing
is standard (steam heating is no longer used). Some
manufacturers also employ dry cooling.
Impregnated Paper
Individual paper or laminated paper polypropylene
(LPP) tapes are helically wrapped around the conduc-
2-5
Chapter 2: Cable System Types
tor, then the cable core (conductor plus insulation and
semiconducting tapes) is impregnated with dielectric liq-
uid. This process is described in Chapter 5 for pipe-type
cables and in Chapter 6 for self-contained fluid-
filled cables.
Gas-spacer
GIL systems use rigid epoxy spacers and gaseous (SF6
or nitrogen/SF6 mixtures) to provide the insulation
between tubular conductor and tubular enclosure.
2.4.4 Outer Layers, Shielding, and Sheath
As indicated in Section 2.4.2, a semiconducting shield is
placed over the insulation for both extruded-dielectric
and paper-insulated cables to avoid electric field
enhancements that can lead to cable failure.
Outer layers are provided over the semiconducting
shielding. These outer layers can serve several functions:
Moisture Absorption Layer—Extruded-dielectric
Cables
Many XLPE extruded-dielectric cables have water-
swellable tapes or powder that restrict the passage of
moisture in the event of damage to the cable jacket and
moisture barrier. Chapter 4 provides more detail on the
moisture-absorbing layer.
Moisture Barrier—Pipe-type Cables
This layer also is called the moisture seal or outer
shielding assembly. It is a semi-permeable seal to limit
impregnant drainage and reduce moisture penetration
during storing, shipping, and installing pipe-type cables.
Typically, a metallized polyester tape or polyester tape
intercalated with a metal tape is used for the moisture
barrier; see Chapter 5.
Cushioning Tapes—Extruded-dielectric Cables
XLPE extruded-dielectric cable insulations have high
coefficients of thermal expansion, and operation at
emergency temperatures could damage the outer metal-
lic shielding. Cushioning tapes—which are often also
water-swellable tapes—are provided to absorb much of
this expansion as described in Chapter 4.
Metallic Shielding/Sheath—Extruded-dielectric and
Paper-insulated Cables
The metallic layer serves the following purposes:
• Provides a return path for capacitive charging current.
• Provides adequate short-circuit current-carrying
capacity for extruded-dielectric and SCFF cables.
• Gives some protection against external mechanical
damage.
• A sheath prevents moisture ingress in addition to the
three items listed above.
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
• A sheath provides a pressurizing enclosure for SCFF
cables.
The metallic shielding/sheath has traditionally been
extruded lead-alloy or aluminum for XLPE extruded-
dielectric and SCFF cables. Alternative shield/sheath
constructions are becoming more common with copper
drain wires for fault currents and a thin copper or alu-
minum tape water barrier bonded to the underside of
the jacket, or longitudinally seam-welded and corru-
gated copper or aluminum sheath. Chapter 4 provides
more details for extruded-dielectric cables, and Chapter
6 describes sheaths for SCFF cables.
Metallic shielding tapes for a pipe-type cable are typi-
cally stainless steel, copper, or zinc, intercalated with a
polyester tape. This assembly has a high shield resis-
tance designed to reduce shield losses as described in
Chapter 5. The steel pipe carries the majority of any
fault current.
Jacket and Other Layers—Extruded-dielectric and
SCFF
Extruded-dielectric and SCFF cables have an extruded
polymeric jacket (called oversheath outside North
America) to isolate the shield/sheath from ground and to
provide mechanical and corrosion protection. See Chap-
ters 4 and 6. Submarine cables are typically supplied
with armoring to withstand tensions during cable laying
and retrieval and contain other protective layers, as
described in Chapter 7. Each of these cable types also
can contain an integral or external optical fiber to per-
mit using a distributed fiber optic temperature sensing
(DFOTS) system to determine temperature along the
cable line. Chapter 16 describes the DFOTS system and
its application to cable operation.
Skid Wires, Armor Wires, Temporary Lead-alloy
Sheath—Pipe-type
Pipe-type cables have a skid wire applied over the outer
shielding of each core to protect it from damage and to
reduce the coefficient of friction during cable pulling.
Two D-shaped skid wires, made of stainless steel, brass,
or zinc, are applied helically along the cable. For long
vertical installations, pipe-type cables also can be sup-
plied with long-lay stainless steel armor wires to share
the loading caused by cable weight. A temporary,
removable lead-alloy sheath may be applied to a pipe-
type cable section that is to be kept in storage for long
periods of time. See Chapter 5 for a further discussion
of these items.
Dielectric Fluid
Pipe-type and SCFF cables require a pressurized
dielectric fluid. A low-viscosity fluid is used in an SCFF
cable so that gaseous voids cannot form during thermal
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
contraction. In a pipe-type cable, a more viscous fluid is
used to transmit a high pressure of 200 psi (1380 kPa) or
greater to any voids that may form to prevent them from
discharging. Historically, mineral oils were used for
liquid-filled systems, but synthetic liquids—alkylben-
zenes and polybutenes or a mixture of the two—have
predominated since the 1970s. Nitrogen gas can be used
for pipe-type cables up through 138 kV for a high-
pressure gas-filled (HPGF) cable system. Nitrogen gas
has been used for self-contained gas filled (SCGF) cable
systems up to 150 kV.
Typical operating pressures are 180-250 psig (1240-
1725 kPa) for pipe-type cables, and 15-40 psig (103-
276 kPa) for SCFF cables. However, pressures can be
substantially higher due to elevation changes or pres-
sure drop due to fluid circulation for cooling a high-
pressure fluid-filled cable system pressurized with a
dielectric liquid. (Note that HPGF cable systems do not
have significant elevation heads, and gas circulation is
not feasible.) Special designs are needed for the cable
systems to allow them to tolerate these high pressures.
Chapters 5 and 6 describe dielectric fluid properties and
operating pressures in more detail. Expansion and con-
traction of dielectric liquid with load changes or ambi-
ent earth temperature changes require a pressure control
system and reservoirs. Section 2.9.4 of this chapter pro-
vides a summary of pressure control systems, and Chap-
ter 9 provides more detail.
Steel Pipe—Pipe-type Cables
The three insulated conductors are installed in a carbon-
steel line pipe. The pipe’s functions are to
• contain the fluid operating pressure, and
• provide a path for fault currents.
However, the pipe also provides the following added
benefits:
• a conduit for installing the cables,
• mechanical protection, and
• a hermetic seal to keep moisture from the cables.
The pipe is coated internally to prevent rust before
installation, and it is coated externally to prevent corro-
sion during operation. The most commonly used pipe
size is a nominal 8 in. (20 cm), although pipes as small
as nominal 5 inches (13 cm) have been used for 69-kV
and 138-kV cables. Pipes as large as nominal 12 in.
(30.5 cm) have been installed for some 345-kV installa-
tions. As described in Chapter 13, pipe ends are flared
and a backing ring is inserted between adjacent sections
to ensure a smooth internal profile and avoid cable dam-
age during installation and operation.
Chapter 2: Cable System Types
The cables must make a transition from three cables in
one pipe for the majority of the length to individual
cables in individual pipes to reach the cable termina-
tions—which may be 8 to 15 ft (2.4 to 4.6 m) apart.
Non-magnetic stainless steel pipes are used for this
application, although some older systems used copper
pipes. This transition takes place in a special joint—
known as a trifurcating joint—or in a jointless assembly
known as a trifurcator or spreader head.
Chapter 5 provides more detail on the pipes, and
Chapter 13 describes the steps that are needed for
pipe installation.
For extruded-dielectric and SCFF cables, the duct is not
considered an integral part of the cable system (both
cable types can be installed without ducts—directly bur-
ied or in tunnels). Ducts are addressed in Chapter 13.
Sections 2.5 through 2.8 describe how these components
are applied to the different cable types.
2.5 EXTRUDED-DIELECTRIC CABLES
Extruded-dielectric cables, also known as solid-
dielectric cables, use either crosslinked polyethylene
(XLPE) or ethylene-propylene rubber (EPR) insulation.
Low- and high-density polyethylene (LDPE or HDPE)
insulations also have been used but are very uncommon
for cables installed since the 1980s.
XLPE and LDPE/HDPE cables are characterized by
very small dielectric losses relative to paper and EPR
cables. These losses are essentially constant up to
emergency operating temperatures in contrast to
impregnated paper-insulated cables where dielectric
losses can increase substantially at high temperatures.
At transmission voltages, the low dielectric loss of
XLPE cables results in important improvements in
ampacity and offers an additional safety factor against
thermal runaway. (Thermal runaway is the condition
where a cable temperature increases, causing an increase
in electrical losses that further raises the temperature,
causing additional losses until the cable overheats and
fails.) The extruded-dielectric cable’s lower capacitance
extends the critical line length (the length at which all
current-carrying capacity is required to supply charging
current) significantly and does not contribute as severely
to overvoltage problems on weak transmission systems.
Transmission-voltage extruded-dielectric cables have
been used extensively in North America at voltages
138 kV and higher since the mid-1980s, and they have
seen extensive use overseas since the 1970s. XLPE-
insulated cables have been used at 400 kV and higher
2-7
Chapter 2: Cable System Types EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

throughout the world since the late 1990s (Sakuma and
Shinagawa 2000). Two 25+ mile (40+ km) 500-kV
installations have been in service in Japan since 2001
(Ohki and Yasufuku 2002). Installation for several
major 345-kV XLPE installations, totaling more than
100 circuit miles (160 circuit km), began in North
America in the early 2000s.
ular for underwater installations and within substations
requiring tight bending radii.
Chapter 4 provides a great deal more information on
extruded-dielectric cable construction and manufactur-
ing, and Section 2.10 of this chapter provides compari-
sons of extruded-dielectric cables to other cable types.

Extruded-dielectric cable installations in North 2.6 PIPE-TYPE CABLES

America are commonly in duct banks, one cable per
Pipe-type cables have the three cable phases insulated
duct, because direct burial and tunnel installations have
with tapes of kraft paper or laminated paper polypropy-
not proven feasible in city streets. Overseas, most
lene, installed in a common steel pipe. The pipe is pres-
transmission-voltage extruded-dielectric cables are
surized, usually with a dielectric liquid, and is called a
installed directly buried, with some in utility tunnels.
high-pressure fluid-filled (HPFF) or sometimes a high-
E x t r u d e d - di e l e c t ri c c abl e s a re c o n s i d e re d l e s s
pressure liquid-filled (HPLF) cable system. This cable
complicated in terms of installation and accessories
system was called high-pressure oil-filled (HPOF) until
than SCFF or pipe-type cables, but the sheath bond-
the 1970s when synthetic dielectric liquids began to
i n g / g ro u n di n g s y s t e m c a n b e c o m p l ex , a s wi t h
replace the mineral oils that had been used earlier. Pipe-
SCFF cables.
type cables rated up to 138 kV (and possibly 230 kV in
the future) that are pressurized with nitrogen are called
Figure 2-1 shows a typical 345-kV XLPE-insulated
high-pressure gas-filled (HPGF) cables.
cable, and Figure 2-2 shows a typical trench cross-
section for a duct-bank installation.
North America is the major user of pipe-type cables,
with the earliest installation in the 1930s and significant
EPR-insulated cables are installed at voltages through
installations at 345 kV beginning in the early 1960s.
138 kV. They are not employed at higher voltages, prin-
There also are installations in Ireland and the Middle
cipally because of their relatively high dielectric losses
East, and Japan has a few pipe-type installations.
compared to XLPE-insulated cables. However, their
Although 345 kV is the highest commonly used voltage
greater bending flexibility, and greater resistance to
moisture degradation and ionization, makes them pop-

Figure 2-1 345-kV XLPE-insulated cable (courtesy of

Figure 2-2 Typical duct bank for city-street installation
Silec Cable).
(courtesy Northeast Utilities).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
for pipe-type cables (and the highest voltage in wide-
spread use in North America), there has been at least
one commercial installation at 500 kV overseas. Exten-
sive testing at the EPRI Waltz Mill facility in Pennsylva-
nia in the 1980s proved its suitability for voltages
to 765 kV.
Pipe-type cables have been the most commonly used
transmission cable type in North America through the
early twenty-first century for several major reasons:
• The pipe provides rugged protection against third-
party damage.
• The system is reliable.
• The pipe can be installed in relatively short street
openings, minimizing traffic disruption in crowded
urban areas, and it can generally be installed more
quickly than a concrete-encased duct bank.
• The dielectric liquid provides several options for
cooling to improve the circuit rating.
A major innovation in pipe-type cable systems was the
EPRI-funded development of laminated paper-
p o ly p ro py l e n e ( L P P ) i n s u l at i o n , wi t h t h e fi r s t
commercial installation in Boston in 1987 (Allam 1988).
This insulation has higher electrical strength and lower
dielectric losses than kraft paper—its higher power
transfer has permitted 345-kV cables to be installed in a
nominal 8-in. (20-cm) pipe rather than a nominal 10-in.
(25-cm) pipe used for 345-kV kraft paper insulated
systems. The smaller pipe has many advantages,
including cost, bending radii, trench size, and amount of
dielectric liquid. Most newly installed 345-kV HPFF
cable is now insulated with LPP, and it is used for many
230-kV and some 138-kV installations.
The three phases making up a line are pulled together
into a previously installed coated and cathodically
protected steel pipe, with distances commonly 3000 ft
(980 m) between splices for 345-kV cables. After the
entire line is installed, including splices and termina-
tions, and the pipe welding is completed, the line is
evacuated, then filled with a dielectric liquid (or
possibly nitrogen gas for lines up through 138 kV). The
liquid is pressurized to a nominal 200 psig (1380 kPa)
using a pressurizing plant that also has a reservoir tank
to accept volume changes due to system thermal
expansion and contraction, as well as pumps, controls,
and alarm systems. The presence of the dielectric liquid
and need for a pressurizing plant must be taken into
account for the HPFF cable system, but those consid-
Chapter 2: Cable System Types
erations do not exist with a high-pressure gas-filled
cable system.
Figure 2-3 shows a 345-kV HPFF cable, and Figure 2-4
shows a typical two-pipe trench installation.
Chapter 5 provides additional information on pipe-
type cable systems, and Chapter 13 describes cable
system installation.
2.7 SELF-CONTAINED FLUID-FILLED CABLE
SYSTEMS
The first transmission cables used in North America
were self-contained fluid-filled in the mid-1920s in
Chicago and New York. The self-contained cable is
insulated with kraft paper or laminated paper-polypro-
pylene tapes and internally pressurized with a dielectric
liquid, sometimes called self-contained liquid-filled
(SCLF) cables in North America, but more commonly
SCFF. This cable type was called low-pressure oil- filled
(LPOF) until the 1970s when synthetic dielectric liquids
began to replace the mineral oils that had been used
earlier. Early cables were generally pressurized to 5-15
psig (35-105 kPa) while newer designs with aluminum or
reinforced lead-alloy sheaths commonly operate at 5-
75 psig (35-520 kPa). Commercial installations have
pressures as high as 400 psig (2760 kPa) using reinforced
sheaths (Ray et al. 1974). Small liquid reservoirs are
placed along the route, although long submarine lines
have a pressurizing plant at one or both ends. The
presence of the dielectric liquid and reservoirs, plus the
complexity of sheath bonding, are disadvantages of the
SCFF cable system.
Figure 2-3 345-kV HPFF cable (courtesy of the Okonite
Company).
2-9
Chapter 2: Cable System Types EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

The highest voltage SCFF application in North Ameri-
can commercial service is 525 kV, for the double-circuit
Vancouver Island submarine cable interconnection
(Crowley 1983). SCFF cables have been tested to 800 kV
in Canada (Couderc 1996) and 765 kV in Europe.
Designs at 1100 kV have undergone preliminary tests
(Occhini et al. 1978). SCFF cables may be directly bur-
ied, or they may be installed in ducts or in tunnels. They
have been the principal cable type for EHV installations
outside North America, with conductor sizes up to
6000 kcmil (3000 mm2), carrying the highest power levels
for a cable in the world. However, extruded-dielectric
cables are now beginning to displace them. Chapter 6
provides detailed descriptions of the SCFF cable system.
The self-contained cable system consists of three individ-
ual phases, each contained within a hermetically sealed
metallic sheath that is typically extruded lead-alloy or
aluminum. The cables are insulated with a high-quality
taped insulation. Both kraft paper and laminated paper-
polypropylene insulations are employed. The fluid pres-
sure necessary to prevent ionization is maintained
through a hollow core in the center of the conductor.
Figure 2-5 shows a SCFF cable. The cross-section of a

Figure 2-4 Two-pipe trench installation.

Figure 2-5 Self-contained fluid-filled cable (courtesy of Prysmian Cables and Systems).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 2: Cable System Types

SCFF cable duct bank would be very similar to that
shown in Figure 2-2 for extruded-dielectric cables.
An advantage of SCLF LPP insulation cables compared
to extruded-dielectric cables is the insulation is thinner
for the same conductor size and voltage class. This
allows longer cable lengths on the same reel size and, in
some instances, can provide the opportunity to install
230- to 275-kV-class cables into existing 5-in. (125-mm)
ID ducts.
2.8 SPECIAL APPLICATION CABLES
Extruded-dielectric, pipe-type, and self-contained fluid-
filled cable systems account for the great majority of
installed lengths of transmission cable systems through-
out the world. However, other novel cable types for spe-
cial applications exist. These installations can be high
cost and require a great deal of engineering analysis and
design. These special application cables are summarized
below and are described in greater detail in Chapter 7.
2.8.1 Gas-insulated Lines
Gas-insulated lines (GIL) have been used in a few appli-
cations where high-power capabilities are required, such
as in substation ties and through tunnels. The first com-
mercial underground line was a 345-kV, 600-ft (183-m)
dip installed in 1971, which had a 3300-ampere
(2000-MVA) capacity (Williams 1972). Since GIL are
more costly than other cable types, they have not yet
been applied to long transmission lines.
GIL is similar to the SF6-insulated metal-clad bus bar
connected to switchgear. GIL has been internationally
defined as having a circuit length of greater than 1640 ft
(500 m) and being installed outside utility owned land—
on roads or rights-of-way (CIGRE 2003).
cable is supplied in rigid 40- to 60-ft. (12- to 18-m) sec-
tions. Field joints are made between each section. There
is minimal service experience in buried installations. The
GIL system is normally installed aboveground or in
underground troughs or tunnels.
Terminations consist of a cast resin insulator interfacing
with SF 6 -insulated switchgear bus bar or a porcelain
shell similar in appearance to a conventional pothead.
Internal stress control generally requires only a horn-
shaped electrical grading shield in the shell. The same
gas that pressurizes the bus also pressurizes the porce-
lain. Insulators for GIL cables are subject to distortion
of the stress distribution through accumulation of space
charge and particulate contamination, although manu-
facturers have developed particle traps to control con-
taminants. Since SF6 is considered a “greenhouse gas,”
care must be taken to minimize any leakage from the
GIL system, hence the development of the 90% N 2 –
10% SF 6 mixture. Figure 2-6 shows a section of GIL,
including an elbow for making major direction changes.
2.8.2 Submarine Cables and Dc Cables
The core (conductor, insulation, outer semiconducting
layer, and fluid supply, if present) of a submarine cable
is essentially the same as that for SCFF and extruded-
dielectric land-based cables described earlier in this
chapter. One major difference is that the cable is
mechanically designed to be either coiled or wound
onto a turntable to permit very long splice-free lengths
and to be installed—and perhaps to be retrieved—at
significant water depths.
Alternating-current Cables
As described in Chapter 7, most long submarine lines
use dc cables, although there are important ac subma-

Several names have been used to describe this cable: gas-

insulated line, electronegative gas/spacer, SF 6 cable,
compressed-gas-insulated cable, and gas-insulated
transmission line.

GIL cable was used for a 525-kV underground applica-

tion in the Bonneville Power Administration system—
and it has been used aboveground for a 765-kV applica-
tion approximately 100-ft (30.5-m) long on the Ameri-
can Electric Power system.

The GIL system is inherently simple. The conductor

and enclosure are made of aluminum tubing, cast-
epoxy-resin spacers hold the conductor in place, and the
gas gap insulation is typically SF 6 gas pressurized to
30-90 psig (200-600 kPa)—or more recently a mixture of
90% nitrogen and 10% SF 6 at a higher pressure. The Figure 2-6 GIL, showing elbow (courtesy of CGIT).

2-11
Chapter 2: Cable System Types
rine cable links (Crowley 1983; Grzan et al. 1993). The
choice of a dc power transmission cable system over an
ac cable would generally be made in cases where the
power transfer requirement is greater than 250-300 MW
and the length is typically greater than 25 miles
(40 km)—or between two large ac transmission net-
works where power transfer control is a potentially seri-
ous problem. A dc cable provides an asynchronous or
flexible transmission interconnection.
Figure 2-7 shows the 345-kV self-contained fluid-filled
cable used for a crossing of the Long Island Sound.
In the HV and EHV voltage ranges, from 115 kV
upwards, existing ac submarine cable lines longer than
about 6 miles (10 km) are dominated by the SCFF type.
The cables differ from the SCFF land cables described
in Section 2.7 in several regards: the hollow core is often
larger to accommodate fluid expansion and contraction
over very long lengths, the dielectric liquid may be a
lower viscosity to reduce pressure drop during expan-
sion and contraction, and the cable has several addi-
tional layers external to the core to account for rigors of
installation and operation in a marine environment. In
addition, many long SCFF submarine cables have active
pressurizing plants similar to those for pipe-type cables
to accommodate the large fluid volumes and large pres-
sure changes inherent to a long submarine cable. See
Chapter 7.
Extruded-dielectric cables are beginning to be applied
at the HV and EHV range for ac submarine cables—
Figure 2-7 Self-contained fluid-filled cable (courtesy of
Prysmian Cables and Systems).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
several 138-kV extruded-dielectric submarine cables
appeared in North America beginning in the early
1990s. Both extruded-dielectric and SCFF cable types
may be supplied in very long lengths splice-free or with
factory splices. Recent installations have occurred in
North America with 138-kV three-conductor XLPE-
insulated submarine cables. At the time of writing, a
contract has been awarded for three 11-mile (19-km)
138-kV 3-core XLPE, 150-MW submarine cable
circuits across Long Island Sound to replace the seven
existing 30-year-old SCFF cables. A 1.9-mile (3.2-km),
660-ft (200-m) deep 420-kV 1-core XLPE submarine
cable connection is also pending to Gossen Island,
associated with the offshore Ormen Lange production
platform in the North Sea. This will be the highest
voltage XLPE submarine cable system in the world.
Pipe-type submarine cables would require at-sea splices
every mile or so and are, therefore, limited to shorter
lines for practical reasons.
EPR-insulated cables are employed for 138-kV and
lower submarine cable lines with lengths less than a
mile. EPR insulation does not deteriorate at the same
rate in water, and some installations use a “wet design”
with no moisture barrier.
Direct-current Cables
As described in Chapter 7, almost all direct-current
cables are installed in long submarine crossings. With
few exceptions, land dc cables are limited to the shore
ends of submarine crossings. Pipe-type cable has been
tested for 600-kVdc operation, but pipe-type cable is not
used for long submarine crossings, and there is no pipe-
type dc installation on land.
Three types of submarine power cable can be considered
for high-voltage, direct-current (HVDC) operation,
namely
• self-contained, fluid-filled cables;
• mass-impregnated cables; and
• extruded-dielectric cables.
Self-contained, fluid-filled cables are very similar to the
ac cables previously described. Mass-impregnated cables
are paper-insulated cables that employ a very high viscos-
ity compound to prevent drainage during operation.
Mass-impregnated cables have no pressurizing source.
They account for the largest percentage of dc submarine
cables by far. The longest submarine cable interconnec-
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
tion in the world, the 363-mile (580-km), 1345-ft (410-m)-
deep, 450-kV dc, 700-M W Norway-Netherlands
‘NorNed’ link uses mass-impregnated cables.
Figure 2.8 shows two mass-impregnated submarine
cables.
Extruded-dielectric cables had not been used for high-
voltage dc power transmission until the early part of the
twenty-first century because of space-charge buildup
due to the unidirectional field and subsequent distortion
of the electrical stress distribution in the cable insulation
that reduces the dc and impulse strength of the cable.
However, recent progress in developing modified XLPE
has apparently been successful in reducing the space-
charge problem. As a result, the first modified XLPE
HVDC submarine cable link (the 150-kVdc, 330-MW
Cross Sound Cable Link) was installed in Long Island
Sound in 2002. Another modified XLPE HVDC sub-
marine cable installation was commissioned in 2006.
This link between Finland and Estonia, a distance of
some 47 miles (75 km), operates at 150 kVdc and can
transmit 350 MW of power.
2.8.3 High-temperature Superconducting Cables
Beginning in the early 1990s, utilities and manufacturers
began developing high-temperature superconducting
(HTS) cables—cables with conductors that become
superconducting at temperatures near liquid nitrogen
temperature (around -320°F, or 77 K). Nine demonstra-
Figure 2-8 450-kVdc Baltic Cable (left) and 100-kVdc
Gotland Island Cable (right) (courtesy of ABB HV Cables).
Chapter 2: Cable System Types
tion projects were under way in 2006, with voltages to
115 kV and lengths to 1140 ft (350 m). These short lines
are installed both for laboratory testing and operating
in a commercial utility grid.
Commercial applications for HTS cables should be able
to use the unique features of superconducting materials
to deliver more power in a smaller space with reduced
impact to the surrounding environments. Thermal and
electromagnetic emissions to the surrounding soil and
adjacent equipment are virtually eliminated with HTS
cables. Environmental impacts are further reduced ver-
sus other cable types due to the environmentally friendly
nature of liquid nitrogen as the cooling medium.
Cable Design Options
The electrical insulation materials for HTS cables may
be inside or outside the cryostat, and single or multiple
electrical phases may be placed inside a single cryostat.
All HTS cables start at the inner most layer with a
former. This former may be a stranded copper member
or a hollow tube. The function of the former includes
serving as a structural member to strand HTS wires on
top of and, in some cases, a flow path for liquid nitro-
gen. In the case of stranded copper cores, the copper
serves as fault current stabilization to protect HTS wires
in the event of a fault current on the cable.
On top of the former, one or more layers of HTS wires
are helically wound to make up the phase conductor of
the cable. It is these HTS wires that replace the copper
or aluminum conductor in a conventional cable.
Options for the placement of the dielectric materials dic-
tate if this cable core becomes a warm dielectric or cold
dielectric HTS cable.
Warm Dielectric
The HTS core may be placed inside the cryostat directly.
Conventional dielectric layers are then extruded on the
outside of the cryostat to operate at ambient (warm)
temperatures. Dielectric materials for this application in
previous projects have included EPR and polyethylene.
Conventional concentric wire screen may be applied to
the outside of the dielectrics.
Figure 2.9 shows a warm-dielectric HTS cable produced
by nkt cables in Denmark.
Cold Dielectric
In cold dielectric cable designs, the stranded HTS core is
wrapped with layers of dielectric materials that may be
made of paper or polymer tapes. These tapes operate
with the liquid nitrogen coolant saturating the material,
filling butt-gaps and serving as part of the dielectric sys-
tem. The liquid nitrogen in these cables serves much the
same purpose as impregnating liquids in conventional
2-13
Chapter 2: Cable System Types
paper cables. The fully insulated conductor may have a
second layer of HTS wires helically wrapped to serve as
the concentric screen. The superconducting screen in
these cables may operate at 100% of the load current,
resulting in a fully shielded cable design with no mag-
netic field outside the cable structure. This lack of an
electromagnetic field (EMF) eliminates eddy current
heating in surrounding equipment or steel duct and
allows cold dielectric HTS cables to operate at higher
load densities than warm dielectric cables.
Cold dielectric cable designs afford the opportunity to
optimize the three-phase structure to reduce material
usage and reduce physical spacing. Options for cold
dielectric cables include single-phase per cryostat, three
phases twisted together inside a single cryostat, and
three concentric phases on a single core all inside a com-
mon cryostat.
Figure 2-9 Warm dielectric HTS cable (courtesy of nkt).
Figure 2-10 Splice components.
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Chapter 7 provides a more complete description of high-
temperature superconducting cable systems and their
potential benefits to utilities.
2.9 CABLE ACCESSORIES
Since accessories for cable systems are installed in the
field, they are often the weak point in terms of cable
operation and reliability. Great care must be taken in
designing, qualifying, specifying, and installing accesso-
ries. Chapter 8 provides details of accessories for each
cable type. The listing below provides a summary of
accessory requirements. Splices and terminations are
required for all cable types; other accessories may be
required for specific cable systems.
2.9.1 Splices
Splices—also called joints when all components such as
casings and valves are included—are required to con-
nect two sections of cable. The distance between splices
is generally determined by allowable cable lengths,
which may be limited by weight or diameter of ship-
ping reels, pulling tensions, or steady-state sheath volt-
ages in the case of high-current extruded-dielectric and
SCFF cables.
All splices consist of a connector to join adjacent
conductors, a semiconducting layer to smooth the
electric field, restoration of the insulation, outer semi-
conducting layers, and outer metallic shielding/sheath.
Additional components are required depending on cable
type and application. Proper evaluation of thermo-
mechanical forces is important for satisfactory long-
ter m splice operation. Figure 2-10 shows basic
components required for a splice.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 2: Cable System Types

Considerations for specific cable types are summarized ations where high differential thermo-mechanical or
below: gravitational forces exist, such as on inclines.
• Extruded-dielectric and SCFF cables require sealing
Splices for extruded-dielectric and SCFF duct systems,
against moisture ingress. Both types generally require
and for pipe-type cables, are typically placed in concrete
insulating breaks in the outer semiconducting layers
manholes. Splices for directly buried cables can be made
and shielding/sheath and means to connect bonding
on concrete pads with sidewalls called joint bays that are
leads to permit applying special bonding methods to
then covered with thermal backfill and have concrete
reduce circulating currents and maintain acceptable
slabs placed over them for mechanical protection. Typi-
sheath voltages. Manufacturers have different meth-
cal splicing durations for three-phase 345-kV cables are
ods of accommodating forces and movement due to
6 to 10 eight-to-twelve-hour days for extruded-dielectric
thermal expansion and contraction ranging from rig-
cables, and 6 to 8 days around-the-clock for pipe-type
idly clamping the splice to prevent movement, to pro-
and SCFF cables.
viding expansion loops in the manhole to
accommodate expansion/contraction.
Chapter 13 describes splice installation in more detail.
• Pipe-type cable splices require supports to prevent
excessive movement in the joint casing, and they 2.9.2 Terminations
require casings to restore the continuity of the steel
Terminations—also called potheads or sealing ends—
pipe. As described in Chapter 8, special-purpose
are required to bring the cables from three individual
pipe-type splices include features to isolate the dielec-
conductors in close proximity to three separate units
tric liquid, trifurcate from three cables in a single car-
that may be 8–15 ft (2.4–4.6 m) apart for connection to
bon steel pipe to individual cables in stainless steel
substation bus, overhead lines, or apparatus such as
pipes, or support the cable for large elevation
transformers. Terminations provide electrical stress con-
changes.
trol, insulation between the conductor and ground, a
• Self-contained fluid-filled splices are either “through seal against the external environment, anchor conductor
splices” that have an open channel in the conductor movement, and withstand positive pressure for pressur-
for passage of the dielectric liquid, stop joint splices ized cable systems.
to isolate dielectric liquid sections, or “feeding”
splices to provide fluid passage to the reservoirs. The Termination housings for extruded-dielectric cables may
latter two-splice types are commonly combined— be either porcelain or composite; termination housings
with a central stop feature and a feeding feature on for pipe-type, SCFF, and GIL systems are almost
both sides always porcelain.
• GIL splices just restore the continuity of the conduc-
tor and the enclosure; the SF6 gas or nitrogen / SF6 There are three types of terminations:
mixture maintains the electrical insulation. Gas seg- • Outdoor/indoor terminations
regation splices are provided at regular intervals to
• Metal-enclosed GIS terminations
limit the volume of gas escape in the event of a leak.
• Oil-immersed transformer terminations.
• Submarine cable splices—described in Chapter 7—
can be flexible splices of the same diameter as the
Extruded-dielectric terminations at voltages of 230 kV
cable to aid in installation, or rigid splices, which are
and lower are generally completely self-contained; they
usually used for shallow water field repairs (~< 165 ft,
do not require a pressurizing source and, therefore, do
or 50 m, depending on manufacturer and laying
not require alarms. Extruded-dielectric terminations at
methods). Rigid joints cannot withstand bending
345 kV and above typically have a dielectric fluid (SF6
during laying and usually have lower tension-
gas or a liquid) that is pressurized and requires alarms
withstanding capabilities compared to flexible splices.
to indicate low pressure that would signal loss of fluid.
However, installation time for rigid joints is
considerably less than field flexible joints.
The fluid supply for pipe-type, SCFF, and GIL systems
• Anchor joints are used in special locations within is integral with the cable fluid supply, so it is monitored
each type of underground cable system. Their pur- as part of the cable system.
pose is to prevent movement of the conductor in situ-

2-15
Chapter 2: Cable System Types
Figure 2-11 shows a cable termination. Chapter 8
describes termination components that are specific to
individual cable types.
Outside North America, many self-contained cables are
terminated within a compact substation by either a gas-
immersed switchgear (GIS) ter mination directly
interfacing with gas-insulated metal-clad bus bar or by
transformer terminations directly into a fluid-insulated
chamber attached to the transformer. GIS terminations
employ cast resin insulators, which are usually of the
“ d r y - t y p e ” ( t h e y c o n t a i n n o i n s u l at i n g f l u i d ) .
Transfor mer ter minations employ cast resin or
porcelain insulators.
2.9.3 Link Boxes
As described in several subsequent chapters, the bond-
ing and grounding of extruded-dielectric and SCFF
shields/sheaths is an important consideration to reduce
shield/sheath losses and increase cable ampacity. Con-
nections from the cable shield/sheath are generally made
through a link box, which has bolted links that can be
Figure 2-11 Extruded-dielectric composite termination.
2-16
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
removed (with the cable de-energized) when the user
performs a jacket integrity test. The link box also may
contain sheath voltage limiters to limit transient over-
voltages that might damage the cable jacket or the shield
interruption within the splice. Chapter 8 provides more
detail and shows photos of link boxes.
2.9.4 Fluid-handling Equipment
Pipe-type and SCFF cables require equipment to main-
tain fluid pressures in design ranges during all changes
in loading and ambient temperatures.
High-pressure fluid-filled cables require at least one
pressurizing plant, with a reservoir tank ranging from
2000 gal (7570 l) to 15,000 gal (56,780 l) or even larger.
Special relief valves maintain required pressure ranges
during fluid expansion and contraction. Pressures are
recorded and often transmitted remotely. An annuncia-
tor panel monitors a series of alarms. Since maintaining
pressure is so critical for integrity of the cable system,
most plants have a backup pressurizing source such as a
nitrogen-driven pump or are connected to an emergency
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
power supply to be used if local distribution power
is lost.
Most pressurizing plants are housed in self-contained
aluminum-paneled buildings, which can be approxi-
mately 12-ft (3.6-m) wide and 45-ft (13.7-m) long.
High-pressure gas-filled and self-contained gas-filled
cables require a monitoring cabinet with alarms to indi-
cate high or low pressures and a regulator with a few
cylinders of nitrogen to clear an alarm (much larger
quantities would be needed to feed a leak until repairs
are made). The nitrogen pressure fluctuates with
changes in cable loading and ambient temperatures; no
external reservoir is required, as thermal expansion is
accommodated by the compressible nature of the gas.
GIL cables require a monitoring cabinet with alarms to
indicate high or low gas density to detect gas leaks. The
gas pressure fluctuates with changes in cable loading
and ambient temperatures; no external reservoir
is required.
SCFF cables for land installations generally have small
pressure reservoirs placed every few miles (several km)
to accept fluid expansion and contraction. A distin-
guishing feature of the SCFF pressurizing system is that
it can be passive, requiring no pumps or power sources,
with the exception of low-voltage telemetry of alarms.
The pressure reservoirs contain gas-filled flexible metal-
lic elements. The reservoir is typically capable of accom-
modating up to 50-gallon (200-l) fluid expulsion from
the cable system. These reservoirs require alarm circuits
to indicate out-of-range pressures and low fluid levels.
An exception is long submarine cables and some under-
ground applications, which have large pressurizing
plants at one or both ends. These resemble plants for
high-pressure fluid-filled cables except the reservoir tank
has a vacuum over the liquid rather than a low-pressure
nitrogen blanket.
Chapter 9 addresses cable hydraulic considerations,
including calculations and equipment descriptions.
2.9.5 Pipe-type Cathodic Protection and
Grounding
The pipe for pipe-type cables must be protected from
corrosion by a high-quality anti-corrosion coating.
Since it is important to avoid leaks, pipes also have a
cathodic protection system installed. The system may
consist of distributed sacrificial anodes or, more com-
monly, an impressed-current system with a rectifier pro-
viding the cathodic protection voltage.
Chapter 2: Cable System Types
The cathodic protection system places a small negative
dc voltage on the pipe to insure that current flows to the
pipe if the coating is damaged rather than away from the
pipe carrying ionic metal. That dc voltage is isolated
from ground by the pipe corrosion coating. However,
the pipe should have a low-impedance path to ground
for fault currents to prevent dangerous voltages on the
pipe. Polarization cells, resembling substation batteries,
are used for this purpose, as are their solid-state equiva-
lent known as an isolator surge protector. Chapter 10
describes cathodic protection of cable pipes.
2.9.6 Monitoring
Cable systems can have active monitoring in addition to
fluid monitoring for the terminations and fluid-handling
systems. Such monitoring includes the following:
• Temperature monitoring: Most cable systems include
thermocouples at several locations on the pipe, duct,
or cable itself for directly buried cables. Distributed
fiber optic temperature monitoring has become more
usual in North America since the mid-1990s but is
not universally installed elsewhere. An optical fiber is
placed in the cable outer shielding, or in/on the duct
or cable pipe. A special optical time domain reflecto-
meter (optical radar) measures backscatter from laser
pulses introduced into the fiber to provide a tempera-
ture profile along the length of the line. Chapter 12
describes the distributed temperature sensing system.
• Corrosion monitoring: Pipe-to-earth voltage poten-
tial may be monitored to determine the effectiveness
of the cathodic protection system.
• Dynamic rating: Cable temperature, ambient earth
temperature, and circuit loading may be monitored
and results relayed to a computer that determines
allowable future loading based on recent history.
Chapter 11 addresses dynamic rating.
• Partial discharge: Some utilities are beginning to
monitor partial discharge level on splices and
terminations of extruded-dielectric cables in an
effort to obtain early warning of incipient failures
(CIGRE 2001).
• Other: Chapter 15, “Operation and Maintenance,”
describes dissolved gas analysis and other testing that
may be done on a cable system, either periodically to
assess potential cable system degradation or specifi-
cally in event of a problem with the cable.
2.10 SELECTING CABLE TYPES
Underground transmission cables account for less than
1% of all transmission line miles installed in North
2-17
Chapter 2: Cable System Types EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

America and less than 5-10% in smaller more densely
populated countries. Cables are almost always more
expensive than overhead lines—sometimes significantly
more expensive—and cables can impose constraints on
utility system operation. Cables are therefore generally
installed in the following situations:
• Overhead lines are not feasible (for example, down-
town areas in major cities or long water crossings).
• Improve reliability (for example, to avoid overhead
crossings of other overhead lines).
• Preserve areas of special scenic beauty.
• Safety, such as airport runway zones.
• Other parties pay for the undergrounding (for exam-
ple, to improve the value of a development).
If undergrounding is considered, many factors should
be evaluated to determine which cable type would be
preferred. A few considerations and differences among
major cable types, are summarized in Table 2-1. For this
comparison, extruded-dielectric and SCFF cables are
assumed to be installed in ducts in typical North Ameri-
can practice.
2.10.1 System Considerations
Values for many cable parameters are significantly dif-
ferent from those for overhead lines, and values differ
among cable types. These differences can have a major
effect on operation of a utility’s transmission system.
Principal considerations include the following (Stewart
et al. 1986):
• Cable capacitance is much higher than that for over-
head lines, with implications including the following:
- Charging current to supply the capacitance
heats the conductor, reduces the amount of
allowable real-power transfer, and increases
cable system losses.
- The cable is a significant source of reactive
VARs which must be absorbed by the utility sys-
tem or by shunt reactors. In some networks, this
is of benefit in compensating the inductive reac-
tance of the system.
- Passage of charging current through the series
inductance of other transmission lines or
through transformers can generate excessive
voltage rise, particularly on energization or in
the event of unexpected load rejection.
- Surge arrester energy duty is higher because of
the stored energy in the cable capacitance.
- Cable capacitance can cause problems with har-
monic resonance and transient overvoltages.
- Overvoltages caused by capacitive current can
limit system restoration following a whole or
partial blackout; shunt reactors may be neces-
sary to aid in system restoration.
- Capacitive cable links stiffen the network by
increasing system stability compared to induc-
tive links.
• Cables have a lower reactance than overhead lines;
therefore, the cable may “hog” load when installed in
parallel with an overhead line, even though the cable
will have a lower rating.

Table 2-1 General Comparison Among Cable Types

Characteristic Cable Type
Extruded-Dielectric Pipe-Type SCFF GIL
History in North America
First operated at 138 kV Mid-1970s 1932 1926
First operated at 345 kV 2001 1964 1971 (525 kV) 1971
Highest voltage in service, 2006 345 kV 345 kV 525 kV 765 kV
Electrical parameters See Table 2-2
Typical insulation thickness,
1.0 in. (25 mm) 0.6 in. (15 mm) 0.6 in. (15 mm) 10 in. (250 mm)
345-kV cable
Typical electrical stress at con-
290 V/mil (11.5 kV/mm) 430 V/mil (17 kV/mm) 380 V/mil (15 kV/mm) 70 V/mil (2.7 kV/mm)
ductor, 345-kV cable
Typical outside diameter, 345-kV
5.5 in (140 mm) 3.5 in. (89 mm) 4 in. (102 mm) 18-25 in. (457-635 mm)
cable
Typical ampacity, large conduc-
1200-1500 A 1000-1200 A 1200-1500 A 2000-4000 A
tor
Restoration time, 345-kV cable 3 weeks or longer 4 weeks or longer 4 weeks or longer 2 weeks or longer
failure (a failure can take much
longer to repair if it is in an inac-
cessible location, replacement
cable must be already available in
stock, etc.)

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 2: Cable System Types

Chapter 16 describes system parameters in detail.
A summary of typical electrical characteristics for
345-kV transmission lines is given in Table 2-2.
2.10.2 Installation Considerations
Suitability of an underground cable versus an overhead
line—and evaluation of one cable type versus another—
depends strongly on installation conditions and must be
evaluated on a case-by-case basis. Note that excavation
for an underground cable differs from an overhead line;
the entire the route must be accessed and excavated (or a
directional drill performed) for an underground cable.
Only occasional tower footings are required for over-
head lines so they can span small wetlands, for example.
Access for underground cables is required along the
route during installation and also should be maintained
for inspection and possible repairs; overhead lines may
require access only to tower locations. Chapters 12 and
13 provide detailed discussion of cable installation
design and construction.
technical document (CIGRE 2004) provides an excellent
summary of transition requirements and design.
Extruded-dielectric cables have simple terminations that
do not require reservoirs or alarms, at least through
230 kV. Terminations can be composite construction,
which is much lighter than a porcelain unit, and can be
placed on riser poles without need for a fenced-in area.
This is a definite advantage to extruded-dielectric cables
for rural and suburban areas. Figure 2-12 shows a
138-kV riser pole that has a spare phase for rapid con-
nection in event of failure of one of the operating
phases.
Although there have been a few pipe-type installations
on riser poles at voltages up to 115 kV, as shown in Figure
2-13, these are uncommon. A fluid-filled line requires a

Transition requirements are significantly different for

the different cable types and are an important consider-
ation when evaluating potential applications. A CIGRE

Table 2-2 Typical Electrical Characteristics—345-kV

Overhead Line and Underground Extruded-Dielectric
(2000 kcmil) and Pipe-Type Cables (2500 kcmil), 60 Hz
Underground
Extruded-
Overhead dielectric Underground
Parameter Line XLPE HPFF
Shunt capacitance,
0.0189 0.279 0.462
µf/mi
Figure 2-12 138-kV riser pole for XLPE cable (courtesy
Shunt reactance, AEP).
0.140 0.0095 0.0057
megaohm-mi
Series inductance,
1.56 0.234 0.167
mH/mi
Series reactance,
0.587 0.088 0.063
ohms/mi
Charging current,
1.42 21.0 36.5
A/mi
Dielectric loss per
Negligible 0.42 5.3
phase, kW/mi
Reactive charging
power, three-phase 0.849 12.6 22.8
MVA/mi
Capacitive energy,
2.3 33.2 55.0
kJ/mi
Surge impedance,
287 29 19
ohms
Surge impedance
415 4110 6875
loading, MVA
Typical rating,
2500 1400 1250
Amperes
Figure 2-13 115-kV riser pole for HPGF cable (courtesy
of South Carolina Electric & Gas).

2-19
Chapter 2: Cable System Types EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

large pressurizing plant at least at one end, with distribu-
tion power supply, alarm connections, and so on.
Terminals and pressurizing plants are almost always
placed in a fenced-in compound. HPGF cables require a
control cabinet at one end of the line, with alarms. Both
HPFF and HPGF lines also require cathodic protection
equipment; impressed-current systems require a power
supply for the rectifier. The equipment is placed in
stations or small transition compounds.
SCFF cables also have heavy porcelain insulators. How-
ever, they are sometimes installed on platforms attached
to terminal towers. In many applications, they are termi-
nated by GIS terminations, either horizontally or verti-
cally into compact metal-clad bus bar.
GIL lines have been placed in transition compounds,
but most installations are within stations. They do not
require reservoirs but do require alarm systems for
gas pressure.
A few additional basic considerations related to cable
installation are summarized in Table 2-3 by cable type.
Many of the comments are subjective and may not
apply to all installation conditions.
important differences among the cable systems them-
selves. Considerations include the following:
Power transfer: Cables have a lower current rating than
overhead lines because heat from the cables must pass
through the earth before reaching the ultimate heat
sink—air or water. Therefore, a cable system may
require more than one cable per phase. Daily load shape
has a stronger influence on underground cable rating
than on overhead line rating. Cables have a much longer
thermal time constant because of their burial in the
earth, giving the advantage that short-term emergency
overloads can be much higher than those for overhead
lines. Chapter 11 discusses these topics in greater detail.
Reclosing: Many faults on overhead lines are self-clear-
ing (for example, due to lightning or a tree falling on a
line). Utilities, therefore, have automatic reclosing on
overhead lines. Faults on underground cables are per-
manent, so it is not prudent to reclose on a cable.
Reclosing on pipe-type cables is not recommended
because of resulting additional cable damage, possible
pipe breach and resulting fluid loss, and possible circu-
lation of carbonized liquid. Similar problems can occur
for reclosing on SCFF cables.

2.10.3 Considerations for Cable Operation Reclosing might be permitted on solidly grounded
Underground cable systems differ from overhead lines extruded-dielectric lines if the cable shield/sheath is
in several areas related to cable operation, and there are designed to carry the system fault currents. Reclosing
on a specially bonded circuit risks the flash-over of
Table 2-3 General Considerations – Cable Installation for Different Locations
Condition Extruded-dielectric, SCFFa Pipe-type GIL
Location
Rural (note that an
Trench cross-section would resemble Would probably need to be
access road is needed Direct burial (with mechanical pro-
urban, without paving. Need extensive above ground; require
the full length for con- tection) may be possible to reduce
termination equipment including power mechanical protection. Need
struction and mainte- cost and increase ampacity
supply and alarms alarms.
nance/repair)
Would need to be in a trough
Suburban Direct burial or duct system Similar to urban
or in a protected area
Duct system; slower installation
Would need to be in a trough
Urban than pipe-type (utility tunnels are Rugged, more rapid installation
or a tunnel
common overseas)
HPFF would probably not be suitable
Ideal for substations, espe-
Ideal for short substation lengths unless a pressurizing plant were already
Substation cially for connection to gas-
because of simple accessories present. HPGF could be a suitable alter-
insulated substations
native through 138 kV.
Lengths up to a mile (1.6 km) feasi-
Lengths up to 1.5 miles (2.4 km) have Not suitable for long direc-
Long directional drills ble, depending on cable
been installed tional drills
size/weight and installation in duct
Factory or at-sea splices required Must have an “at-sea” splice every 1.5
Long underwater cross- every several miles for extruded- miles (2.4 km) or less; therefore, not Not suitable for long underwa-
ings dielectric; every 30-40 miles (48-64 really suitable for long underwater cross- ter crossings
km) for SCFF ings

a. The SCFF system would be very similar to the extruded-dielectric system in terms of installation, but it would have the addi-
tional complexity of requiring fluid reservoirs and alarms, and SCFF cables are not as amenable to installation on riser
poles.

2-20
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
damaged sheath voltage limiters (SVLs), consequent
violent displacement of manhole covers, and a break-
down of the joint shield interruption. Even if reclosing
is allowed, only a single reclosing would be permitted
because of a potentially damaging temperature rise
caused by multiple reclosings. Also, reclosing on lines
with vaults in populated areas is not recommended since
reclosing on extruded cables may cause fires or explo-
sions in splice vaults when the initial fault is in the vault.
Reclosing on hybrid overhead and underground lines
should be given special consideration, because loss of
l i n e r e l i ab i l i t y m ay r e s u l t i f n o t p e r m i t t e d .
Implementation of special protection schemes to
discriminate between faults in overhead versus
underground sections may be required. Single-pole
reclosing could be considered.
Outage rates, durations: Outages on overhead lines can
be relatively frequent, but they are usually short dura-
tion because of automatic reclosing practices and the
speed with which lines can be repaired. Outages on
underground cables are much less common, but the out-
age duration is significantly longer—a month is possi-
ble, or even longer if replacement cable must be
manufactured. Insufficient data exist to compare outage
rates among cable types with sufficient confidence to
favor one cable type versus another. Note that all cable
types other than extruded-dielectric can have outages
due to hydraulic problems as well as electrical ones. One
advantage of a pressurized cable system is that the con-
trol system responds to loss of pressure following third-
party damage, whereas in an extruded cable, water is
likely to enter unnoticed and may cause extensive dam-
age in the future depending on the effectiveness of
water-blocking materials.
2.10.4 Environmental Considerations
A few environmental concerns may be considered when
evaluating overhead versus underground installations
and when evaluating differences among underground
cable types:
Visual: Cables may be buried and out of sight, but tran-
sition stations are still needed at each end of the line. As
noted in Section 2.10.2, extruded-dielectric cables may
be placed on riser poles, but other cable types will usu-
ally require transition compounds. In addition, a per-
manent 20- to 25-foot (6- to 7.5-m) easement is required
for access for maintenance and repairs; this easement
cannot have woody vegetation that would impede vehi-
cle access and that might remove moisture from the soil
and cause cable overheating.
Chapter 2: Cable System Types
Dielectric fluid: Many users of pipe-type cables have
operated their systems for decades with no fluid leaks,
but a few other utilities have incurred a relatively large
number of leaks. EPRI has developed leak detection
and location methods (Williams 1983), and utilities have
refined such methods and have improved their mainte-
nance practices to greatly reduce leak rates. Neverthe-
less, the possibility of a dielectric fluid leak is an
environmental concern for pipe-type and SCFF cable
systems. As described in Chapter 15, there are methods
to reduce the amount of fluid that can be lost, but any
leak can still be considered a maintenance problem and
can result in an outage until repairs are made (Ghafu-
rian et al. 1999).
Heat: Cables generate heat, and the earth surface tem-
perature might be elevated a few degrees at full load
because of cable heat. The only environmental effect
reported has been premature germination of seeds
(EPRI 1975).
Magnetic fields: The magnetic field right over a cable
trench can be higher than that for an overhead transmis-
sion line even though the cable magnetic field dimin-
ishes with distance much more rapidly that for an
overhead line. Pipe-type cables have the lowest magnetic
fields because of the closeness of the three phases and
the attenuation due to the steel pipe. GIL can have low
fields because the enclosure is solidly grounded and the
circulating current is out of phase with, and almost
equal to, the conductor current. Methods such as phase
positioning can be used to reduce the magnetic fields
from extruded-dielectric and SCFF cables. Chapter 16
addresses magnetic fields in greater detail.
2.10.5 Cost Considerations
Cable systems are almost always more costly than over-
head lines. Because the cable’s lower ratings or reliability
considerations may require multiple conductors per
phase, there is the need to trench or bore every part of
the route, and the cost of the high-quality insulated con-
ductor and its installation can be high. Costs are very
specific to the application: for example, voltage, power
transfer level, required redundancy, route, and obstruc-
tions. It is possible for the price of a given cable system
to vary by a factor of two or greater from one applica-
tion to another, depending principally on civil works
and installation conditions. The problem of quantifying
direct and indirect costs leads to subjective compari-
sons. Cost comparisons are usually based on the direct
cost of equipment and installation. Indirect costs of
obtaining regulatory approval and the time delay to the
project are usually excluded, although these may be con-
siderable. The proper approach to provide even a bud-
2-21
Chapter 2: Cable System Types
getary cost estimate is to define the power transfer
requirements, investigate the potential line locations,
evaluate the alternative cable types and determine the
required conductor size, determine the civil require-
ments, and obtain budgetary cost estimates from ven-
dors. Overheads and contingencies are then added to
those costs to develop the budgetary cost estimate.
Just as it is not possible to provide general comments on
cable system cost, it is not possible to provide a general
ratio of underground cable costs to overhead lines costs.
Not only do cable costs vary, but the overhead line costs
vary as well depending on such factors as location, ter-
rain, and number of angles and deadend towers. Ratios
as low as 2:1 are possible (extremely expensive overhead
line construction), and ratios higher than 20:1 have been
reported (CIGRE 2004). The calculation of the differ-
ence in cost for the particular application—for example,
after evaluating required conductor size and installation
conditions—is the only fair comparison.
2.11 INDUSTRY SPECIFICATIONS AND
STANDARDS
2.11.1 Utility Specifications
Many specifications written by power utilities are mate-
rial and construction specifications with an increasing
trend toward performance specifications. Industry stan-
dards and specifications are used as a basis for the utility
specification. A main feature of the utility specification
is to precisely describe which combination of materials
and construction methods is to be selected from the
industry standards and specifications, as well as to
clearly describe the application. Specific requirements
for items such as conductor size, transmission capacity,
voltage class, testing, packaging, shipping, installation
layout, and commissioning are added as desired. The
objective is for the utility to thoroughly describe the
application requirements, to provide proposers with a
clear, uniform description for bidding, while preserving
the opportunity for them to provide an optimum and
innovative solution for the particular application.
The industry specifications and standards usually refer-
enced in North America are those produced by the
Cable Engineering Committee of AEIC (Association of
Edison Illuminating Companies), ICEA (Insulated
Cable Engineers Association), and IEEE (Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers). Some IEC (Inter-
national Electrotechnical Commission) standards are
also referenced. Guides and Recommended Practices
are sometimes referenced, but their applicability to con-
tractual matters needs to be considered carefully.
2-22
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
AEIC Specifications
The Cable Engineering Committee of AEIC writes and
updates power cable specifications and guides for utility
use and serves as a forum for exchanging technical
information.
The AEIC Cable Engineering Committee consists of 25-
30 AEIC member utility engineers who meet twice a
year to address the specific needs and problems experi-
enced in utility cable systems. Their specifications and
guides have gained wide acceptance because of a focus
on long-term performance and reliability.
When a specification is due for revision, an open forum
is conducted, so that the experience of suppliers, manu-
facturers, researchers, and cable users can be reviewed
and new knowledge incorporated in the next revision.
Since the group is rather small and has a common pur-
pose, the revisions are produced in a timely manner.
Cable Specifications CS1 through CS4 are for cable
designs using laminated paper insulation materials.
Specifications CS8 and CS9 cover extruded-dielectric
cables. An appendix in each specification lists all
industry standards referenced in the document. Specifi-
cation CS31 is for low- and high-viscosity, pipe-filling
liquids used in high pressure pipe-type circuits. AEIC
specifications are usually referred to by their number
and year of latest issue—e.g. CS1-90. In all cases, the
user should ensure that the latest edition of the specifica-
tion is applied.
ICEA Standards
The ICEA is a group of power cable suppliers who
write and update standards for power cable manufac-
turers. ICEA participation is mainly by North
American suppliers, although their international
affiliates also contribute indirectly. They do not prepare
standards for laminated insulation cables or for power
cable accessories.
There is an effective consultative arrangement between
AEIC and ICEA, known as UPCSTAC (Utility Power
Cable Standards Advisory Committee), whereby bilat-
eral discussions and reviews can lead to optimum speci-
fications and standards for both groups. Only extruded
insulation cables are considered. Some AEIC specifica-
tions (e.g., CS8) are supplements to ICEA standards, a
legacy from earlier times when ICEA was the only devel-
oper of extruded insulation cables in North America.
Some ICEA standards have also received accreditation
by ANSI (American National Standards Institute).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
IEEE Standards
IEEE does not develop power cable standards but does
develop them for power cable accessories such as joints
and terminations. Numerous related Guides and Rec-
ommended Practices are also prepared.
Some IEEE standards have also received accreditation
by ANSI (American National Standards Institute).
Other Specifications
As more extruded-dielectric transmission cable (69 kV
and above) continues to be installed in North America,
at ever higher voltages, there has been greater interest in
following the experience of the international manufac-
turers and installations. This trend continues to spur
interest in international specifications and in resolving
the differences between AEIC specifications and ICEA
standards compared to those developed internationally.
There have been many more HV and EHV extruded
insulation power cables manufactured and installed
internationally than in North America, mainly driven by
higher population densities and land costs in large over-
seas cities. Cable and cable testing standards, therefore,
have been actively developed by IEC, JIC (Japan Indus-
trial Committee), and a variety of European countries
(now being harmonized as CENELEC [European Com-
mittee for Electrotechnical Standardization] standards).
Industry specifications and standards have led to many
improvements in cable quality. The industry is continu-
ously searching for improvements such as better cable
system testing and quality assurance, a more complete
understanding of the various cable operating condi-
tions, new materials with better performance character-
istics, more compact designs, lower lifetime costs, etc.
As new knowledge is gained, the specifications will
be revised and improved.
2.11.2 Specification Listing
A list of transmission cable-related AEIC specifications
and ICEA and IEEE standards and guides, current as of
2006, follows.
Readers should check with the issuing organization for
the latest versions.
AEIC Specifications
AEIC CS1-90 (11th Edition—October 1990). Specifica-
tions for Impregnated Paper-Insulated Metallic-
Sheathed Cable, Solid Type.
Chapter 2: Cable System Types
AEIC CS2-97 (6th Edition—March 1997). Specification
for Impregnated Paper and Laminated Paper Polypro-
pylene Insulated Cable, High Pressure Pipe Type.
AEIC CS3-90 (3rd Edition—October 1990). Specifica-
tions for Impregnated-Paper-Insulated Metallic
Sheathed Cable, Low Pressure Gas-Filled Type.
AEIC CS4-93 (8th Edition—January 1993). Specifica-
tions for Impregnated-Paper-Insulated Low and
Medium Pressure Self-Contained Liquid Filled Cable.
AEIC CS6—Replaced by CS9 for >46 kV
AEIC CS7—Withdrawn and replaced by CS9 for
>46 kV
AEIC CS8-00 (1st Edition). Specification for Extruded
Dielectric Shielded Power Cables Rated 5 through
46 kV. Note: CS8-00 replaces CS5 and CS6 for 5
through 46 kV Cables.
AEIC CS9-06 (1st Edition). Specification for Extruded
Insulation Power Cables and their Accessories Rated
above 46 kV through 345 kVac. Note: CS9-06 replaces
CS6 for 69 kV Cables and CS7 for greater than 46 kV.
AEIC CS31-95 (2nd Edition—December 1995). Specifi-
cations for Electrically Insulating Pipe Filling Liquids
for High-Pressure Pipe-Type Cable.
AEIC CG1-96 (3rd Edition—April 1996). Guide for
Ap plication of AEIC Maximum In su lation
Temperatures at the Conductor for Impregnated-Paper-
Insulated Cables.
AEIC CG3-2005 (2nd Edition—January 2005). Guide
for Installation of Pipe-Type Cable Systems.
AEIC CG4-97 (2nd Edition—January 1997). Guide for
Installation of Extruded Dielectric Insulated Power
Cable Systems Rated 69 kV Through 138 kV.
AEIC CG5-2005. Underground Extruded Power Cable
Pulling Guide. AEIC CG6-05 (2nd Edition—Novem-
ber, 2005).
AEIC CG6-2005. Guide for Establishing the Maximum
Operating Temperatures of Extruded Dielectric Insu-
lated Shielded Power Cables (1st Edition)
AEIC CG8-2003 (2nd Edition—August 2003). Guide
for Electric Utility Quality Assurance Program for
Extruded Dielectric Power Cables.
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Chapter 2: Cable System Types EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

ICEA Standards and Guides IEEE C2 (2007). National Electrical Safety Code
ICEA T-24-380 (1994). Guide for Partial Discharge (NESC).
Test Procedure.
2.11.3 Contact Information
ICEA P-45-482 (1999). Short Circuit Performance of Other specifications and reports are generally available
Metallic Shielding and Sheaths of insulated Cable. and can be of great use to the cable design engineer.
Sources of the foregoing specifications and standards, as
ICEA T-26-465/NEMA WC 54 (2001). Guide for Fre- well as other cable related information, are given below:
quency of Sampling Extruded Dielectric Power, Con-
trol, Instrumentation, and Portable Cables for Tests. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
11 West 42nd Street, 13th Floor
ICEA T-25-425 (2003). Guide for Establishing Stability New York, New York USA 10036
of Volume Resistivity for Conducting Polymeric Com- Website: www.ansi.org
ponents of Power Cables.
The Association of Edison Illuminating Companies
ICEA T-28-562 (2003). Test Method for Measurement (AEIC)
of Hot Creep of Polymeric Insulations. P.O. Box 2641
Birmingham, Alabama 35291-0992
ICEA S-108-720 (2004). Extruded Insulation Power Telephone: (205) 257-3839
Cables Rated Above 46 through 345 kV. Fax: (205) 257-2540
IEEE Standards and Guides Email: secretaryaeic@bellsouth.net
IEEE 535 (1993). Guide for Selecting and Testing Jack- Website: www.aeic.org
ets for Underground Cables.
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM)
IEEE 1406 (1998). Guide to the Use of Gas-In-Fluid ASTM International
Analysis for Electric Power Cable Systems. 100 Barr Harbor Drive
P.O. Box C700
IEEE 404 (2000). Standard for Extruded & Laminated West Conshohocken, PA USA 19428-2959
Dielectric Shielded Cable Joints Rated 2.5 kV - 500 kV. Telephone: (610) 832-9585
Fax: (610) 832-9555
IEEE 400 (2001), Guide for Field Testing & Evaluation Website: www.astm.org
of the Insulation of Shielded Power Cable Systems.
Conseil International des Grands Réseaux Électriques
IEEE 575 (2001). Guide for the Application of Sheath- (CIGRE)
Bonding Methods for Single-Conductor Cables and the 21 rue d’Artois
Calculation of Induced Voltages and Currents in F 75008 Paris, France
Cable Sheaths. Telephone: +33 (1) 53 89 12 90
Fax: 33 (1) 53 89 12 99
IEEE 1425 (2001). Guide for the Evaluation of the Email: publications@cigre.org
Remaining Life of Impregnated Paper- Insulated Trans- Website: www.cigre.org
mission Cable Systems.
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
IEEE 82 (2002). Test Procedure for Impulse Voltage 3420 Hillview Avenue
Tests on Insulated Conductors. Palo Alto, CA USA 94304 -1338
Telephone: (650) 855-2000
IEEE 48 (R2003). Standard Test Procedures and Website: www.epri.com
Requirements for Alternating-Current Cable Termina-
tions 2.5kV - 765kV. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
IEEE Operations Center
IEEE 400.2 (2004). Guide for Field Testing of Shielded 445 Hoes Lane
Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency. Piscataway, NJ USA 08854-4141
Telephone: (732) 981-0060
Fax: (732) 981 1721
Website: www.ieee.org

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 2: Cable System Types

Insulated Cable Engineers Association (ICEA) Telephone: (703) 351-5252

P.O. 1568 Fax: (708) 739-6672
Carrollton, GA USA 30112 Website: www.nastt.org
Website: www.icea.net
ICEA and NEMA Standards may be ordered from: National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE)
Global Engineering Documents 1440 South Creek Drive
15 Inverness Way East Houston, Texas USA 77084-4906
Englewood, CO USA 80112 Telephone: (281) 228-6200
Website: www.global.ihs.com Fax: (281) 228-6300
Website: www.nace.org
International Electrotechnical Commission (lEC)
IEC Regional Centre for North America (IEC-ReCNA) National Association of Pipe Coating Applicators
446 Main Street, 16th Floor (NAPCA)
Worcester, MA USA 01608 8570 Business Park Drive
Telephone: (508) 755-5663 Shreveport, LA USA 71105
Fax: (508) 755-5669 Telephone: (318) 227-2769
Website: www.icc.ch Fax: (318) 222-0482
IEC standards may also be ordered from the Website: www.napca.com
American National Standards Institute (ANSI). See
earlier listing. National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
1300 North 17th Street, Suite 1847
National American Society for Trenchless Technology Rosslyn, VA USA 22209
(NASTT) Telephone: (703) 841-6200
1655 N. Fort Meyer Dr., Suite 700 Fax: (703) 841-5900
Arlington, VA USA 22209 Website: www.nema.org

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Chapter 2: Cable System Types
REFERENCES
Allam, E. M. 1982. Development of Low-Loss 765 kV
Pipe-type Cable. EPRI Report No. EL-2196. January.
Allam, E. M., J. H. Cooper, and J. F. Shimshock. 1982.
“Development and Long Term Testing of a Low Loss
765 kV High Pressure Oil Filled Cable.” CIGRE paper
21-06. Paris.
Allam, E. M., A. L. McKean, and F. A. Teti. 1988.
“Optimized PPP-Insulated Pipe Type Cable System for
the Commercial Voltage Range.” IEEE Transactions on
Power Delivery. Vol. 3. No. 2.
Bartnikas, R., and K. D. Srivastava. 1987. Power Cable
Engineering. Waterloo, Ontario. Sanford Educational
Press.
Bjorlow-Larsen, K., M. Del Brenna, J. Kaumans, R.
Meier, M. Kirchner, and P. Argaut. 2003. “Large
Projects of EHV Underground Cable Systems.” Paper
A.2.5. Jicable.
CIGRE. 2001. Construction, Laying and Installation
Techniques for Extruded and Self Contained Fluid Filled
Cable Systems. Technical Brochure 194. October.
CIGRE. 2001. Partial Discharge Detection in Installed
HV Extruded Cable Systems. Technical Brochure 182.
April.
CIGRE. 2003. Gas-Insulated Lines (GIL). Technical
Brochure 218. February.
CIGRE. 2004. General Guidelines for the Integration of
a New Underground Cable System in the Network. Work-
ing Group B1.19. Technical Brochure No. 250. August.
CIGRE. 2005. Special Bonding of High Voltage Power
Cables. Technical Brochure 283. October.
Couderc, D. et al. 1996. “Development and Testing of a
800-kV PPLP-insulated Oil-filled Cable and its Accesso-
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Crowley, E., J. E. Hardy, and L. R. Horne. 1982. "Devel-
opment Programme for the Design, Testing and Sea Tri-
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Island 525 kV Alternating Current Submarine Cable
Link." CIGRE paper 21-10.
Crowley, D. J., and R. G. Foxall. 1983. “Planning,
Design and Construction of a 500-kV Transmission
System to Vancouver Island Including Long Submarine
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Cable Links.” Transactions of the Canadian Electrical
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22. Part 5.
Endersby, T. M., B. Gregory, and S. G. Swingler. 1992.
“The Application of Polypropylene Paper Laminate
Insulated Oil Filled cable to EHV and UHV Transmis-
sion.” CIGRE. Paper. 21-307. Paris.
Endersby, T. M., S. J. Galloway, B. Gregory, and N. C.
Mohan. 1993. “Environmental Compatibility of
Supertension Cables.” IEE Third International Confer-
ence, Publication 382. pp. 71. London.
EPRI. 1975. Study of Environmental Impact of Under-
ground Electric Transmission Systems. EDAW, Inc. San
Francisco, CA. May.
Foxall, R. G., K. B. Larsen, and G. Bazi. 1984. "Design,
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Current Submarine Cable Link from Mainland Canada
to Vancouver Island." CIGRE paper 21-04.
Fukawa, M., T. Kawai, Y. Okano, S. Sakuma, S. Asai,
M. Kanaoka, and H. Yamanouchi. 1996. “Develop-
ment of 500 kV XLPE Cables and Accessories for Long
Distance Underground Transmission Line – Part III:
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tions on Power Delivery. Vol. 11. No. 2. April.
Ghafurian, R., J. Dominguez, A. Santini, and C. Sobel.
1999. ”New Advances In Mitigating Environmental
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Apparatus.” IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine. Vol.
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2-27
 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

CHAPTER 3 Basic Design

Considerations
Author: Brian Gregory, Cable Consulting International Limited
Reviewers: John H. Cooper, Power Delivery Consultants, Inc.
Dennis E. Johnson, POWER Engineers, Inc.

The purpose of the chapter is to explain how cable circuits transmit power and how the
components common to different cable constructions are designed. The chapter provides
a common understanding and theoretical basis for the specialist chapters on the design of
cable systems, accessories, and installations for either ac or dc transmission.
The basic theory is given in the order likely to be encountered in the design of a cable cir-
cuit, starting at the foundation subjects of cable system design and the role of the electro-
magnetic field components. Explanations follow for the interdependence of circuit power
rating with cable voltage and current. The chapter then describes how the required cur-
rent is used in the ampacity calculations to obtain heat generation and dissipation and
thus ultimately the cable conductor size.
The cable design procedure is described for each layer, working outwards from the con-
ductor, through the shields and insulation to the integral ground return conductor, radial
moisture barriers, metallic containment sheath, anticorrosion jacket, and shipping reel.
At the higher transmission voltages, the need to maximize the cable reel length is the key
driver in the development of high design stress insulation.
Detailed conductor designs and insulation designs are considered, together with calcula-
tions of dc resistivity, electrical stress, capacitance, and rates of aging. Cable impedance is
predominantly capacitive, albeit magnetic field linkages and circuit geometry strongly
influence conductor ac resistance and inductive reactance. To evaluate the performance
of the cable circuit in the transmission network, it is usual to insert values of cable imped-
ance, ac resistance, and reactances into a network model; as a result, the basic calcula-
tions of these parameters are described.

Brian Gregory is the Technical Director and a founder member of

Cable Consulting International Ltd (CCI), incorporated in 2001. He
received an honors degree in Electrical and Electronic Engineering from
the City University, London in 1968. He received professional training
as a student apprentice with AEI Supertension Cables from 1963 to
1968. In 1969, he joined BICC Supertension Cables as a Development
Engineer for cables and accessories, becoming the Chief Development
Engineer in 1981. In 1992, Mr. Gregory became the Chief Engineer of
BICC Supertension and Subsea Cable Systems, with responsibilities for supertension
cable technology worldwide. He has extensive expertise in the research, development,
design, manufacture, testing, and commercialization of land and submarine cable sys-
tems, ac and dc up to 525 kV, insulated with extruded XLPE, EPR, fluid impregnated
LPP and paper, mass-impregnated paper, and LPGF and HPGF paper. He has recently
researched the thermomechanical behavior of XLPE and HPFF cables in pipe and duct-
manhole systems for EPRI, producing design guides and new calculation methods. He is
an inventor and has authored over 45 technical papers and books. He is a Fellow of the
IEE, a Member of the IEEE, a Member of CIGRE, a Chartered Engineer, and a FEANI
registered European Engineer.

3-1
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The chapter considers the basic principles involved in
system design, cable electromagnetic fields, power rat-
ing, current rating, cable design, and circuit parameters.
Both alternating current (ac) and direct current (dc) cir-
cuits are considered.
The topics are presented in the order likely to be encoun-
tered when planning a new cable circuit, starting with
the circuit layout and passing through design to specifi-
cation of the cable system. Section 3.2 describes cable
system design, with information on circuits, cable types,
cable components, accessories, ancillary equipment, the
hydraulic and pneumatic scheme, the bonding scheme,
the thermal design, the thermomechanical design, the
installation design, and operation, maintenance and
testing. Section 3.3 describes the electromagnetic field.
Sections 3.4 and 3.5 outline the steps for calculating
power and current ratings. Section 3.6 considers basic
aspects of cable design and specification. Section 3.7 dis-
cusses the electrical parameters of a cable system.
In this chapter, the equations are derived in the SI unit
system (Système International d’Unitès) based on kilo-
grams, meters, and seconds (MKS). Where possible
numerical examples are given first in U.S. Customary
Units followed by the appropriate SI primary or second-
ary unit. This follows the approach in the latest AEIC
specification CS9 (AEIC 2006).
3.2 CABLE SYSTEM DESIGN
3.2.1 Circuit Layout
The circuit layout in Figure 3-1 is a single-core,
extruded-dielectric, solidly grounded system for ac
transmission. Although simple in concept, each compo-
nent is designed to perform special functions under nor-
mal and transient operating conditions.
Figure 3-1 Cable system components for ac transmission (courtesy of CCI).
3-2
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
3.2.2 Circuit Cross Sections
The majority of cable circuits are underground.
Figure 3-2 shows a selection of circuit types installed
underground. Similar cable configurations are employed
for installation above ground and in tunnels. The dia-
gram shows duct-manhole and pipe systems, which his-
torically have been preferred in North America. Direct-
buried and tunnel circuits have evolved in other parts of
the world. Duct-manhole and pipe systems have advan-
tages in cities of fast installation and less disruption to
traffic. Direct-buried systems have higher ampacities.
Tunnel systems have more direct routes and good pro-
tection from third-party disturbance.
DC transmission circuits require two parallel cables. AC
transmission circuits require three cables. For purposes
of comparison, the cables in Figure 3-2 are shown
installed at a common minimum depth. In consequence,
the centerlines of the larger diameter cables are at a
greater distance from the surface. It is usual to specify a
minimum depth of burial to the top of the cable for
urban and rural sections of the route. Depth provides
increased protection from “dig-in” and plow damage.
Increased depth also decreases the magnetic field at the
surface, but has the disadvantage of decreased ampacity.
The following types of installation and cable are shown
in Figure 3-2:
• Sheathed cables in ducts:
Extruded crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) or ethyl-
ene propylene rubber (EPR)
Self-contained fluid-filled (SCFF) or gas-filled
(SCGF)
High-temperature superconducting (HTS); refriger-
ated by liquid gas
• Pipe-type, high-pressure fluid–filled (HPFF) or gas-
filled (HPGF)
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
• GIL (gas-insulated line) insulated with an N2/SF6
gas mixture.
For comparison purposes, the GIL circuit is shown bur-
ied; however, the majority of applications are in tunnels
or above ground in power plants.
In a pipe-type system, it is normal to install the three-
phase cables in a carbon steel pipe. This is permissible
because the resultant magnetic field surrounding the
cables is substantially reduced, thereby limiting the
heat generated by hysterisis and eddy currents to an
acceptable level. Single cables derive no such benefit and
must be installed in nonmagnetic ducts, which are pref-
erably also non-conducting. The ducts referred to in
Figure 3-2 are fiber-reinforced epoxy (FRE), which are
rigid and supplied in short lengths of 20 ft (6 m), or
polyethylene (PE), preferably a high-density grade,
which are flexible and supplied in typical reel lengths of
300–600 ft (100–200 m). PVC ducts are also selected for
many applications.
Figure 3-2 shows circuits with one cable per dc pole or
ac phase. When higher power levels are required, the
conductor cross-sectional area and cable spacings are
first increased. When larger conductor sizes become
impracticable to manufacture, two or more cables may
be provided per dc pole or per ac phase. Another option
is to install backfill with improved thermal properties.
When natural heat dissipation does not provide ade-
quate ampacity, forced-cooling may be selected.
The cable type with the highest prospective transmission
rating is ac GIL followed by dc SCFF, ac extruded
XLPE, ac SCFF, ac HPFF, ac extruded EPR, and dc
Figure 3-2 Circuit cross sections for dc and ac transmission (courtesy of CCI).
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations
XLPE. AC GIL cables and ac and dc HTS cables are at
present cables for special applications, the former having
demonstrated commercial service experience, and the
latter presently gaining experience. New types of dc
extruded XLPE cables are presently being tested and
have the prospect of application at the highest transmis-
sion voltages.
3.2.3 Cable
Figure 3-3 identifies the common cable components of
an extruded XLPE cable and an HPFF cable with taped
insulation. The common components are the power
conductor, conductor shield, insulation, insulation
shield, the shield and ground return conductors, the
radial moisture barrier, and the jacket. The prime
function that separates a cable from air-insulated equip-
ment, such as an overhead line, is the complete contain-
ment of the voltage and electrostatic field within the
insulation shield. Cables may, therefore, be installed in a
wide range of environments and weather conditions
without “shorting” the conductor to ground during nor-
mal operation.
In addition to the power conductor, each cable has inte-
grated auxiliary conductors. These are: (a) the shield
conductor, (b) the ground return conductor, and (c) the
ground continuity conductor (for special bonding situa-
tions). In the XLPE cable in Figure 3-3, the shield and
ground return are combined into one conductor,
whereas in an HPFF cable, they are separate.
The shield conductor is always part of the cable con-
struction. Its role is to collect the insulation charging
current and carry it back to the positions where the cir-
cuit is grounded, either at the joints or terminations, as
3-3
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

illustrated in Figure 3-4. The capacitive charging cur-
rents are distributed inch by inch along the length of the
cable. The charging current in an ac cable is steady state
and flows all the time that the cable is voltage energized.
In a dc cable, the charging currents are transient and
comprise the inrush current that flows only when the
cable is switched in and out of the circuit. The flow from
each inch of insulation is radially outwards through the
semiconducting insulation shield and bedding layer,
which have a comparatively high electrical resistivity.
The current is collected by the low resistivity shield con-
ductor, which carries the cumulative current to a ground
connection at one or both ends of the cable or circuit.
The area of the shield conductor must be sized to carry
the charging current from the complete cable length and
to limit the I2R heating to an acceptable level (1 or 2°C).
This temperature rise is not included in the normal
ampacity calculation for a short cable length, but must
be included for long-length submarine cables. The maxi-
mum current flow occurs at the end of the cable and is
halved when both ends are grounded, as shown in Fig-
ure 3-4.
A pipe-type cable has the advantage that the metallic
skid wires contact each other at random intervals and
transfer the capacitive currents between the three phase
cables. The 120° phase difference in current results in

Figure 3-3 Common cable components. Left: extruded XLPE cable. Right upper: core of HPFF: pipe-type
cable (kraft paper insulation). Right lower: HPFF pipe-type cable in pipe (LPP insulation) (courtesy of CCI).

Figure 3-4 Longitudinal cable section showing combined shield and ground return conductors (courtesy of CCI).

3-4
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
their cancellation at points of contact, thus longitudinal
flow is minimal.
The ground return conductor is always part of the con-
struction of a single-core cable, but not of a pipe-type
cable in which the role is performed by the steel pipe.
When the cable experiences a fault, the ground return
conductor carries the current back to the ground con-
nections at a termination, or at a grounded joint posi-
tion. In each type of bonding scheme, at least one end of
the cable shield conductor and ground return conductor
must always be connected to ground, or these conduc-
tors will rise to an appreciable voltage, damaging the
cable and posing a serious safety risk to personnel.
The role of the external ground continuity conductor,
shown in Figure 3-1, is to safely transmit the ground
return current from a ground fault in other transmission
equipment back through the cable system to the ground
connection at the start of the cable circuit. The external
ground continuity conductor is installed as part of the
end-point and mid-point bonded system designs, in
which the internal ground return conductor is intention-
ally interrupted at an accessory to prevent flow of circu-
lating currents. The design of solidly-bonded and cross-
bonded circuits requires the ground conductor within
the cable to be grounded at both ends, and this then per-
forms the role of ground continuity conductor, thereby
reducing cost. However, it is common in North America
for utilities to install the ground continuity conductor to
serve as a very strong path to the substation ground.
3.2.4 Accessories
The basic accessories shown in Figure 3-1 consist of
splices to connect cable lengths together and termina-
tions to interface the cable with other electrical equip-
ment at the ends of the circuit. Outside North America,
splices are named “joints.” Within North America, “ter-
minations” are commonly referred to as “potheads.”
Outdoor terminations may also be called “sealing
ends.” A termination is the generic name for all methods
of connecting the cable to other items of equipment,
whether outdoor, indoor, gas-insulated bus bar or liq-
uid-filled transformers. The accessories are designed to
perform each of the functions of the cable, with the
additional requirement that they must be assembled
under site conditions, these being less controlled than in
the cable factory. The accessories form geometric dis-
continuities in the route, at which thermomechanical
forces are concentrated, requiring them to be protected
against movement by the provision of constraint sys-
tems in the joint vault and at the terminations. Unlike
the cable, the accessories have a three-dimensional vari-
ation in shape, thereby complicating both the design of
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations
the electrical insulation and the calculation of their
operating temperature.
3.2.5 Ancillary Equipment
The ancillary equipment of a cable system includes:
• link boxes for bonding (extruded and SCFF systems),
• pilot cables for system telemetry,
• temperature-monitoring equipment (optional),
• pumping and monitoring equipment for high-pres-
sure, fluid-filled, pipe-type systems,
• fluid reservoirs and pressure-monitoring equipment
for low-pressure, fluid-filled, self-contained systems,
• partial discharge* monitoring equipment for accesso-
ries in extruded systems (optional), and
• cryogenic equipment (HTS systems).
*Note: A partial discharge (PD) is the occurrence of a
spark within a small air- or gas-filled void (gap or split)
in the insulation. The spark is formed by the liberation
of the capacitive charge stored in the void when it
breaks down. The name “partial discharge” distin-
guishes the event from the complete electrical failure
of the cable, in which all of the energy in the insulation
is discharged.
3.2.6 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Scheme
The hydraulic scheme ensures that HPFF cables and
SCFF cables are provided with dielectric fluid to achieve
their designed dielectric strength during heating and
cooling without experiencing extremes of pressure. Pres-
sure ensures that contraction voids can never form in an
SCFF cable and that prospective voids in an HPFF
cable are prevented from partial discharging. The
designer calculates the size of external fluid reservoirs to
absorb the volume of fluid thermal expansion when the
cable is heated and to re-supply the fluid volume when
the cable contracts. In HPFF systems, the hydraulic
scheme may also be designed to cool the cable by circu-
lating the dielectric fluid. A gas-filled cable system is
also maintained at sufficient nitrogen pressure to pre-
vent partial discharging. The compressible nature of gas
permits it to absorb thermal expansion by a natural
increase in pressure according to the Combined Gas
law; thus external expansion reservoirs are not required.
3.2.7 Bonding Scheme
The bonding scheme grounds dc and ac cables at one
or more locations along the route. In an ac system,
the alternating magnetic fields from the power currents
induce a voltage in each of the adjacent cables and
auxiliary conductors. The magnitudes of the voltages
3-5
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations
are designed to be below specified limits by reducing
the cable centerline spacings and the cable lengths
between joints.
The act of solidly bonding a circuit, as shown in
Figure 3-1, forms a number of conducting loops
between the shield/ground conductors in adjacent
cables. An additional loop is also formed by the conduc-
tivity of the ground. The voltages drive circulating cur-
rents through the cable ground return conductors,
which produce unwanted heat and significantly reduce
ampacity. In a specially bonded circuit, current flow is
prevented by interrupting the ground return conductors
and shields at the accessories. The interrupted shield
gaps experience unacceptably high transient voltages
during circuit switching and lightning strikes, and must
be protected by connecting across them suitably rated
nonlinear resistors called SVLs (sheath voltage limiters).
The SVLs are voltage sensitive and “short” the insulated
gap to limit the magnitude of the transient voltage.
When the transient has passed, the SVL returns to high
resistance and effectively becomes an “open-circuit.”
3.2.8 Thermal Design
The system thermal design ensures that the maximum
possible current is carried by the cable system without
exceeding the specified continuous operating tempera-
ture of the conductor and insulation. The designer
selects the conductor size, the spacing between cables to
limit mutual heating, and a stabilized backfill with low
thermal resistivity.
3.2.9 Thermomechanical Design
The system thermomechanical design protects the cable
and accessories from experiencing any excessive forces
and movements that are generated when the cable is
heated, cooled, and load cycled. Design solutions are
selected to suit the method of cable installation. For
example, in direct-buried or close-cleated systems, the
cable is rigidly constrained. In tunnels or on trays, the
cable is unconstrained in wave or snake patterns. In a
pipe or duct-manhole system, the cable is semicon-
strained and is allowed to expand laterally (Zenger et al.
2006). In duct-manhole installations, methods of con-
straint are required in joint vaults to protect the joints
from movement. If the differential thermomechanical
forces cannot be withstood by constraining the adjacent
cable, either the cable system must be redesigned, or spe-
cial accessories, such as anchor joints, must be installed
to replace the conventional straight joints.
3.2.10 Installation Design
Installation design specifies the methods and equipment
necessary to install the cable into prelaid ducts or
3-6
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
directly into the ground, to protect the cable from third-
party damage by laying the ducts at depth and encasing
them in concrete, and to cross obstructions such as
roads, rivers, and other services, using solutions such as
cable bridges, horizontal directional drilling (HDD),
thrust-bores, or tunnels.
3.2.11 Operation, Maintenance, and Testing
When the cable system is designed, the electrical param-
eters necessary to calculate the performance of the over-
all transmission system are provided to the electric
utility, as described in Chapter 16. In some applications,
the constraints imposed by the electricity network
require that the cable dimensions and system design be
changed. This may occur, for example, in an all-cable
network, to reduce capacitance and charging current at
the sacrifice of cable diameter and optimum ampacity.
The satisfactory performance of a new design of cable
and accessories is validated before supply by performing
a formal qualification test (type tests)—for example, to
standards: ICEA-S-108-720-2004 (ICEA 2004), AEIC
CS2 (AEIC 1997), AEIC CS9-06 (AEIC 2006), IEEE
Standard 404-2000 (IEEE 2000), IEEE Standard 48
(IEEE 2003), IEC 60840 (2004), IEC 62067 (2001). In
addition to qualification tests, long-term formal
prequalification tests are performed when service experi-
ence is limited—e.g., for XLPE cable systems above
150 kV to AEIC CS9 (AEIC 2006) and IEC 62067
(2001). The quality of the cable and accessories is veri-
fied at the end of manufacture by performing “shipping
tests” (routine tests, factory tests, production tests) at
100% frequency of product and by more onerous “sam-
ple tests” performed at a reduced frequency. A formal
acceptance test, which is also called a commissioning or
hand-over test, is performed on-site on the completed
cable system to verify that the installation workmanship
is satisfactory, that no installation damage has occurred,
and that the circuit is safe to connect to the network.
Condition assessment tests are performed at periodic
intervals during an installed cable system’s life to iden-
tify deterioration and permit preventative action to be
taken. Diagnostic tests are performed to investigate the
cause and extent of a malfunction.
3.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
The electromagnetic field (EMF) surrounding the cen-
tral conductor is divisible into two components, the
electrostatic field and the magnetic field. These fields are
produced by both a dc and an ac cable circuit. In the
former case, the fields are of constant magnitude and
are non-time varying. In the latter case, the fields alter-
nate in magnitude with time at power frequency. Knowl-
edge of the electromagnetic field is sometimes of interest
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations

at the planning and approval stage of a circuit. At the
detailed design stage of the circuit, the fields are inextri-
cably embedded within the equations for the design of
the cable insulation, ac heat losses, cable spacing, and
induced voltage.
This section provides a qualitative account of the distri-
bution of electrostatic and electromagnetic fields in the
vicinity of a cable circuit and an outline of their role in
cable design. The section offers a foundation for
Section 3.6.3 on insulation design, Section 3.7.2 on
inductance, Chapter 10 on grounding, and Chapter 16
on cable system considerations.
3.3.1 Electrostatic Field
The electrostatic field is produced by voltage and com-
prises the electrostatic field strength, E, and the electro-
static flux density, D, which are related by the dielectric
permittivity, ε, as given in Equations 3-1 and 3-2. The
term “electrostatic field” usually refers to the electro-
static field strength, because this is the prime mover in
producing movement of charged particles. Electrostatic
field strength is also commonly named “gradient”
because it is the gradient of voltage, V, with distance
through the insulation, and “stress” because of the simi-
larity to mechanical stress.
D=εE (C/m2) 3-1
ε = εo εr (F/m) 3-2
Where:
E = Electrostatic field strength (V/m).
D = Electrostatic flux density (C/m2).
ε = Absolute permittivity of insulation (F/m).
εo = Permittivity of free space: 8.854 × 10-12
(F/m).
εr = Relative permittivity of insulation (ratio).
Definition of Electrostatic Field
By definition, an electrostatic field strength, E, of
1V/m produces a force of 1 newton (0.225 lbs.f) on a
particle carrying a charge of 1 coulomb, as shown in
Equation 3-3. The direction of the field is the path taken
by a unit positive charge, which is away from positive
and toward negative potential.
F=QE (N) 3-3
Where:
F = Force (N).
Q = Electric charge (C).
E = Electrostatic field strength (V/m).
Distribution of Electrostatic Field
As shown in Figure 3-5, the distribution of the electro-
static field is completely contained within the cable con-
struction by the insulation shield. Ri is the insulation
inner radius and Ro the outer radius. The external elec-
trostatic field for all types of cable is zero. The shape of
the field in Figure 3-5 is called “Laplacian,” and is deter-
mined by the externally applied voltage and the insula-
tion geometry and properties. In a dc cable at constant
voltage, the electrostatic field is of constant magnitude
and continuous with time. In an ac cable, the field alter-
nates in magnitude and direction at power frequency.
Each type of cable insulation has a limiting electrostatic
field strength (stress), which together with the magnitude
of applied voltage, determines the insulation thickness.

Symbols for electrostatic field strength are E or G, the

former being used in this chapter. The U.S. unit of elec-
trostatic field strength is V/mil (one mil is a thousandth
of an inch). The SI primary unit of electrostatic field
strength is MV/m; however, the secondary unit kV/mm
is generally preferred in the cable industry because cable
insulation is thin, being typically less than 1.4 in.
(35 mm).

Relative permittivity is also known as the “dielectric

constant” (and, in the 1992 Edition of the Green Book,
as “specific inductive capacity [SIC]”). In this edition of
the Green Book, both the terms “relative permittivity”
and “dielectric constant” will be used. The term “spe-
Figure 3-5 Electrostatic field distribution in the cable
cific inductive capacity (SIC)” will not be used. insulation (courtesy of CCI).

3-7
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations
Effects of Electrostatic Field
The electrostatic field in a dc cable produces the follow-
ing effects:
• A transient flow of inrush current when the cable is
switched on and off voltage.
• An increase in the mobility of charge carriers present
in the insulation, resulting in an apparent reduction
in insulation resistivity in the high-stressed region
adjacent to the conductor. This reduces the magni-
tude of the electrostatic field adjacent to the conduc-
tor shield and increases it at the insulation shield.
• The accumulation and entrapment in XLPE insula-
tion of trapped charge in concentric “halos” adjacent
to the conductor and insulation shields, which is
called “space charge.” The space charge is of oppo-
site polarity to the adjacent shield, thereby distorting
the shape of the electrostatic field and increasing elec-
trostatic stress. Some XLPE materials used in ac
cables exhibit a significant reduction in the dc break-
down voltage. Special types of XLPE insulation with
a reduced space-charge effect have been developed
for dc application.
The alternating electrostatic field in an ac cable pro-
duces the following effects:
• Steady-state alternating flow of capacitive charging
current through the insulation is supplied from the
conductor and thereby increases the I2R heat gener-
ated in the conductor. The path of current flow
through the insulation is expressed by a capacitive
reactance, XC (ohms), which in circuit diagrams is
connected in shunt across the supply and load. A key
component of XC is the insulation capacitance, C
(farads), which is a measure of the quantity of electric
charge, Q (coulombs), stored in the insulation. In
Figure 3-5, the charge Q and voltage V are both pro-
portional to the area under the curve, which is related
by the identity Q = CV.
• Heat generation in the insulation by dipole rotation,
which increases the cable temperature and limits
ampacity. The heat is called “dielectric loss.”
• A limit to the useful length of an ac circuit. At the
critical circuit length, the conductor is entirely heated
by the flow of charging current and is unable to carry
any load current.
3-8
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
The basic equations that quantify electrostatic stress,
insulation design, dielectric loss, and capacitance are
considered later in this chapter, and their applications
are considered in detail in Chapters 11 and 16.
3.3.2 Magnetic Field
The magnetic field is produced by flow of current and
comprises the magnetic field strength, H, and magnetic
flux density, B, which are related by the magnetic per-
meability of the surrounding medium, μ, as shown in
Equations 3-4 and 3-5. The relative permeability for the
following examples and diagrams, in which no ferrous
material is present, is taken to be μr = 1.
B = μΗ (T) 3-4
μ = μo μr (H/m) 3-5
Where:
H = Magnetic field strength (A/m).
B = Magnetic flux density (T).
μ = Magnetic permeability of the surrounding
medium (H/m).
μo = Magnetic permeability of free space:
4π × 10-7 = 1.257 × 10-6 (H/m).
μo = (Magnetic permeability of free space =
0.383 × 10-6 (H/ft)).
μr = Relative permeability of surrounding
medium (ratio).
The term “magnetic field” can refer to either the mag-
netic field strength, H, which is normally the first
parameter to be calculated by engineers, or more usually
to the magnetic flux density, B, which is the prime
mover in producing both movement and induced volt-
age in adjacent current carrying conductors. B is some-
times named “magnetic induction.”
The unit of flux density, B, in the SI system is the tesla.
The unit of flux density in the U.S. EMU (electromag-
netic unit) system is the gauss, this being still in use. The
conversion is 1 tesla = 104 gauss.
Definition of Magnetic Field
The magnetic flux density, B, is defined to be 1 tesla
when a force of repulsion of 1 N/m (0.069 lbs⋅f/ft) is
experienced by two long parallel conductors spaced 1 m
(39 in.) apart, each carrying 1 A in the opposite direc-
tion, as shown in Equation 3-6. The convention is for
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
the field to rotate clockwise, as shown in Figure 3-6,
when the current flows away from the observer (Max-
well’s cork-screw rule). The direction of current is
shown to be inwards by the X sign, which is visualized
to be the flight feathers of an arrow of current, and out-
wards by the • sign, which is visualized to be the point
of the arrow. The direction of force and movement is
given by Fleming’s Left Hand rule. The force in Equa-
tion 3-6 is sometimes called the “Lorentz” force.
F=BIl (N) 3-6
Where:
F = Force on current carrying wire (N).
B = Magnetic flux density at wire (T).
I = Current in wire (A).
l = Length of wire (m).
A uniform flux density, B, of 1 tesla, when linked to
a perpendicular wire loop encompassing an area of
1 square meter, will induce an electromotive force, e, of
1 Volt when the magnetic flux density is reduced to zero,
at uniform rate, in a time, t, of 1 second, as shown in
Equation 3-7. The direction of voltage is given by Flem-
ing’s Right-Hand rule.
e=−
d
(B A ) = − d Φ (V) 3-7
dt dt
Where:
e = Electromotive force (V).
Figure 3-6 Magnetic field around a “go” and “return” dc cable circuit at a centerline
spacing S = 2D, where D is the cable outer diameter (courtesy of CCI).
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations
B = Magnetic flux density (T).
A = Area of the loop perpendicular to the
flux (m2).
t = Time (s).
Φ = Total flux (BA) linked with the loop (Wb).
The SI unit of magnetic field strength, H, is the A/m.
The U.S. unit is the oersted. The conversion is 1 A/m =
0.0126 oersted. The magnetic field strength, H, is some-
times called the “magnetizing force.”
Distribution of Magnetic Field
Figure 3-6 shows a simple “go” and “return” cable cir-
cuit, representing either a dc transmission system or an
ac single-phase distribution system. In a dc cable carry-
ing constant current, the magnetic field is continuous in
magnitude with time. In an ac cable, the field alternates
in magnitude and direction at power frequency. The
direction of force between the two parallel conductors
remains one of repulsion because the fields produced by
the two conductors alternate in synchronism.
The magnetic field strength, H, is present both inside
and external to the cable construction and reduces to
zero with distance. In special situations, external shield-
i n g c a n b e e m p l oy e d t o c o n t a i n t h e fi e l d ( s e e
Chapter 16). The distribution of magnetic field is in two
parts—that internal to the conductor, H i , and that
external to it, He.
3-9
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations
Figure 3-7 is a plot of the magnetic field strength, H,
along the axis joining the cable centers, showing the
individual fields from each conductor (dotted lines) and
the resultant field (hard solid lines). Transmission-class
cables are typically spaced at 12 in. (300 mm) to 20 in.
(500 mm) centerline spacing, which for a cable with
diameter D = 6 in. (150 mm) is a spacing to diameter
ratio of 2D–3.3D. The spacing shown in Figures 3-6 and
3-7 is 2D. Superimposition of the individual fields
from each cable increases the magnitude of the resultant
field in the space between them (hard solid line) and
reduces it outside them, where the field reduces to zero
with distance.
The field inside the conductor, Hi, (shaded grey) rises to
a maximum of 100% at the conductor surface. In the
example shown, the field external to the conductor, He,
falls from 100% to 50% before it exits the cable. The
field at the center of the opposite cable has fallen to 13%
in the 12 in. (300 mm) spacing.
The magnitude of the external magnetic field at ground
level above either an ac or a dc system can be reduced by
reducing the centerline spacing of the cables compared
to the depth of installation and providing shielding. The
pipe-type cable system has a minimal external magnetic
field because the cables are in close proximity to each
other, the ferromagnetic pipe captures the magnetic
flux, and eddy currents induced in the pipe reduce the
magnetic field produced by the cables. The gas-insulated
line (GIL) cable and most constructions of supercon-
ducting cable also exhibit a minimal external field, He.
Figure 3-7 Magnetic field distribution in the lateral direction around two cables (courtesy of CCI).
3-10
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Effects of Electromagnetic Field
The alternating magnetic field in an ac system has the
property expressed by the Faraday-Neumann law of
inducing an electromotive force (voltage) in any parallel
conductors, such as metallic cable sheaths and ground
conductors, both within the cable construction and in
parallel cables. This induction is minimal in a dc cable
system because the rate of change of current with time is
small and is only attributable to ripple current and to
load fluctuations.
Special ac cable constructions such as GIL cable and
HTS cable are surrounded by a high-conductivity cylin-
drical conductor. The induced voltages in these ground
return conductors permit high current to be circulated
with minimal additional heat being generated. The cable
shields and ground conductors are solidly bonded to
each other and to ground at each end of the circuit, with
minimal I 2 R heating. The circulating currents are of
closely similar magnitude to the current in the power
conductor and, in accord with Lenz’s law, are in the
opposite direction. In consequence, the resultant exter-
nal magnetic fields outside these special cable designs
are effectively zero since the two fields cancel.
In conventional ac cables of extruded and SCFF con-
struction, the shield and ground conductors have an
appreciable resistance that, in a solidly bonded system,
limits the magnitude of circulating current. The degree
of cancellation of the external field is still significant.
The disadvantage is that additional heat is generated in
the auxiliary conductors, thereby derating the cable and
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
requiring an increase in the area of the power conductor.
The solution is to select a specially bonded system in
which circulating currents are prevented from flowing.
In end-point and mid-point bonded systems, the shield
and integrated ground conductors are interrupted by
insulated gaps incorporated into the joints and termina-
tions called sheath interrupts. In a cross-bonded system,
the route is divided into “major sections,” each consist-
ing of a group of three “minor sections.” At the joints
between the minor sections, the shield/ground conduc-
tors are transposed in position by being taken across
one phase cable to the parallel cable in the next section.
The result is that each shield/ground conductor circuit
experiences an induced voltage of equal magnitude in
each section, but of 120° time-shifted phase. The series
connection of the three transposed minor section
shield/ground conductors permits the resultant voltage
between the ends of each major section to be cancelled.
The terminations at the ends of the circuit and the joints
at the major sections, therefore, may be solidly bonded
to each other and to ground without flow of circulating
current. On the other hand, an uninterrupted path, to
carry fault current from one end of the circuit to the
other, exists along the cable shield/ground conductors.
A consequence of specially bonded systems is the
absence of a circulating current, thus the external mag-
netic field is not reduced in magnitude.
The external field may be reduced by increasing the
depth of cable burial, reducing the centerline spacing,
using a triangular formation, and/or installing metal
cover plates or conducting loops above the cables (End-
ersby et al. 1993). Methods of reducing the external
magnetic field are described further in Chapter 16.
In an ac system, the alternating magnetic field also
induces a “back-EMF” in the power conductor itself,
producing the following effects:
• An impedance to the flow of current and to the
amount of useful power that the circuit may carry.
In circuit design, this increase in the cable impedance
is in series with the conductor resistance and is
expressed as the inductive reactance, XL, (ohms). A
key component of XL is the inductance, L, (henrys),
which quantifies the volume of magnetic flux linking
the conductor both from its own conductor and from
parallel cables. In Figure 3-7, the flux linkages are
proportional to the areas under the H curves, being
linked by the identity B = μoμrH.
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations
• An increase in current density at the conductor sur-
face, thereby increasing conductor heating (skin
effect). Under ac operation, the shape of the field
inside the conductor, Hi, shown in Figure 3-7,
changes from the straight-line distribution for dc cur-
rent to a concave curve (not shown).
• Non-uniformity in current density across the conduc-
tor diameter (proximity effect), thereby increasing
conductor heating. This is indicated in Figure 3-7 by
the asymmetry of the resultant internal conductor
field, Hi, (the position of zero field is shifted away
from the conductor center, and the shaded areas
under the curves are unequal).
The basic equations that quantify the magnetic field,
inductance, heat loss, and circuit parameters are consid-
ered later in thi s chapter and in applicati on i n
Chapters 11 and 16.
3.4 POWER RATING
The first step in designing a cable system is to obtain the
power rating, which is usually specified by the utility. In
the majority of cases, the transmission voltage is known
because the cable is inserted into an existing network. In
the special cases of submarine dc circuits and long-
length ac circuits—e.g., 60 miles (95 km)—it is possible
for the cable designer to vary both the transmission
voltage and current levels and achieve an optimum
power rating at minimum cost.
With knowledge of the power and voltage, the second
step is to calculate the current I. The cable is then
designed in conjunction with the ampacity calculation.
In a dc cable, all the heat is generated by I2R ohmic heat
in the conductor. In an ac cable, a significant proportion
of the heat is generated by ac losses. For example, in
345-kV HPFF and 400-kV SCFF paper-insulated cable,
this may be up to 30–50% of the total. In both ac and dc
cables, the conductor size is progressively increased until
the operating temperature is equal to or below the spec-
ified conductor design temperature.
In the following section, it is assumed that the specified
power can be carried by one cable per dc pole or ac phase.
It is quite usual for two cables per phase to be selected,
either to limit the size of the cable, or to provide continu-
ity of supply during planned and unplanned outages.
In calculating the current to match the power rating, the
dc system is simplest and is considered first.
3-11
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

3.4.1 Direct Current (DC) Cable Systems PM

A dc system has two conductors—one “go” and one
IM = (kA) 3-8
V
“return”—as shown in each of the five circuit configura-
tions in Figure 3-8. Voltage is maintained constant by PB
IB = (kA) 3-9
the ac/dc converter station. In a current-source con- 2V
verter station, the polarity of the supply voltage is
reversed to reverse the power flow. In a voltage-source PM = VI M (MW) 3-10
converter station, voltage polarity is constant, and
power reversal is achieved by the power electronics. In PB = VI M + VI M = 2VI M = 2PM (MW) 3-11
both converters, current magnitude varies with power Where:
demand as in an ac network. PM = Power capacity of a monopole (MW).
PB = Power capacity of a bipole (MW).
DC cable is more efficient than an ac cable and can V = Pole voltage to ground (kV).
carry significantly higher current levels for the same IM = Pole current of a monopole (kA).
cable size. The disadvantages are that ac/dc converter IB = Pole current of a bipole (kA).
stations are more expensive than ac transformers and dc
transmission links cannot easily be interconnected to The type of cable system, Figure 3-8, is determined by
form a network. DC systems become economical for whether the ac/dc converter station has a monopole or
high power links, long circuit lengths, and connecting ac bipole output. A bipole system consists of two single
networks that are incompatible. cables of +V and −V to ground and has twice the power
rating of a monopole.
DC Current and Power
The current is calculated from Equation 3-8 for a mono- Monopole Cable
pole system and from Equation 3-9 for a bipole system. A monopole cable system, Figure 3-8a and b, consists of
When the ampacity of the cable is specified, the maxi- two power conductors, which carry the same current
mum transmission power is given by Equations 3-10 magnitude:
and 3-11.

Figure 3-8 DC cables in monopole and bipole configurations (courtesy of CCI).

3-12
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
• A high-voltage (HV) insulated “go” conductor
(pole). This may be at positive or negative voltage,
depending on the converter station type and mode
of operation.
• A low-voltage (LV) insulated “return” conductor at
ground voltage. (Note that the ground conductor
requires to be insulated as a significant voltage drop
exists along its length). This may be incorporated as
an outer concentric conductor into the same cable
construction as shown in Figure 3-8a, or supplied as
a separate LV cable, as shown in Figure 3-8b. In some
submarine installations, seawater has been used as
the “return” conductor.
Bipole Cable
A bipole cable system, Figure 3-8c, d, and e, consists of
a minimum of two high-voltage insulated power con-
ductors (poles), both carrying the same magnitude of
current, with one operated at positive voltage and one at
negative. The integrated cable design, Figure 3-8c, is
limited by overall diameter to low transmission voltages
and smaller conductor areas, because the insulation
between the inner conductor and concentric conductor
has to be increased in thickness to withstand the com-
bined 2V voltage, and insulation is required over the
outer concentric conductor to withstand V to ground.
At the higher transmission voltages, it is usual to select
two separate monopole cables, as shown in Figure 3-8d.
To maintain continuity of supply during maintenance or
failure, an LV insulated return conductor may either be
built into each monopole cable, Figure 3-8a, or be laid
as a separate cable, Figure 3-8e. This permits the bipole
system to operate in monopole at half power, with the
other pole switched out. In normal operation, the LV
conductor carries negligible current.
DC System Voltage
A dc cable with the same insulation thickness as an ac
cable is capable of operating at approximately twice the
ac system voltage. In consequence, the dc design stress is
significantly higher than the ac stress. For example, the
design stress in an SCFF cable may be increased from
12–15 kV/mm for ac operation to 25–30 kV/mm for dc
operation, permitting the insulation thickness to be
approximately halved (Arkell and Parsons 1981; Arkell
and Gregory 1984; Arkell et al. 1984). The reasons are:
• The ac voltage and stress are stated as rms values,
whereas the peak ac voltage is 40% higher and is
more indicative of dc insulation capability.
• The partial discharge energy in a void under ac volt-
age is forced to repetitively discharge energy at
greater than twice the ac power frequency. The par-
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations
tial discharge repetition rate under dc voltage is very
low, being determined by the long natural time con-
stant in which the void recharges. The rate of deterio-
ration of the dc insulation is similarly reduced.
3.4.2 Alternating Current (AC) Cable Systems
The ac system consists of three “go” conductors, which
are designated phase 1, phase 2, and phase 3. Transmis-
sion systems carry equal magnitude currents in each
phase, which are 120° phase displaced. The three cur-
rents sum to zero at the transformer wye point, and so
the neutral return conductor used in unbalanced distri-
bution systems is unnecessary.
The advantages of ac compared to dc transmission sys-
tems are that an interconnected, meshed network can be
extended to supply varying power demands over a wider
area, and that transformers permit the voltages to
be easily transformed down and connected to distribu-
tion networks.
AC System Voltage
The ac cable, in common with all items of equipment, is
specified by the system voltage, V, which is the line volt-
age between overhead line conductors. In a cable sys-
tem, each phase cable is isolated by the shields. The
voltage experienced by the insulation is restricted to the
phase voltage to ground, Vg, which is 58% of the phase
voltage V (see Equation 3-12). Vg is used by the cable
designer to calculate the insulation thickness and to
determine test voltages.
V
Vg = = 0.58 V (kV) 3-12
3
Where:
Vg = rms phase voltage—i.e., phase-to-ground
(kV).
V = rms line voltage—i.e., phase-to-phase
(kV).
The ac current is always stated as a root mean square
(rms) value. The rms current has the same I2R heating
effect as a dc current of the same magnitude. In conse-
quence, the system line voltage, V, and the phase voltage,
Vg, are also stated as rms quantities, because these val-
ues are linked by Ohm’s law, as shown in Equation 3-13.
Vg = I ⋅ Z (kV) 3-13
Where:
I = rms phase current (kA).
Z = Wye impedance (one phase to wye point)
of the load (Ω).
3-13
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Table 3-1 gives the system voltages, V, in use in North
America, the phase voltages, Vg, and the lightning test
voltage, V P. The lightning voltage is called the basic
impulse level (BIL). The ratio of BIL to phase voltage
significantly reduces as the system voltage is increased
and so is important for cable design. The insulation in a
fluid-filled paper cable is designed primarily on the
stress at BIL. This produces a large performance margin
in normal operation at phase voltage and permits work-
ing stresses to be increased at the higher transmission
voltages. The insulation in an extruded cable is primarily
designed on the stress at phase voltage, with a perfor-
t = Time (s).
θ = Instantaneous angle of rotation at time
t (deg).
The three phase conductors 1, 2 and 3 have the same volt-
age waveform, but each is displaced by one third of a
cycle, 120°. The instantaneous voltages in phases 2 and 3
are given by Equations 3-16 and 3-17. These voltages may
be expressed in phasor form, as shown in Equation 3-18,
taking the phase 1 voltage Vg1 as reference.
v θ 2 = Vg sin (θ + 120 ) (kV) 3-16

v θ 3 = Vg sin (θ + 240 ) (kV)

mance margin being present at impulse voltage.
3-17
AC Voltage and Current Waveforms
In an ac system, the instantaneous system phase volt- Where:
age, vt, and current, it, sinusoidally alternate between θ = 360 f.t degrees.
positive and negative at the power frequency, f, which is
60 Hz in North America. The voltage at time, t, is given Vg.1 = Vg ∠(0)
by Equation 3-14, as a function of phase voltage Vg.
The cyclic waveform continuously repeats itself at inter- Vg.2 = Vg ∠(120)
vals of the periodic time f-1 seconds. Equation 3-14 is Vg.3 = Vg ∠(240) 3-18
given in radians, where one complete cycle occurs in 2π
(6.283) radians. For convenience, this is converted to Where:
degrees in Equation 3-15. θ is the time-varying angle of v θ 1 = Instantaneous rms voltage at angular rota-
rotation, where one cycle is θ = 360° and occurs in the tion θ in phase 1 (kV).
periodic time f-1. θ = Instantaneous angle of rotation at time
t (deg).
v t 1 = Vg sin (2π.f .t ) (kV) 3-14
The expressions for the waveforms of current in phases
v θ 1 = Vg sin (θ) (kV) 3-15 1, 2, and 3 are given in Equation 3-19 in which current
Where: lags voltage by the phase angle, ϕ. The phase angle, ϕ,
v t 1 = Instantaneous rms voltage at time t in between voltage and current results from the storage of
phase 1 (kV). inductive and/or capacitive energy by the load, which is
f = Frequency of generation (Hz). separate from the dissipation of power in the form of
true work done. Inductive energy causes the current to
lag system voltage (the mechanical equivalent of induc-
Table 3-1 System Voltages and Basic Impulse Voltage tance is inertia). Capacitive energy causes the current to
Levels in North America lead system voltage (the mechanical equivalent of
System Voltage Ratio
capacitance is elasticity). Current is a vector quantity
Lightning possessing magnitude and direction. The vector summa-
Line Voltage Phase Voltage Impulse Level BIL ⎛ BIL ⎞
Vg VP ⎜ ⎟ tion of the three phase currents (I1 + I2 + I3) at the wye
V ⎜ V ⎟
(kV rms) (kV rms) (kV) ⎝ g ⎠ point of the load is zero.
69 40 350 8.8
115 66 550 7.9 I1 = I ∠(0 − ϕ)
138 80 650 8.1
I 2 = I ∠(120 − ϕ)
161 93 750 8.2
230 133 1050 7.9 I 3 = I∠(240 − ϕ) (kA) 3-19
345 199 1300 6.5 Where:
525 303 1550 5.1 I1 = Current, rms, in phase conductor 1 (kA).
765 442 2050 4.6 ϕ = Phase angle by which I lags Vg (deg).

3-14
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations

AC Current and Power When the cable is of long length, the cable capacitive
The apparent power, PA, (MVA) required to be carried charging current IC must be added to the load current I
by the cable system is specified by the utility. The rela- by vector addition to calculate the ampacity, noting that
tionship between real power, P, (MW), apparent power, the phase angle of I C leads the in-phase resistive load
PA, (MVA) and reactive power, PR, (MVAr) is shown in current by 90°. The method to calculate charging cur-
Figure 3-9. In the diagram, the apparent power, PA, rent is provided later in this chapter. Empirically, recal-
leads the real power, P, by the angle ϕ, where cos ϕ is the culation is unnecessary when IC is < 3% of I, because the
power factor of the load. resultant temperature rise is ≤ 5°C. This typically occurs
at circuit lengths of 20 miles (32 km) for a 345-kV XLPE
The current, I, is calculated from Equation 3-20 and is cable and 10 miles (16 km) for a 345-kV LPP cable.
used to determine the temperature rise and size of the
conductor. The relationship between PA , P, and the 3.5 CURRENT RATING
power factor (cos ϕ) is given in Equation 3-21, permit-
ting the alternative calculation of I in Equation 3-22. 3.5.1 Continuous Steady-State Rating
PA The sizing of the cable to carry the required current
I= (kA) 3-20 requires the calculation of the temperature rise of the
3.V conductor Δθ, the cable losses Wc, and the effective
P = PA cos ϕ (MW) 3-21 thermal resistance of the cable and surrounding envi-
ronment, Tt. Typical design temperature limits θ from
P IEC 60287 and IEC 61443 (IEC 1994, 1999) are given in
I= (kA) 3-22 Table 3-2.
3.V cos ϕ
Where:
PA = Apparent power to be carried (MVA).
P = Real power to be carried (MW).
ϕ = Phase angle between I and V (deg).
cos ϕ = Power factor of load (per unit). Table 3-2 Design Temperature Limits
Design Temperature
When the ampacity of a given cable is already known, Limits
the maximum apparent power PA that can be carried by (°C)
the circuit is given by Equation 3-23 and real power P Normal Short
Operation Circuit
by Equation 3-24. Application Type Item (θ) (θ2)
LDPE 70 130
V
PA = 3 Vg I = 3 I = 3.VI (MVA) 3-23
Extruded
HDPE 80 160
3 XLPE 90 250
Insulation EPR 90 250
V
P = 3Vg I cos ϕ = 3 I cos ϕ SCFF 90 250
3 Taped SCGF 85 160
= 3.VI cos ϕ (MW) 3-24 HPFF 85 200
PVC 70–80 200
Jacket Extruded LDPE 70 150
HDPE 80 180
Copper and
90 ≤ 350
Aluminum
Conductor
Lead alloy 90 210
Lead 90 170
Conductor
Compression 90 250
Exothermic
Connection 90 250
weld
Figure 3-9 Relationship between real and apparent power. Soldered 90 160

3-15
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

The equivalent electrical diagram for heat dissipation Δθ = Maximum allowable temperature rise (°C).
from a simple dc cable circuit is shown in Figure 3-10. Δθm = Temperature rise due to mutual
The heat W c is produced by the I 2 R conductor loss; heating (°C).
there are no ac-related losses. In the circuit diagram, the Wc = Heat losses generated in the conductor
heat loss is represented by the constant current genera- (W/m).
tor Wc. Tt = Total thermal resistance, conductor to
ground surface (K.m./W).
The mutual heating effect by the return cable is repre-
sented by the temperature rise of the soil Δθm. Δθm may The I 2 R heat generated in the conductor is given in
also result from radiation and convection when cables Equation 3-27 and is combined with Equation 3-26 to
are installed in air. The temperature rise due to mutual give the current I in Equation 3-28. Equation 3-28 is the
heating is added to θa, the ambient temperature of the basis for all rating calculations and permits the maxi-
ground surface. In the circuit diagram, the combined mum current to be calculated at the maximum permissi-
temperature rise above the reference datum of 0°C is ble conductor temperature θ.
represented by the constant voltage source (θa + Δθm).
WC = I 2 R θ (W/m) 3-27
The total thermal resistance to the flow of heat out-
wards from the conductor to the ground surface is rep- (θ − (θ a + Δθ m ) )
resented in the circuit diagram by the resistor Tt. In this
I= (A) 3-28
R θ Tt
diagram, the cable is assumed to be carrying constant
magnitude current 24 hours per day—i.e., a load factor Where:
of 100%. The thermal capacitances of the cable and soil I = Current (A).
are thus not modeled. Rθ = AC resistance of conductor at the maxi-
mum permissible conductor temperature,
The maximum permissible temperature rise of the con- θ (Ω/m).
ductor Δθ is solved by Ohm’s law, as shown in Equa-
tion 3-25—i.e., Δθ = WcTt, where Δθ = (θ−(θa + Δθm)), The complete current rating equations, which include ac
which is rearranged in Equation 3-26. losses and load factors of less than 100% are given in
Chapter 11 and in references IEC 60287 (IEC 1994),
Δθ = WC Tt = (θ − (θa + Δθ m )) (°C) 3-25 Neher and McGrath (Neher and McGrath 1957), and

WC =
(θ − (θa + Δθm ) ) (W/m) 3-26
Anders (Anders 1997, 2005).

Tt 3.5.2 Short-Circuit Rating

Where: The duration of the short circuit is set in relation to the
θ = Maximum operating temperature of con- clearance time of the circuit breaker (typically 3–
ductor (°C). 5 cycles) and more usually to that of the secondary pro-
θa = Ambient temperature (°C). tection. In some cases, times of up to between 1 and

Figure 3-10 Equivalent electrical circuit for cable heat dissipation (courtesy of CCI).

3-16
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
3 seconds are specified. The flow of short-circuit current
is along the power conductor to the fault, and the return
flow is along the shield conductor/metallic sheath. In
this short period, there is insufficient time for heat to
flow radially from each conductor, and so adiabatic
heating of the conductor alone is considered (i.e., no
heat loss).
The limiting temperature is determined by the adjacent
insulation and jacketing materials, the conductor con-
nection method, and the mechanical forces that may be
present. International standards—such as IEC 60840
(IEC 2004), IEC 62067 (IEC 2001), and IEC 61443
(IEC 1999) in Table 3-2—give values for the first two
items, but not together with the simultaneous applica-
tion of short-circuit mechanical force, which must be
allowed for case by case.
Equation 3-29 is used to determine the required cross-
sectional area A at the temperature limit θ 2 , given in
Table 3-2. The calculation is performed separately for
the power conductor, the shield conductor/metallic
sheath, the external ground continuity conductor (if
present), the bonding leads connected at accessories,
and the links in link boxes. The temperature rise of the
power conductor, in the majority of cases, is below the
design limit, and so the conductor area does not need to
be increased. Depending upon the magnitude of the cur-
rent and duration of the short circuit, this is also often
true for metallic sheaths when the thickness is deter-
mined by mechanical performance—for example, a cor-
rugated extruded aluminum sheath with a thickness of
120–160 mils (3–4 mm) on an SCFF cable, and a corru-
gated welded copper sheath with a thickness of 30 mils
(0.7 mm) on an XLPE cable.
⎛ ρθ .k.t ⎞
A = I ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ . 109 (mm2)
⎝ d.c. (θ2 − θ1 ) ⎠
3-29
Where:
A = Cross sectional area of the conductor
(mm2).
I = Short-circuit current, rms equivalent value
(kA).
θ2 = Short-circuit temperature limit (°C).
θ1 = Starting temperature prior to short circuit
(°C).
d = Density of the conductor material (kg/m3)
c = Specific heat of the conductor material
(J/Kg/°C).
ρθ = dc resistivity of the conductor material at
θ2 (Ωm).
t = Duration of short circuit (s).
k = ac to dc resistance ratio (ratio).
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations
In many cable designs, the area of the ground return
conductor has to be increased to limit the temperature
to the design limit. The cross-sectional area of an annu-
lar layer of copper wires can usually be increased up to
the limit set by the factory stranding machine. High-
resistance sheaths, such as lead-alloy or stainless steel,
can be supplemented with a layer of copper wires.
3.5.3 Emergency Rating
Cable systems may carry an increased current following
an unplanned outage elsewhere in the transmission sys-
tem. The duration of the increased current is specified
by the operator to limit, or prevent, thermal and ther-
momechanical deterioration to the cable system.
The practice in North America is to calculate an “emer-
gency rating” in which the cable system is allowed to
operate above the normal continuous temperature θ
given in Table 3-2 and up to a specified emergency tem-
perature for a maximum specified time period. For
example, specification AEIC CS9 (AEIC 2006) for
extruded insulation cables specifies an emergency opera-
tion time of no more than 72 hours (3 days) on average
per year during the design life, without exceeding
216 hours (9 days) in any 12-month period. The maxi-
mum emergency temperature is specified to be 105°C for
XLPE cables up to 345 kV. 105°C is conditional upon
XLPE systems above 150 kV demonstrating satisfactory
performance in the prequalification tests to Standard
IEC 62067 (2001) with the addition of 90 loading cycles
at 105°C, or at a higher temperature. The use of EPR
cables is shown up to 138 kV, for which the emergency
operating temperature is specified to be 105°C. The lat-
ter is allowed to be increased to 130°C, if mutually
agreed and if verified by qualification and prequalifica-
tion tests. Specification AEIC CS2 (AEIC 1990) for
impregnated paper and LPP HPFF cable gives maxi-
mum emergency operation temperatures of 100°C and
105°C for durations of 300 and 100 hours per year,
respectively. The average emergency operation duration
per year over the life of the cable system is limited to
20%—i.e., to 60 and 20 hours.
Outside North America the practice of some operators
is to recognize that, prior to emergency loading, the cir-
cuits are carrying a continuous “pre-load” current
(sometimes named a “pre-fault” current), this being less
than the continuous rated current. In consequence, the
pre-load conductor temperature is lower than the limit-
ing value of θ, Table 3-2. Equation 3-28 shows that the
ratio of pre-load temperature rise to rated continuous
temperature rise is proportional to the square of the
ratio of pre-load current to rated current. For the case
of an XLPE cable with an inherently low dielectric loss,
3-17
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations
a 60% pre-load current results in a conductor tempera-
ture rise of only 36% of the design value. This provides
a significant margin to transmit emergency load with-
out exceeding the specified continuous temperature,
thereby safeguarding the cable system. The operator
specifies a range of pre-load currents as a proportion of
the rated continuous current (e.g., 0, 30, 60, 75, and
85%) and a range of short-time durations typically
from 3 minutes to 24 hours, these being applicable to
both cables and to overhead lines. For a cable system,
12 hours is considered to be a reasonable period for an
operator to redistribute and reduce current flow. The
conductor temperature is not allowed to exceed the val-
ues of θ in Table 3-2, thereby safeguarding the cable
system from thermal and thermomechanical deteriora-
tion, although the conductor connections in joints and
terminations must be capable of carrying the increased
current density.
During the comparatively short period of emergency
loading, the high thermal capacity of the cable and its
surroundings results in the temperature rise being tran-
sient without reaching a steady-state temperature. The
method of current rating is given in Chapter 11.
3.6 CABLE DESIGN
This section considers basic aspects of cable design and
specification working outwards from the conductor.
The equations for circuit parameters that are related to
a single cable are also given—e.g., conductor resistance
and insulation capacitance. The calculation of cable
inductance is considered separately in Section 3.7.2,
since this is also determined by the geometric configura-
tion of the adjacent cables.
Figure 3-11 Stranded conductor types (courtesy of CCI).
3-18
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
3.6.1 Conductor
The majority of conductors at transmission voltages of
69 kV and above are cylindrical in shape to ensure a
smooth base for the conductor shield and a uniform
electrical stress distribution in the adjacent insulation. A
selection of conductor types is shown in Figure 3-11.
Stranded Round Wire Conductors
The majority of conductors are formed from layers of
stranded copper or aluminum wires, although other
types are also available. The helical winding of individ-
ual wires into successive layers gives the conductor
mechanical flexibility and stability in shape. The wind-
ing process is called “stranding” or “cabling,” and the
wire conductor is called the “strand.”
The individual wires are produced in a wire-drawing
process by being pulled through lubricated, circular,
tungsten die-tools in successive operations from a rod
~0.4 in. (10 mm) in diameter to typically 0.08–0.12 in.
(2–3 mm). The final process for a copper wire is to be in-
line annealed, in which the wire is heated to high tem-
perature in a non-oxidizing atmosphere and then
cooled. Annealing removes the effects of work harden-
ing during wire drawing—i.e., the electrical resistivity is
restored to its minimum value, and the copper is re-soft-
ened and bends more readily, since a copper wire bends
both by elastic and plastic deformation.
Cable factories have a range of wire diameters to select
from, but for efficiency will generally manufacture a
given conductor area from one size only. The conductor
is started with one straight wire at its center. Successive
layers of round wires are then applied normally in oppo-
site directions of lay, left hand, and right hand etc. Each
layer is usually “died-down” to a controlled diameter by
being pulled through a die. If one segment of a Milliken
conductor is being stranded, it will also be “compacted”
by being pulled through powered shaped rollers. The
stranding process partially re-hardens the conductor
and increases the resistance. Published tables of conduc-
tor resistance usually include a factor that increases the
maximum permissible resistivity to allow for this
unavoidable increase.
The dieing-down and compacting processes increase the
filling factor Ff, which is the ratio of the nominal area of
metal AN to the apparent overall area of the conductor
AA , as shown in Equation 3-30. Compacting the con-
ductor significantly reduces the conductor diameter and
more importantly minimizes the overall cable diameter
and cost. The overall conductor diameter DA is given in
Equation 3-31.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations

A N = Ff A A (mm2) 3-30 The conversions between areas in kcmil and mm2 are:
• 1 kcmil = 0.5067 mm2
4 AN
DA = (mm) 3-31 • 1000 kcmil = 506.7 mm2
π Ff • 1 mm2 = 1.974 kcmil
Where: • 1000 mm2 = 1974 kcmil
AA = Apparent cross section of a conductor
(conductor and free space) (mm2). It is good practice to manufacture the outermost layer
AN = Nominal cross section of metal in a stan- of wire from one continuous length without in-process
dard conductor (mm2). joints such that the risk of breakage and subsequent
DA = Diameter over manufactured conductor penetration of the insulation is prevented. The outer
(mm). layer is usually heavily died down to provide a smooth
Ff = Filling factor, ratio of nominal to apparent bed for the conductor shield and accurately achieve the
conductor areas (per unit). specified diameter, which is especially important for an
extruded cable, because the conductor has to pass
The achievable filling factor Ff varies according to the through a close-fitting extrusion die without damage.
type of conductor, the degree of compaction, and the
efficiency of the stranding machine. Typical Ff values The types of stranded conductor are listed below
are as follows: using U.S. terminology, with alternative terminology
• Uncompacted concentric conductors: 0.75 in brackets.
• Compressed conductors: 0.8 Concentric Conductor (Uncompacted Conductor)
• Compacted round conductors: 0.9 The strand is laid up uncompressed and uncompacted
and so the individual wires retain their circular shape.
• Shaped wire (keystone and flat) segmental conduc- The filling factor is low at 0.75, which increases conduc-
tors: 0.95–0.97 tor flexibility. This conductor is unusual for transmis-
• Solid cylindrical conductors: 1.0 sion-class cables because it increases the cable overall
diameter and cost.
The unit of conductor cross-sectional area in the United
Compressed Conductor (Died-Down Conductor)
States is kcmil. The definition of a “circular mil” is:
Figure 3-11a shows the conductor in an extruded XLPE
cable. The outer layer has been deliberately flattened for
One circular mil is equivalent to the metal area of a
the XLPE application to provide a smooth outer layer
0.001 in. (0.0254 mm) diameter wire, which is an area of
and to reduce “fall-in” of the semiconducting shield.
0.785 × 10-6 in.2 (507 × 10-6 mm2).
The inner wires have been compressed lightly and have
substantially retained their circular shape.
1000 kcmil is equivalent to the metal area of 0.785 in.2
(506.7 mm2). Compact Round Conductor (Heavily Compacted Circular
Conductor)
The U.S. kcmil system permits the outer diameter D C A very high degree of compaction of 0.9 is achieved by
of the stranded conductor to be calculated from Equa- the use of powered rollers, such that the wires are com-
tion 3-32, and the metal area A kcmil to be calculated pacted into square, keystone shapes. These are compar-
from Equation 3-33, with knowledge of the number of atively stiff conductors.
wires N and the wire diameter Dw.
Hollow-Core Conductor (Circular Stranded Hollow-Core
Conductor)
N
DC = D W (in.) 3-32 A central duct is provided in an SCFF cable for the pas-
Ff sage of dielectric fluid and in a SCGF cable for the pas-
sage of gas. The stranded conductor is laid up onto an
Akcmil = 1000NDw2 (kcmil) 3-33 open spiral steel duct. The wire layers are lightly com-
Where: pressed (died down).
Akcmil = Area of metal (kcmil).
Compact Segmental Conductor (Milliken Conductor)
N = Number of wires
The size of the stranding machine limits the nominal
DW = Diameter of one wire (in.)
area of a concentric conductor to less than 3000 kcmil
DC = Diameter over conductor (in.)
(1600 mm2). Larger areas are formed from stranded seg-
Ff = Conductor filling factor (ratio).
ments with a number of pre-spiraled, sector-shaped seg-

3-19
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations
ments. Figure 3-11b shows an HPFF four-segment
conductor, and Figure 3-11c shows a five-segment con-
ductor in an XLPE cable. Conductor sizes of up to
7000 kcmil (3500 mm2) have been installed in Japan with
the prospect of 8000 kcmil (4000 mm2) being possible. A
Milliken conductor is a stranded segmental conductor
in which the segments are insulated from each other.
This has very significant advantages for conductor sizes
of greater than 1600–2000 kcmil (800–1000 mm2)
because the ac resistance in a concentric conductor due
to skin and proximity effects significantly increases the
resistance when the radius exceeds the skin depth (the
depth in which the major proportion of the current
flows). For example, the ac resistance for a 4000-kcmil
(2000-mm2) concentric hollow-core conductor would be
30% higher than the dc resistance, whereas a Milliken
conductor reduces this to 13%. The disadvantages of a
Milliken conductor are increased stranding costs and
reduced output since more stranding passes are
required, and conductors for long-length submarine
cables cannot be continuously laid up without making
joints in each segment.
Hollow-Core Compact Segmental Conductor (Milliken
Hollow-Core Conductor)
Figure 3-11d shows a hollow-core Milliken conductor in
an SCFF cable. For conductor sizes up to 5000 kcmil
(2500 mm2), it is usual to support the segments on a pre-
formed spiral duct with an internal diameter of 0.5 in.
(12 mm). For larger conductor sizes, the stranded seg-
ments can form a self-supported duct of 1 in. (25 mm)
internal diameter. Hollow-core conductors in SCFF
cables have the advantage in an ac system that, for a given
area, the radial thickness of the conductor is reduced in
comparison to the non-hollow-core conductors used in
XLPE cables and so have reduced ac resistance.
Stranded Shaped Wire Conductors
A closely similar manufacturing process to round wires
is followed for the dieing down of shaped wires—e.g.,
flat wires and keystone segments.
Segmental Circular Conductor (Conci Conductor)
The application of preformed segments or flat wires has
the advantages of an increase in the conductor filling
factor to ~99%, thereby reducing the conductor diame-
ter and the volume and cost of the outer cable layers,
and reducing the volume of the impregnating com-
pound in an MI (mass impregnated paper) dc cable. The
application of preformed segments has the advantage
that the continuous stranding of sizes of circular con-
ductor larger than 3000 kmil (1600 mm2) in a single
pass is made possible for long-length dc land and sub-
marine cables.
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Segmental Circular Conductor Hollow-Core (Conci
Conductor)
The keystone-shaped segments have the advantage that
they lock together and form a self-supporting duct. The
duct diameter can prospectively be increased in diame-
ter to, say, 1.4 in. (35 mm) such that the radial thickness
of a large conductor size such as 4000 kcmil (2000 mm2)
may prospectively be reduced to less than 13 mm. The
ac resistance due to skin effect is reduced to a similar
value to a stranded Milliken conductor.
Solid Circular Conductor
Solid cylindrical aluminum conductors up to 3000 kcmil
(1600 mm2) have been manufactured for use in XLPE
insulated cable. Aluminum has the advantage compared
to copper of an increase in the ratio of skin depths of
28% such that ac resistance is less affected by skin effect,
a reduced bending stiffness of 54% of copper, albeit a
significant proportion of conductor bending is by plas-
tic deformation, and a reduced weight, with a density of
30% of copper. The disadvantage is that the dc resis-
tance is 65% higher than copper. An aluminum conduc-
tor having the same dc resistance as a copper conductor
becomes economically attractive when the metal cost by
weight is less than 50% of copper.
Conductor Resistance and Cross-Sectional Area
When manufacturing conductors and calculating
ampacities, the value of electrical dc resistance for a par-
ticular conductor size should always be taken from a
published conductor table—for example, ASTM B 8-04
(ASTM 2004) and IEC 60228 (IEC 2005). The pub-
lished resistance is a guaranteed maximum value that
must not be exceeded and that is verified by measure-
ment in the cable shipping test (routine test). The pub-
lished conductor resistances are based on a higher value
of electrical resistivity than those given for copper and
aluminum in the International Annealed Copper Stan-
dard (IACS), as shown in Table 3-3. In the conductor
tables, the value of IACS resistivity is increased to allow
for the lay factor, which is the increase in helical wire
length compared to a straight axial length. For example,
in ASTM B 8-04, the values of conductor resistance
allow for increments of 2% up to 2000 kcmil, 3% up to
3,000 kcmil, 4% up to 4000 kcmil, and 5% up to
5000 kcmil. The values in IEC 60228 include similar, but
undisclosed, lay factors varying typically from 2 to 4.5%
and additionally includes factors for typical construc-
Table 3-3 IACS Reference Resistivities
Resistivity at 20°C Temperature
IACS (%) ρ Coefficient α
Conductor Conductivity (μΩ m) (per °C)
Annealed Copper 100 0.017241 0.00393
Aluminum 60.6 0.02845 0.00403
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations

tion changes. Importantly IEC 60228 refers to each con-
ductor size, such as 2000 mm2, as being a “nominal
area.” Thus, if conductor resistances are calculated from
first principles and IACS resistivities alone, the resis-
tances will be too low.
Examples of the ASTM kcmil conductor sizes for con-
centric conductors are given Table 3-4. For this type of
uncompacted conductor, ASTM specify the area of
metal cross-section in kcmil, the number of wires, the
diameter of each wire, the conductor diameter, the mass,
and the resistance. Conductors that are compressed or
compacted have smaller diameters, which vary between
manufacturers. Examples are shown in Tables 3-5, 3-6,
and 3-7. The equivalent metric conversions are included
in the tables.
The geometric mean radius (GMR) is added in
Tables 3-4, 3-6, and 3-7. GMR is used in the calculation
of conductor internal inductance and circuit inductance
(see Section 3.7.2). GMR is a mathematical function
that is dependent upon the number of wires, the distance
between each wire, and the overall conductor shape.
The only standardized conductor dimensions are those
of the ASTM Class B concentric conductors (see
Table 3-4), because these are based on the geometry of
uncompacted round wires. The ASTM table is included
in this chapter for reference only, because it gives the
values of resistance applicable to all conductor types in
North America up to 5000 kcmil, and it permits accu-
rate geometrical calculation of GMR. However, ASTM
Class B conductor constructions themselves are not
used for transmission-class cables, because the outer
diameter is excessively large, the outer surface does not
provide a smooth bed for shields, and they are more dif-
ficult to water block for cables with extruded insulation.
The following tables of conductor dimensions are exam-
ples only. Apart from the achievement of the specified
minimum resistance, transmission-class cables do not
have standardized conductor dimensions (e.g., segment
designs, wire sizes, and degree of compaction). Manu-
facturers have significantly different designs of conduc-
tor, wire size ranges, stranding machines, and dies.
Manufacturers change from concentric to segmental
constructions at different conductor sizes, examples
being given in Section 3.7.3, which considers the ac
resistance of conductors. The approximate outer diame-
ter of the conductor DA may be calculated for any con-
struction from Equation 3-31 using the associated list of
filling factors Ff.

Table 3-4 Parameters for ASTM Class B Concentric Conductors in North America
Diameter DC Resistance at 20°C
Individual Strands Overall Diameter R Geometric
No. of
Size Wires DW DC Copper Aluminum Mean Radius
kcmil mm2 N in. mm in. mm μΩ/ft μΩ/m μΩ/ft μΩ/m in. mm
250 127 37 0.0822 2.0877 0.575 14.608 42.3 139.0 69.4 227.7 0.221 5.613
300 152 37 0.0900 2.2860 0.630 16.002 35.3 116.0 57.8 189.6 0.242 6.147
350 177 37 0.0973 2.4714 0.681 17.297 30.2 99.1 49.5 162.4 0.262 6.655
400 203 37 0.1040 2.6416 0.728 18.491 26.4 86.6 43.4 142.4 0.280 7.112
450 228 37 0.1103 2.8016 0.772 19.609 23.5 77.1 38.5 126.3 0.296 7.518
500 253 37 0.1162 2.9515 0.813 20.650 21.2 69.5 34.7 113.9 0.312 7.925
550 279 61 0.0950 2.4130 0.855 21.717 19.2 63.0 31.5 103.4 0.330 8.382
600 304 61 0.0992 2.5187 0.893 22.682 17.6 58.1 28.9 94.8 0.345 8.763
650 329 61 0.1032 2.6213 0.929 23.597 16.3 53.5 26.7 87.6 0.359 9.119
700 355 61 0.1071 2.7203 0.964 24.486 15.1 49.5 24.8 81.4 0.372 9.449
750 380 61 0.1109 2.8169 0.998 25.349 14.1 46.2 23.1 75.8 0.385 9.779
800 405 61 0.1145 2.9083 1.031 26.187 13.2 43.3 21.7 71.2 0.398 10.109
900 456 91 0.1215 3.0862 1.094 27.788 11.8 38.7 19.3 63.3 0.424 10.770
1000 507 91 0.1280 3.2512 1.152 29.261 10.6 34.8 17.3 56.8 0.446 11.328
1250 633 91 0.1172 2.9769 1.289 32.741 8.46 27.8 13.9 45.7 0.499 12.675
1500 760 91 0.1284 3.2614 1.412 35.865 7.05 23.1 11.6 37.9 0.547 13.889
1750 887 127 0.1174 2.9820 1.526 38.760 6.05 19.8 9.91 32.4 0.592 15.037
2000 1013 127 0.1255 3.1877 1.632 41.453 5.29 17.4 8.67 23.5 0.633 16.078
2500 1267 127 0.1403 3.5636 1.824 46.330 4.28 14.0 7.01 22.9 0.708 18.045
3000 1520 169 0.1332 3.3833 1.998 50.749 3.56 11.7 5.83 19.1 0.775 19.766
5000 2534 217 0.1518 3.856 2.581 65.557 2.18 7.15 3.57 11.7 1.001 25.534

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Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Compressed conductors (see Table 3-5) for transmis-
sion-class cables are typically used up to 1500–2000
kcmil (800–1000 mm2), above which compact segmental
conductors are normally selected for ac current applica-
tions, because these have the advantage of a significantly
reduced ac/dc resistance ratio. Some manufacturers that
do not have suitable conductor laying-up machines may
continue to offer compressed round conductors up to
3000 kcmil (1600 mm2); however, these will have either a
reduced ampacity or larger conductor size than the
competing segmental design (see Section 3.7.3).
Table 3-5 Typical Compressed Conductor Parameters in
North Americaa
Heavily compacted round wire conductors (see Table 3-6)
are seldom used in transmission-class cables above
1000 kcmil. Compact round wire conductors comprised
of shaped wires (flat or key-stone) can be offered up to
5000 kcmil (2500 mm2); however, for ac current applica-
tions, they are unlikely to be competitive for conductors
above 1500–2000 kcmil (800–1000 mm2).
Compact segmental (Milliken) conductors (see Table 3-7)
typically start at or above 1500–2000 kcmil (800–
1000 mm2), and are offered for ac current applications up
to the largest conductor sizes, which are normally
5000 kcmil (2500 mm 2 ), with special applications of
7000–8000 kcmil (3500–4000 mm2) being possible.

No. of Overall Diameter

Size Strands DC
kcmil mm2 N in. mm Table 3-6 Typical Compact Round Conductor Parameters in
250 127 37 0.558 14.173 North Americaa
300 152 37 0.611 15.519 Geometric
350 177 37 0.661 16.789 Size No. of Overall Diameter Mean Radius
400 203 37 0.706 17.932 kcmil mm2 Strands in. mm in. mm
450 228 37 0.749 19.025 250 127 37 0.520 13.2 0.203 5.156
500 253 37 0.789 20.041 300 152 37 0.570 14.5 0.222 5.639
550 279 61 0.829 21.057 350 177 37 0.616 15.6 0.240 6.096
600 304 61 0.866 21.996 400 203 37 0.659 16.7 0.257 6.528
650 329 61 0.901 22.885 450 228 37 0.700 17.8 0.273 6.934
700 355 61 0.935 23.749 500 253 37 0.736 18.7 0.287 7.290
750 380 61 0.968 24.587 550 279 61 0.775 19.7 0.302 7.671
800 405 61 1.000 25.400 600 304 61 0.813 20.7 0.317 8.052
900 456 61 1.061 26.949 650 329 61 0.845 21.5 0.329 8.357
1,000 507 61 1.117 28.372 700 355 61 0.877 22.3 0.342 8.687
1,250 633 91 1.250 31.775 750 380 61 0.908 23.1 0.353 8.966
1,500 760 91 1.370 34.798 800 405 61 0.938 23.8 0.365 9.271
1,750 887 127 1.480 37.592 900 456 61 0.999 25.4 0.389 9.881
2,000 1013 127 1.583 40.208 1,000 507 61 1.060 26.9 0.413 10.490

a. DC resistances are the same as those in Table 3-4. a. DC resistances are the same as those in Table 3-4.

Table 3-7 Typical Compact Segmental Conductor Parameters in North America

DC Resistance at 25°C Geometric Mean
Size No. of Overall Diameter Copper Aluminum Radius
kcmil mm2 Strands in. mm μΩ/ft μΩ/m μΩ/ft μΩ/m in. mm
1000 505 148 1.152 29.2 10.8 35.4 17.7 58.1 0.449 11.405
1250 693 148 1.289 32.7 8.67 28.4 14.2 46.6 0.502 12.751
1500 760 148 1.412 35.9 7.23 23.7 11.9 39.0 0.550 13.970
1750 887 244 1.526 38.8 6.19 20.3 10.2 33.5 0.594 15.088
2000 1013 244 1.632 41.5 5.42 17.8 8.89 29.2 0.635 16.129
2250 1140 244 1.730 43.9 4.82 15.8 7.91 26.0 0.675 17.145
2500 1267 244 1.824 46.3 4.34 14.2 7.12 23.4 0.710 18.034
3000 1520 364 1.998 50.7 3.61 11.8 5.92 19.4 0.778 19.761
3500 1773 364 2.159 54.8 3.10 10.2 5.08 16.7 0.841 21.361
4000 2027 364 2.309 58.6 2.71 8.9 4.44 14.6 0.899 22.835

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations

Table 3-8 gives the specified standard conductor sizes Electrical resistance increases linearly with temperature
and their resistances from Standard IEC 60228 (IEC i n t h e wo r k i n g r a n g e s c o n s i d e r e d a s g i v e n i n
2005) for up to 2500 mm2, the closest North American Equations 3-36 and 3-37. The coefficients of increase of
size being 5000 kcmil. resistance for copper and aluminum with temperature
are given in Table 3-3. These and similar equations are
The dc resistance R of a solid conductor of length L and used in the calculation of ampacity. ASTM and IEC
area A is given in Equation 3-34. Reference resistivities give tables of temperature correction factors to permit a
ρ for copper and aluminum base metal without factors resistance measured at shipping test to be corrected to
for stranding or work hardening are given in Table 3-3. the reference temperature, which is usually 20°C for IEC
Table 3-3 shows that aluminum has 60.6% of the con- standards and 25°C for AEIC and ICEA standards.
ductivity of copper.
R t = R o (1 + α o Δ θ) (Ω/m) 3-36
ρL
R= (Ω) 3-34 θ = θo + Δθ (°C) 3-37
A
Where: Where:
R = Resistance of conductor length L and area Rt = Resistance of conductor per unit length at
A (Ω). temperature t (Ω/m).
ρ = Electrical resistivity of conductor wire at Ro = Resistance of conductor per unit length at
reference temperature θo (Ωm). reference temperature (Ω/m).
L = Effective length of conductor (m). αo = Temperature coefficient of resistance at
A = Cross-section of metal in a solid conductor reference temperature (per unit).
(m2). Δθ = Temperature rise (°C).
θo = Reference temperature (°C).
The nominal area of the conductor A N may be deter-
mined approximately from Equation 3-35. However, the
apparent electrical resistivity ρ A calculated from 3.6.2 Conductor Shield
Table 3-8 has to be increased by factors allowing for The conductor shield (screen) is applied over the conduc-
stranding and work hardening. It is recommended that tor and is in close contact with the inner surface of the
the apparent resistivity be calculated from the resistance insulation, which is the highest stressed part. Its purpose
of a similar cable construction in the appropriate table, is to smooth the outer rippled surface of the conductor
whether ASTM or IEC. wires into a cylinder and thereby eliminate local concen-
trations of electric stress, called “stress raisers.” In a cable
ρA L with extruded insulation, the semiconducting shield is
AN = (mm2) 3-35
R bonded to the insulation such that a gaseous void cannot
be formed during expansion and contraction, as would
Table 3-8 International Standard Conductor Sizes and
occur if the insulation is extruded directly onto the con-
Maximum Resistances, IEC 60228 ductor. In a cable with taped insulation, the interface
between the shield and insulation tape is always filled
Maximum DC Resistance
(μΩ m-1) or (μΩ km-1) at 20°C with the insulating medium, thereby preventing forma-
Nominal Area Stranded Solid tion of voids and any possibility of partial discharging.
mm2 kcmil Copper Aluminum Copper Aluminum
150 296 124.0 206.0 124.0 206.0 3.6.3 Insulation
185 365 99.1 164.0 101.0 164.0 The cable electrical insulation is also called the “dielec-
240 474 75.4 125.0 77.5 125.0 tric,” which is a material that, when voltage is applied,
300 592 60.1 100.0 62.0 100.0 stores electric charge, without the free flow of electricity
400 790 47.0 77.8 46.5 77.8 and the generation of heat that occurs in a resistor.
500 987 36.6 60.5 - 60.5
630 1244 28.3 46.9 - 46.9 The requirements of cable insulation for transmission
800 1579 22.1 36.7 - 36.7 class cable are:
1000 1974 17.6 29.1 - 29.1 • To withstand high electrical stress for a nominal
1200 2369 15.1 24.7 - 24.7
design life of 40 years.
1600 3158 11.3 18.6 - -
2000 3948 9.0 14.9 - -
• To perform under a wide range of temperatures. In
2500 4935 7.2 12.7 - - normal operation, this is typically 15°C to 90°C, but

3-23
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations
low winter ambient temperatures and short-term
emergency operation extend this in some applications
to −20°C to +130 °C.
• To be sufficiently flexible to permit bending to small
radii during manufacture, installation, and service
life—for example, in the thermomechanical system
designs that are unconstrained, or semi-constrained
such as HPFF and duct-manhole systems.
• To be manufactured to the very highest quality
standards such that defects and contaminants
are excluded.
The maximum stress is the key parameter in determin-
ing the insulation radial thickness. The performance of
the cable insulation is validated by formal long-term
prequalification (PQ) and qualification tests (type tests)
performed on installations of full-sized cable-containing
accessories. The cable system must withstand without
failure or deterioration each elevated voltage, tempera-
ture, and loading condition.
The phase voltage Vg and the lightning impulse voltage
VP are given in Table 3-1 for the common transmission
voltages in North America. The ratio V P /V g is deter-
mined by the insulation co-ordination of the electricity
network under lightning strike and results in a high
ratio at 69 kV and low ratio at 765 kV. The ratio has
important consequences on insulation design, because
in general lower system voltage cables are designed to
withstand the impulse lightning voltage, thus giving a
natural performance margin at working voltage, and at
higher system voltages, when the cable is designed on
impulse voltage, the performance margin at normal
working voltage is reduced.
The application of a 69-kV insulation design stress to a
345-kV cable would result in an uneconomic system,
having an excessively thick insulation, a large cable
diameter, a short reel length, and a large number of
joints. The development of higher operating stresses was
essential to make 345-kV cable systems practical.
The practice in North America for pipe-type cable is to
specify conductor dimensions and insulation thickness,
as given in AEIC CS2 (AEIC 1997). The practice for
extruded XLPE cable is to specify for each transmission
voltage a maximum stress at the conductor shield, AEIC
CS9 (AEIC 2006) and ICEA S-108-720 (ICEA 2004)
and at the insulation shield AEIC CS9. For example, at
345 kV, the maximum stress limit at the conductor shield
is 350 V/mil (14 kV/mm) and at the insulation shield
150 V/mil (6.0 kV/mm). The practice outside North
America varies, with some authorities specifying maxi-
3-24
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
mum design stress and others allowing the manufacturer
to select the stress and to validate it by performing long-
term prequalification tests and qualification tests.
Different types of insulation have different limiting volt-
age conditions. Examples are given below:
• Extruded XLPE cable in an ac system. The limiting
condition occurs under elevated ac voltage, both
when hot and when load cycled.
• Self-contained fluid-filled cable in an ac system. The
limiting condition occurs under lightning impulse,
when hot.
• HPFF fluid-filled cable in an ac system. The limiting
condition occurs under lightning impulse, when hot.
• Self-contained gas-filled cable in an ac system. The
limiting condition occurs under elevated ac voltage.
This requirement is excluded from most test specifi-
cations to preserve the cable from unrepresentative
conditions. The second limiting condition occurs
under lightning impulse, when hot.
• GIL cable in an ac system. The limiting condition
occurs under lightning impulse.
• Extruded XLPE cable in a dc system. The limiting
condition occurs under elevated dc voltage,
particularly during transient tests, such as impulse
superimposed on dc and dc polarity reversal, follow-
ing heating.
• Fluid-filled self-contained cable in a dc system.
The limiting condition occurs under lightning
impulse and upon impulse superimposed on dc volt-
age, when hot.
• Mass-impregnated paper-insulated cable in a dc
cable. The limiting condition occurs at elevated dc
voltage, when cooling after a load cycle.
A cable has axial symmetry and so has no longitudinal
component of stress. This is not so in an accessory in
which the diameter of the shields and insulation is
greater than those in the cable, thereby introducing lon-
gitudinal components of stress. At the interface between
the accessory and the cable, the magnitude of resultant
stress is resolved into a longitudinal component (tan-
gential stress), which is usually the weaker direction,
and a normal component (i.e., at 90°), which is usually
the stronger direction. The magnitude of longitudinal
stress dictates the shape of an accessory in an HPFF or
SCFF system. Accessories in extruded systems can
operate at higher interfacial stresses, providing no air
voids are present and the interface remains undisturbed
in service.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations

Electrical Stress Distribution lation layers. When stress is to be calculated in the next
The concentric geometry of a cable produces a nonlin- layer B, the new value of dielectric permittivity εrN = εrB
ear voltage distribution, Vr, at a variable radius r as is inserted. In consequence, the magnitude of stress
shown in Equation 3-38. increments in magnitude at the interface, as given in
Equation 3-42. The stress at the interface is inversely
⎛R ⎞ proportional to the ratio of permittivities, such that the
ln⎜ o ⎟
Vr = V ⎝
r ⎠ stress is always highest in the low permittivity insulation.
(kV) 3-38
⎛R ⎞
ln⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟ Typical values of relative permittivity of insulating mate-
⎝ Ri ⎠ rials used in cables and accessories are given in Table 3-9.
Relative permittivity is also named specific inductive
In the context of insulation design, electrical stress is capacity (SIC) and dielectric constant. The ratios of the
defined as the gradient of the voltage distribution, as permittivities to air (or any gas) show that the stress
shown in Equation 3-39. The variable stress Er at radius increases experienced by an air void are very high.
r in a single type of insulation (called a “single permit-
V
tivity” insulation) is given in Equation 3-40. The stress is Er N =
inversely proportional to radius. Equation 3-40 is the ⎡ 1 ⎛ R ⎞ 1 ⎛ R oB ⎞⎤
main equation used in cable design since most cables r N ε rN ⎢ ln⎜⎜ oA ⎟⎟ + ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎥
have single permittivity insulation. ⎣ ε rA ⎝ R iA ⎠ ε rB ⎝ R iB ⎠⎦ N
(kV/mm) 3-41
dV
Er = (kV/mm) 3-39 ⎛ε ⎞
dr E B = E A ⎜⎜ A ⎟⎟ (kV/mm) 3-42
V ⎝ εB ⎠
Er = (kV/mm) 3-40
⎛R ⎞ Where:
r ln⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟ ErN = Electrical stress at radius r in material layer
⎝ Ri ⎠ N (kV/mm).
Where: rN = Radius in material N at which E is to be
Er = Stress at radius r (kV/mm). calculated (mm).
Vr = Voltage at radius r (kV). RiA = Inner radius of insulation A (mm).
V = Voltage applied across the insulation (kV). RoA = Outer radius of insulation A (mm).
r = Radius at which E and V are to be calcu- N = Number of material layers of different per-
lated (mm). mittivity.
Ri = Inner radius of insulation (mm). εrA = Relative permittivity of insulation A
Ro = Outer radius of insulation (mm). (per unit).
εrB = Relative permittivity of insulation B
The units of stress E follow those of the applied voltage (per unit).
V. In the United States, the voltage is entered into the εrN = Relative permittivity of insulation N
equation as kV and the radii as inches. The unit of stress (per unit).
is kV/in., which is numerically equal to V/mil (volts per
thousandth of an inch). The permittivity ε is part of the equation for capaci-
tance C, as shown in Equation 3-43. Permittivity quanti-
In the SI system, voltage is entered as kV and radii as fies the ability of the insulation to store electric charge Q
mm, and so the unit of stress is kV/mm. The conversion when an ac or dc voltage V is applied, as shown in
is 1 kV/mm = 25.4 V/mil. Equation 3-44. Permittivity ε is the magnitude of the
capacitance C of an elemental cube when the dimen-
Equation 3-41 gives the stress in a multiple-layer insula- sions A and d are of unit dimension, as shown in Equa-
tion—for example, in an EPR molded one-piece joint on tion 3-45. Equation 3-46 is the fundamental relationship
an XLPE cable. It is necessary to insert the dielectric per- that relates flux density D to stress, where D = Q/A and
mittivity εrN = εrA when stress is calculated in layer A. E = V/d. For convenience, the absolute permittivity,
Within layer A, stress is proportional to radius. The ε = εo εr, is separated into the permittivity of free space
expression in brackets remains constant for all the insu-

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Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

εo and the relative permittivity of the particular insula- Examples of Calculation of Stress in an AC Cable
tion εr. In the following section, the XLPE insulation thickness,
insulation shield stress, void stress, and impulse stresses
εA are calculated for a selected manufacturer’s design stress
C= (F) 3-43
d of 282 V/mil (11.1 kV/mm), which is below the limit
of 350 V/mil (14 kV/mm) specified in AEIC CS9
Q = CV (C) 3-44 (AEIC 2006):
⎛A⎞ • System voltage, V: 345 kV
ΔQ = ε ⎜ ⎟ ΔV = ε ΔV (C) 3-45
⎝d⎠ • Phase voltage, Vg: 199 kV
• BIL: 1300 kVp
D=εE (C/m2) 3-46
• Conductor size: 2500 kcmil (1250 mm2)
Where:
C = Capacitance (F). • Radius over conductor shield, Ri: 0.92 in. (23.4 mm)
Q = Electrical charge (C). • Insulation type: Extruded XLPE insulation
ΔQ = Elemental charge (Q). • Insulation design stress, ERi: 282 V/mil (11.1 kV/mm)
V = Voltage (V).
ΔV = Total difference across cube (V). Note that the metric system of units is shown in the
D = Electrostatic flux density (C/m2). equations below, where insulation dimensions are in
E = Electrostatic stress, also called electro- mm, the voltage in kV, and the resultant stress in
static field strength (V/m). kV/mm. The equations can be used without modifica-
A = Area of the face (m2). tion for the U.S. system of units by inserting the insula-
d = Distance between faces (m). tion dimensions in in., the voltage in kV, and the
ε = Absolute permittivity = εo εr (F/m). resultant stress in V/mil. Alternatively, the conversion is
εo = Permittivity of free space: 8.854 × 10-12 25.4 V/mil = 1 kV/mm (or 100 V/mil = 3.93 kV/mm).
(F/m).
εr = Relative permittivity (from Table 3-9). Insulation Thickness, t, and Insulation Radius, Ro
The maximum stress Emax occurs at the conductor shield
radius Ri as given in Equation 3-47. This equation is
rearranged in Equation 3-48 to give the insulation thick-
Table 3-9 Relative Dielectric Permittivities of Some Cable
and Accessory Insulations
ness t = Ro−Ri.
Relative Stress Raising Vg
Insulating Permittivity Factor in Adjacent
εr
E max = E Ri =
Type Material Air Void
⎛R ⎞
Gas (all) Air 1.0 1.0 R i ln⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟
Insulating PIB-DDB-
2.2–2.4 2.2–2.4 ⎝ Ri ⎠
fluids siliconea
(kV/mm) or (V/in.) 3-47
Extruded XLPE 2.3–2.5 2.5
Extruded EPR 2.5–3.5 3.5 t = (R o − R i )
Stress control Molded CSPb 8–10 10
⎡ ⎛ Vg ⎞ ⎤
= R i ⎢exp⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ (mm) or (in.)
Blends of
Stress control metal oxide 15–25 25 3-48
and polyolefin ⎣⎢ ⎝ R i E max ⎠ ⎦⎥
Taped FF LPP laminate 2.6–2.8 2.8
Taped GF Kraft paper 3.4 3.4 Result:
Taped FF Kraft paper 3.5 3.5
• t = 1.06 in. (27 mm).
a. PIB: polyisobutene, an insulating liquid used in HPFF
paper and LPP cables. • Ro = 1.98 in. (50 mm).
DDB: dodecyl benzene, an insulating liquid used in LPFF
paper and LPP cables. Stress at Insulation Screen, ERo
b. CSP: chlorosulphonated polyethylene, an elastomer (rub- The stress at the outer shield is required to check whether
ber) with high relative permittivity used in some extruded it is too high for an accessory to operate satisfactorily.
cable accessories.

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations

Fro m ab ov e, t h e v a l u e s o f E R i = 2 8 2 V / m i l tion 3-50 to obtain the impulse stress at the conductor

(11.1 kV/mm), Ri = 0.92 in. (23.4 mm), and Ro = 1.98 in. shield ERip and into Equation 3-49 (where ERi = ERip) to
(50 mm) are entered into Equation 3-49. obtain the insulation shield stress, ERop.

⎛R ⎞ E Rip = E Ri
VP
E Ro = E Ri ⎜⎜ i ⎟⎟ (kV/mm) or (V/mil) 3-49
Vg
(kV/mm) or (V/mil) 3-50

⎝ Ro ⎠
Result: ERo = 131 V/mil (5.2 kV/mm).
This stress is satisfactory, being below the 150 V/mil
(6 kV/mm) AEIC CS9 (AEIC 2006) for service-proven
accessories and below 200 V/mil (8 kV/mm) for accesso-
ries on high-stress systems.
Stress in a Void at the Insulation Screen, ERI
The calculation of stress in an air void is performed to
assess the vulnerability of the accessory to distress occur-
ring at the interface with the cable insulation. The stress
at the peak of the voltage waveform is to be calculated.
From the above, ERo = 131 V/mil (5.2 kV/mm). From
Table 3-9, εrXLPE = 2.3 and εrVOID = 1.
⎛ε ⎞ ple, in small hydroelectric or pumped storage plants),
E RI = E Ro ⎜⎜ r XLPE ⎟⎟ (kV/mm) or (V/mil)
⎝ ε rVOID ⎠ diameter tubular bus bar conductors. The equation
Result:
• Stress in void: ERI = 300 V/mil (11.8 kV/mm)
(rms stresses).
• Peak stress is 2 greater: ERI = 424 V/mil
(16.7 kV/mm).
The void stress is twice the value at which a thin air gap
would exhibit partial discharge. An inadequate cable-
to-accessory interface, operating at the shield stress of
131 V/mil (5.2 kV/mm), would be vulnerable to distress.
Example recommendations would be to select a design
of accessory with a high interfacial pressure, to specify
jointer training, and to obtain evidence of qualification
testing. These conclusions are common to all cables and
accessories at the 345-kV voltage level. The breakdown
strength of air at different pressures and gap thicknesses
is obtained from the Paschen curves (Dakin et al. 1974).
Result:
• ERip = 1842 V/mil (73 kV/mm).
• ERop = 856 V/mil (34 kV/mm).
These are within the performance capability of an XLPE
cable. A manufacturer will normally add a 10% design
margin when calculating impulse stress to allow for vari-
ations in manufacture and test conditions. Similar calcu-
lations are performed for stress in the accessories.
E-Ratio Cable Design
In special applications, the minimum economical con-
ductor diameter is determined from Equation 3-51.
Example applications are for conventional cables carry-
ing low current at high transmission voltage (for exam-
and GIL cables carrying high current through large-
gives the thinnest insulation and smallest cable diameter
for a given insulation design stress. If a smaller conduc-
tor is selected, the insulation thickness and cable diame-
ter have to be increased to keep the design stress within
the limit. This optimum conductor radius condition is
called the “e” ratio design, or the minimum stress
design, Emin. It occurs when the ratio of outer radius Ro
to inner radius Ri is equal to 2.718. Equation 3-51 per-
mits the minimum conductor radius and nearest stan-
dard nominal conductor area to be calculated.
Example 1
The e-ratio conductor radius and size are calculated for
the following application:
• System voltage, V: 345 kV
• Phase voltage, Vg: 199 kV
• Insulation type: Extruded XLPE insulation
• Insulation design stress, ERi: 282 V/mil (11.1 kV/mm)

Impulse Stress at Conductor Shield and Insulation Shield, ⎛R ⎞ ⎛ Vg ⎞

ERip and ERop At E min ; ⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟ = e ; R i = ⎜⎜ ⎟;
⎟
The stress at the lightning impulse BIL level is required ⎝ Ri ⎠ ⎝ E min ⎠
to check that the insulation has sufficient thickness to R o = (R i e ); t = (e − 1)R i = 1.718R i ;
satisfactorily pass a qualification test. From the above
example, ERi = 282 V/mil (11.1 kV/mm). From Table 3-1, ⎛ Vg ⎞
the 345-kV phase voltage Vg = 199 kV and the BIL Rti = 1.718 ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ 3-51

peak voltage Vp = 1300 kV. These are entered into Equa- ⎝ E min ⎠

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Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Where:
Emin = minimum conductor stress design = ERi.
e = ratio of the optimum conductor radius
condition = 2.718.
Result:
• Ri = 0.71 in. (17.9 mm).
• Ro = 1.92 in. (48.7 mm).
• t = 1.21 in. (30.8 mm).
• ERo = 104 V/mil (4.1 kV/mm). (from Equation 3-49)
The smallest possible radius over the insulation of this
345kV cable is thus 1.92 in. (48.7 mm). The optimum
minimum shield radius is 0.71 in. (17.9 mm). It is
now necessary to calculate the size of the conductor.
Allowing a shield thickness of 0.06 in. (1.5 mm) and a
conductor filling factor of 0.8 (from Section 3.6, we
see that a 0.8 filling factor relates to a compressed con-
ductor), this gives an overall conductor diameter of
(2 × (0.71 in.−0.06 in.)) = 1.30 in. (33 mm). From
Tables 3-5 and 3-8, the nearest standard size is a
1500 kcmil (800 mm2) conductor. Generally, it would be
uneconomical to supply a cable with a smaller conductor
size because the insulation radius would have to be
increased to limit the stress to the design value. If this
size is larger than needed to carry the current—i.e., the
conductor does not reach 90°C—then a 1500-kcmil alu-
minum conductor with the same shield diameter would
be selected in place of a copper conductor. The 1500-
kcmil aluminum conductor would have an equivalent
area to a 1000-kcmil (500-mm2) copper conductor.
Example 2
The stress at the insulation shield is comparatively low at
104 V/mil (4.1 kV/mm), and so the possibility exists of
allowing this to be increased by increasing the conductor
shield design stress from 282 V/mil (11.1 kV/mm) to the
maximum conductor design stress of 350 V/mil
(14 kV/mm) allowed in AEIC CS9 (AEIC 2006). The
following dimensions are calculated from Equations 3-51
and 3-49:
d u c t o r s t r e s s t o b e i n c r e a s e d f ro m 2 8 2 V / m i l
(11.1 kV/mm) to 350 V/mil (14 kV/mm), the minimum
economic conductor size has been reduced from 1500
kcmil (800 mm2) to 900 kcmil (500 mm2) (see Tables 3-5
and 3-8). The diameter over the insulation has been
reduced from 3.84 in. (97 mm) to 3.1 in. (79 mm).
Stress in a DC Cable
Depending upon the cable type, the dc design stress will
be typically 25–40 kV/mm for normal dc operation,
which is significantly higher than the 12–18 kV/mm
range for a similar ac cable. The lightning impulse
design stress is in the same range of 75–100 kV/mm for
both dc and ac cables.
Different insulant types have widely varying dc resistivi-
ties ρ, as shown in Table 3-10 (Hampton et al. 2000).
The table shows that greater than a 100 times increase in
resistivity is produced in the same material when a tem-
perature gradient of 40°C exists, and between two mate-
rials such as EPR joint insulation and XLPE cable
insulation. These differences are of great significance in
the design of accessories for dc systems. The stress
increase at an interface between two materials is calcu-
lated from Equations 3-41 and 3-42 by substituting
permittivity for insulation conductivity, which is
the reciprocal of resistivity, ρ. If the second layer has a
102 increase in resistivity, it will experience a 102 increase
in stress.
In a cable insulation, dc resistivity ρ is not a constant
value and reduces typically 2–5 times with stress and
200 times with temperature. The effect of stress on an
unheated cable is to reduce the stress at the conductor
shield and to increase it at the insulation shield, com-
pared to the ac capacitive distribution in Figure 3-5. At
full load, a 5 to 15°C temperature drop is present across
the insulation, which further reduces the stress at the
inner shield such that it falls below that at the outer
shield; this phenomenon is called “stress inversion.” In a
dc cable, the insulation at the outer shield is designed to
be of equal electrical strength and to be equally mechan-

Result: Table 3-10 Typical Values of Insulation Resistivity

• Ri = 0.57 in. (14.4 mm). Stress Resistivity (1012 Ωm)
E ρI
• Ro = 1.55 in. (39.3 mm).
Insulation (V/mil) (kV/mm) 20°C 80°C
• t = 0.98 in. (24.8 mm). 250 10 300 3
Kraft paper
• ERo = 128 V/mil (5.1 kV/mm). 510 20 300 4
510 20 5000 300
LPP
The cable design has remained acceptable, because the 760 30 5000 300
calculated stress at the insulation shield of 128 V/mil EPR 130–180 5–7 40–500 3–5
(5.1 kV/mm) is less than the 150 V/mil (6 kV/mm) limit XLPE AC 130–180 5–7 200 1
given in AEIC CS9 (AEIC 2006). By allowing the con- XLPE DC 130–180 5–7 8000 50

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
ically protected as the inner shield. DC cables are con-
sidered in greater detail in Chapter 7.
Insulation Capacitance
Capacitance per unit length C is an important circuit
parameter in both ac and dc systems. In an ac system,
the capacitance determines the magnitude of the total
charging current demanded by the cable length, which is
added in quadrature to the load current. In long cable
circuits, the capacitance may have to be reduced, or
compensated, to carry the load current without over-
heating the cable. The cable manufacturer may be
required to guarantee that a specified capacitance or
charging current will not be exceeded—for example, in a
predominantly capacitive network in which inductive
compensation is essential, and in a long-length subsea
link in which excess cable capacitance will limit the
power that can be traded. In a dc system, capacitance
determines the insulation time constant RC, the voltage
rise during a polarity reversal and the energy stored in
the cable ( E = CV 2 2).
Capacitance is the measure of the cable insulation’s abil-
ity to store charge (and hence flow of ac capacitive cur-
rent) per unit voltage, as shown in Equation 3-44. The
capacitance for an elemental parallel plate capacitor is
given in Equation 3-45. In the discrete elemental annu-
lar rings forming the cable insulation, the capacitance is
proportional to the circumference, which is small at the
conductor shield and large at the insulation shield. The
charge Q remains constant for each elemental capacitor.
Thus the voltage drop at the conductor is large and, at
the insulation shield, small, as shown in Equation 3-38.
The total capacitance is the sum of the elemental capac-
itances shown in Equation 3-43. The capacitance for
single permittivity, concentric cable insulation is given
by Equation 3-52. The equations can be used for both
U.S. and metric units without change, providing the
appropriate unit is taken for the absolute permittivity of
free space εo, the values of which are given below. Thus
the unit of C is (F/ft) if εo is (F/ft), and the unit for C
becomes (F/m) if εo is (F/m) and so on for the parame-
ters XC and IC.
2π ε o ε r
C= (F/ft) 3-52
⎛R ⎞
ln⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟
⎝ Ri ⎠
1
XC = (Ω-ft) 3-53
2π f C
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations
1
I C = Vg = j. Vg 2π f C (A/ft)
XC
MVAr = V g I C = V g 2π f C
2
(MVAr/ft per phase) 3-54
Where:
C = Capacitance (F/ft).
εo = Permittivity of free space: 2.70 × 10-12
(F/ft) (8.854 × 10-12 (F/m)).
εr = Relative permittivity of insulation, see
Table 3-9 (ratio).
XC = Capacitive reactance at frequency f (Ω-ft).
f = Power frequency (cycles/s).
IC = Charging current (A/ft).
j = The operator, − 1, giving a phase advance-
ment to Ic of 90°(dimensionless).
MVAr= Reactive power per phase (MVAr/ft per
phase).
Relative permittivity is also named specific inductive
capacity (SIC) or dielectric constant.
Example of Calculation of Capacitance, Capacitive
Reactance, and MVAr
The capacitance, reactance, and current are first calcu-
lated per foot (meter) and are then calculated for a
10-mile (16-km) circuit length. The following cable
dimensions are taken:
• System voltage, V: 345 kV at 60Hz
• Phase voltage, Vg: 199 kV
• Conductor size: 2500 kcmil (1250 mm2)
• Radius over conductor shield, Ri: 0.92 in. (23.4 mm)
• Radius over insulation shield, Ro: 1.99 in. (50.5 mm)
• Insulation type: Extruded XLPE insulation
• Relative permittivity, εr: 2.3
• Circuit length: 10 miles (16 km)
The dimensions are entered into Equations 3-52, 3-53,
and 3-54. The single-phase MVAr = Vg I.
Result:
C = 50.5 × 10-12 F/ft (165 × 10-12 F/m).
•
• XC = 52.4 × 106 Ω-ft (16.0 × 106 Ω-m).
• IC = 3.79 × 10-6 kA/ ft (12.4 ×10-6 kA/m).
• MVAr = 0.754 × 10-3 MVAr/ft per phase
(2.48 × 10-3 MVAr/m per phase).
• C for 10 miles (16 km) = 2.67 μF.
• X for 10 miles (16 km) = 993 Ω.
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Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

• I for 10 miles (16 km) = 0.2 kA. shield radius Ri , then the heat loss is directly propor-
• MVAr for 10 miles (16 km) = 39.8 MVAr per phase. tional to phase voltage Vg. A 345-kV cable would have
five times the loss of a 69-kV cable. This is not the case,
as the design stress is increased at higher transmission
The charging current and reactive power are of signifi-
voltages. Equation 3-56 shows the pessimistic case when
cant magnitude on the 10-mile circuit. If required, they
voltage is increased on the same size of cable (i.e., con-
could be reduced, by increasing the insulation thickness.
stant insulation thickness and capacitance). The heat
Insulation Losses loss is proportional to the square of phase voltage,
AC voltage generates heat in the insulation as a conse- V g 2 —i.e., the heat loss in a 345-kV cable would be
quence of dipole rotation. The heat loss is represented 25 times higher than a 69-kV cable. In practice, the
mathematically by the inclusion of a resistance in parallel dielectric loss is proportional to VgN, where N is between
with the capacitance. The phasor diagram, Figure 3-12, 1 and 2, depending upon the cable dimensions. The
shows that the cable charging current IC is not in exact equations can be used for both U.S. and metric units
quadrature with the voltage V. The charging current IC is without change, providing the appropriate units are
at angle ϕ to voltage V and at angle δ to the current of a taken as given below:
perfect capacitor, iC. The ‘loss current’ is IC cos ϕ, which
WD = Vg E R1 (2π) f εo ε r π
2
is in-phase with the applied voltage V. The angle δ (radi-
ans) is a measure of the quality of the insulation—the (MW/ft) or (MW/m) 3-55
smaller the angle, the higher the quality—and is called
WD = Vg 2π f C δ
2
the dielectric loss angle (DLA). DLA is routinely mea- (MW/ft) or (MW/m) 3-56
sured in the factory acceptance test on each reel of cable
Where (in U.S. units):
by such instruments as a transformer ratio arm bridge
WD = Dielectric loss (MW/ft).
and a Schering bridge. The loss angle in transmission
Vg = Phase voltage (kV).
class cables is very small, and so,
E = Insulation stress at the conductor shield
δ ≅ tan δ ≅ sin δ ≅ cos ϕ (V/mil).
R = Radius of conductor shield (in.).
since δ = (90°−ϕ) and δ < 0.5° (0.009 radians) for most f = Power frequency (cycles/s).
cables DLA is also named ‘tan delta’, ‘cos ϕ’, and εo = Permittivity of free space: 2.70 × 10-12
‘power factor’. DLA may also be stated as a percent- (F/ft).
age—e.g., 0.23% is a DLA of 0.0023. The loss current is εr = Relative permittivity of insulation, see
commonly written as ‘IC δ’ or ‘IC cos ϕ’. The heat loss, Table 3-9 (ratio).
WD, is then ‘V IC δ’ or ‘V IC cos ϕ’. C = Capacitance (F/ft).
δ = Insulation dielectric loss angle, see
The equation for heat loss, WD, can be arranged in two Table 3-11 (radians).
identical ways. Equation 3-55 is the optimistic case,
showing that if the insulation is designed always to have Where (in metric units):
a constant design stress E and common conductor WD = Dielectric loss (MW/m).
Vg = Phase voltage (kV).
E = Insulation stress at the conductor shield
(kV/mm).
R = Radius of conductor shield (mm).
f = Power frequency (cycles/s).
εo = Permittivity of free space: 8.854 x10-12
(F/m).
εr = Relative permittivity of insulation, see
Table 3-9 (ratio).
C = Capacitance (F/m).
δ = Insulation dielectric loss angle, see
Table 3-11 (radians).

Equation 3-55 shows that, for a given transmission

voltage, frequency, and cable dimensions, the loss is pro-
Figure 3-12 Dielectric loss angle δ portional to ‘εr δ’, called DLF (dielectric loss factor).
of insulation (courtesy of CCI).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations

Table 3-11 gives the ranges of ε r, δ, and DLF values ρI ⎛ DO ⎞

for each type of insulation. The lower values were mea- RI = ln⎜ ⎟
2π ⎜⎝ D i ⎟⎠
(Ωm) 3-57
sured at operating temperature on short cable lengths of
30–60 ft (10–20 m) of one particular cable size and
design stress and on insulation from one grade and ρ I = ρθ=0 exp(− α θ) (Ωm) 3-58

ρ I = ρ E=0 exp(− β E ) (Ωm)

batch of material. The DLF increases with temperature
for each of the insulations shown and is also stress 3-59
dependent. When performing ampacity calculations, it Where:
is good practice to select the higher DLF value, based RI = Resistance of the insulation per unit
on values from IEC 60287 (IEC 1994). This will reduce length (Ωm).
the risk of dielectric thermal runaway and failure occur- ρI = Resistivity of the insulation (Ωm).
ring at a “hot spot” in service. The percentage ρθ=0 = Base resistivity extrapolated to zero tem-
heat losses given in the table are based on the higher perature (Ωm).
DLF values. ρE=0 = Base resistivity extrapolated to zero
stress (Ωm).
Dielectric loss in fluid-impregnated kraft paper cables is DO = Outer diameter of the insulation (mm).
comparatively high. The availability of the low-loss, Di = Inner diameter of the insulation (mm).
high-operating-temperature dielectrics LPP and XLPE E = Electric stress (kV/mm).
has made a major impact on increasing cable thermal θ = Temperature (°C).
efficiency and ampacity. α = Temperature coefficient of resistance
Insulation Resistance (per °C).
The insulation resistance is omitted from the circuit dia- β = Stress coefficient of resistance (mm/kV).
gram of the ac cable, as being much greater (≥ 106) than
the capacitive shunt reactance. The electrical resistance of cable insulation is difficult to
measure because the current is low and the resistance
Insulation resistance is an important parameter in a dc high. The insulation current can be calculated from
cable because it is needed in the calculation of design I = Vg/RI, where RI is obtained from Equation 3-57. For
stress and insulation time constant. Equation 3-57 gives example, taking the dimensions of the example ac
the electrical resistance of an annular ring of dc insula- 345-kV 2500-kcmil XLPE cable, a resistance of 200 ×
tion of outer diameter DO and inner diameter Di for a 106 MΩ. and applying a 100-kV dc system voltage, the
constant value of resistivity ρI. Expressions for the tem- resistance is greater than 80 × 106 MΩ.ft (24 × 106 MΩ.m),
perature dependence of resistivity and stress dependence and the current is less than 0.0012 μA/ft (0.004 μA/m).
are given in Equations 3-58 and 3-59 Typical values of After energizing the dc cable, a long time must be allowed
resistivity ρI are given in Table 3-10. for the transient charging current to reduce to zero value;
this occurs after greater than ten time constants (RC).
The 345-kV XLPE cable has a time constant of greater
Table 3-11 Typical Range of Values of εr, DLA, and DLF for
than 1–10 hours—thus a period of greater than 0.4–4
Various Cable Insulations days is required before measurement of steady-state resis-
tive current can be attempted. The resistance reduces
Relative
Permittivity DLA DLF % Heat
with temperature and stress, as given in Equations 3-58
Insulation Type εr δ x 1000 Losses and 3-59, such that measurement of apparent resistance
Ethylene becomes possible at higher insulation temperatures and
100
propylene rubber 2.5–3.5 0.0035 8.8–12.3 voltages.
(reference)
(EPR)
Fluid-impregnated 0.0020–
kraft paper
3.4–3.6
0.0024
6.8–8.6 70 Extruded insulation and particularly XLPE is suscepti-
Impregnated
ble to the space-charge phenomenon in which halos of
laminated charged molecules accumulate with time and stress in
0.0006–
polypropylene 2.6–2.8 1.6–3.9 32 the proximity of the conductor and insulation shields,
0.0014
paper laminate
(LPP)
thereby distorting the stress distribution and the calcu-
High-density
lation of apparent resistivity.
0.0001–
polyethylene 2.3–2.5 0.23–2.5 20
(HDPE)
0.001 Insulation Design Life
Crosslinked The design life of the cable system is the nominal useful
0.0001–
polyethylene 2.3–2.5
0.001
0.23–2.5 20 life under normal voltage and temperature operation.
(XLPE) The life is typically given as 40 years, which originated

3-31
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations
from the accounting period of a person’s working life.
Shorter periods of 25 and 30 years may also be speci-
fied. The factors that affect insulation aging are:
• Cumulative time at operating voltage and numbers
of switching surges, lightning strikes, and through-
fault transients.
• Magnitude and duration of “standing” over-voltages
and harmonics in the system.
• Loss of pressure in the dielectric fluid or gas in a fluid
or gas-filled cable.
• The presence of defects or damage that weaken the
insulation or increase the stress—e.g., in bending
damage to tapes and shields in HPFF and SCFF
cables; shield protrusions, particulate contamination
and voids in extruded XLPE and EPR cables; and
particulate contamination in GIL cables.
• Duration and magnitude of conductor temperatures
greater than the published normal operating temper-
ature (e.g., > 90°C for extruded XLPE cables).
• Contamination of the insulation by foreign materials,
usually following puncture or deterioration of the
cable jacket—e.g., moisture entering a taped
paper/LPP cable or extruded XLPE cable, air enter-
ing the dielectric fluid in a fluid-filled cable, precipita-
tion of particulate contamination in a fluid-filled
cable and a low resistivity contaminant entering a
fluid-filled cable, such as a lubricating oil or bitumi-
nous compound.
The effect of electrical aging on full-sized cables with
extruded or taped insulation, over a limited range of ac
stresses, may be assessed by the empirical “inverse
power law,” as shown in Equation 3-60 (Attwood et al.
1998). The relationship is based on elevated voltage
breakdown tests with endurance times to failure in the
range of 1 minute to 5 years. Equation 3-61 is plotted as
a straight line of log 10 time to failure against log 10
breakdown stress to determine the slope −n, which is
called the life exponent. The simple model pessimisti-
cally assumes that the value of n does not change with
time—i.e., that a threshold stress does not exist under
which further aging is absent. Care is needed in the
selection of n as this depends upon the mechanism of
aging and the magnitude of the design stress (Dissado
and Fothergill 1992).
Examples of n values are taken from Smith et al. (2003)
and from AEIC CS9-06 (AEIC 2006):
• XLPE cable subjected to breakdown testing at con-
stant temperature in short 33-ft (10-m) cable lengths
with no joints may give a high value of n = 25.
3-32
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
• A long XLPE cable system containing joints and
subjected to load cycling may give a value of n > 12.4
to 17.
• An XLPE cable or accessory containing air voids
may give an n value of 9.
• A small sample of XLPE cable containing deliber-
ately punctured shields may give an n value of 4.2.
AEIC CS9-06 specifies a shipping test on a 345-kV cable
of 1 hour at 2.0Vg, based on limiting the maximum test
stress to 700 V/mil (28 kV/mm). Equation 3-60 calculates
that by taking the ratio of 40 years to 1 hour and the
ratio of the test stress to service stress as 2:1, an n value
of 18.4 is derived. Lower values of n, representative of
insulation defects can be inserted into Equation 3-60; an
n of 17 reduces the comparative life to 15 years life, and
an n value of 13 reduces the comparative life to 1 year.
En t = k ((V/mil)n. hour) 3-60
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛1⎞
log10 E = ⎜ − ⎟ log10 t + ⎜ ⎟ log10 k
⎝ n⎠ ⎝n⎠
(dimensionless) 3-61
Where:
E = Reference stress at conductor shield
(V/mil).
t = Time (hour).
n = Life exponent (dimensionless).
k = A constant ((V/mil)n hour).
Example Calculation of Insulation Life
Example 1
A test loop of cable and accessories withstands t1 = 10
days of load cycling at 1.73 Vg. What will be the equiva-
lent service life t2 at normal voltage Vg? The life expo-
nent chosen for a cable system undergoing load cycles is
n = 13. The values are entered into Equation 3-62.
• Service stress: E2 (V/mil).
• Test voltage: 1.73 Vg (kV).
• Test stress, E1: 1.73 E2 (V/mil).
• Life exponent, n: 13 (dimensionless).
• Time to failure, t1: 240 (hours).
• Equivalent service life, t2: solve for this
n
⎛E ⎞
t 2 = t1 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ 3-62
⎝ E2 ⎠
Result: Equivalent time, t2 = 0.3 × 106 hours (34 years).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Example 2
A cable passes a 1-hour factory test. Routine material
sampling shows defects to be present on the conductor
shield, with a geometric stress raiser of × 2. A cable sam-
ple is to be submitted to a special HV breakdown test.
What test stress E1 on the defect is required to produce
failure in a time t2 = 1 hour? What is the equivalent
stress and voltage needed on the cable to achieve this?
T h e d e s i g n s t r e s s o f t h e c ab l e i s 2 8 2 V / m i l
(11.1 kV/mm). From Smith et al. (2003), a typical
breakdown stress of E1 = 2540 V/mil (100 kV/mm) on a
defect produces cable failure in t1 = 0.1 hour. The life
exponent chosen for voids and defects is n = 9. The val-
ues are entered into Equation 3-62.
• Stress on defect for failure in 1 hour, E2: solve for this.
• Test voltage to produce failure in 1 hour: solve for this.
• Defect breakdown stress, E1: 2540 (V/mil).
• Time to failure at 2540 V/mil, t1: 0.1 (hour).
• Life exponent, n: 9 (dimensionless).
Result:
• Stress on defect to produce failure in 1 hour:
E2 = 1967 V/mil (77 kV/mm).
• Stress on conductor shield = 1/2 × 1967 = 983 V/mil
(39 kV/mm).
• Test voltage, per unit = ratio of conductor shield
stresses = (983/282) = 3.5 Vg.
• Test voltage = 3.5 × 199 kV: 697 kV.
The calculation shows that a voltage significantly above
the capability of most factory HV test sets would be
required. The test voltage could be reduced and the time
on test increased, or the test could be performed on a
1 to 3 MV ac test set in an HV laboratory. When test
failure is achieved, the new time and breakdown stress
can be added to the calculation to improve accuracy for
future predictions.
Example 3
If the cable from Example 2 entered service, what is its
life prognosis, t2? The life exponent chosen for voids and
defects is n = 9. The values are entered into Equa-
tion 3-62.
• Stress on defect in service, E2: solve for this.
• Service life of defect, t2: solve for this.
• Test voltage to produce failure: 697 kV.
• Time to failure at 697 kV, t1: 1.0 (hour).
• Defect breakdown stress, E1: 1967 (V/mil).
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations
• Defect stress raiser: 2 (ratio).
• Design stress on conductor shield: 282 V/mil.
• Life exponent of defect, n: 9 (dimensionless).
Result:
• Stress on defect at service voltage:
E2 = 2 × 282 V/mil: 564 V/mil (22.2kV/mm).
• Time t2 to produce failure at E2:
76 × 103 hours (8.7 years).
This example shows that the factory routine visual
examination of the cable was more important in detect-
ing the defect than the factory acceptance test, which
would have permitted the defect to enter service and fail
in approximately 9 years.
Insulation Thermal Aging
Cable insulations are designed to operate for a substan-
tial part of their service life close to, or at, the design
temperatures in Table 3-2. The life of kraft paper, insu-
lating fluid, and extruded insulation is shortened at
increased temperature. At elevated temperatures, paper
tapes discolor, become brittle, and prospectively frac-
ture. For this reason, the time of the factory drying pro-
cess is limited at maximum temperature. Antioxidants
are provided in polymeric insulation to protect the insu-
lation from deterioration in the presence of air and heat
at the elevated temperature in the crosslinking process
and at the operating temperatures through service life.
At elevated temperature in the presence of air, XLPE
insulation eventually discolors and becomes brittle.
The effect of short-term operation at greater than the
design temperature is estimated from the Arrhenius
relationship in Equation 3-63. The aging rate constant k
varies directly with temperature and follows the Arrhe-
nius aging law, shown in Equation 3-64. For example,
the mechanical and electrical life of paper cable is con-
ventionally taken to be 40 years at 85–90°C. Using the
“8°C Rule” originally from paper cable and transformer
insulation studies, at elevated temperatures up to 105°C,
the insulation will experience an accelerated aging of
50% reduction in mechanical strength for each 8°C rise
in temperature. A closely similar aging relationship is
taken for extruded insulation.
S(t1 ) = S(o) exp(- kt1 ) 3-63
⎛ B⎞
k = k T = A exp⎜ − ⎟ 3-64
⎝ T⎠
Where:
S(o) = Reference value of aging parameter at time
t = 0 (appropriate dimension).
3-33
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations
S(t1) = Value of aging parameter at time t = t1
(appropriate dimension).
k = Aging rate constant (per hour).
kT = Aging rate constant at temperature T
(per hour).
T = Absolute temperature (K).
A = Constant determined experimentally
(per hour).
B = Constant determined experimentally (K).
3.6.4 Insulation Shield
The insulation shield performs the same function as the
conductor shield. Additionally the shield must be of
robust construction and be protected from indention
and thermal damage by the outer cable layers occurring
during manufacture and in service. Binding and bedding
tapes are applied in the case of taped insulation and
cushioning tapes in the case of extruded insulation. It is
essential that the protective tapes are radially conduct-
ing such that the insulation capacitive currents can pass
radially outwards to the shield conductor.
Shield Conductor
The function of the shield conductor is to back up the
insulation shields with a high conductivity layer during
the normal events of ac voltage operation and impulse
surge propagation.
Separate shield conductors are provided in those cables
that either do not have an integrated ground return con-
ductor to collect capacitive currents, as in an HPFF
cable, or have an inner polymeric moisture barrier
sheath, as in some XLPE cables and in some HPGF
cables. In most SCFF and XLPE cable types, the shield
conductor function is performed by the metallic sheath
or the integrated ground return conductor.
Normal Operation in an AC Cable
The shield conductor in SCFF and most extruded
cables backs up the insulation shield by collecting the
capacitive current from the insulation, as shown in Fig-
ure 3-4, and returning it to the bonding position at the
adjacent joints. The current is then returned by the
ground return conductor to the ground positions at the
terminations and at certain straight joints. The HPFF
cable system is an exception to this because the skid
wires of the three adjacent cables contact each other,
and the return currents cancel, each being 120° phase
displaced. The capacitive current is of significant magni-
tude—for example, 7.5 A for a 2000 ft (600 m) span
length of the example XLPE 345-kV 2500-kcmil
(1250-mm2) cable. In an XLPE cable, the extruded semi-
conducting insulation shields are not designed to carry
high longitudinal current. The consequence of doing so
is prospective failure of the primary insulation at the
3-34
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
ends of the span by overheating and at the center of the
span from erosion by sparking between the outer layers
due to longitudinal voltage rise.
Impulse Surge Propagation in AC and DC Cables
An instantaneous radial voltage appears across insu-
lated layers during the passage of switching surges and
lightning impulses. The voltage is proportional to the
ratio of the surge impedances of each layer and is not
reduced by the longitudinal conductivity of the layers.
To prevent spark erosion of the insulation shield, a high
conductivity shield conductor is applied in intimate con-
tact either directly with the insulation shield or with con-
ducting bedding/cushioning tapes applied in between.
3.6.5 Ground Return Conductor
The function of the ground return conductor is to
carry fault current during through-faults, return fault
current when the cable is punctured, circulating currents
in ac operation, and capacitive current collected by the
insulation shield conductor.
Conductor Area for Short-circuit Current
The cross-sectional area A of the ground return conduc-
tor is determined by the ampacity calculation, which
ensures that the limiting temperatures given in Table 3-2
are not exceeded during the short time in which short-
circuit current flows. The principles of the short-circuit
rating method are described in Section 3.5.2, and the
area is calculated by Equation 3-29. The resistivity of
the conductor material ρθ, is temperature dependent
and is calculated in Equation 3-36 using reference 20°C
values from Table 3-3.
Cable System Fault
Some utilities require that the cable and accessories be
contained within a conducting envelope that in the
event of the cable being punctured (spiked) will return
the current for the duration of the fault. This is to assist
in the efficient operation of the fault protection system.
The radial dimension and area of some ground return
conductors have to be increased to prevent local melting
by the radial power arc following an accidental puncture
by a third party, or following a puncture to deliberately
ground the cables and make them safe prior to mainte-
nance work.
Circulating Currents
In a solidly grounded, ac cable system, the magnitude of
the circulating currents can be 40% of the rated power
current, producing a significant temperature rise in the
integrated ground return conductor. In ac GIL cables
and in HTS cables, the circulating current is the same
magnitude as the rated power current. The magnitude
of the circulating current is proportional to the load
current. Unlike the fault current, the circulating current
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations

is present all the time that the cable carries load. It is

important that the bonding connections between the
accessories and the cable are designed to take the circu-
lating current without overheating and burning out. The
calculation of the heat produced by circulating current
is included in the ampacity calculation for the cable in
Chapter 11.
Radial Moisture Barrier
In some designs of XLPE cable, a metallic sheath is not
employed. In such cables, shown in Figure 3-3, the func-
tion of radial moisture barrier is performed by a thin,
overlapped, metallic foil. The foil is preferably bonded to
the jacket to provide strength during bending and to
improve corrosion resistance. The foil is normally applied
over a cushioning or water-blocking tape; it is important
that this tape has sufficient radial conductivity to prevent
sparking during transient voltage propagation.
Metallic Sheath
The metallic sheath is a watertight barrier, which also
combines the roles of a conductor for insulation capaci-
tive currents, circulating currents in a solidly grounded
sheath, and the short-circuit current. The sheath with-
stands the internal pressure in fluid- and gas-filled
cables and the external pressure in a subsea cable.
Extruded sheaths are typically 80–160 mils (2–4 mm)
thick. Welded aluminum or copper sheaths are typically
less than 80 mils (2 mm) thick, and a welded stainless
steel sheath is typically less than 40 mils (1 mm) thick.
An aluminum sheath has the capability of withstanding
high internal and external pressures. A lead alloy sheath
has a low elastic limit and acts as a semiflexible dia-
phragm that progressively creeps and increases in diam-
eter. Metal reinforcing tapes are applied over lead alloy
sheaths to contain the internal pressure of fluid-filled
and gas-filled cables. In a subsea cable in deep water,
the inner core is formed into a fully filled cylindrical
shape to support the lead sheath in withstanding the
Figure 3-13 Principal stresses in a metallic sheath or pipe
(courtesy of CCI).
distance from the neutral axis and so is increased in
large diameter cables and changes from a compressive
stress on the inner surface of the bent sheath to a tensile
stress on the outer surface. Thermomechanical stress,
shown in Equation 3-70, is highest in rigid thermome-
chanical systems because the sheaths are constrained
from thermal expansion, for example, by direct burial,
or by close-cleating. The magnitudes of bending stress
and axial stress are proportional to the effective elastic
bending modulus E B and axial modulus E A of the
sheath material and construction, being lower in lead
alloy sheaths and in corrugated sheaths, and higher in
plain sheaths and in pipes.
The following equations are applicable to both metric
and U.S. units. Metric units are shown. The insertion of
dimensions in (in.), elastic modulii E in (psi), moment
M in (lb-in.) pressure p in (psi), and second moment of
area I in (in.4) produces mechanical stress σ in (psi).
σ=
1
2
[
(σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2 ]
(N/m2) 3-65

external pressure.
σ1 = P (N/m2) 3-66

The magnitude of the combined mechanical stress σ, P.D

shown in Equation 3-65, in the sheath or reinforcing σ2 = (N/m2) 3-67
tapes must be below the elastic limit. More usually a
2t
proof stress is specified as sheathing metals such as lead σ 3 = σ 3 '+ σ 3 " (N/m2) 3-68
alloy, aluminum, and copper and reinforcing tapes such
as stainless steel and tin-bronze have imprecise elastic ⎛ y.M ⎞ ⎛ y.E B ⎞
limits. Figure 3-13 shows the principal stresses that
σ3 ' = ± ⎜ ⎟ = ±⎜ ⎟ (N/m2) 3-69
⎝ I ⎠ ⎝ R ⎠
con tribute to σ: the radia l stre ss, σ 1 , show n in
Equation 3-66, and circumferential hoop stress σ 2 , σ 3 " = ± ( E A .α .Δθ ) (N/m2) 3-70
shown in Equation 3-67, both formed by the pressure
difference, and the longitudinal stress σ3 Equation 3-68, Where:
formed by the bending stress σ 3 ′, and the thermome- σ = Combined stress in the metallic sheath or
chanical stress σ3″. The magnitude of the bending stress, reinforcing tapes (N/m2).
shown in Equation 3-69, is directly proportion to the σ1 = Radial principal stress across sheath
(N/m2).

3-35
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations
σ2 = Circumferential principal stress in sheath
(N/m2).
σ3 = Longitudinal principal stress in sheath
(N/m2).
σ3′ = Component of longitudinal stress due to
bending (N/m2).
σ3″ = Component of longitudinal stress due to
thermomechanical force (N/m2).
P = Pressure difference across sheath (N/m2).
D = Diameter of sheath (m).
t = radial thickness of sheath (m).
y = Radial distance from neutral axis to posi-
tion in sheath (m).
M = Bending moment applied to sheath (Nm).
I = Second moment of area of sheath (m4).
EA = Effective modulus in axial loading of
sheath (N/m2).
EB = Effective modulus in bending of sheath
(N/m2).
R = Bend radius of sheath to neutral axis (m).
α = Coefficient of thermal expansion of sheath
(per °C).
Δθ = Temperature rise of sheath (K).
3.6.6 Jacket
The extruded jacket is internationally recognized as
being the most important layer in determining the lon-
gevity of a cable, because it provides the main barrier to
corrosion and to water ingress. However, the jacket is
comparatively thin, for example, 0.13–0.3 in. (3.3–
8 mm), is subjected to significant abrasion during instal-
lation, is softened by solar heating, aged by UV light,
and is vulnerable to attack by termites and vermin. In
some indoor applications, it is also required to have fire-
resistant properties, either in not spreading a fire or in
not liberating corrosive gasses or dense smoke. Care is
required in selecting a fire performance grade for heavy
transmission class cables, because the mechanical and
water-resistant properties may be compromised.
Extruded polyethylene (PE) has good all-round proper-
ties for buried and water-immersed situations. The pre-
ferred grades of PE have a density value midway
between medium- and high-density polyethylene
(MDPE and HDPE), with a typical melting point of
115°C. Linear low-density grades (LLDPE) are now
available with similar high-temperature properties.
Higher-density grades of HDPE are available with melt-
ing points up to 135°C; however, these have increased
vulnerability to stress cracking under conditions of
bending, abrasion, notching, and exposure to sunlight.
The MDPE/HDPE grade is suitable for installation at
higher ambient temperatures than PVC and LDPE and
operation at higher short-term emergency loading tem-
3-36
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
peratures, as shown in Table 3-2. The grade also has a
high shore hardness, which gives a degree of protection
against termite attack. The resistance to water of PE is
excellent; however, some moisture diffuses through the
jacket, risking electrolytic corrosion of the metallic
sheath or foil moisture barrier. Improved performance is
achieved by coating a metallic sheath with a suitable
bituminous compound, and ensuring that the jacket is
fully bonded to a metallic foil, with no air gaps being
present. PE contains a small percentage of carbon black
to give resistance to UV light; however, the black finish
also increases temperature rise by absorption of solar
heat. Disadvantages of PE are:
• The stiffness of the cable is increased, especially at
low temperature.
• The locked-in thermal contraction strain from manu-
facture applies significant contraction forces onto
bonding connections and sheath seals at accessories.
• Combustion is sustained in the presence of air, such
that it is unwise to repeatedly apply test voltages to
locate a fault on a PE jacket in air.
Extruded polyvinyl chloride (PVC) jackets are extruded
from special grades of filled and plasticized PVC, which
generally render them softer than PE and largely elimi-
nates shrink-back, albeit they are more susceptible to
penetration during installation in hot climates. PVC
installed in waterlogged conditions also exhibits a lower
dc resistance, which may increase difficulties in fault
location. Standard grades of PVC produce dense black
acidic smoke in a fire, which is unacceptable in a build-
ing or in the proximity of electronic equipment. Low
halogen grades of PVC, which have reduced smoke and
fire-spread properties, are available for application in
buildings. PVC has a higher permeability to moisture
than PE, making it more important to apply a protec-
tive coating on internal metallic sheaths. Low halogen
grades are generally less robust and have reduced resis-
tance to moisture when applied to large transmission
class cables and would not be first choice for direct
burial on a specially bonded system.
Resistance of a jacket to termite attack is gained by
selecting a high-density grade of PE with a smooth fin-
ish, the inclusion of an environmentally acceptable
insecticide, or the application of an overall layer of hard
nylon in a co-extrusion process.
Specially bonded cables and accessories are at greater
risk of accelerated electrolytic corrosion, because of the
presence of a 60-Hz induced voltage to ground. This
voltage difference is not present in a solidly bonded
cable system. It is essential that the jacket has excellent
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations

insulating properties and that the system is subjected to
routine maintenance tests, typically comprising a dc
withstand voltage of 5 kV dc for 1 minute. To facilitate
voltage testing in dry environments, it is good practice
to apply over the jacket a semiconducting graphite coat-
ing, or a thin bonded layer of co-extruded semiconduct-
ing compound.
3.6.7 Cable Length
A key objective in developing higher insulation design
stresses is the need to transport economic lengths of
cable and so reduce the number of joints. Equation 3-71
shows that, for a given reel, the length of cable, L, is
approximately inversely proportional to the cable diame-
ter DC. The size of the reel and hence the cable length are
limited by the specified minimum cable-bending radius
on the hub, the road bridge clearance above the outer
diameter of the reel, the road highway restriction on reel
width or diameter, and the department of transporta-
tion’s limit on weight. Typical minimum hub diameters
for self-contained cables are 20–24 × DC. The cable is
wound onto the reel in the factory and is then subjected
to the factory acceptance HV test, which requires that
both ends of the cable be unwound 16–33 ft (5–10 m) to
permit HV test connections to be assembled. This length
is made accessible from the inner cable end by the inclu-
sion of a helical ramp built adjacent to an internal face
of the reel flange. Equation 3-71 does not include length
reductions for ramp width, packing density, or lay angle.
The typical maximum dimensions of a reel carrying
transmission-class cable are W = 8 ft (2.5 m), Do = 15 ft
(4.7 m), and k = 20. The equivalent maximum length
for a 6-in. (150-mm) diameter cable with the reel axis
crosswise to the road, ignoring weight restrictions, is
3142 ft (958 m). In special applications, the length is
increased by turning the reel axis parallel with the road
to increase W.
DO = Diameter over outer turn of cable (m).
DH = Diameter of hub (m).
k = Factor to give minimum hub diameter for
a given cable construction (value).
3.7 CABLE ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS
For short-length circuits, the cable is represented by the
lumped parameters shown in Figure 3-14. RAC is the
total conductor resistance. L comprises the internal and
self-impedance of the conductor, and the mutual imped-
ances linked with the parallel phase cables. Gi is the
insulation conductance, this being the reciprocal of
resistance. Ci is the insulation capacitance. For trans-
mission-class ac cables, the insulation conductance Gi is
neglected as being very low.
The lumped parameters are applicable to both ac and to
dc cable systems, depending upon the time-varying con-
tent of voltage and current. In an ac system, the sinusoi-
dal variation is at power frequency and produces the
inductive reactance XL and the capacitive susceptance
Bi, Equations 3-80 and 3-84, which are proportional to
frequency, and the conductor ac resistance RAC, which is
proportional to a power of frequency.
In a dc system in steady-state operation, each cable
is represented by its series dc resistance. However, four
circuit parameters are required to characterize time-
varying behavior:
• Voltages and currents produced by the harmonic
content of ripple from the ac/dc converter station.
• Circuit charging and discharging times.

The following equations are applicable to both metric

and U.S. units. Metric units are shown. The insertion of
dimensions in (ft) produces cable length L in (ft).
2
⎛ ΔR ⎞ ⎛ k D C ⎞
L = π W⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ + 1⎟
⎝ D C ⎠ ⎝ ΔR ⎠
(m) 3-71

ΔR = 0.5(D O − D H ) (m) 3-72

D H = k DC (m) 3-73

Where:
L = Length of cable on reel (m).
W = Internal width of reel (m).
ΔR = Radial depth of cable turns on hub (m). Figure 3-14 Cable lumped parameters and equivalent two-
DC = Diameter of cable (m). port network (courtesy of CCI).

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Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

• Fault transients. in Equation 3-80. This is a vector addition with the sca-
• Inductive and capacitive energies stored in the system. lar magnitude given in Equation 3-81 and phase differ-
ence ϕ as given in Equation 3-82.
For medium-length circuits, the cable is modeled as a ‘T’ Z = R AC + j X L (Ω) 3-79
circuit in which G i and C i are connected at the mid-
point with ‘R AC and L’ being split into ‘0.5R AC and X L = 2πfL (Ω) 3-80
0.5L’ on either side, or as a ‘PI’ circuit in which ‘Gi and
C i ’ are split into ‘0.5G i and 0.5C i ’ to provide the
two legs, with ‘RAC and L’ bridging them.
Z= (R 2
AC + XL
2
) (Ω) 3-81

⎛ X ⎞
For long circuits, the cable is either divided into many
ϕ = tan −1 ⎜⎜ L ⎟⎟ (degrees) 3-82
distributed lumped sections or expressed as functions of
⎝ R AC ⎠
the propagation constant, γ, and the characteristic
impedance, ZC, as given in Equation 3-74. The equations Where:
for voltages and currents are in hyperbolic functions Z = Series impedance, circuit length (Ω).
(Nasar 1990). Series impedance Z and shunt admittance RAC = AC conductor resistance (Ω).
Y are obtained from Equations 3-79 and 3-83. XL = Inductive reactance (Ω).
ϕ = Phase angle between XL and RAC
(degrees).
γ= (ratiom))
Z Y (per ZC =
Z
(Ω) 3-74 f = Power frequency (Hz).
Y L = Cable inductance (H).
Where:
γ = Cable propagation constant (per meter). Parallel Cable Admittance Y
ZC = Cable characteristic impedance (Ω). Admittance Y is the reciprocal of impedance Z and is a
Z = Cable unit series impedance (Ω/m). mathematically more convenient way of expressing
Y = Cable unit parallel admittance (mho/m). shunt connected components. The insulation admit-
tance Y, shown in Equation 3-83, comprises the vector
3.7.1 Cable as a Two-Port Network addition of conductance Gi (reciprocal of the insulation
resistance, RAC) and the insulation susceptance Bi,
The circuit is represented as a “black-box” by its four
shown in Equation 3-84, (reciprocal of the insulation
generalized circuit constants (a, b, c, d), which is
capacitive reactance Xc). This is a vector addition with
referred to as a “two port network,” as shown in
the scalar magnitude given in Equation 3-85 and phase
Figure 3-14. The black box representation conveniently
difference ϕ given in Equation 3-86.
relates the sending end voltage and current to those at
the receiving end, as shown in Equation 3-75. Y = G i + j Bi (mho) 3-83

VS = a VR + b I R (V) Bi = 2πfC (mho) 3-84

I S =c VR + d I R
(G )
(A) 3-75
Y= + Bi
2 2
i (mho) 3-85
The transmission line constants a, b, c, and d are given
in Equations 3-76, 3-77, and 3-78, the series impedance ⎛B ⎞
Z and the shunt admittance Y of the circuit length. ϕ = tan −1 ⎜⎜ i ⎟⎟ (degrees) 3-86
⎝ Gi ⎠
⎛ YZ ⎞
a = d = 1+ ⎜ ⎟ (ratio) 3-76 Where:
⎝ 2 ⎠ Y = Insulation admittance, circuit length
(mho).
b=Z (Ω) 3-77
Gi = Insulation conductance (mho).
⎛ ⎛ YZ ⎞ ⎞ Bi = Insulation capacitive susceptance (mho).
c = Y⎜⎜1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟ (mho) 3-78 ϕ = Phase angle between Bi and Gi (degrees).
⎝ ⎝ 4 ⎠⎠ C = Cable capacitance (F/m).
Series Cable Impedance Z Capacitive Susceptance of Insulation Bi
The series impedance Z of the cable length given in The capacitance C from Equation 3-52 times length is
Equation 3-79, which comprises the phasor addition of entered into Equation 3-84 to obtain Bi.
RAC in series with the inductive reactance XL, as shown

3-38
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Conductance of the Insulation GC
The conductance G = Rc-1. Rc is calculated from Equa-
tion 3-57 divided by circuit length.
3.7.2 Inductance L
Inductance is a measure of the degree to which a time-
varying current is impeded by the magnetic field. Induc-
tance L is defined as the ratio of the magnetic flux link-
ages Φ to current I, as shown in Equation 3-87.
Φ current and inversely proportional to the radial distance
L= (H/m) 3-87
I
Faraday showed that an electromotive force (emf) is
induced in a circuit by a changing magnetic field. Lenz
showed that the emf is in a direction that will drive a
current, preventing the flux from changing. These
observations are expressed mathematically in the Fara-
day-Neumman law, as shown in Equation 3-88. It can
be seen that the magnitude of the back-emf e is the
product of circuit inductance L and the rate of change
of current. In an ac circuit, current varies continuously
at power frequency. In a dc circuit, ripple currents are
present, but are of low magnitude.
dΦ dI
e=− = −L (V/m) 3-88
dt dt
Where:
L = Circuit inductance per unit length (H/m).
Φ = Flux linkages per unit length (Wb/m).
I = Current producing the magnetic field (A).
e = Back-emf per unit length (V/m).
t = Time (s).
In an ac system, the rate of change dI/dt of the sinusoi-
dal current waveform (It sin2πft) is 2πf, thus the back-
emf is, e = 2πf L I. Division by I yields the inductive
reactance XL (Ω/m), as shown in Equation 3-89.
e μo
XL = = 2πf L (Ω/m) 3-89
I 4π.10-7 (H/m).
Where:
XL = Inductive reactance per unit length (Ω/m).
f = Frequency of generation (Hz).
The following sections first derive the geometric distribu-
tion of the magnetic field and then the equations for the
inductance of a dc circuit and of ac three-phase circuits.
Magnetic Field Distribution
A diagram of the resultant magnetic field of strength H
surrounding a simple “go” and a “return” cable is illus-
trated in Figure 3-6. By convention, the field around the
“inwards” flowing +ve current in conductor 1 is taken to
be clockwise and that around the “outward” flowing –ve
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations
current in conductor 2 is counterclockwise. In between
the two conductors, the fields are in the same direction
and so add to produce a higher magnitude resultant
external field, He. Outside the loop, the two fields rotate
in opposing directions and subtract to produce a lower
magnitude H.
Figure 3-7 shows the distribution of the field external to
one conductor H e. The shape of the field H around a
filament of current is directly proportional to the
r, as shown in Equation 3-90. At each radius, the field
Hr produces a local flux of density Br shown in Equa-
tion 3-91, which is proportional to the magnetic perme-
ability μ of the local material. In the absence of a ferrous
material, μ is equal to the permeability of free space.
The flux density Br at radius r from current I is given in
Equation 3-92 and is a thin annular ring of flux. If an
adjacent loop of wire of area A and unit length is placed
nearby, a total quantity of flux rings Φ will be “cap-
tured” and are said to be linked to the loop. The total
quantity of flux Φ is directly proportional to A and to
the average flux density BAV, as shown in Equation 3-93.
I
Hr = (A/m) 3-90
2π r
B r = μH r (T) 3-91
μI
Br = (T) 3-92
2π r
Φ = BAV A (Wb/m) 3-93
Where:
Hr = Magnetic field strength at r (A/m).
r = radial distance from line current (m).
Br = Flux density at r (T).
BAV = Average flux density in the loop (T).
A = Area per unit length (m2/m).
= Magnetic permeability of free space =
A value of inductance L is ascribed to each individual
phase conductor. The inductance L of one phase or pole
includes both self-inductance due to linkages with its
own current and mutual inductance due to linkages with
the currents in the two other phases or pole.
Figure 3-7 shows the distribution of field strength H in a
simple two-conductor circuit. H is also representative of
the distribution of flux density, as H = B/μ. The areas
underneath the curves of H are proportional to the flux
linkages Φ. Each conductor current provides two contri-
butions of flux linkages with itself, the internal flux link-
3-39
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

ages inside the conductor Φi (shaded area) and the flux μ

linkages external to the conductor, Φe (white area under
ΣΦ = I =0.5 I. 10 −7 (Wb/m) 3-100
8π
the broken line). In Figure 3-7, the only part of Φe
linked with the loop is between the conductors. These ΣΦ
flux linkages are represented by the conductor internal Li = = 0.5. 10 −7 (H/m) 3-101
I
inductance Li and the external inductance Le, as shown
Where:
in Equation 3-94.
J = Current density in conductor (A/m2).
L = Li + Le (H/m) 3-94 I = Total current in conductor (A).
ΣIr = Current within radius r (A).
Where:
R = Outer radius of the solid conductor (m).
Li = Inductance internal to the conductor
r = Variable radius (m).
(H/m).
μ = Magnetic permeability of free space, =
Le = Inductance internal to the conductor
4π.10-7 = 1.257 × 10-6 (H/m).
(H/m).
μo = (Magnetic permeability of free space =
Conductor Internal Inductance 0.383 × 10-6 (H/ft)).
dr = Radial thickness of annular shell (m).
Inductance of a Circular Solid Conductor
Br = Flux density at r (T).
A circular solid conductor of unit length, outer radius
Φdr = Flux in shell dr at r, per unit length
R, and carrying a uniform, constant dc current I
(Wb/m).
will have a constant current density J, as shown in
ΣΦ = Total flux in conductor, per unit length
Equation 3-95. The magnitude of current Ir in a smaller
(Wb/m).
cylinder of radius r within the conductor is given by
Equation 3-96. The cumulative flux density Br at r due Inductance of a Circular Hollow-Core Conductor
to the contributions from each cylinder of current Hollow-core conductors are used in SCFF, GIS, and
within it, is given by Equation 3-97. The quantity of flux HTS cables. A metallic sheath is also a hollow-core con-
Φdr at r in an elemental shell, of thickness dr and unit ductor. Internal inductance Li is obtained by the same
length, is given in Equation 3-98. Φdr is linked with the method and is given in Equation 3-102. The use of a
internal volume (πr2 × 1) and, for the purpose of calcu- hollow-core conductor significantly reduces the magni-
lating inductance, is redistributed in proportion to the tude of internal inductance and, in an ac system, the
volumes to link it with the total conductor, as shown in back-emf. When the inner radius equals zero, Li
Equation 3-99. The latter equation is integrated to the becomes the same value as given in Equation 3-101 for a
outer radius R to obtain the cumulative flux linkages solid conductor. Equation 3-102 also gives the internal
ΣΦr inside the conductor, as shown in Equation 3-100, inductance of a metallic sheath.
from which the internal inductance Li, Equation 3-101,
Li =
is derived. This supports the experimental finding that
μ ⎡ 4⎛ ⎛ R ⎞ ⎞⎤
Li is a constant value for a solid conductor irrespective ⎢0.25R o − (R o R i ) + R i ⎜⎜ 0.75 − ln ⎜⎜ i ⎟⎟ ⎟⎟⎥
4 2

of conductor radius, which is 0.5 × 10-7 (H/m). (

2π R o − R i
2
)
2 2
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎝ R o ⎠ ⎠⎥⎦
(H/m) 3-102
I
J= (A/m2) 3-95 Where:
πR 2 Ro = Outer radius of solid hollow core conduc-
tor (m).
r2
ΣI r = IJ = I 2 (A) 3-96 Ri = Inner radius of solid hollow core conduc-
R tor (m).

⎛ μI ⎞ External Inductance of a Go and Return Circuit

Br = ⎜ 2 ⎟
r (T) 3-97
The dc system comprises one go and one return conduc-
⎝ 2πR ⎠ tor. The external flux linked with one conductor is Φe.
⎛ μI ⎞ This is obtained by integrating flux density B, shown in
Φ dr = ⎜ 2 ⎟
r dr (Wb/m) 3-98 Equation 3-103, from the surface of one conductor of
⎝ 2πR ⎠ radius R to the center of the opposite cable at spacing S.
The external inductance Equation 3-104, is then
r2 ⎛ μ I ⎞ ⎛ μI ⎞ 3 obtained from the identity in Equation 3-87.
Φ dr = 2 ⎜ 2 ⎟
r dr =⎜ 4 ⎟
r dr (Wb/m)
R ⎝ 2πR ⎠ ⎝ 2πR ⎠
3-99

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations

μI 1 μI ⎛ S ⎞ For circular conductors comprising a low number of

S
Φe = ∫
2π R R
dr = ln⎜ ⎟ (Wb/m)
2π ⎝ R ⎠
3-103 wires (less than 61) or shaped (noncircular) conductors,
the GMR is calculated by Equation 16-6 in Chapter 16
with the dimensions shown in Figure 16-3. Values of
μ S S GMR for different conductor sizes and wire numbers
Le = ln = 2 ln . 10 −7 (H/m) 3-104
2π R R are given in Tables 3-4, 3-6, and 3-7. The internal induc-
tance is calculated from Equation 3-107.
Maximum external inductance occurs when the cables
are widely spaced. However, successive increases in ⎛ R ⎞ −7
spacing have a progressively reducing effect on induc- L i = 2 ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 10 (H/m) 3-107
tance because the log term shows the majority of the ⎝ m⎠
R
flux is captured at close spacings. The minimum induc-
tance occurs when the cables are installed touching. Equation 3-108 is a simple and sufficiently accurate
equation for internal inductance of stranded conduc-
Total Inductance of a DC Cable tors. A factor k is introduced in place of the constant of
The total inductance per conductor, internal and exter- 0.5 for a solid conductor. The internal inductance of the
nal, is obtained by Li from Equation 3-101 and Le from stranded conductor is k × 10 -7 H/m, from which the
Equation 3-104, giving Equation 3-105. GMR can be calculated.
⎛ ⎛ S ⎞⎞ ⎛ ⎛ S ⎞⎞
L = ⎜⎜ 0.5 + 2 ln⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟10 −7 (Wb/m) 3-105 L = ⎜⎜ k + 2 ln⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟10 −7 (H/m) 3-108
⎝ ⎝ R ⎠⎠ ⎝ ⎝ R ⎠⎠
Where: Where:
L = Inductance per unit length of one conduc- k = Internal inductance of a stranded conduc-
tor (H/m). tor (10-7 H/m).
S = Centerline spacing between dc “go” and
“return” (m). Typical values of GMR and k for different conductors
R = Radius of conductor (m). are given below.

Equation 3-105 shows that internal inductance Li has
the biggest impact when the cables of diameter 5 in.
(127 mm) are installed touching—e.g., Li is 13% of the
total inductance—having a conductor radius R of 1 in.
(25 mm) and centerline spacing of 5 in. (127 mm). L i
reduces to 7% of total when the cables are spaced at
24 in. (610 mm).
The internal inductance of the solid conductor of Li =
0.5 × 10-7 H/m in Equation 3-105 can be incorporated
into the (ln S/R) term by modifying R to become
R exp(−1/4) = 0.779R, which is called the geometric
mean radius, Rm. The geometric mean radius (GMR) is
the radius of a fictitious, thin-walled tubular conductor
that has no internal flux linkages. Equations 3-105 and
3-106 are identical.
⎛ ⎛ S ⎞ ⎞ −7
L = ⎜⎜ 2 ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎟10 (H/m)
⎟ 3-106
⎝ ⎝ m ⎠⎠
R
Where:
Rm = Geometric mean radius (GMR) of a solid
conductor (m).
• Circular stranded, ≥ 37 wires: GMR = 0.769R,
k = 0.525
• Circular stranded, ≥ 61 wires: GMR = 0.773R,
k = 0.515
• Circular solid conductor: GMR = 0.779R, k = 0.500
• Hollow-core stranded, 12 mm duct: GMR = 0.826R,
k = 0.382
Conductors with a small number of wires have a lower
GMR and a higher internal inductance. Table 3-4 con-
firms that circular conductors with 61 wires or more,
with areas of 550 kcmil (300 mm2) and above are closely
similar to, and may be treated as, a solid conductor, hav-
ing a GMR of 0.779R and a k of 0.5. If the hollow-core
conductor becomes a thin shell, as in some supercon-
ducting cables, the GMR approaches unity, and k
approaches zero—i.e., the internal flux linkages and
inductance are negligible.
Total Inductance of an AC Cable
General Case: Asymmetric Formation
The external inductance Le of each cable depends
upon the relative configuration of the three-phase cables
1, 2, and 3. Typical configurations are shown in

3-41
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations
Figure 3-15. The general mathematical case is the asym-
metric spacing in Figure 3-15c.
In the calculation, it is necessary to include the 120°
phase displacement between each of the three currents.
A physical return conductor is not provided in a bal-
anced three-phase system, and this introduces a pro-
spective conundrum in calculating the flux linked with a
“go and return loop.” One solution, Figure 3-16, is to
form three “go and return loops” by positioning a ficti-
tious neutral return conductor N at a long distance from
the circuit, at distances x1, x2, and x3 from each cable. In
the integration of the three contributions of flux cap-
tured in loop “1−N” etc., the terms containing “x” dis-
appear from the equation, leaving simply the ratios of
cable spacing to conductor radius (S/R).
Another equally valid approach is based on the mathe-
matical identity that the addition of the currents in any
two phases produces a current that is exactly in
antiphase (180°) with that in the third. Thus a three-
phase system can be visualized as a simple “go and
return” circuit, as shown in Figures 3-6 and 3-7 in which
the current flows down one phase cable and returns in
the other two, thereby providing loops with which to
capture the flux and calculate inductance.
The resulting inductance equations for each cable are
given in Equations 3-109, 3-110, and 3-111. These are
the equations for the inductance of each of three phase
cables with an unequal spacing (the asymmetrical trian-
gular spacing shown in Figure 3-15c).
⎛ ⎛ SS ⎞ ⎞
L1 = ⎜ k + 2 ln⎜ 1 2 ⎟ − j 1.73 ln⎛⎜ S1 ⎞⎟ ⎟10 −7
⎜ ⎜ R ⎟ ⎜ S ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎠
(H/m) 3-109
⎛ ⎛ SS ⎞ ⎞
L 2 = ⎜ k + 2 ln⎜ 1 3 ⎟ − j 1.73 ln⎛⎜ S3 ⎞⎟ ⎟10 −7
⎜ ⎜ R ⎟ ⎜ S ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠⎠
(H/m) 3-110
Figure 3-15 Cable configurations in a dc circuit and three-phase ac circuits (courtesy of CCI).
3-42
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
⎛ ⎛ SS ⎞ ⎞
L 3 = ⎜ k + 2 ln⎜ 2 3 ⎟ − j 1.73 ln⎛⎜ S2 ⎞⎟ ⎟10 −7
⎜ ⎜ R ⎟ ⎜ S ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠⎠
(H/m) 3-111
Where:
S1 = centerline spacing between cables 1 and
2 (m).
S2 = centerline spacing between cables 1 and
3 (m).
S3 = centerline spacing between cables 2 and
3 (m).
Direct-buried cable systems generally use symmetrical
flat cable formations to suit the trench floor, as shown in
Figure 3-15b and less frequently equilateral (trefoil)
shown in Figure 3-15e, the latter usually being with the
cables touching. Duct and pipe systems generally use
right-angled triangular (Figure 3-15d) and equilateral
triangular formations to suit the duct bank. The sym-
metry permits the general equations to be simplified
using the spacing relationships given below:
• Equilateral triangle: S = S1 = S2 = S3
• Right-angled triangle at cable 2: S = S1 = S3,
S2 = S 2
• Equal flat spacing, 1, 2, 3: S = S1= S3, S2 = 2S
In the general equations for asymmetric formation, the
third term in the inductance equations is preceded by
the operator j (representing a 90° phase shift), showing
that, in addition to impeding the flow of current by pro-
ducing an inductive reactance, the cable configuration is
also acting as a transformer in which an in-phase volt-
age is induced in each conductor. The in-phase voltage
produces a transfer of power between the cable phases.
For this reason, the cables in some long circuits are
transposed at each joint position to balance the power
transfer. This is readily achieved in the joint vaults in a
cross-bonded circuit by transposing the physical posi-
tion of the phase cables in the next section.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations

The average inductance per phase Lphase is used for the
circuit equations in Chapter 16, which is the average of
Equations 3-109, 3-110, and 3-111, and is given in
Equation 3-112. The third term has disappeared, show-
ing that the averaged power transfer between phases is
zero. The right-hand term of Equation 3-112 is essen-
tially the same as that incorporated into the calculation
of inductive reactance X L (j 2πf L phase) for the single-
point bonded system described in Chapter 16, in Equa-
tion 16-5. GMDϕ is the geometric mean distance of the
three conductors, (3 S1 S 2 S 3 ), and GMRϕ is the geomet-
ric radius of one conductor as previously defined.
Equispaced Flat Formation (Figure 3-15b)
The inductances of the three cables in the Flat forma-
tion are given in Equations 3-113, 3-114, and 3-115. The
inductances of the two outer phases, Cables 1 and 3, are
equal. The inductance of the center phase Cable 2,
shown in Equation 3-114, is the same as the two-cable
case, Equation 3-105. Cable 1 experiences the trans-
former effect of power transfer, with an in-phase voltage
contribution of magnitude (I. 2πf 0.12 × 10-6) V/m,
whereas Cable 3 experiences an opposing voltage of the
same magnitude. The voltage contribution is 41.3 V per
1000 A per 3000-ft (914-m) span.

⎛3 S S S ⎞ −7 The expression for average inductance Lphase is the same

L phase = k + 2 ln⎜ 1 2 3 ⎟ 10
⎜ R ⎟ as given in Equation 3-105, where S 1 = S 2 = S and
⎝ ⎠ S3 = 2S.

⎛3 S S S ⎞ −7 ⎛ ⎛S 2 ⎞ ⎞
= 2 ln⎜ 1 2 3 ⎟ 10 L1 = ⎜ k + 2 ln⎜⎜ ⎟ + j 1.2 ⎟ 10 −7 (H/m)
⎟ 3-113
⎜ Rm ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ R ⎠ ⎠
⎛ GMD φ ⎞ −7 ⎛ ⎛ S ⎞⎞
= 2 ln⎜ ⎟ 10 (H/m) 3-112 L 2 = ⎜⎜ k + 2 ln⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟10 −7 (H/m)
⎜ GMR ⎟ ⎝ R ⎠⎠
3-114
⎝ φ ⎠ ⎝
Where:
⎛ ⎛S 2 ⎞ ⎞
Lphase = Inductance per unit length of one conduc-
L 3 = ⎜ k + 2 ln⎜⎜ ⎟ − j 1.2 ⎟10 −7 (H/m)
⎟
3-115
tor (H/m). ⎜ ⎟
k = Internal inductance of a stranded conduc- ⎝ ⎝ R ⎠ ⎠
tor (10-7 H/m). Equilateral Triangular Spacing (Trefoil) (Figure 3-15e):
S1 = Centerline spacing between cables 1 and Equation 3-116 is obtained by entering S = S1 = S2 = S3
2 (m). into the general equations. The inductance is found to
GMDϕ=Geometric mean distance (3 S1 S 2 S 3 ) of be equal for each phase cable with no power transfer
cable formation (m). between phases. Equation 3-116 is also obtained when
R = Radius of a conductor (m). the values for S are entered into Equation 3-112 for
GMRϕ= Rm, Geometric mean radius of conductor average circuit inductance Lphase, confirming that the
≅ R exp(−1/4) = 0.779R (m). expression for average inductance represents an equilat-
eral cable formation.

⎛ ⎛ S ⎞⎞
L = ⎜⎜ k + 2 ln⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟10 −7 (H/m) 3-116
⎝ ⎝ R ⎠⎠
3.7.3 Conductor Resistance, R
A conductor in a circuit carrying an ac current experi-
ences a magnetic field that produces a nonlinear distri-
bution of current density and an increase in I2R heating.
The theoretical representation of this phenomenon is
complex (CIGRE 2005a). A simple explanation is given
in this section.

By Lenz’s law, a time-varying magnetic field will induce

a voltage (a back-emf) in a solid conductor in a direc-
tion that will drive a current to produce an opposing
Figure 3-16 Circuit loops 1-N, 2-N, and 3-N to fictitious field. The conductor experiences both its own internal
return N (courtesy of CCI). field and the field from the adjacent conductors. Eddy

3-43
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

currents will be set up to oppose both these fields. Eddy
currents, therefore, flow within the solid conductor and,
depending on interwire resistance, will attempt to flow
within a stranded conductor. In some parts of the con-
ductor, the eddy currents will oppose the flow of main
power current, reducing the current density, and in oth-
ers will reinforce it and increase the density. The abbre-
viated explanation is that the back-emf opposes the flow
of power current and so reduces the local current den-
sity such that the current density is increased in the
parts of the conductor experiencing low back-emf.
Resistance of a Conductor Carrying DC Current, R
The values for dc resistance are obtained from pub-
lished standards such as ASTM B 8-04 (ASTM 2004)
and IEC 60228 (IEC 2005). Examples are given in
Tables 3-4, 3-7, and 3-8.
Resistance of a Conductor Carrying AC Current,
RAC
The ac resistance, shown in Equation 3-117, includes
factors ys and yp to increment the dc resistance. The fac-
tor ys increments the dc resistance for skin-effect heat-
ing. The factor yp increments the dc resistance for
proximity-effect heating. The calculations of ys and yp
are based on the solutions of Maxwell’s electromagnetic
wave equations. The solutions incorporate Bessel func-
tions and are provided in published works as a list of
mathematical functions, each related to a specific range
of conductor diameters. The equations are listed in IEC
60287 (IEC 1994) and, for conventional conductor size
cables, in Chapter 11. The rigid tubular conductors in
GIL are of larger diameter than conductors in conven-
tional cables, requiring the selection of a different math-
ematical function within the list (CIGRE 2003).
R AC = R (1 + y s + y p ) (Ω/m)
Skin Effect ys
The dc current density inside a conductor is uniform,
and so the field strength Hr and flux density Br increase
linearly from the center, as shown in Figure 3-7 and
expressed in Equation 3-97. The flux linkages with a fil-
ament of current near to the center are higher than
those linked with a similar filament on the outer surface.
When the conductor carries ac current, the rate of
change of flux linkages with time produces a higher
back-emf at the center filament. This opposes current
flow at the center and reduces the local current density.
In consequence, the current density is increased near the
conductor surface. As a general principle, the current
filaments tend to carry more current in a position where
they experience minimum internal flux linkages and
hence minimum back-emf, this being the region of high-
est field. An equilibrium of minimum impedance to cur-
rent flow is reached, when the increase in resistive
potential drop IR from the increased flow of current,
starts to exceed the reduction in back-emf.
The concentration of current at the outer surface is
called “skin effect.” The increase in total I2R heat loss in
the conductor is represented by the skin effect factor ys.
The concentration can be expressed in terms of the ‘skin
depth’ δ, as given in Equation 3-118. The skin depth is
taken to be the radial depth at which the current density
falls to 37% (1/e) of the 100% value at the surface. This
is equivalent to all of the current being concentrated
within the outer radial depth δ, at a constant current
density of 50%.
When the radius of a conductor is increased in excess of
the skin depth, the full benefit of increased area is not
gained in ampacity. The skin effect factor ys increases in
magnitude with conductor diameter, power frequency,
and metal conductivity. Skin effect is reduced when the
conductor is heated to operating temperature, thereby
reducing conductivity; and when copper is replaced by
aluminum, which possesses lower conductivity; and
when the radial wall thickness is reduced by use of a
hollow-core conductor.
3-117
ρ
δ = 503 (mm) 3-118
f
Where:
δ = skin depth (mm).
ρ = electrical resistivity (μΩ-m).
f = power frequency (Hz).

Table 3-12 Conductor Sizes at Which Skin Effect Becomes Appreciable

60 Hz 50 Hz
Conductor Temperature Skin Depth Conductor Area Skin Depth Conductor Area
Material (°C) in. mm kcmil mm2 in. mm kcmil mm2
20 0.34 8.5 1250 630 0.37 9.3 1500 800
Copper
90 0.38 9.6 1500 800 0.42 10.6 2000 1000
20 0.43 11.0 2000 1000 0.47 12.0 2500 1200
Aluminum
90 0.49 12.0 2500 1200 0.54 13.6 3000 1600

3-44
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations

The conductor sizes at which the radius exceeds the skin lated by IEC 60287 ampacity equations. Enameled wire
depth for circular copper and aluminum conductors at Milliken conductors almost eliminate the ac skin effect.
60 and 50 Hz are calculated from Equation 3-118 and
Proximity Effect yp
shown in Table 3-12. The table illustrates the conductor
sizes at which a change to the higher-efficiency Milliken The external magnetic field produced by the adjacent
stranded segmental conductor would improve ampacity. cables is inversely proportional to distance, as shown in
In practice, the upper limit for a concentric conductor is Figure 3-7 and expressed in Equations 3-90 and 3-92.
based on a precisely determined ac resistance value On the near side of the reference conductor, this rein-
within the ampacity calculation and is balanced by the forces the internal field and on the far side reduces it.
increased manufacturing cost of the Milliken conductor. The back-emf modifies the current density. The current
Experience shows that, for non-pipe-type applications, density will be increased on the near side and reduced
manufacturers generally start to offer Milliken copper on the far side. The resultant increase in total I2R heat
conductors for 60-Hz applications at conductor sizes of loss in the conductor is represented as an apparent
1500 kcmil (800 mm2) and above and for 50-Hz applica- increase in total conductor resistance, by the proximity
tions at 2000 kcmil (1000 mm2) and above. Selection of effect factor yp, shown in Equation 3-117.
an aluminum conductor permits circular stranded con-
ductors to maintain efficiency for another two standard The proximity effect becomes significant when cables
conductor sizes—i.e., at 60 Hz to 2500 kcmil (1200 mm2) are installed touching each other; however, it rapidly
and at 50 Hz to 3000 kcmil (1600 mm2). reduces as spacing is increased. Stranded segmental
conductors significantly reduce proximity effect as the
Skin effect is reduced significantly by the use of the thin layer of separating tapes present between each laid-
stranded segments in Milliken conductors. In a Milliken up segment forces the current to take a helically rotating
conductor, shown in Figure 3-11, the current in each path around the conductor, irrespective of fluctuations
wire is constrained to follow the path of the wire as it in the flux from adjacent cables. The proximity effect
rotates helically about the central axis of the segment. factor is less than the skin effect factor for uninsulated
The length of wire occupying the outer surface is equal wire Milliken conductors.
to the length on the inner surface. Overall, each wire Skin and Proximity Effect in Pipe-Type Cable
experiences an average back-emf along its length and so The geometrical formation of the three cables in the pipe
maintains a more uniform current density and reduced is asymmetric (unlike the photograph in Figure 3-3),
I2 R heating. The presence of interstrand resistance in being off the pipe centerline and being in irregular trefoil
the form of poor contact and naturally occurring oxide or cradle shape. In service operation, the cable configu-
layers between wires, constrains the current to follow rations change as they form lateral sinusoidal and heli-
the helical path of the wire. However, a proportion of cal patterns. The common feature is that the cables will
the current will transfer radially outwards at points of always be closer to one side of the pipe than the other.
good contact. The unbalanced magnetic fields from the cables induce
eddy currents on the steel pipe, which increase the fields
The efficiency of the Milliken conductor can be signifi- experienced by the conductors, thereby increasing the ac
cantly improved by the use of insulated wires and to a loss. An empirical increase of 50% in the skin and prox-
lesser extent by uni-lay conductor constructions. The use imity effect factors is added into Equation 3-119 (IEC
of an enameling process is generally preferred to an oxi- 60287, 1994).
dizing process because it is more consistent and less haz-
ardous in manufacture. CIGRE Brochure 218 (CIGRE R AC = R (1 + 1.5( y s + y p ) ) (Ω/m) 3-119
2003) compiles RAC/RDC ratio measurements at 40–90°C
of different Milliken segmental conductors in extruded
XLPE cables from Okada (Okada et al. 1999) and Table 3-13 RAC/RDC Ratios for Milliken Conductors in XLPE
Bourgeat (Bourgeat et al. 1999). These are summarized Cables (courtesy of CIGRE)
in Table 3-13. In the latter publications, it is stated that Conductor Conductor RAC/RDC Ratios
the ac/dc ratios for uninsulated wires in XLPE cable Uninsulated Insulated Wires
conductors are: (1) higher than in other cable types, Wires Oxidized Enameled
being attributed to reduction in interwire resistance by kcmil mm2 (%) (%) (%)
compaction in XLPE extrusion; (2) the ratios varied 2400 1200 115 - -
widely and inconsistently between different conductor 2800 1400 119 - -
constructions; and (3) the ratios are higher than calcu- 3200 1600 124 107 103
4000 2000 124–134 - 104
5000 2500 135 107.5 102

3-45
Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations
3.7.4 Positive, Negative, and Zero Phase
Impedances
The sequence impedances are used in the calculation of
currents and voltages during an asymmetric short cir-
cuit—for example, when one phase conductor faults to
ground. The currents and voltages that result are used
to calculate:
• The ac voltage induced in the cable’s integrated
ground return conductor. In a specially bonded sys-
tem, the sheath voltage limiters (SVLs) are selected to
withstand this voltage (IEEE 1988, CIGRE 2005b).
This produces significant heat in the SVL and is the
most onerous condition that they experience.
• The magnitude of the voltage induced in adjacent
alarm, relaying, and communication cables. The
induced voltage is reduced to an acceptable level by,
for example, increasing the conductivity of the power
cable shield/ground return conductors and adding a
conducting or magnetic shield to the pilot and com-
munication cables (Mendez et al. 1998 and Gregory
et al. 1999).
In the calculation method, the asymmetric short-circuit
current can be resolved into three components:
• The positive sequence currents are of equal magni-
tude, 120° phase displaced, and rotate in the normal
time sequence (shown as counterclockwise on a pha-
sor diagram).
• The negative sequence currents are of equal magni-
tude, 120° phase displaced, but rotate in the opposite
time sequence (clockwise).
• The zero sequence currents are of equal magnitude
and rotate in the normal time sequence (counter-
clockwise), but are exactly in phase with each other.
Cable manufacturers are required to calculate the posi-
tive, negative, and zero phase impedances for insertion
into the system network model. The induced voltages
present in a specially bonded cable circuit are frequently
calculated using the positive sequence impedance
because these voltages are solely dependent on known
cable parameters. This assumes that a three-phase fault
has occurred, not the usual single-phase fault to ground;
however, the method produces similar voltages and
results in a safe design.
Positive and Negative Phase Sequence Impedance
A cable system is isotropic, and so the positive and neg-
ative impedances are equal. The impedances are the
standard cable circuit impedances given in the
Section 3.7 equations.
3-46
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Zero Phase Sequence Impedance
This is the impedance to the flow of current in a fault to
ground. The current has the opportunity to flow back
through both the internal and external ground conduc-
tors and through the ground itself. The inductance of
the cable is of different magnitude because the 120°
phase displaced flux linkages are no longer present. The
ground return impedance represents the distributed cur-
rent flow paths, which are determined by the ground
resistivity and flux linkages. Published equations are
available to calculate the inductance of a cable with a
ground return—for example, Carson (1926) and Pollac-
zek (1926).
Cable system short-circuit performance is described in
detail in Chapter 16, “Cable System Considerations.”
3.7.5 Characteristic Impedance
The characteristic impedance Zc is the relationship
between the peak current and voltage present in a high-
speed transient pulse, such as a normal switching surge
or lightning impulse as it propagates along the cable. In
an ideal loss-free cable with nonfrequency-dependent
parameters, the characteristic impedance is simplified to
Equation 3-120. L is the inductance in coaxial mode,
shown in Equation 3-121, and capacitance C is given in
Equation 3-52. The speed of propagation is given in
Equation 3-122, and permittivity values are given in
Table 3-9. In a cable system, the characteristic imped-
ance is used to calculate the transient currents and volt-
ages for the selection of the peak residual voltage (PRV)
of the SVL, and the BIL levels for the cable jacket, the
bonding lead insulation, the shield interruption gaps,
and the link box insulation. Design methods and limits
are given in industry standards such as IEEE 575 (IEEE
1988) and CIGRE Brochure 283 (CIGRE 2005b). The
subject is discussed further in Chapter 16.
L
ZC = (Ω) 3-120
C
⎛R ⎞
L = 2 ln⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟10 −7 (H/m) 3-121
⎝ Ri ⎠
c
v= (m/s) 3-122
εr
Where:
ZC = Characteristic impedance of layer (Ω/m).
L = Inductance in coaxial mode (H/m).
C = Capacitance of layer (F/m).
εr = Relative permittivity of insulation (ratio).
v = Speed of surge (m/s).
c = Speed of light: 9.8 × 108 ft/s, (3 × 108 m/s).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
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Chapter 3: Basic Design Considerations
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Okada, M., T. Karasaki, H. Furuhata, N. Imajo, M.
Mitant, and S. Aakuma. 1999. “Transmission
Capacity Design of Underground Power Cables.” Paper
A 7.1. Jicable.
Pollaczek, F. 1926. “Uber das feld einer unendlich lagen
wecshselstromdurchflossen Einfachleitung.’ ENT3.
Smith, C., S. J. Galloway, B. Gregory, S. D. Lloyd, and
D. Notman. 2003. “The Development of an Ultrasound
Quality Monitoring Process for the Manufacture of
Enhanced Reliability HV and EHV XLPE Cables.”
Paper A.2.6. Jicable. Versailles.
Zenger, W., S. J. Galloway, and B. Gregory. 2006.
“Thermo-Mechanical Design of XLPE Insulated HV
and EHV Cables Installed in Duct-Manhole and Pipe
Systems.” Paper B1-111. CIGRE. Paris.
 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

CHAPTER 4 Cable Construction:

Extruded Dielectrics
Authors: Brian Gregory, Cable Consulting International Ltd.
Axel Schlumberger, Southwire HV Solutions
Ernesto Zaccone, Prysmian Cables and Systems

Reviewer: Pierre Argaut, Silec Cable

This chapter gives a comprehensive account of all aspects of extruded cable technology to
introduce the prospective user to cable design, construction, and manufacture. The con-
structions and tests are described with reference to North American specifications AEIC
CS9-06 and standard ICEA S-108-720-2004 and to international standards IEC 62067
and IEC 60840.

North America experienced a cable milestone in 2006 with the installation of its first
long-length 345-kV extruded crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) circuits containing joints.
Worldwide, EHV XLPE cable systems have been progressively installed in Japan and
Europe starting in the 1990s, and are now the preferred choice for transmission at 345 to
500 kV. In doing so, XLPE cables have displaced the dominant position of cables with
fluid-filled taped insulation. XLPE has the benefits of low loss, low capacitance, and
absence of dielectric fluid. Ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) has benefits in HV applica-
tions of improved bending flexibility, temperature performance, and moisture resistance.

The advances in, and barriers to, extruded cable technology are described—from the first
synthesis of thermoplastic polyethylene in 1933 to the present dominance of the thermo-
sets XLPE and EPR. Accessories posed the final barrier to EHV cable applications; their
design is described in Chapter 8. The properties of XLPE and EPR are described in
detail, because these significantly influence manufacturing techniques and cable con-
structions. This chapter includes descriptions of cable manufacture and in particular of
the available methods of continuous vulcanization (CV). Also included is a description of
the wide choice of cable outer constructional finishes and their merits. The chapter
includes detailed information on selection of insulation design stress and its dependence
on manufacturing quality control in minimizing insulation inclusions, shield protrusions,
and extrusion defects. Methods to relate design stress to service life are covered.

Brian Gregory is the Technical Director and a founder member of

Cable Consulting International Ltd (CCI), incorporated in 2001. He
received an honors degree in Electrical and Electronic Engineering from
the City University, London in 1968. He received professional training
as a student apprentice with AEI Supertension Cables from 1963 to
1968. In 1969, he joined BICC Supertension Cables as a Development
Engineer for cables and accessories, becoming the Chief Development
Engineer in 1981. In 1992, Mr. Gregory became the Chief Engineer of
BICC Supertension and Subsea Cable Systems, with responsibilities for supertension
cable technology worldwide. He has extensive expertise in the research, development,
design, manufacture, testing, and commercialization of land and submarine cable sys-
tems, ac and dc up to 525 kV, insulated with extruded XLPE, EPR, fluid impregnated
LPP and paper, mass-impregnated paper, and LPGF and HPGF paper. He has recently

4-1
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
researched the thermomechanical behavior of XLPE
and HPFF cables in pipe and duct-manhole systems for
EPRI, producing design guides and new calculation
methods. He is an inventor and has authored over 45
technical papers and books. He is a Fellow of the IEE, a
Member of the IEEE, a Member of CIGRE, a Char-
tered Engineer, and a FEANI registered European
Engineer.
Axel Schlumberger is the General
Manager of Southwire High Voltage
S ol u t io ns a n d i s res po ns i ble for
Southwire Company’s underground
transmission cable business. He holds
a Master’s Degree in electric energy
systems and power apparatus from the
University of Karlsruhe in Germany.
His career in transmission cable systems began as a sales
engineer for Cortaillod Cossonay Cable in Switzerland,
covering transmission cable markets and projects in the
Middle East and Southeast Asia, with voltage levels up
to 400 kV. Later, he joined Southwire Company near
Atlanta, Georgia. There, he has played a key role in the
design, development, and implementation of South-
wire’s XLPE transmission cable systems business. Mr.
Schlumberger is a Member of the IEEE Power Engi-
neering Society and CIGRE.
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Ernesto Zaccone is currently with the
R & I ( Re s e a rc h a n d I n n ovat i o n )
department of Prysmian Cables and
System (formerly Pirelli Cables) based
in Milan, Italy. He obtained a degree
in Electrotechnical Engineering in
1969. During the same year, he joined
the power cable industry, where he was
engaged in a number of different activities such as
projects in high-voltage testing laboratories and high-
voltage cable system design. In particular, he was
involved in the study, design, and realization of some
major EHV (Extra High Voltage) extruded cable
projects. He was also the author of several studies on the
application and impact of EHV cables when integrated
in transmission systems. Currently he is involved in a
number of innovative underground cable projects and in
international standardization activities. Mr. Zaccone is
the Chairman of the CEI CT 20 Italian standardization
body for power cables. He is the Co-convenor of the IEC
TC20 WG 16, which is responsible for the international
standardization of high-voltage cables and their accesso-
ries, and is an active member of CIGRE and IEEE.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Three types of extruded insulation cables are in service
worldwide in the HV to EHV voltage range. In order of
discussion in this chapter, they are PE (thermoplastic
polyethylene), XLPE (crosslinked polyethylene) and
EPR (crosslinked ethylene propylene rubber). In North
America, the designations HV and EHV describe trans-
mission circuits in the voltage range of greater than
46 kV and up to 345 kV (Figure 4-1), while worldwide
this extends to 500 kV (Figure 4-2). HV and EHV cable
types are distinguished from lower-voltage types by
their high power ratings, larger conductor sizes, higher
insulation design stresses, increased insulation thick-
nesses and transition from a mass-produced commodity
to a custom-designed product. In particular, the electri-
cal design stress is significantly increased at 230 kV and
above, requiring that the highest standards of manufac-
turing quality and materials supply be applied to
achieve the required 40-year service life.
Figure 4-1 United States’ first 345-kV XLPE, 1750 kcmil
(800 mm2), lead sheath cable with joints, 2006 (courtesy
of Silec Cable).
Figure 4-2 World’s first 500-kV 1600 kcmil (800
mm2) XLPE cable in 1988 (courtesy of J-Power
Systems).
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
4.1.1 Objectives
This chapter is written to inform utility engineers about
the selection of extruded cable types and the witnessing
and acceptance of tests.
The chapter describes the differences between the
generic types of insulating materials, cable designs, and
manufacturing equipment with respect to their merits
and individual characteristics. It is left to the utility
engineers to decide which types are the most suitable for
their particular applications. In describing the cable
manufacturing processes, it is helpful to show examples
of past manufacturing defects. At the higher transmis-
sion voltages, manufacturers are well aware of the qual-
ity defects that may occur and exercise great diligence
and responsibility to both the purchaser and to their
own shareholders in ensuring that defects either do not
occur or that their QA system detects and rejects them
at the earliest possible stage of manufacture.
The chapter also provides an account of the technologi-
cal barriers encountered and overcome, so that the util-
ity engineer has an appreciation of the design and
quality control measures that are built into present-day
HV and EHV cable design and manufacture. The engi-
neer may reasonably ask a prospective manufacturer to
explain the quality control measures that are in position
to achieve and maintain HV and EHV cable quality.
4.1.2 Technological Position of Extruded Cables
The first long-length 345-kV XLPE (crosslinked poly-
ethylene) cable circuit with joints to be installed in the
United States was commissioned in Connecticut in 2006
(see Figure 4-1). Five other 345-kV projects are in plan-
ning and installation, with a total combined single-cir-
cuit length of 64 miles (103 km). This is a key landmark
in the evolution of extruded cable technology in the
United States, which commenced with the first synthesis
and applications of polyethylene for telegraphy and
power cable 73 years ago.
Although deceptively simple in construction, modern
EHV XLPE cables have only been made possible by
major developments in dielectrics science, polymer chem-
istry, clean materials, manufacturing equipment and
accessories. Significant technological barriers have been
overcome, including the delay caused by the high failure
rate of URD (underground residential distribution) cable
from water treeing and the time needed to develop and
prove compatible accessories (see Figure 4-3).
4-3
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
Figure 4-3 Joint development lagged cable development
by 10 years in Japan.
The main drivers for the application of extruded HV
and EHV cables have been:
• Environmental compatibility, arising from absence of
the fluid impregnant that is an essential component
in the established designs of paper and LPP cables
and hence complete elimination of the leaks associ-
ated with them.
• Reduced fire risk in tunnels and buildings arising
from absence of any hydrocarbon fluid that could
spread a fire to other circuits and other equipment.
• Reduced maintenance arising from the absence of
pressurizing equipment and the need to monitor and
refurbish it.
• Reduced capacitive reactance and dielectric losses, as
compared to paper and LPP cables.
• Economic advantages for long-length submarine
applications: for ac applications, reducing charging
current magnitude and eliminating the need to feed
dielectric fluid, and for dc applications, eliminating
mass-impregnated paper cables and increasing oper-
ating temperature and ampacity.
The main thrust of the development has been to
increase the design stress of extruded cables such that
the thickness of the insulation, overall cable diameter,
cable span length, and most importantly, service life reli-
ability are competitive with those of the highly evolved
paper and LPP cables. Although the development of
“high-stress” XLPE has succeeded in significantly
reducing insulation thickness, HV and EHV cables are
still slightly thicker than their paper and LPP counter-
parts. The difference is now sufficiently small for XLPE
cables to be selected in preference for major EHV
projects and to leave little doubt that diameter reduc-
tions will become possible when further confidence is
gained in accessory performance.
It is now clear that extruded cables have become the pre-
ferred type for all transmission voltages and have super-
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
seded the previous pre-eminent designs of HPFF and
SCFF cables. There is now no easy way of turning back,
since the manufacturing capacity for extruded cables is
increasing and that for SCFF cables reducing, such that
the demise of SCFF cable and factories can be extrapo-
lated. There now follows a learning period in which ser-
vice experience and knowledge are accumulated. The
technical author Peter Graneau wrote in 1980, “the gen-
eral acceptance of new and more economical systems usu-
ally has to wait until quite a few installations have been in
successful operation for 10-20 years” (Graneau 1979).
For the highest-voltage category of XLPE cable at 230 to
500 kV, this period began in mid-1995, when the first cir-
cuits with large-conductor XLPE cables and joints were
installed. All being well, the year 2015 will pass unnoticed
as a quiet testament to sound cable engineering.
4.1.3 Contents
This chapter describes cable constructions in relation to
the new North American specifications for XLPE and
EPR extruded cable. The first recommended point of
reference for the utility engineer is AEIC CS9-06 (AEIC
2006) for cables and their accessories, which refers to,
and complements, ICEA-S-108-720-2004 (ICEA 2004)
for the cable alone. The second points of reference are
to the international test specifications IEC 62067 cover-
ing cables and accessories at >150 to 500 kV and to IEC
60840 covering 30 to 150 kV, also for cables and acces-
sories. Both specifications are now entering the mainte-
nance stage. On the request of IEC, CIGRE TB 303
(CIGRE 2006) has been published, giving recommen-
dations for the evolution of these standards. Accessories
are regarded as being equally, if not more, important in
achieving circuit reliability than the extruded cable, and
so the three key specifications advocate the “systems
approach” in which one manufacturer is responsible for
the design of the system and for the manufacture and
assembly of the cable and accessories. This chapter con-
siders those parts of the cable design that are required
to be compatible with the accessories. The designs of
the accessories themselves are considered in detail in
Chapter 8.
The chapter compares the advantages and technological
challenges for each cable type with respect to the EHV
applications in the voltage range of 230 kV and above.
The comparison is still relevant to lower-voltage HV
cables; however, historically these cables have had lower
design stresses, which render them more tolerant of less
stringent cleanliness levels and geometric tolerances. The
inevitable future cascade of the higher EHV design
stresses to the lower-voltage cables will require the appli-
cation of the associated EHV materials and manufactur-
ing techniques.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Sections 4.2 through 4.13 summarize the evolution of
PE, XLPE, and EPR extruded cable types that have
made possible service applications up to 500 kV, and
describe the technological barriers that have been over-
come by improvements in manufacturing equipment
and materials supply.
Sections 4.14 through 20 describe the component parts
of the cable construction with reference to the North
American and international specifications and, in par-
ticular, give the reasons for the key specification require-
ments. The components are considered with respect to
their dimensions and the manufacturing equipment.
This is followed by a description of the manufacturing
quality control measures necessary for a 230- to 500-kV
circuit to consistently achieve long service life.
Section 4.21 describes quality control and industry spec-
ifications. Section 4.22 discusses shipping of cable.
Section 4.23 describes the methods of calculating the
electrical design stresses necessary to achieve a 40-year
life.
The evolution of extruded cable technology is consid-
ered with respect to the order in which the materials
were first developed and extruded: the thermoplastic,
homo-polymer polyethylene (PE), the thermo-set,
crosslinked homo-polymer polyethylene (XLPE), and
the thermo-set, crosslinked co-polymer, ethylene-propy-
lene rubber (EPR). Each insulant is described, together
with its advantages and challenges and this is followed
by an account of the technological advances that were
necessary to make present-day 345-kV cables possible.
The technological barriers and the solutions give the
reader an appreciation of the design and manufacturing
complexities and quality control measures that are built
into present-day extruded cable designs and manufac-
turing equipment to produce high-class insulation.
4.2 PE CABLE: BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES
The benefits and challenges of PE for cable applications
are as follows.
4.2.1 Benefits
• Low melting temperature, which gives ease of extru-
sion.
• Low viscosity of the liquid melt, which permits filtra-
tion to high purity.
• Exceptionally high electrical strength.
• Electrical strength attained without need of a liquid
impregnant.
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
• Mechanical robustness, which provides protection
during installation and in service.
• Low dielectric permittivity, which gives low capaci-
tive reactance and low charging current.
• Exceptionally low dissipation factor, which mini-
mizes dielectric heating.
• Low dielectric loss factor, which provides energy sav-
ings.
• Simple homo-polymer chemistry, high purity, and
absence of fillers, which result in a low-cost insulation
compared to other polymers.
4.2.2 Challenges
• Low melting point, which limits the normal operat-
ing temperature to 70°C and hence limits the ampac-
ity, requiring a larger conductor size.
• Comparatively stiff (inelastic) cable at normal and
low ambient temperatures, increasing difficulty in
bending, especially for jointing.
• Minimal resistance to partial discharging; as a result,
high standards are essential in quality control for
manufacture of the material and the cable and for the
assembly of the accessories.
• High thermal expansion, requiring allowances in the
cable construction.
• Susceptibility to premature electrical failure by water
treeing.
• Susceptibility to premature ageing by oxidation,
requiring the inclusion of antioxidants.
4.3 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF
POLYETHYLENE INSULATION
The monomer, ethylene, is the simple hydrocarbon mol-
ecule C2H4, which is a gas at NTP (normal temperature
and pressure). A double bond joins the two carbon
atoms. The act of polymerization opens one of the
bonds, such that a very long chain molecular backbone
is formed, a short length of which is shown in Figure
4-4, left. Polyethylene is a thermoplastic material, which
upon the application of heat becomes a liquid that can
be molded and, if required, remolded again.
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE), produced by the
high-pressure polymerization process, is a high-
molecular-weight molecule with many side chains, as
depicted diagrammatically in Figure 4-4, right. The side
chains prevent close packing of the molecules, which
reduces the density, reduces the degree of crystallinity,
increases the amorphous volume, and reduces the
melting temperature to 105-110°C. For the purpose of
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Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
Figure 4-4 Left: chemical backbone of polyethylene. Right: Long side chains attached to the LDPE backbone
(courtesy of CCI).
brevity, a temperature of 107°C is taken in this chapter
to be indicative of the melting point.
LDPE has the following important properties for the
manufacture of extruded cable insulation. It can be:
• Extruded at low temperature (>120°C).
• Filtered at low temperature in the liquid phase to
remove particles.
• Crosslinked to form XLPE, because the tips of the
side chains are terminated with a hydrogen atom that
is available to participate in chemical crosslinking.
In North America, LDPE cable insulation is also
referred to as high-molecular-weight polyethylene
(HMWPE).
At room temperature, LDPE is an engineering solid,
possessing stiffness—i.e., low elasticity, resulting from its
semicrystalline structure. The crystalline structure com-
prises lamellae, which are regions in which some parallel
sections are available to be attracted together out of the
amorphous state by Van der Waal’s force. The lamellae
form because they are a lower energy structure. Figure
4-5 shows the chaotic distribution of lamellae in XLPE.
The image was taken by an electron microscope; note
that the scale bar of 500 nm is the wavelength of light.
Figure 4-5 Lamellae in the etched surface of XLPE from
scanning electron microscope (courtesy of CCI).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
In uncrosslinked LDPE, the lamellae also form “crystal-
lites,” which have the appearance of the spherical head
of a dandelion flower in seed. Each thin frond is formed
by a long, thin lamellae, radiating from a common cen-
tral nucleating point. The structure of the lamellae
frond is similar to a long strip of carpet. Long chain PE
molecules fold concertinalike, back and forth parallel to
each other and perpendicular to the frond in a forma-
tion similar to woven parallel tufts of wool in a carpet.
The chains are held parallel by the weak attraction
forces. The thin spaces between the fronds contain
amorphous PE. Some of the molecular chains pass from
one frond to the other through the amorphous region,
binding it together, such that at room temperature the
amorphous regions cannot easily unravel and flow. A
range of crystallite diameters exist, with small crystal-
lites filling the gaps between larger ones. The crystallites
interfere with the clear transmission of light such that
below the melting point temperature PE becomes trans-
lucent white.
The volume of PE between adjacent crystallites is amor-
phous—i.e., the molecules do not form a pattern. The
small volume of amorphous PE has the opposite prop-
erties to the rigid crystallite structure and behaves as a
viscous gel. The mixed morphology gives PE the proper-
ties of plasticity—i.e., creep with time, in which, upon
the application of load, the material initially exhibits a
high modulus (inelasticity), but will slowly deflect under
time and load. PE exhibits viscoelastic behavior in
which deflection under constant load increases with
time until an equilibrium deflection is attained. The
crystallite structure produces a high elastic modulus
(low elasticity), and so at temperatures under 70°C, high
stress is required to reveal the viscoelastic effect. Above
70°C, the deflection increases and the time constant of
the insulation reduces. The insulation also shows
increasing “compression set”—i.e., it does not return to
its original shape.
When the temperature is increased, the small crystallites
lose their shape and melt into the amorphous gel,
increasing the proportion of amorphous material. The
rate of softening and increase in plasticity of the bulk
PE become perceptible from an engineering viewpoint
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
above 60°C, accelerating until the majority of crystal-
lites have dissolved at the nominal LDPE melting point
of 107°C. LDPE then becomes a clear transparent liq-
uid with the viscosity of a medium syrup. Figure 4-6
shows liquid PE that is cooling. The PE in the meniscus
has cooled to below 107°C. The crystalline structure is
forming and has lost its transparency, becoming trans-
lucent white, in a similar way to the core of a PE cable
cooling after extrusion.
Melting from the semicrystalline structure to a liquid
produces a particularly high rate of volumetric expan-
sion, very much greater than normal solids, as shown in
Figure 4-7.
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) does not have the
side chains, shown in Figure 4-4 right, and so the long
Figure 4-6 PE granules melted into liquid (courtesy
of CCI).
Figure 4-7 Volumetric thermal expansion of PE with temperature (courtesy CCI).
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
molecular spines can pack close together under Van der
Waal’s force of attraction to form a highly semicrystal-
line structure. This gives HDPE high mechanical
strength and stiffness, a reduced resistance to cracking,
and a high melting temperature (135 °C); however, it
cannot be crosslinked.
The expansion curve for LDPE shown in Figure 4-7 is
identical to XLPE up to its melting point of 107°C. The
volumetric expansion for HDPE is the same as LDPE,
but is distributed up to its higher 135°C melting point.
The volumetric expansion of PE and XLPE through the
80 °C temperature rise to 107 °C is 12.5%, which is 20
times greater than the 0.6% value for aluminum. The
normal operating temperature specified for an LDPE
cable is comparatively low at 70°C, which limits the vol-
umetric expansion significantly to 4%. In comparison,
the volumetric expansion of an XLPE cable at its 90°C
operating temperature is 7.5%. These values illustrate
the significant dimensional changes that have to be
allowed in cable manufacture during cooling and in ser-
vice operation when the cable construction is heated and
particularly when heated to an emergency operating
temperature of 105°C. (It should be noted that the lin-
ear radial expansion of an XLPE cable is up to 33%
greater than indicated by the above volumetric compari-
sons because the insulation in a cable is constrained
from expanding lengthwise.)
The gradient of the line in Figure 4-7 is the coefficient of
volumetric expansion. The coefficient of expansion is
constant for “EPR 2,” which is a grade with low crystal-
linity. The four other materials, and in particular the
three PEs, show significant increase of coefficient of
expansion with temperature due to crystalline “melt-
ing”. The long chain molecules in PE are initially held
tightly packed together in the lamellae structure. As the
crystallites melt, the lamellae release the molecules into
4-7
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
the lower density amorphous phase to cause an immedi-
ate volumetric expansion. Conversely, when liquid PE is
cooled, the growth of the crystallites requires a contrac-
tion of the bulk volume. When extruding or molding PE
and XLPE, the high rate of thermal contraction may
produce internal contraction voids, unless external pres-
sure is applied and the rate of cooling is reduced.
Electrically, polyethylene, like other insulators, has a
wide energy gap between the valence bands and the
empty conduction band. The energy gap for PE is wide,
at 7.6-9.0 eV, and thus forms an excellent, low-dielectric-
loss insulation (Dissado and Fothergill 1992). The
60-Hz relative permittivity is low at room temperature,
being 2.3, and reducing to 2.1 at 90°C (Bartnikas and
Srivastava 2000). The 60-Hz dissipation factor (dielec-
tric loss angle) is very low, being 0.0002 in the range 20-
90°C (Bartnikas and Srivastava 2000). The low dissipa-
tion factor, which is beneficial in ac applications, is
attributed to the deep electronic charge traps of
~1 to1.5eV, which immobilize charge carriers and so
minimize conduction and loss (Bartnikas and Srivastava
2000). Charge traps are associated with the interface
between the crystalline and amorphous phases (Dissado
and Fothergill 1992). Under dc voltage, the charge traps
are detrimental to the insulating properties, because
they accumulate sufficient charge to increase the local
electrical field and so significantly reduce the cable
breakdown strength under dc and impulse voltage. This
phenomenon is called “space charge,” which at ambient
temperature remains permanently trapped. The charge
carriers are only released when the temperature is raised
close to the melting point and the semicrystalline struc-
ture merges into the amorphous background.
Polyethylene has little resistance to partial discharge
(PD) under ac voltage. Partial discharge is the electrical
breakdown of gas within a void in the form of a spark,
Figure 4-8 Electrical breakdown stress of air with gap at atmospheric pressure. Left: linear/log. Right: log/log
(courtesy of CCI).
4-8
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
emitting heat, light, and sound to varying degrees. The
breakdown voltage is given by the Paschen characteris-
tic for the particular gas, gap thickness and pressure (or
gas density). Ideally the breakdown stress for a perfect
insulation would be constant with thickness, but this is
not so for a gas, due to the mobility and acceleration of
charge carriers within it. The breakdown stress for air
with gap depth at constant atmospheric pressure is given
in Figure 4-8 (CIGRE 1974) and illustrates the rapid
reduction in breakdown stress with increasing thickness.
For example, a laminar gap of 0.12 mil (0.003 mm or
3 μm) at atmospheric pressure has a breakdown stress of
3800 V/mil (150 kVp/mm), and a gap of 0.8 mil
(0.02 mm or 20 μm) has a tenfold reduction to a stress
of ~510 V/mil (20 kVp/mm). Allowing for the conver-
sion to an rms voltage by a multiplication factor of 0.71,
the latter becomes 360 V/mil (14 kV/mm). The stress in
the adjacent PE insulation (multiplication by a factor of
2.3, the reciprocal of the permittivity ratio of PE to air)
is 155 V/mil (6 kV/mm). This illustrates that, within the
recommended AEIC stress limit for a 345-kV cable of
356 V/mil (14 kV/mm), a 0.8 mil (20 μm) air-filled, lami-
nar void at atmospheric pressure will emit discharge.
The partial discharge releases the capacitively stored
charge Q, which is proportional to the voltage difference
V across the void (see Equation 4-1). Note that Q is
related to the magnitude of the partial discharge, mea-
sured in pC, recorded by a partial discharge detector,
but is not equal to it. The detector actually measures the
milli-volt change in voltage appearing across the cable
shields, and compares it to the voltage change produced
by an external PD calibration charge injected across the
cable insulation (Kreuger 1989). Equation 4-2 shows
that the energy W is proportional to the square of the
electrical stress G in the void. Thus as the design stress
of a typical 345-kV cable is 350 V/mil (14 kV/mm) and is
approximately twice that of a 69-kV cable design stress
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
of 150 V/mil (6 kV/mm), the energy liberated in the
same void will be four times greater. Under ac voltage,
the partial discharge is repetitive, with typically 3 to 4
pulses each half cycle; thus at 60-Hz frequency, approxi-
mately 500 pulses per second, each of energy W, will
impinge on the PE surface. PE has a poor resistance to
high temperature and is readily pitted, dissociated and
burnt, thereby eventually forming an incipient electrical
“carbon tree,” which will grow through the insulation.
Q = CV (C)
Where:
Q: Electrical charge (C).
C: Capacitance of void (F).
V: Voltage difference across the void (V).
1 1
W = QV = QG d (J)
2 2
1 1
W= CV2 = G2 εo εr Ad (J)
2 2
Where:
W: Energy liberated by PD in void (J).
G: Electrical gradient (stress) across the void (V/m).
d: Thickness of void (m).
εo: Permittivity of free space (F/m).
εr: Relative permittivity of the gas in the void (unity)
(ratio).
A: Area of void (m2).
Polyethylene contains a “free volume” between the long
chain molecules. The presence of microscopic filamen-
tary channels passing through the structure has been
postulated by Bahder (Dissado and Fothergill 1992).
Polyethylene is capable of holding some liquids and gas-
ses in solution, particularly when hot—for example, 200
ppm by weight of water at STP (standard temperature
and pressure).
4.4 LANDMARKS IN PE CABLE TECHNOLOGY
4.4.1 Evolution
1933: Polyethylene was first synthesized by M. W. Perrin
and J. C. Swallow of Imperial Chemical Industries UK,
producing a white powder. Ethylene gas was polymer-
ized in a high-pressure process at 1400 bar and 170°C. A
trace chemical from an earlier experiment was found to
be necessary to initiate the reaction. The resulting pow-
der was reheated and cooled, producing a “white waxy
solid,” which was later measured to be at the low density
end of the PE spectrum, in the range of 57.1-57.7 lb/ft3
(915-925 kg/m3).
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
Alternative production methods, developed in the
1960s, made possible the manufacture of higher-density
grades (HDPE) using a catalyst in a low-pressure reac-
tor. However, the base LDPE for extruded PE and
XLPE HV and EHV cables has continued to be pro-
duced using the original high-pressure reactor process,
because this material is inherently clean. Also, the mate-
rial is capable of being chemically crosslinked, because it
has long, branched side chains, providing available sites
for reaction, which are not present with HDPE.
4-1
1937: Commercial manufacture of PE commenced, and
quantities were supplied to the British Insulated Cable
Company and the Telegraph Construction and Mainte-
nance Company in the United Kingdom and the
DuPont Company in the United States. Its use began in
the United States in 1942.
1939: A 1-nautical-mile length of telegraph wire was PE
extruded for sea trials in the United Kingdom.
4-2
1939: In the war years, LDPE was put into full produc-
tion, being demonstrated to be a low-loss, low-capaci-
tance dielectric, especially suitable for telephony, radio
transmission, and radar, up to the then maximum fre-
quency of 3 GHz. LDPE was also used to insulate 2-kV
power supply wires in aircraft electronics, having a suit-
able operating temperature range of -40 ° C to 85 ° C,
although widespread application in aircraft was hin-
dered by its high calorific value and susceptibility to
burn. Extrusion and jointing equipment was developed
for LDPE cable.
1945: In the years after the war, long-length submarine
telephone cables were insulated with PE, including
trans-Atlantic links.
1947: Extruded PE insulation was applied to the URD
(underground residential distribution) power cables in
the United States, at 15 kV (and by 1955 at voltages up
to 35 kV). In the first applications, PE insulations were
extruded directly onto the conductors of power cables in
the same way as telephone and radio frequency cables
by using “mono extrusion” (a single extruder). To a
greater extent than communication cables, power cables
produce I2R conductor heating, which caused the poly-
meric insulation to expand off the conductor, forming
an electrically stressed air gap, initiating partial dis-
charge and failure. It should be recalled that, at that
time, conductor shields were not universally used in
paper cables. However, paper has a low coefficient of
expansion, and any gaps present were generally filled
with insulating compound or oil, and impregnated
paper has good (self-extinguishing) PD resistance. The
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Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
failure mechanism was investigated using the early par-
tial discharge detection apparatus described by F. H.
Kreuger (Kreuger 1964). This apparatus was made pos-
sible by the developments of high-gain thermionic tube
amplifiers and cathode ray oscilloscope tubes before
and during World War II.
Semiconducting (semi-con) tapes were developed and
applied to shield the conductor, such that they became
amalgamated to the insulation by the heat of the PE
extrusion. In service, the semi-con and PE insulation
expanded together and eliminated gap formation. The
presence of a heat-bonded, continuous and smooth
shield interface has remained a prime requirement for
extruded cables.
Later, it was found that the sharpness of the tape edges
were electrical stress raisers, which provided initiation
sites for vented, water tree growth, causing large numbers
of service failures. The stress-raisers also directly limited
the design stress for higher voltage cable applications.
Notionally smooth extruded semiconducting shields
were developed by mono-extruding the shield onto the
conductor in one process pass (i.e., the conductor was
passed reel to reel), followed by extrusion of the insula-
tion layer in a second process. Experience showed that
that interface, although improved, was still electrically
vulnerable, because it suffered from contamination,
mechanical scuff damage, and voids at the interface.
1960: The locations of discharging defects were found in
URD cables (22 kV) in the United Kingdom and in the
Netherlands (Kreuger 1964) by the development of in-
line partial detection equipment, both for purposes of
research and routine process testing. Voids were formed
by shield defects or by bubbles that escaped the early
designs of insulation extruder. After the insulation layer
had been mono-extruded onto a tape shield, or dual
extruded, the unshielded core was passed through the
PD detector, in which voltage was applied to the con-
ductor and reels. The core was passed through pairs of
ground electrodes comprising either metal wheels or
water baths. The electrodes were connected to form a
balanced bridge detection circuit, which enhanced the
detection sensitivity by semi-canceling background
noise. A logic circuit discriminated the presence of void
PD from spurious noise by the detection of a repeat PD
when the void passed over the second electrode. This
technique was also used on fully tape-screened cables
and relied upon the high longitudinal impedance of the
outer shield at the high PD frequencies, electrically seg-
regating the detection electrodes. It was thus possible to
locate voids and either repair the cable or study the
voids for research.
4-10
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
1960: Appreciable quantities of PE (HMWPE) insulated
URD cables of 5-46 kV had already been installed as part
of the U.S. postwar house-building program. In the next
ten years, these quantities were further increased, mainly
at 15 and 25 kV, until in 1972, PE cables were displaced
by volume installation of XLPE cable. The PE and XLPE
cables were supplied without lead sheaths (now referred
to as “wet application” designs) in the incorrect belief
that PE insulation, in addition to being more robust than
paper insulation, was unaffected by water.
1962: Concentric dual die extrusion heads were devel-
oped, which permitted the simultaneous dual extrusion
of the conductor shield and PE insulation in one pass,
minimizing the opportunity for surface damage or con-
tamination. The designs of the new dies were signifi-
cantly more complex, and the different output rates of
the two extruders required to be carefully synchronized
both with each other and the conductor line speed. The
quality of the interface was greatly improved; however,
it was found that holes (skips or holidays) in the
extruded shield could pass hidden by the covering layer
of insulation. A present-day example of a shield skip is
shown in Figure 4-9. Visual checks were possible
through the transparent insulation, if kept hot, but, by
their nature, the checks were not continuous. A continu-
ous, on-line “skip detector” was developed, which mon-
itored the electrical resistance between the tip of the
extruder die and the conductor (Tanaka and Green-
wood 1983).
An alternative approach, still used today with one type of
EPR cable, is to extrude a high-permittivity stress control
shield in place of the semi-con conductor shield. The
ratio of shield to insulation permittivity is sufficiently
high to reduce the stress at the conductor surface to a
level that does not produce PD. The shield has sufficient
insulating properties after extrusion to permit it to with-
stand an in-line voltage test similar to the jacket spark
Figure 4-9 Hole in conductor shield viewed through
transparentized insulation (courtesy of CCI).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
test, thereby ensuring that any prospective holidays are
detected, prior to the extrusion of the insulation.
In the dual-extrusion technique, the insulation outer
shield comprised a coating of graphite lacquer, backed
by a graphite-loaded semiconducting tape. A final pro-
cess test was applied to the finished cable, comprising a
voltage withstand test and a partial discharge test. Many
such cable constructions successfully entered service.
Figure 4-10 shows a graphite and tape shield on a PE
insulated cable that was extruded in 1960 for long-term
evaluation by connection in a substation of the 100-kV
dc England-France submarine cable link. One disadvan-
tage was that the act of bending the cable during installa-
tion risked breaking the adhesion of the graphite layer,
thus producing an electrically stressed void.
1963: The dual-tandem extrusion process was developed
in which one dual-die head applied the conductor shield
together with a thin layer of insulation approximately
80-120 mils (2-3 mm) thick. The core then immediately
passed through a second dual-die head in which the
bulk of the PE insulation layer and the outer semicon-
ducting insulation shield was extruded. The two
dualhead dies were in close tandem proximity, typically
18 in. (450 mm) apart, and were connected by a tube
that protected the intermediate insulation surface from
contamination. The connecting tube was longitudinally
split to facilitate access for setting-up at the start of
extrusion. This technique was successfully used into the
1990s to manufacture 275-kV and experimental 400-kV
cables. Alternatively, the first thin layer of PE insulation
could be replaced by a high-permittivity insulating layer,
called an “emission shield,” to significantly reduce the
Figure 4-10 100-kV dc PE cable with graphite and
taped insulation shield (courtesy of CCI).
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
stress at the conductor shield interface. In practice,
emission shields have been superseded by improvements
in supersmooth semi-con screens (Champion et al.
1993). The disadvantage of the dual-tandem process was
that visual inspection revealed a morphological
interface between the two insulation layers, and the
insulation interface was still vulnerable to particulate
contamination, cooling, and void formation. The
insulation interface was also vulnerable to macro
damage if the soft insulation surface contacted the inner
edge of the close-fitting die tip in the second dual-head.
By 1972, the annual installation of LDPE cables in the
United States had significantly fallen in volume and was
largely superseded by XLPE.
The French cable industry successfully persevered in the
development of higher-voltage LDPE, installing the
first 63-kV cables in 1962. High volumes of cable were
installed, and the cable voltages were progressively
increased, finally installing 400-kV LDPE cable 23 years
later. Good service performance was experienced, which
may be attributed, in part, to the development of clean
insulation and to the protection from water by lead-
alloy sheaths and later by foil laminate sheaths. A failure
rate of less than 0.2/100 km/year was reported by
Clavreul and Reignier in 1993, with diagnostics showing
that 90% of the damages were caused by water penetra-
tion (Clavreul and Reignier 1993).
French cable landmarks include the following:
• 1962: 63-kV LDPE cable was installed.
• 1967: 90-kV LDPE cable was installed.
• 1969: 225-kV LDPE cable was installed of 295 ft
(90 m) length, comprising a 1500 kcmil (800 mm2)
conductor, 0.9 in. (23 mm) LDPE insulation, semi-
conducting shields of carbon-filled PE, and lead-
alloy sheath and PVC (polyvinyl chloride) jacket.
Produced in a dual-tandem VCV (vertical continuous
vulcanizing) line of 164 ft (50 m) height (Tanaka and
Greenwood 1983).
• 1975-1980: HDPE cables were introduced up to
225 kV and permitted the operating temperature to
be increased from 70°C to 80°C.
• 1985: First 400-kV PE cable was put into service, fol-
lowed by 26 circuits at 12 sites, totaling 20 cable miles
(32 cable km).
• 1990: First 500-kV LDPE was supplied and installed
in China.
The application of PE ceased in France in 1994 after 32
years, when extruded XLPE cables were introduced at
all voltages.
4-11
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
4.4.2 Water Trees
In 1971, within ten years of installation in the United
States of high numbers of 15- and 25-kV extruded cable
circuits, a rapidly growing failure rate developed. This
was mainly in early constructions of PE cable, but also
occurred in the newer XLPE cables (Bartnikas and
Srivastava 2000). The failures were attributed to the pre-
viously unknown mechanism of water tree growth (also
called electrochemical tree growth). Within one year,
water tree failures were also reported in Japan and sub-
sequently in other countries worldwide. Water tree
growth was also found to occur in EPR cables, although
the fillers make EPR opaque, rendering the task of
counting trees more difficult. Eventual experience dem-
onstrated a superior resistance of EPR to water treeing
compared to other dielectrics.
As the failure rate grew, massive R&D resources were
committed to understand and solve the problem. The
contributory causes of the problem are now sufficiently
well understood for engineering solutions to have been
taken and proven by long-term qualification tests and
service experience. However, tree growth is complex,
and scientific consensus has not converged to agree on a
definitive mechanism. The initial part of the mechanism
is likely to be the concentration of water molecules by
dielectrophoretic force at electrical stress raisers. Dielec-
trophoretic force is the force experienced in an alternat-
ing electric field by an uncharged particle of different
permittivity to the insulation, such as a water molecule.
Tree-shaped, water-filled micro-channels grow in the
direction of the electric field, and eventually an electrical
carbon tree is initiated, with electrical failure following.
Many stress-raising sites were freely available in early
extruded cables in the form of: (a) asperities (protru-
sions) on the surfaces of taped conductor shields, which
are focal points for “vented tree” shapes (Figure 4-11,
left), and (b) particulate contaminants present in the
insulation, which are focal points for “bow-tie” trees
(Figure 4-11, right). Contributory causes were found to
be ionic salts that could migrate into the PE insulation
in aqueous solution from the extruded semi-con shield
materials and from the surrounding ground. Accelerat-
ing causes of tree growth in both PE and XLPE cables
were: (a) an insulation moisture level of approximately
80% of the saturation level, (b) an electrical design stress
of greater than 51 V/mil (2 kV/mm), and (c) a medium
to high operating temperature.
The “normal method” of manufacturing XLPE cables
was in a steam-filled CV line. These cables were vulnera-
ble, because water-filled microvoids were produced by
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
the manufacturing process. Hot steam diffuses into the
soft insulation and produces microscopic voids of 0.1-2
mil (2-50 μm) diameter with concentrations of 1.6 per
mil 3 (10 5 per mm 3 ) in a halo shape at mid-insulation.
Steam lines are no longer acceptable for HV cables, but
until recent years, some were still in use in different
countries for making URD cable.
Modern wet designs of MV cables (46 kV and lower) are
far less susceptible to failure by water trees, because the
number and size of stress raisers have been significantly
reduced by the development of shield compounds with
low ion content and very smooth surfaces, and low-con-
taminant-level insulating compounds and extrusion
processes. Tree retardant grades, TRXLPE, have been
introduced for MV cables in wet applications. The great-
est risk of accelerated tree growth is at the conductor
shield, and so now most stranded conductors are water
blocked by a filling compound. The rate of ingress of
moisture from the ground is either reduced by the use of
an MDPE/HDPE jacket in place of a PVC jacket or
eliminated by use of a metallic foil water barrier.
The water tree problem had the detrimental effect of
slowing the development of extruded cables for trans-
mission voltages. However, the beneficial effects were:
(a) accelerating the development of improved extrusion
equipment, cleaner insulation, and smoother shields; (b)
demonstrating the benefits of stringent qualification
and long-term tests before widespread application; (c)
the further development and application of radial mois-
ture barriers and (d) greatly increasing the fund of
research knowledge on polymeric cables.
Figure 4-11 Vented and bow tie trees in MV XLPE cable
(courtesy of Blackwell Publishers).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
4.5 XLPE CABLE: BENEFITS AND
CHALLENGES
The following benefits and challenges of XLPE cable
are in addition to those described for PE in Section 4.2.
4.5.1 Benefits
• Increase in the cable operating temperature from
70°C for PE to 90°C, thus increasing allowable tem-
perature rise from a 20°C ambient by 40% and
ampacity by 18%.
• Increase in the emergency operation temperature to
105°C.
• Increase in the short circuit temperature to 250°C.
4.5.2 Challenges
The challenges are a consequence of crosslinking and
illustrate the sophistication required of modern cable
manufacturing processes:
• The crosslinking process requires a synchronized CV
(continuous vulcanizing) line; this is a large machine
requiring significant capital investment.
• The crosslinking process is comparatively slow and
reduces factory output.
• The crosslinking process is a chemical reaction that
increases dependence on high standards in material
and manufacturing quality control.
• By-products of crosslinking are produced in the insu-
lation. An additional time-consuming degassing pro-
cess is required to: (a) remove moisture, (b) prevent
gas pressure assisting voids to pass through factory
HV test into service, (c) reduce the volume of meth-
ane/ethane gas, thereby reducing fire risk in jointing
vaults, and (d) reduce pressure differentials that
might displace accessory insulation.
• The high crosslinking temperature increases the insu-
lation contraction strain that acts at accessories.
• The residual core temperature at the end of the CV
process locks the take-up reel curvature into the insu-
lation. A heat straightening process is required imme-
diately prior to the assembly of the accessories.
• The increased risk of impurities and voids in the insu-
lation requires increased process control and sample
testing.
• The heat-sensitive crosslinking agent in the PE
“melt” risks premature crosslinking (scorch) down-
stream of the extruder, both in the strainer pack and
in the semi-con extrusion dies. One consequence is
that the melt cannot be filtered to such a high purity.
Another is that the process must be kept within a
“parameter window” calculated for the particular
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
cable size, die dimensions, shield thickness, and
extruder output rate.
• The extrusion run time is dictated by the time at
which “ambers” (heat-oxidized PE) are released by
the extruders. Ambers initially pass through the fil-
ters into the insulation, and if the run time is too
long, they risk blocking and bursting the filters.
• The pressure applied to the cable in the extruder and
CV tube increases the risk of the melt flowing into
the conductor between the wires (“fall-in”).
• In-process scrap is increased, because a significant
length of unusable cable core has to pass through the
CV tube at the start of an extruder run before full
pressure can be applied and the required cable dimen-
sions are achieved. Similarly the trailing length of
cable core is unusable, because CV pressure and core
geometry are lost when the trailing end passes
through the extruder.
• The extruded melt has more time to flow off the con-
ductor (“droop”) and so lose the circular, concentric
shape.
• The recirculated heat transfer mediums in the CV
tube require cleaning processes to remove
(a) crosslinking by-products that have diffused from
the core and (b) gels formed by partial crosslinking of
silicone fluids by diffused peroxide.
• The CV tubes in VCV (vertical continuous vulcaniz-
ing) and in CCV (catenary continuous vulcanizing)
lines require periodic cleaning to remove acetophe-
none, which condenses on the surface as a fat.
• The generic name “extruded XLPE cable” does not
adequately describe the variations that exist in mate-
rial formulations, purity, cable geometry, extrusion
line types, and process conditions. For example:
—Insulation grades are available with increased melt
viscosities to reduce droop in CCV and MDCV
(Mitsubishi Dainichi continuous vulcanizing) lines.
—The heat transfer media in the CV tube tend to
impregnate the XLPE insulation. These media
include dissolved nitrogen gas in VCV and CCV
lines, silicone oil in MDCV lines (lubricant) and in
some CCV lines (buoyancy aid), and water in the
earlier generation of “wet” VCV and CCV steam
lines.
4.6 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF XLPE
INSULATION
The act of crosslinking long-chain molecules together
changes the morphology of LDPE from a thermoplastic
to a thermoset. A thermoset material is one that cannot
be remolded into a different shape by the application of
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Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
heat. Up to the melting temperature of 107°C, the prop-
erties of XLPE retain similarities with those of LDPE.
Figure 4-7 shows that the volumetric thermal expansion
of XLPE is the same as LDPE, but above the melting
point, the coefficient of thermal expansion reduces in
magnitude and becomes constant. The morphology is
still semicrystalline at room temperature. The presence
of the crosslinks results in parallel concertinalike pat-
terns, called “lamellae,” as shown in Figure 4-5, instead
of round “crystallite” patterns. In XLPE, the amor-
phous material between the lamellae is elastomeric (a
rubber) and is no longer a viscous gel.
The significant effects of crosslinking LDPE are that
above 107°C, although the material still becomes trans-
parent and clear, it changes to a soft elastomer (rubber)
and not a liquid. XLPE remains in this elastomeric state
up to the ultimate thermal degradation temperature of
250°C. Also, unlike thermoplastic LDPE, XLPE cannot
be dissolved by an aggressive hydrocarbon solvent such
as Xylene or Decaline. The solvent test can be used to
assess the degree of crosslinking of the cable insulation;
however, the preferred quantitative tests are the tensile
elongation and hot set tests described later.
Figure 4-12 shows the modulus of elasticity in tension—
i.e., the ratio of stress/strain. This is the initial modulus
immediately after applying load and before viscoelastic
deformation strain has occurred with time under stress.
The modulus is high at ambient temperature (inelastic)
and falls at an increasing rate with temperature up to
107°C, above which it has a low and comparatively con-
stant modulus (high elasticity). In comparison, EPR is
an elastomer (rubber) at all temperatures in the working
range and has less variation of modulus with tempera-
ture. The semiconducting shield compound in an XLPE
cable usually has an EBA (ethylene butyl acrylate) or
Figure 4-12 Modulus of elasticity for XLPE and EPR with temperature
(courtesy CCI).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
EVA (ethylene vinyl acetate) crosslinkable resin to give
maximum flexibility (high elasticity) to match bending
properties when it is carbon filled with those of the
XLPE insulation. The shield resin is filled with a high
carbon black loading of typically 30-60% to achieve a
stable, high plateau level of electrical conductivity. Mea-
surements show that the filled and crosslinked shield
compound behaves as an elastomer across the working
temperature range in a manner similar to filled EPR
insulation.
The mixed morphology gives the XLPE insulation vis-
coelastic properties. Below the crystalline melting point
of 107 ° C, XLPE has a high modulus (inelastic) and
requires a high load to produce viscoelastic deflection,
with a long time constant. For example, under 1.35 MPa
tensile load at 70°C, XLPE reaches a plateau extension
in a period of 500 hours. Under 0.2 MPa tensile stress at
130°C, XLPE exhibits most extension in a period of 0.5
hours and reaches a plateau within a period of 20 hours.
Figure 4-13 shows the deflection at different times of the
same XLPE tensile test sample with an initial gauge
length of 20 mm at 130°C, at which temperature XLPE
is transparent. The photograph on the left is the deflec-
tion upon first application of load. The center view is the
increased final plateau value after viscoelastic deflection.
The right-hand view is the elastic retraction that has
occurred after removal of load, which occurred in 0.25-
0.5 hours. It can be seen that almost perfect retraction
has occurred—i.e., that tensile hot-set is minimal.
The tensile deflection of XLPE above the melting point
is used as the basis for the routine factory hot-set test to
check that sufficient crosslinking has been achieved in
samples cut from the cable insulation. ANSI/ICEA T-
28-562-2003 (ANSI/ICEA 2003) requires that the die-
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
cut dumbbell specimen be heated at 150 ° C under a
stress of 29 psi (0.2 MPa) for 15 minutes and the per-
centage hot creep elongation be measured. The load is
removed, and the sample is eventually allowed to cool to
ambient, when the percentage hot creep set residual
elongation is measured, both parameters being in rela-
tion to the original gauge length at ambient temperature
of 1 in. (25 mm). ICEA S-108-720-2004 gives pass levels
of maximum elongation of less than 175% and hot set
less than 10%. The IEC specifications differ slightly in
that they require that the samples be heated to 200°C
for 15 minutes under the same stress of 0.2 MPa. The
pass levels are that the elongation under load should be
less than the same value of 175%, but that the hot set
should be less than 15%. This test is used as a routine
production test of the degree of crosslinking. Viscoelas-
tic behavior may be approximately characterized as a
mechanical model with a perfect, elastic spring in paral-
lel with a dash-pot, or as an electrical model with a
resistor (R) in series with a capacitor (C), the time con-
stant being RC.
If XLPE is held elastically deformed under mechanical
load in the elastomeric state above 107 °C and is then
cooled, the formation of the semicrystalline structure
freezes the deformation and locks it in the deformed
state. The elastic memory of the locked-in strain can be
released by reheating XLPE again to above 107°C, this
being the principle of a heat shrink sleeve. Thus if an
XLPE cable is heated to above 107°C during emergency
loading and conductor thermomechanical sidewall
forces produce insulation deformation in a bend (thin-
ning), the deformation will be held locked into the insu-
lation permanently below 107°C. Similarly, if the cable
Figure 4-13 0.2 Mpa tensile stress on XLPE samples at 130oC. Left: Initial deformation.
Center: Plateau deformation. Right: Unloaded “hot set” (courtesy of CCI).
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
within a premolded EPR accessory is heated to above
107°C, the softened elastomeric XLPE will experience
increased compressive deformation that will also be
locked-in when the cable cools and contracts, resulting
in a reduction in the interfacial pressure in normal oper-
ation and increasing risk of partial discharge.
Taking into account the highly nonlinear morphology
of XLPE in terms of radial expansion, modulus of elas-
ticity, and crystalline memory, the consequence of oper-
ating an EHV XLPE cable at emergency overload
temperatures in excess of the normal operating tempera-
ture of 90 ° C is to significantly increase the risk of
mechanical deformation and electrical failure. It is
noted that ICEA S-108-720-2004 (ICEA 2004) limits
the emergency overload temperature to 105 ° C for
greater than 138 through 345 kV and to 105 to 130°C
for greater than 46 through 138 kV. ICEA gives a cau-
tionary note to utilities on not operating cables at ele-
vat e d t e m p e r at u r e wi t h o u t ap p rova l f ro m t h e
manufacturer. The more recent AEIC CS9-06 (AEIC
2006) gives a more sensible engineering approach at this
time by limiting all XLPE and EPR cables to an emer-
gency temperature of 105 ° C. AEIC notes that only
130 ° C may be used for EPR cables in the range 46-
150 kV with mutual agreement between purchaser and
manufacturer.
4.6.1 Chemical Crosslinking Process
The chemical crosslinking process for HV and EHV
XLPE cables is to use an organic peroxide. Dicumyl per-
oxide is preferred, because it has a low decomposition
temperature of 140°C, thus giving a margin above the
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Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
120-130°C extrusion temperature for the LDPE com-
pound.
The dicumyl peroxide molecule has two symmetrical
parts joined by an oxygen-to-oxygen covalent bond.
This bond is inherently unstable with temperature.
Upon heating to above 140°C, the O-O bond is broken.
The peroxide is said to decompose. The two peroxide
entities are negatively charged ions called “free electron
radicals” in which the oxygen is highly reactive. The free
radicals have the ability to initiate crosslinking between
the hydrogen atoms at the ends of the LDPE side chains.
Hydrocarbon by-products are produced, some of which
react with the antioxidant additive included to protect
the XLPE from thermal aging by oxidation during
extrusion and in-service life. High reactivity rates and
short process times are achieved at 160°C and higher.
A number of reactions are necessary, as detailed below,
to remove the hydrogen atoms from the ends of the
LDPE side chains, leaving them chemically reactive to
join together and form XLPE (BICC 1997, pages 59-
60). Each decomposition of a peroxide molecule pro-
duces a by-product that is left in the insulation. Suffi-
cient peroxide has to be added to the LDPE to achieve
the required crosslinking density and to allow for loss in
efficiency due to parallel and secondary reactions. The
chemical reactions are listed below. The reactions that
are necessary to produce crosslinking are items 1, 2, and
5. Eight by-products are produced, which are listed in
items 1 to 4:
1. The peroxide radical extracts an H atom from the
end of a side chain of LDPE. This makes the PE
chain reactive (a free radical). The following by-prod-
ucts are left in the insulation:
a. Cumyl-alcohol
Cumyl-alcohol may also decompose with heat to
produce:
b. Alpha-methyl styrene and water.
2. The peroxide radical decomposes in the first stage by
losing an oxygen atom and a free-radical CH3 mole-
cule. In a second stage, the CH3 radical takes an H
atom from the end of the LDPE chain, causing the
PE chain to become a free radical. The following by-
products are left in the insulation:
a. First stage reaction:
i. Acetophenone
ii. Oxygen (to probably combine with the anti-
oxidant).
b. Second stage reaction:
i. Methane
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
3. Two CH3 radicals from item 2 combine to produce
ethane.
4. The peroxide radical takes a hydrogen atom from the
antioxidant and produces the following by-products
in the insulation:
a. Cumyl-alcohol
b. Anti-oxidant inert by-products
5. Two free radical LDPE chains produced by items 1
and/or 2 combine to produce XLPE.
The total weight of the by-products is equal to the initial
weight of the dicumyl peroxide in the compound, which
is typically 2-2.5%. Typical weights of the nongaseous
by-products in XLPE are 1.4% cumyl-alcohol and 0.5%
acetophenone from a 2% addition of dicumyl peroxide
(Wartusch and Wagner 1977). The gaseous by-products
are methane, ethane, and water vapor, and these diffuse
into the surrounding space with time. If the total mass
of the gas mixture is taken to be 0.1%, it would occupy a
volume approximately 10 times greater than the insula-
tion volume at STP. The water content of XLPE is
approximately 200 ppm (0.02%) at 160°C and 500 ppm
(0.05%) at 180°C (Ishikawa et al. 1994).
The physics and chemistry of the extrusion and
crosslinking processes are simulated in Figures 4-14 and
4-15. Figure 4-14 (left) shows granules of compound
that have been melted into liquid PE and heated at
160oC to crosslink them. A steel weight applied gravita-
tional pressure to the granules to expel entrained air and
either expel or dissolve gas produced by crosslinking.
Figure 4-15 (left) shows that few bubbles remained. In
comparison, Figure 4-14 (right) shows granules at
160oC without the assistance of pressure from the steel
weight. Figure 4-15 (right) shows the sample after cool-
ing and dissection. It can be seen that the PE granules
without external assistance do not consolidate, and the
gaseous by-products have generated many large voids
Figure 4-14 Granules of XLPE after melting at 160oC.
Left: Melt after consolidation by a metal weight
(removed). Right: No weight applied. (Courtesy of CCI)
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
similar to those seen in leavened bread. Additionally,
the XLPE sample containing voids in Figure 4-15
(right) has become discolored by oxidation, whereas the
void-free sample on the left has remained white. The
high thermal contraction that occurs when XLPE cools
and crystallizes is shown by the formation of the deep
concave meniscus in Figure 4-15 (left).
In the manufacturing process, the pressure from the
extruder screw amalgamates and consolidates the gran-
ules to form a void-free melt. During the crosslinking
process, it is necessary to apply an external pressure to
keep the gaseous by-products dissolved in the polymer.
A pressure of typically 145psi (10 bar or 1 MPa) is
applied, either by nitrogen gas, silicone fluid, or contact
pressure generated within a long-land die. After
crosslinking, it is necessary to maintain the external
pressure until the XLPE insulation is sufficiently cool
for the crystalline morphology to have gained the
strength to keep the internal gas in solution. If the exter-
nal pressure is too low, or the core leaves the CV tube
too hot, the gas creates bubbles in the soft insulation
similar to those produced when a bottle of carbonated
water is opened. Bubbles form preferentially at micro-
voids and particulate impurities.
The dissolved gasses are encouraged to diffuse safely
from the cable by a subsequent de-gassing process (also
called a drying process) in which the cable is gently
heated for a prolonged period to approximately 60-
80 ° C. If a sample of freshly extruded un-degassed
XLPE core of 0.9 in. (23 mm) thickness is quickly
heated to above 107°C, gas bubbles form in the insula-
tion in the way that melting ice cubes of carbonated
water liberate carbon dioxide bubbles.
Figure 4-15 Polyethylene melt cooled to room
temperature Left: Compressed sample. Right:
Uncompressed (Courtesy of CCI)
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
4.7 LANDMARK DEVELOPMENTS IN XLPE
CABLE TECHNOLOGY
4.7.1 Worldwide Evolution
1952: The first samples of XLPE were produced by A.
Charlesby, who irradiated PE in a nuclear reactor at
Harwell, United Kingdom. It was noted that the new
material would no longer dissolve in hot solvents, and
upon heating to its melting point, it became an elas-
tomer instead of a liquid. The useful temperature range
could thus be increased. Cable makers installed experi-
mental crosslinking plants using high-energy electron
beams. The radiation technique was developed into
commercial application for thin insulation wires and
heat shrink sleeves, but practical difficulties precluded
its continued development for thick-wall power cables in
factory environments.
1954: Material suppliers and cable makers were
researching an alternative chemical crosslinking route to
produce XLPE.
1954: Cable makers researched the type of manufactur-
ing equipment necessary to chemically crosslink XLPE.
Existing thermoplastic PE cables were extruded hori-
zontally at approximately 120-160°C and then quickly
cooled to a solid, before the liquid could drip off the
conductor. Existing rubber cables were already being
continuously vulcanized (CV) with sulfur additives by
being extruded vertically downwards while being heated
and pressurized in direct contact with steam at tempera-
tures of approximately 200°C, within a vertical vulca-
nizing tube (VCV line). Steam heating was adopted as
the standard method to crosslink XLPE cables. Fifteen
years later, steam curing became known as “wet extru-
sion” when it was discovered that steam produced
micro-voids in the XLPE, many of which were filled
with water.
Catenary continuous vulcanization (CCV) lines were
developed to overcome the VCV line limitations of the
high cost of building a tall tower and the limit that the
height sets to the maximum production output speed.
During passage through the CV tube, the cable has to be
heated to the crosslinking temperature, held at that tem-
perature for sufficient time to achieve the chemical reac-
tion, and then cooled for sufficient time to regain
mechanical strength; these times dictate the maximum
output speed.
In a CCV line, the extruder is mounted in a low height
tower and is angled downwards such that the insulated
conductor passes into a similarly downward angled CV
tube. The curved tube is straightened into a horizontal
shape before slightly rising again to form an asymmetric
4-17
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
catenary; in this way, a total CV tube length of 100-
250 m can be achieved within the height of the factory
roof. The PE melt insulation has a reduced tendency to
drip off the conductor compared to a horizontal CV
line, but still produces an eccentric, oval-shaped insula-
tion. The degree of ovality is acceptably low for thin
insulation on a large diameter conductor, but becomes
unacceptable when either the thickness is increased or
the conductor diameter is reduced.
1962: The “long land die” extrusion process was pat-
ented in the United States and became known as the
Anaconda process. It was developed by R. F. Hinderer
and J. A. Mullen. The PE melt is extruded into a stan-
dard conical die, which previously had a cylindrical out-
let (called the “land”) of approximately 0.5-2 in. (10-50
mm) length. In the long-land die process, the land is
extended by a bolt-on die tube of approximately 30 ft
length (10 m). The process is a continuous molding pro-
cess in which uncrosslinked PE liquid insulation and
semiconducting shields enter the tube, and crosslinked
insulation and shields leave the die tube to pass through
a loose-fitting water-cooled section. The die-tube is
heated to the specified crosslinking temperature, and
heat is efficiently transfered by direct conduction to
raise the temperature of the insulation and conductor.
To prevent the soft insulation from sticking, a lubricant
is injected inwards through a porous section of tube
onto its surface.
Mitsubishi Dainichi refined the long land die continu-
ous vulcanizing process to produce the MDCV line,
which is a modification of the HCV (horizontal continu-
ous vulcanization) and CCV (catenary continuous vul-
canization) processes to improve concentricity (Tanaka
and Greenwood 1983, page 47.) This process includes
two improvements: (a) an additional extruded poly-
meric/elastomeric semiconducting shield layer, not con-
taining peroxide, is extruded over the PE cable core to
limit the unwanted crosslinking of the lubricant from a
liquid to a viscous gel, and (b) the lubricant silicone oil,
having a high temperature and peroxide resistant perfor-
mance, is injected through the die wall onto the outer
core layer. Tubes are now 40-60 ft (12-18 m) long. Con-
centricity is achieved by the use of a low-melt index
XLPE compound (Bartnikas and Srivastava 1987).
1963: Installation of XLPE cables in the United States
by GE and other companies. Material was licensed to
three material producers for general supply to the cable
industry. Crosslinking changed PE from a thermoplastic
to a thermoset, which instead of melting at 107 ° C,
becomes an elastomer up to 250 °C. This permits the
normal operating temperature of 70°C for LDPE cable
and 80°C for HDPE to be increased to 90°C for XLPE,
4-18
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
making XLPE cable competitive with fluid-filled paper
and cables.
1965: 138-kV XLPE system was installed in Puerto
Rico, the first such system in the North American
region.
1965: XLPE cable was installed in the United States, fol-
lowed in the later 1960s by an installation in Canada.
Semiconducting shields were initially extruded from a
graphite-loaded XLPE compound; however, this com-
pound was stiffer and had inferior bending properties to
the XLPE insulation. Later graphite-loaded EVA com-
pounds were introduced to give better matched bending
properties to the XLPE insulation. It was found to be
difficult to exclude shield asperities (semiconducting
protrusions into the insulation) of less than 6 mil
(150 μm) (Tanaka and Greenwood 1983, page 29).
1972: First dry-cure line (no steam). This dramatically
reduced the size and number of voids, making possible
performance at higher electrical stresses and transmis-
sion voltages. Dry methods gave 100 ppm by weight of
water content for an undegassed dry cured cable com-
pared to 200 to 300 ppm for a steam-cured cable (BICC
1997).
1976: 138-kV XLPE cable was installed by Detroit Edi-
son.
1978: Swedish 230-kV XLPE cable was installed in
Libya.
1992: First 230-kV XLPE system was installed in the
United States, in Florida.
2000: First 345-kV XLPE short cable installation with-
out joints in the United States, in Boston.
2006: First 345-kV XLPE cable and joint installation in
the United States, in Connecticut.
4.7.2 Japanese Landmarks in XLPE System
Technology
1960-70: Japanese power utilities embarked on a long-
term national industry program to develop XLPE
power cables at 66, 154, 275, and 500 kV. The key items
in the program were development by the chemical
industry of super clean polyethylene and development
by the cable industry of manufacturing equipment capa-
ble of precision extrusion of superclean insulation and
supersmooth shield interfaces. Large quantities of
66-kV cables were initially extruded from steam-heated
CV lines. The routes of 275-kV and 400-kV major trans-
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
mission circuits were planned many years in advance in
co-ordination with the Departments of Transport, such
that, where possible, cable tunnels and major freeways
were constructed together, thus providing direct access
to cities. The following technological landmarks
occurred in Japan (Sato et al. 1993):
• 1965: Tandem extrusion.
• 1966: Dual tandem extruder group.
• 1971: Superclean compound for 154-kV cables.
• 1972: Gas curing process and triple head developed.
This reduced the void size restriction present with
steam cure from less than 2 mil (50 μm) to far less
than 0.4 mil (10 μm). MDCV is approx 0.04 mil (1
μm). (Tanaka and Greenwood 1983, page 48).
• 1975: Continuous stable extrusion line.
• 1977: 154-kV cables installed, based on long term
tests on lower voltage cables using the dry curing pro-
cess.
• 1978: Extra-clean compound for the 275-kV cable
system.
• 1982: Ultra-clean compound for the 500-kV cable
system.
• 1988: World’s first 500-kV XLPE cable-only circuit
installed (Figure 4-2).
• 1993: 275-kV long-length cable circuit with joints
commissioned. Figure 4-16 shows a low-loss cable.
• 2001: 500-kV long length cable circuit with joints
commissioned.
4.7.3 Commercial Applications of XLPE Cable
Systems
Table 4-1 shows that commercial applications of XLPE
cable at 220, 230, and 275 kV began around 1980. How-
Figure 4-16 Japan—first 275-kV XLPE, 5000 kcmil
(2500 mm2), insulated strand segmental conductor,
corrugated stainless steel sheath, long-length cable,
with joints, 1993 (courtesy of J-Power Systems).
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
ever, the conductors were small, and the circuit lengths
were short, with no joints. Longer lengths of larger con-
ductor sizes with joints were being installed 10-15 years
later in 1990-1995. Care is required in interpreting the
date of application, because long cable circuits take sev-
eral years to manufacture, install, and commission. For
example, the long-length 500-kV circuits in Japan that
commenced installation in 1996 completed commission-
ing in 2001.
The successful installation of the first 380- and 400-kV
XLPE cable circuits in Europe was based on the studies
of CIGRE working groups and in particular Working
Group 21.03, set up in 1990. It was recognized that
progress from less than 150-kV system voltages to above
150 kV, and in particular at 230 kV and above, was a
large technological extrapolation in terms of increased
electrical stress, cable size, accessory performance, and
thermomechanical force, with little service experience to
base it on. Experience at the lower transmission voltages
on the whole had been good. However, isolated cases
existed of cable failures due to extrusion defects and of
accessory failures associated in part with design and in
particular with workmanship, installation methods, and
contracts with divided responsibilities. The objective of
CIGRE WG 21.03 was to extend the range of IEC
60840 for routine and qualification tests on extruded
cables from 150 to 400 kV. WG 21.03 studied the two
countries with leading technology and experience at
higher voltages: France with extruded LDPE/HDPE
cable, and Japan with extruded XLPE cable. Both coun-
tries had developed a power law rationale to relate the
duration of long-term tests to service life for complete
cable systems—i.e., cables with accessories in a configu-
ration that simulated installation conditions. WG 21.03
published their recommendations in ELECTRA 151 in
December 1993 and extended them to 500 kV in ELEC-
TRA 193 in December 2000. Electra 151 recommended
to utilities and manufacturers that development, rou-
tine, prequalification, and qualification tests be per-
fo r m e d . I n p a r t i c u l a r t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e
prequalification test is specified to be 365 days. Utilities
specified ELECTRA 151 for a period of eight years until
superseded in 2001 by IEC 62067 (IEC 2001). AEIC CS
9 (AEIC 2006) specifies that the prequalification tests
shall meet the IEC 62067 test requirement.
In the 1980s and 1990s, it was found that dc high-
voltage, after-laying tests that had evolved with paper
cables were insensitive in the detection of gross mechan-
ical damage to the extruded cable and assembly errors in
the accessories, such that failures occurred after weeks
to months in service. Additionally the application of the
dc voltage was considered to be detrimental to both the
4-19
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Table 4-1 Commercial Applications of XLPE Cable by Voltage, Conductor Size, and Circuit Length
Voltage Conductor Circuit Length Country of
kV Year kcmil mm2 ft m Joints Installation
138 1965 - - - - - Puerto Rico
1976 - - - - - USA

220 1981 1500 800 140 44 No Japan

1984 1250 630 6287 1917 - Sweden
1990 1250 630 577 177 No Canada
1992 4000 2000 727 222 No Japan
1992 5000 2500 170 52 No Japan
1995 3000 1600 154,860 47,202 Yes Qatar

230 1978 750 400 327 100 No Libya

1985 2500 1200 547 167 No USA
1992 2500 1200 - - No USA, Florida
1994 2500 1200 25,150 7667 Yes India
1997 1000 500 4757 1450 - USA
1998 4000 2000 108,267 33,000 Yes Singapore
1999 2000 1000 9247 2819 Yes USA

275 1979 1750 800 423 130 No Japan

1981 1750 800 4037 1231 - Japan
1986 4000 2000 5783 1763 - Japan
1990 5000 2500 39,623 12,078 Yes Japan

345 2000 1200 630 1757 536 No USA

2000 2500 1200 13,123 4000 Yes Iran
2000 5000 2500 70,863 21,600 Yes Taiwan
2006 1750 800 10,500 3200 Yes USA

380/400 1995 750 400 7073 2157 - Saudi Arabia

1997 3000 1600 69,770 21,267 Yes Denmark
1998 3500 1800 293 90 - Germany
1999 3500 1600 22,417 6833 Yes Germany
2000 5000 2500 36,743 11,200 Yes Saudi Arabia
2002 2500 1200 91,863 28,000 Yes Denmark
2004 5000 2500 83,990 25,600 Yes Spain
2005 5000 2500 68,897 21,000 Yes UK
2005 2500 1200 34,120 10,400 Yes Austria

500 1988 1500 800 623 190 No Japan

1993 1500 800 7873 2400 Yes Japan
1996 5000 2500 65,103 19,844 Yes Japan
2000 5000 2500 261,154 79,600 Yes Japan

cable, because of space charge accumulation, and to the
accessories, because of application of high electrical
stress formed by the large differences in dc resistivity.
AC after-laying tests were shown to be effective, and
CIGRE WG 21.07 published test levels in ELECTRA
173 in 1997, which were also incorporated into IEC
62067. Utilities and manufacturers could then have con-
fidence that XLPE cable systems could commence com-
mercial installation with a reasonable prospect of
predictable good performance.
Commercial 380- and 400-kV XLPE systems were
installed from 1995 onwards, with key events being the
first buried installation in Copenhagen, Denmark, in

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics

1997 (Andersen et al. 1996) and two tunnel installations accessories, installation, manufacturing plant, and
in Berlin, Germany in 1998 and 1999 (Henningsen et al. materials warrants performing a new one-year prequali-
1998). The latter applications are of particular signifi- fication test. The tests are expensive and delay projects.
cance, because the utility BEWAG sponsored two series CIGRE, therefore, has published a revision of the quali-
of prequalification tests in Italy at the CESI Milan labo- fication procedures in TB 303 (CIGRE 2006). The revi-
ratories. These were based on the tests recommended in sion describes an “extension of qualification” test
ELECTRA 151 (CIGRE 1993). Six manufacturers took procedure for changes in designs in EHV cable systems
part in parallel tests in each series. Each manufacturer including their cables and accessories. The revision also
assembled a 100-m test loop with samples of each type recommends a prequalification test procedure for HV
of accessory and samples of each type of installation cable system design with high stresses when no earlier
method (buried, tunnel, and duct). The first test series experience is available.
showed that the accessories, and in particular the joint,
were a major weakness with only one manufacturer 4.8 ELECTRICAL DESIGN STRESSES FOR
completing the tests, which was due to the robust design XLPE SYSTEMS
of a pre-fabricated composite straight joint. The first
An EPRI technology review of XLPE EHV cables, 220
test series showed that factory-prefabricated joint insu-
to 500 kV, was performed in 2002. Figure 4-17 was com-
lation had a superior performance to hand-taped insula-
piled from the surveys of utilities and cable manufactur-
tion in resisting disturbance from both heat and stress
ers and from published data. Conductor shield and
deformation and from conductor thermomechanical
insulation shield stresses are increased at higher system
forces. Designs of prefabricated accessories were
voltage. This is driven by the need to ship a worthwhile
installed in the second test series, and these exhibited a
length on a reel and to reduce the number of joints. Reel
greatly improved performance. Even then, only one
lengths of 1600-5000 ft (500-1500 m) have been achieved
manufacturer completed the second test series without
up to 500 kV.
distress or failure. Another four manufacturers were
permitted to remake existing accessories, or insert new
Figure 4-17 shows data for all circuits, regardless of cir-
accessories (joints and terminations) to eventually and
cuit length and whether joints are installed. Figure 4-18
fully complete the tests. The sixth manufacturer with-
is for circuits containing joints.
drew after suffering repeat cable failures, which resulted
from defects in the extruded shield, but later progressed
to remake the cable at a different factory and then to
successfully complete a third test series.

The majority of utilities have since required evidence of

CIGRE 151, CIGRE 193, or IEC 62067 long-term
prequalification tests to demonstrate compatibility of
cable, accessories, and installation design. IEC then
amended standard IEC 60840 (IEC 2004) to include
combined tests for accessories with the extruded cables
for system voltages from 30 to 150 kV.

North American standards ICEA S-108-720-2004 and Figure 4-18 Conductor and insulation shield stresses
increase with transmission voltage.
AEIC CS9-06 were issued in 2004 and 2006, respec-
tively, and share the CIGRE and IEC approach of per-
forming qualification and prequalification tests. A
significant difference is that in Europe the manufacturer
is free to optimize and to take responsibility for the
design of the cable system, providing evidence of IEC
tests are supplied, whereas in North America, the stan-
dards also specify the cable design stress limits and the
dimensions of the cable, leaving the manufacturer with
the responsibility for quality control.

Manufacturers and utilities internationally have found Figure 4-19 Conductor and insulation shield stresses
difficulty in deciding when a change in cable design, are lower in circuits that contain joints.

4-21
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

The figures show:
• From 220/230 kV to 500 kV, the design stresses have
nearly doubled.
• Conductor shield stresses are generally lower in cir-
cuits that have joints installed, but there is little effect
on insulation shield stresses.
• The 400 and 500-kV stress levels represented the then
“state of the art”; the first major 400-kV system was
commissioned in 1997, and the first major 500-kV
system in 1996.
• The design stresses specified in the new standard
AEIC CS9-06 are in accord with the international
experience shown in Figure 4-18.
Conductor and insulation shield stresses for a selection
of projects installed throughout the world are shown in
Table 4-2.
Figures 4-19 to 4-21 show the variation of conductor
and insulation shield stress with conductor size for
transmission voltages of 220, 345, 400, and 500 kV. As
would be expected, the conductor sizes are smaller at
220 kV, extending from 750 to 4000 kcmil (400 to
2000 mm2), whereas at the higher voltage, they extend
from typically 1000 to 5000 kcmil (500 to 2500 mm2).
Figures 4-20 and 4-21 show that, at small conductor
sizes, there is a wide difference between the conductor
and insulation shield stresses. At larger conductor sizes,
the difference reduces. The conductor shield stress
reduces, and the insulation shield stress increases. The
reasons are:
• For a small conductor radius, the logarithmic equa-
tion for stress distribution described in Chapter 3
produces a high conductor stress and a low shield
stress. Chapter 3 also notes that it is uneconomic to
design a cable with an insulation-to-conductor-

Table 4-2 Design Stress and Insulation Thickness in Order of Transmission Voltage

Nominal Insulation Conductor Insulation shield

Voltage Conductor Year Thickness Stress Stress
[kV] mm2 In Service Country mm kV/mm kV/mm
500 2500 2000 Japan 27 14.6 8.1
400 1600 1997 Denmark 32 10.9 5.0
400 1600 1998 Germany 29.5 11.5 5.6
400 1600 1998 Germany 27 12.2 6.2
400 1600 1999 Germany 29.5 11.5 5.6
400 1600 1999 Germany 27 12.2 5.6
400 800 2000 Abu Dhabi 29 12.7 5.3
275 1200 1998 Australia 27 8.9 4.1
230 2000 1998 Singapore 24 7.2 4.0
230 1000 1999 USA 24 8.1 3.9
230 1200 2002 USA 27 7.5 3.4
220 1000 1999 Spain 24 7.8 3.7
220 1600 1999 Ireland 25 7.0 3.4

Figure 4-20 Variation in conductor and insulation shield Figure 4-20 Variation in conductor and insulation shield
stresses with conductor size at 220 kV. stresses with conductor size at 400 kV.

4-22
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Figure 4-21 Variation in conductor and insulation shield
stresses with conductor size at 500 kV.
shield-diameter ratio greater than the “e-ratio” of
2.72. To avoid having to select an unnecessarily large
conductor, manufacturers increase the conductor
shield stress to the highest level, which is 16 kV/mm
at 500 kV and 14 kV/mm at 400 kV. These high
stresses are acceptable, because it is easier to produce
a circular, smooth conductor of small diameter; on
the other hand the stress at the insulation screen is
lower.
• At larger conductor diameters, the logarithmic equa-
tion increases the insulation screen stress until the
accessory limiting stress is reached at the cable/acces-
sory interface. At 400 and 500 kV, the accessory limit
is in the range of 6-8 kV/mm. The logarithmic equa-
tion produces an equivalent stress at the conductor
shield in the range of 11-15 kV/mm.
4.9 PROPERTIES OF XLPE CABLE
INSULATION
4.9.1 Electrical Breakdown Mechanism
Short-time breakdown of a laboratory sample of XLPE
is given as 20,000 V/mil (800 kV/mm) in Tanaka and
Greenwood 1983, page 21. The breakdown strength of
XLPE insulation in a cable adjacent to an electrical geo-
metric stress raiser formed by a particle or asperity is
given as 300 kV/mm in AEIC CS9 Appendix A, and this
value is given in Bartnikas and Srivastava 2000.
The need to monitor the conductor shield was consid-
ered to be essential to eliminate significant perturba-
tions (Bahder et al. 1976).
Substantial work has been performed to establish the
mechanism of electrical breakdown of polymeric-insu-
lated cables—for example, Whitehead 1951, Kitchin
1958, Mason 1959, McMahon 1963, Toriyama 1967,
Shiweck 1969, Bahder 1974, Bahder 1976, and St.Onge
1978. An excellent review is given by Dissado and
Fothergill (1992). Based on these studies and work per-
formed on models and cable samples, it was postulated
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
in the paper by Bahder et al. 1976 that voltage break-
down originates at imperfections in the insulation struc-
ture of the cable and results in local high-voltage
stresses sufficient to cause ionization. When this ioniza-
tion is of such magnitude as to produce an electron ava-
lanche, an electrical tree will develop and propagate
rapidly, constituting an electrical breakdown of the
insulation. The most critical imperfections, in decreas-
ing order of importance, are:
• protrusions at the conductor shield
• contaminants in the insulation including conductive
particles and insulating particles having a signifi-
cantly higher conductivity than the insulation
• voids that discharge during the application of the
voltage.
Further, dry curing reduces the size and number of
voids per unit volume, but voids can still occur due to
either abnormal conditions in materials and processing
or high local electrical stress.
The voltage breakdown initiation is determined by the
charges that flow back and forth, constituting an ioniza-
tion current in the insulation in the regions of local
high-voltage stress. This current is similar to a gaseous
discharge from a point electrode. The reader should
refer to the Bahder paper (Bahder et al.1976) for a
detailed analysis of the failure mechanism of XLPE-
insulated transmission cables.
A second breakdown mechanism, water treeing, applies
to cables installed in wet locations, where moisture can
gain ingress into the insulation structure from the con-
ductor or by diffusion through the outer covering from
the environment. The necessary conditions for the
development and propagation of fine, water-filled, den-
dritic patterns in the insulation (water trees) are mois-
ture in the insulation, ac voltage stress, imperfections in
the insulation that can serve as cavities for accumulating
moisture, and areas of localized, high electrical stress.
Unlike electrical trees, water trees propagate very slowly
and bridge the insulation only after a number of years.
Water trees reduce the ac and impulse breakdown
strengths of the cable. Failure generally occurs during,
or as a consequence of, switching or lightning impulse
surges when an electrical tree propagates from the
extremity of the largest water tree.
Electrochemical treeing is defined as a form of water
treeing in which the water contains solute ions that
move under the action of an electrical field and are
detected within the wall of insulation or at an electrode
surface after having passed through the insulation. Cop-
per sulfide and copper oxide have been found in the
4-23
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
branches of such trees where cables have been installed
in the vicinity of a chemical plant and immersed in
water rich in hydrogen sulfide.
Water trees have been broadly classified as vented trees
and nonvented (bow-tie) trees. Vented trees start their
growth at the interface of the insulation with the con-
ductor shield and insulation shield with an unlimited
supply of air and water and can grow completely
through the insulation to bridge the two electrodes.
Nonvented trees start at an internal void or contami-
nant and, in most cases, are limited in size.
Although a number of theories have been proposed to
explain why water trees develop and propagate in
extruded-dielectric cables, (e.g., immeasurably small
partial discharge in channels that are incompletely filled
with water, cracking or distortion of the insulation due
to vaporization and expansion of liquid water, localized
oxidative thermal degradation or decomposition, and
fatigue failure due to repeated applications of compres-
sive force in the very small, high-stress regions), no gen-
eral agreement has been reached to date, and there are
continuing studies in this regard.
Water in the conductor of a cable greatly accelerates the
development and propagation of water trees. This may
be attributed to the higher temperature of the conduc-
tor, which acts to move the water into the insulation
structure of the cable. This may be separate from or in
conjunction with high amounts of impurities in the con-
ductor shield, which can be transported into the insula-
tion by the water.
A low-moisture diffusion jacket, such as polyethylene,
crosslinked polyethylene, or chlorinated polyethylene, is
effective in retarding ingress of water from the environ-
ment, aided by the higher temperature of the conductor
relative to the environment, which acts to retard the dif-
fusion of water through the jacket. The jacket and the
extruded insulation shield are more effective in this
regard than the insulation, since the insulation is in a
divergent electric field, and dielectrophoretic forces act
on uncharged but polarized molecules of water to
attract the molecules of water toward the regions of
greatest field intensity—i.e., through the insulation in
the direction of the conductor shield.
Tree-retardant insulations, such as TRXLPE and prop-
erly formulated and mixed EPR insulations, are more
resistant to the development and propagation of water
trees than conventional crosslinked polyethylene and
noncrosslinked, high-molecular-weight polyethylene
insulations. Insulations must be super clean (free of sig-
4-24
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
nificant impurities), free of harmful voids, and, in the
case of EPR, the insulation must be processed to ensure
a homogeneous mixture of compounding ingredients
free of significant size agglomerates in order to retain
their intrinsic resistance to water treeing.
The rate of propagation of vented water trees appears to
be proportional to the electric stress. Hence, higher
stress cables, with reduced insulation-wall thickness, will
exhibit larger water trees over a given period of time and
shorter cable life, compared to lower stress cables,
assuming that the cable design and operating conditions
permit the ingress of water into the insulation.
In the design of medium- and high-voltage extruded-
dielectric cables, it is helpful to fill the strand interstices
to prevent ingress of water under any circumstances.
Crosslinked polyethylene-insulated, nonmetallic
sheathed transmission cables with overall polyethylene
and to a lesser extent PVC jackets, 110-140 mils (2.79-
3.56 mm) in thickness, have not exhibited failures due to
water treeing. These cables, rated at 69 kV, have been
operating at up to a maximum stress of 100 V/mil (4
kV/mm) since 1969, and at 115/138 kV at a maximum
stress of 150 V/mil (6 kV/mm) since 1975. One exception
is a 115-kV, crosslinked polyethylene-insulated, non-
lead-covered, polyethylene-jacketed cable that failed
after 15 years due to water treeing. This cable exhibited
clear evidence of ingress of water into the conductor and
under the outer covering.
It is noteworthy that in Europe, where the operating
stresses are generally higher, the practice is to employ a
metallic sheath or moisture barrier to prevent ingress of
moisture into the insulation structure of the cable. The
stress level at which a moisture barrier is required to
prevent failure in service life due to water treeing is
dependent on many factors, including the thickness of
the insulation. However the rate of tree growth is accel-
erated at a stress of greater than 50 V/mil (2 kV/mm),
and so it is usual to apply a moisture barrier when this
stress is exceeded. AEIC CS9 (AEIC 2006) limits the
insulation internal and external ac stresses to 100 V/mil
(4 kV/mm) and 50 V/mil (2 kV/mm), respectively, if
there is not a metallic moisture barrier. Please see
“Additional Bibliography—Water Trees” in the list of
references at the end of this chapter for an overview of
water treeing in extruded cable insulations.
4.9.2 Electrical Properties
Typical electrical properties determined on crosslinked
polyethylene-insulated high-voltage cables are listed in
Table 4-3.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Table 4-3 Typical Electrical Properties for Crosslinked
Polyethylene Insulation Used in Transmission Cable
Applications
Relative permittivity at 90°C 2.3
DLA (dielectric loss angle) at 90°C 0.0001
AC breakdown stress at conductor at
room temperature. (30-minute step test, >1270 (50)
40 V/mil (1.58 kV/mm) steps)
Impulse breakdown stress at conductor.
(1 x 50 μs wave at 90°C conductor tem- 3425 (135)
perature)
Volume resistivity at 20°C, ASTM D 991 >1 x 1013
The dielectric constant does not vary significantly with
temperature. The dissipation factor does not vary signif-
icantly with temperature between 20 and 90°C. At a
130°C conductor temperature, an increase in the dissi-
pation factor of the order of 40% may be observed.
The reduction in ac dielectric strength between room
temperature and 90°C is of the order of 25%. The reduc-
tion in impulse strength between 90 and 130°C is of the
order of 40%. Volume resistivity decreases significantly
with increasing temperature.
4.9.3 Physical Properties
Typical physical properties for crosslinked polyethylene
insulation, determined on specimens from unaged high-
voltage cables, are listed in Table 4-4.
4.9.4 Thermal Properties
Thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, and specific
heat are important thermal properties of the insulation
that influence the design and operating characteristics
of extruded-dielectric cables.
Thermal Expansion
Crosslinked polyethylene is a homopolymer, and, as
such, it is partially crystalline with a melting tempera-
ture of around 107°C. As discussed in Union Carbide’s
Kabelitems periodical, the addition of thermal energy in
the form of heat to the material in the solid phase
Table 4-4 Typical Physical Properties for Crosslinked
Polyethylene Insulation
Tensile strength 3200 (22) psi (MPa)
Elongation at break 540
1400
Tensile stress at 100% elongation,
(9.7)
After air-oven test at 120°C for 168 hours
Tensile strength, variation 10
Elongation at break, variation 10
Low-temperature brittleness, ASTM D 746 -90
Hardness, ASTM D 2240 45
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
increases its molecular motion, melting crystallites of
polyethylene and adding to the amorphous fraction
(Union Carbide Company n.d.). Crystallites of larger
ratio and larger size are melted with increasing temperature,
radians which causes an increase in the rate of expansion until
the crystallite melting is complete. Beyond this thermo-
V/mil dynamic melting point, the material is completely amor-
(kV/mm)
phous. With further increase in temperature, thermal
expansion increases at a constant rate characteristic of
V/mil
(kV/mm) the molecular structure of the material.
ohm-m
The result of this effect is shown in Figure 4-22.
Since organic materials expand much more than metals
in the temperature range of interest in this application,
and since the thermal expansion of the insulation along
the axis of the cable is negligible, this data, based on vol-
umetric expansion, can be used conservatively to calcu-
late the radial expansion of the insulation at the normal
and emergency temperatures of the cable. Since the
extruded conductor and insulation shields are generally
based on the same or similar polymers as the insulation,
with the addition of 30-40% carbon black, and because
the extruded shields comprise a small volume compared
to that of the insulation of high-voltage cables, it is pos-
sible to use the total volume of the insulation and
shielding structure of the cable conservatively for calcu-
lating the increase in diameter over the insulation shield
under normal and emergency operating temperatures.
Thermal expansion of the insulation structure of the
cable under normal and, particularly, emergency operat-
ing conditions is an important consideration in the
design of metallic shields and sheaths and particularly
in the design of sealed metallic moisture barriers for
extruded-dielectric cables. Where the expansion of the
insulation structure at elevated temperatures cannot be
ac commodated by th e design of the me tallic
shield/sheath or moisture barrier, a resilient, compress-
%
psi (MPa)
%
%
°C Figure 4-22 Thermal volume expansion of crosslinked
Shore D polyethylene insulation (courtesy of Union Carbide
Company n.d.).
4-25
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
ible semiconducting layer compatible with the insulation
structure may have to be incorporated between the
extruded insulation shield and metallic shield/sheath or
moisture barrier of the cable, or the design of the
extruded insulation shield must perform this function.
Thermal Conductivity
The thermal conductivity of the insulation structure of
the cable, in conjunction with that of the other elements
in the thermal path from the extruded insulation shield
to ambient earth or air, affects the temperature rise of
the current-carrying conductor, and hence the ampacity
of the cable under normal and emergency operating
conditions. All other things being equal, if the thermal
conductivity of the insulation structure is higher, then
the ampacity of the cable will be greater. The thermal
conductivity and specific heat of the materials that sur-
round the conductor and the metallic shield/sheath of a
cable influence their transient temperature rise during
short circuits and hence their short-circuit current-car-
rying capacities and short-time ampacities up to several
tens of hours.
Figure 4-23 shows thermal conductivity of crosslinked
polyethylene insulation over a wide range of tempera-
tures. Note that thermal conductivity is the reciprocal of
the more commonly used term, thermal resistivity.
For the reasons cited previously, the thermal conductiv-
ity values shown in Figure 4-23 can be used conserva-
tively for the extruded conductor and insulation shields
if such data are not available for these materials.
Specific Heat
Specific heat is defined as the heat capacity per unit
mass of a material. It can be expressed as the calories
required to change the temperature of one gram of
material one degree centigrade. Specific heat can also be
Figure 4-23 Thermal conductivity of crosslinked
polyethylene insulation (courtesy of Union Carbide
Company n.d.).
4-26
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
expressed as joules per gram per degree centigrade
based on the concept of mechanical equivalent of heat.
Specific heat varies widely for different materials, and in
general, the specific heat of a material increases directly
with increases in temperature.
Figure 4-24 shows the specific heat of crosslinked poly-
ethylene insulation as a function of temperature.
The peak in the curve corresponds approximately to the
melting temperature of crosslinked polyethylene insula-
tion at which the structure changes from a crystalline-
amorphous to a completely amorphous state. This
change in the state of crosslinked polyethylene insulation
necessitates an input of heat before its temperature can
exceed about 107°C, which favorably affects the transient
ratings of crosslinked polyethylene-insulated cables.
4.10 EPR CABLE: BENEFITS AND
CHALLENGES
The benefits and challenges of EPR cable are in relation
to those of XLPE, which has become a more universally
applied insulation for general use.
4.10.1 Benefits
• Increased flexibility at normal and low ambient tem-
peratures, improving ease of installation and jointing.
• Reduced flexibility and excellent behavior at higher
emergency operating temperatures.
• The mechanical properties of elasticity, thermal
expansion and thermal resistivity show less variation
with temperature.
• Improved water tree performance.
• Special grades are suitable for some wet applications,
both land and submarine, without a metallic radial
water barrier.
Figure 4-24 Specific heat of crosslinked
polyethylene insulation.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
• The insulation shield can more readily be removed
from the EPR insulation by the technique of heat
stripping.
• Special grades have improved resistance to partial
discharge.
4.10.2 Challenges
• The dielectric losses are significantly higher than
those of XLPE and limit the practical application to
cables of rated voltage 150 kV and below.
• The insulating material needs to be compounded in a
separate process, and this represents an additional
cost.
• In order to guarantee the reproducibility of the com-
pounding of several ingredients, a suitable character-
ization criterion is necessary.
• A range of EPR compounds exists with significantly
different properties and costs, requiring care in selec-
tion for a particular application.
• EPR insulation remains opaque and cannot be visu-
ally examined before and after aging or to verify the
integrity of the cable structure.
4.11 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF EPR CABLE
Ethylene-propylene rubber (EPR) is a filled, crosslinked,
thermoset insulation suitable for use up to 138 kV
(150 kV in Europe), above which the dielectric loss
becomes significant with voltage and progressively
reduces the ampacity compared to an XLPE cable. EPR
is an elastomer (Figure 4-25), which has an amorphous
structure throughout the working temperature range
and, compared to XLPE, exhibits less variation in the
elastic modulus with temperature (Figure 4-12). The
short-term temperature for emergency operation is usu-
ally limited to less than 130°C, with a temperature limit
of 250°C for short-circuit ratings. The advantages of EPR
Figure 4-25 Slices cut from EPR cable
insulation (courtesy of CCI).
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
compared to XLPE are increased mechanical flexibility,
smaller bending radius, greater short-term temperature,
and greater resistance to degradation by water trees.
The designation EPR is the generic common name that
refers to these two sub types:
• Ethylene-propylene rubber monomer copolymer
(EPM, Figure 4-26)
• Ethylene-propylene rubber diene monomer terpoly-
mer (EPDM, Figure 4-27)
Ethylene-propylene rubber monomer (EPM) is a copol-
ymer of low density, completely saturated without C-C
double bonds, and crosslinked radically (i.e., by perox-
ides as polyethylene). EPM was the first polymer to be
adopted and found a rapid importance thanks to the
outstanding processing properties and resistance to
thermal aging.
The further development of this saturated rubber, incor-
porating dienes (EPDM), and having two lateral C-C
double bonds, allows traditional sulfur crosslinking as
well as peroxide crosslinking. Sulfur curing was soon
abandoned in the cable industry because of process lim-
itations and reaction with the copper conductor. Perox-
ide crosslinking was adopted, being more reactive and
efficient.
The EPDM terpolymer was developed by DuPont to
introduce sites of unsaturation in the polymer chain to
facilitate crosslinking of nonelectrical rubber products
by employing sulfur at relatively low temperatures with
exposure to the atmosphere. With the advent of perox-
Figure 4-26 Structure of EPM (courtesy of
Prysmian Cables & Systems).
Figure 4-27 Structure of EPDM(courtesy of Prysmian
Cables & Systems).
4-27
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
ides for crosslinking EPM and EPDM, the diene mono-
mer is no longer required for electrical insulation.
However, EPDM is largely, but not exclusively, used in
conjunction with peroxides for crosslinking electrical
insulations, since it is the predominant polymer manu-
factured in large quantities in the United States for non-
electrical rubber products.
EPM copolymer and EPDM terpolymer are amorphous
or partially crystalline elastomers. In the crystalline
state, the macromolecules (molecules orientated in a
long chain) are arranged geometrically so that there are
elements of symmetry and high cohesive forces. The
crystallinity of the polymer is a function of the ratio of
ethylene to propylene content and can be categorized as
follows:
• Low crystallinity, 45-55% ethylene content
• Medium crystallinity, 55-65% ethylene content
• High crystallinity 65-70% ethylene content
EPM copolymers or EPDM terpolymers with greater
than 72% ethylene content progressively lose their rub-
bery properties and become a kind of modified poly-
ethylene. Hence polymers with greater than 72%
ethylene content are not normally employed for electri-
cal insulations.
In addition to the ratio of ethylene to propylene, crystal-
linity of the polymer is affected by the selection of the
catalyst and reactor conditions used in forming ethylene
propylene, since they affect the size and dispersion of
clusters of ethylene in the polymer structure. In addi-
tion, the crystallinity can be affected by type and
amount of compounding ingredients, as discussed later.
Crosslinking reduces crystallinity, and crystallites in
EPM and EPDM melt at temperatures on the order of
40°C.
In the amorphous state, the macromolecules have low
cohesive forces and are in complete disorder. Amor-
phous polymers or polymers with low ethylene content,
and hence low crystallinity, generally result in com-
pounds that are softer—i.e., they exhibit lower tensile
moduli, and have increased flexibility. Since lower mod-
ulus compounds tend to be more resistant to surface
discharge, these polymers may be desirable in EPR com-
pounds where the shield structure of the cable allows the
insulation to be exposed to continual electrical dis-
charge. Such polymers may also be desirable for use in
portable power cables or in applications where the
cables will be continually flexed in service. Other than
this special cable design and application, there is no
4-28
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
known relationship between crystallinity and perfor-
mance in a state-of-the-art design high-voltage cable.
Ethylene propylene is capable of exhibiting a balance of
physical and electrical properties suitable as an insula-
tion for high-voltage power cables when formulated
with a quality mineral filler and other carefully selected
ingredients controlled by stringent material specifica-
tions. It also needs to be mixed to ensure a very good
dispersion of the ingredients and to be free of harmful
contaminants.
The term “EPR” will be employed in this book when
referring to all ethylene-propylene polymers whether or
not they contain a diene monomer.
4.11.1 Formulation of EPR
The term “EPR-based” insulating compound, rather
than EPR insulating compound, is more technically cor-
rect, since a typical EPR high-voltage insulating com-
pound contains seven to nine chemical ingredients of
which EPM or EPDM constitute approximately 45-50%
by weight. The remainder of the compound consists of
mineral filler, antioxidant, crosslinking agent, co-agents,
and processing agents.
The EPM or EPDM is the backbone of the insulation
compound and, to a large extent, determines the basic
physical and electrical properties of the insulation. The
mineral filler normally comprises from 25-35% of the
compound by weight and serves to enhance its physical
properties. Treating the mineral filler with silane can
contribute to the physical and electrical stability charac-
teristics of the compound in water. The antioxidant pro-
tects the EPM or EPDM against thermal decomposition
due to high processing temperatures and also prolongs
the life of the insulation in service when exposed to nor-
mal and emergency operating temperatures. The
crosslinking agent, activated by heat, affects crosslinking
by the formation of cross-bonds in the molecular chains.
Crosslinking provides the physical and mechanical prop-
erties essential for use as cable insulation. The processing
agents facilitate extrusion and improve the surface con-
dition of the insulation. The antioxidant, crosslinking
agent and co-agents, and processing agents are each less
than 5% by weight of the compound.
In general, compound formulation (i.e., the selection of
the polymer, filler, and other ingredients and the quanti-
ties of each) is important in determining the physical
and electrical characteristics of the insulation and the
service performance of the cable. The mineral filler, gen-
erally a silicone-treated clay of high purity, facilitates
processing, provides dimensional stability, and enhances
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics

the mechanical properties of the compound. It is also
largely responsible for the higher dissipation factor and
dielectric constant, and hence dielectric loss, of EPR
compounds compared to LDPE and HDPE insulations.
However, the processing or mixing of the compound is
at least of equal importance to the compound formula-
tion with regard to the service performance of the cable.
tamination. However, in recent years, with increasing
use of the more crystalline polymers, which lend them-
selves to pelletization, the pellet form has increased in
use because of reduced handling and exposure to the
environment, and consequently, reduced risk of contam-
ination. Pellets can be used in conventional air-convey-
ing equipment.

4.11.2 Mixing of High-Voltage EPR Insulation 4.11.3 Cable Applications

Compounds
The achievement of a high-quality, high-voltage EPR
insulation compound depends on the following raw
material and mixing requirements:
• The base polymer must be properly constituted and
free of conducting materials and other contaminants.
• All compounding ingredients must be of high quality
and free of conducting material and other contami-
nants.
• Mixing of the polymer, mineral filler, and other com-
pounding ingredients must be such as to yield a
homogenous compound that is free of conducting
materials and other contaminants.
Stringent specifications, including intensive inspection
and acceptance testing for all raw materials, are neces-
sary to meet these requirements. Carefully controlled
storage and handling procedures must be observed to
further minimize the risk of contamination.
EPR insulation has been used in the United States for
transmission cables at voltage ratings of 69 and
115/138 kV since the late 1960s and early 1970s, respec-
tively. This parallels the experience in Europe, where the
first 150-kV EPR-insulated cable was manufactured and
installed in 1975 (Figure 4-29).
EPR cables have seen widespread use up to 150 kV in
Italy, with some applications up to 220 kV, particularly
in mountainous terrain, for example in Switzerland.
An impressive amount of EPR medium-voltage subma-
rine cables with a wet design (see Figure 4-30) have been
installed since the late 1960s with an excellent service
record. A wet cable design is not provided with an

The ingredients should be mixed in an internal mixer

(generally known as a Banbury mixer) or a continuous
mixer. For optimal electrical and electrical-stability-in-
water characteristics, the Banbury mixer should be used
exclusively for high-voltage EPR insulation compound,
and the mixing cycle should be adhered to rigidly. A
continuous mixer lends itself to thorough cleaning; if
other compounds are mixed in the continuous mixer,
the mixer should be disassembled and completely
cleaned prior to mixing high-voltage EPR insulation
compounds. Final straining through screens with small
mesh openings is effective in dispersing agglomerates
and removing nondeformable contaminants. The screen
size for high-voltage EPR insulation should be no less
than No. 200 mesh and preferably higher mesh (smaller
size openings). Screenings should be done for each
group of ingredients and again for the final mixed com-
pound to achieve optimal dispersion. Figure 4-28 shows
a Banbury mixer.

The compound, when in its final mixed state for extru-

sion, may be in the form of either strips or pellets. Both
forms are suitable for use as high-voltage insulation,
Figure 4-28 Banbury mixer (courtesy of Farrel Co.).
provided that proper care is exercised to prevent con-

4-29
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
Figure 4-29 150-kV 2000 kcmil (1000 mm2) EPR cable
(courtesy of Prysmian Cables & Systems).
Figure 4-30 46 kV 500 kcmil (250 mm2)
EPR submarine
3/C cable (courtesy of Prysmian Cables & Systems).
impervious metallic radial barrier, and so water is
allowed to enter the cable and contact the EPR insula-
tion. Note that in Figure 4-30 the metallic layer around
each EPR cable core is formed from a tinned copper
tape shield and is not a water barrier.
AEIC CS9-06 and ICEA S-108-720-2004 set forth the
requirements and operating conditions for EPR-
insulated transmission cables in the United States.
IEC 60840 covers EPR cables for rated voltages up to
150 kV; IEC 62067 covers EPR insulated cables up to
220 kV and higher, even though EPR is rarely used at
these voltages.
Operating stresses employed in Europe for EPR-insu-
lated transmission cables are higher than in the United
States. Insulation thicknesses for 72.5-kV rated cables
range from 435 to 515 mils (11-13 mm), increasing with
4-30
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
decreasing conductor size. The insulation thickness for
a 2000-kcmil (1013-mm 2 ) conductor, 150 kV cable
would be 800 mils (20 mm), with the insulation thick-
ness again varying inversely with the conductor size to
achieve essentially the same maximum stress.
The maximum conductor temperatures under normal,
emergency, and short-circuit operation, as set forth in
Table 1.9-1 of AEIC CS9-06, are 90, 105, and 250°C,
respectively. Essentially the same temperatures are used
in Europe for EPR-insulated high-voltage cables. Due to
the excellent thermal behavior, appropriate EPR com-
pounds are suitable for temperature under normal ser-
vices of 105°C and emergency temperatures of 140°C
(Cinquemani 1996). AEIC CS9-06 (AEIC 2006) notes
that only emergency temperatures of 130°C may be used
for EPR cables in the range 46-150 kV with mutual
agreement between purchaser and manufacturer.
4.12 LANDMARK DEVELOPMENTS IN EPR
CABLE
1960: Studies carried out by the German scientist Karl
Ziegler and by the Italian Giulio Natta during the 1950s
showed that some organometallic catalyst greatly
increased the speed of some reactions. This made possi-
ble the copolymerization of ethylene with polypropy-
lene, creating the saturated synthetic rubber known by
the generic designation of EPR. The invention of the
oriented catalyst polymerization process led the two
inventors to the Nobel Prize in 1963 (Natta 1963).
In 1957, polypropylene was first commercially produced
and marketed by Montecatini Italy as Moplen using
Zeigler-Natta catalysts to control the structure of the
polymer and to polymerize products that had previously
been impossible.
In 1960, the first ethylene-propylene rubber polymer
was commercially available from the Italian company
Montecatini.
EPR was later produced by the Montecateni Company,
Italy. The EPM co-polymer was further modified by
DuPont USA to become EPDM so that it could be
crosslinked using compounds of sulfur, the standard
method for rubber cables. This permitted EPR to pro-
gressively replace butyl rubber as an insulating and jack-
eting compound.
1963: The subsequent development in 1963 of the chem-
ical crosslinking route became the standard method to
produce EPR cables, which, as used below, refers to
EPM and EPDM co-polymers. EPR cables are a com-
petitor to XLPE cables up to 138 kV. Their increased
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics

flexibility at normal ambient temperature makes them
easier to install, especially where space is restricted.
Their flexibility increases slightly with temperature, but
that of XLPE significantly falls at 105°C to a lower
value, thus giving EPR a relative improvement in opera-
tion at emergency overload temperatures up to 130°C.
Although they also form water trees, the trees are gener-
ally smaller than those in XLPE, which has led to their
installation at MV (15-35 kV) in three-core submarine
applications and in wet land applications at 150 kV. The
disadvantage of EPR compared to XLPE is that the
insulation is generally more expensive, it requires to be
moderately filled to improve mechanical robustness, the
increased number of ingredients complicates quality
control, and it has a significantly higher dissipation fac-
tor (dielectric loss angle), dielectric permittivity, and
loss factor, which reduces its attractiveness at applica-
tions of greater than 138-161 kV.
Maximum electrical properties of EPR at room temper-
ature are given in ICEA S-108-720-04 as:
Relative permittivity: 4.0
Dielectric loss angle: 0.015
4.13.3 EPR Physical Properties
Typical physical properties for Types I and II EPR insu-
lation, for cables rated through 138 kV, as described in
ICEA S-108-720-04 are listed in Tables 4-6 and 4-7.
EPR exhibits minimal deformation over its operating
temperature range. The hot-creep test is performed in
accordance with ICEA Publication T-28-562. The pur-
pose of the test is to determine the degree of crosslink-
ing of the insulation.

1960-present: EPR insulated cables continue to be Table 4-5 Typical Electrical Properties for EPR-insulated HV
installed in the United States. Cables (AEIC CS 6-87)
Relative permittivity at 90°C 2.75 ratio
4.13 PROPERTIES OF EPR INSULATION Dielectric loss angle at 90°C 0.0035 radians
AC breakdown stress at conductor,
V/mil
4.13.1 EPR Electrical Breakdown Mechanism (Ten-minute step test, 40 V/mil steps at 1050 (41)
(kV/mm)
room temperature)
The breakdown mechanism of EPR insulation is similar Impulse breakdown stress at conductor,
V/mil
to that of XLPE. Section 4.9.1 provides information on (1 x 50 us wave at 90°C conductor tem- 1850 (73)
(kV/mm)
this subject. perature)
Volume resistivity at 20°C, ASTM D 991 >1 x 1013 ohm-m
EPR-insulated 69- and 115/138/150-kV rated cables
manufactured in the United States and Europe have Table 4-6 ICEA-NEMA Minimum Requirements for Type I
employed concentric wire shields and overall polymeric EPR-Insulated HV Cables
jackets, which could make them susceptible to water Tensile strength 700 (4.8) psi (MPa)
treeing. For the cables operating at elevated gradient at
Elongation at rupture 250 %
conductor screen, it is also the practice in Europe to
Tensile strength after 168 hours at 121°C,
adopt a water-blocked conductor design in order to 75 %
ratio of unaged value
avoid water penetration and to improve the resistance to
Elongation at break after 168 hours at
water treeing. A properly formulated and processed 755 %
121°C, ratio of unaged value
high-voltage EPR-insulation compound is more resis- Hot-creep elongation after hot-creep test at
tant to the development and propagation of water trees 50 %
150°C +/-2°C, maximum
than crosslinked polyethylene insulation. Water treeing Hot-creep set after 150oC +/- 2°C maximum 5 %
is discussed in detail in the Section 4.9.1.
Table 4-7 ICEA-NEMA Minimum Requirements for Type II
4.13.2 EPR Electrical Properties EPR-Insulated HV Cables
Typical electrical properties for EPR-insulated high- 1200 psi
Tensile strength
voltage cables are shown in Table 4-5. (8.2) (MPa)
Elongation at rupture 250 %
The relative permittivity does not vary significantly with Tensile strength after 168 hours at 121°C, ratio
80 %
temperature. The dielectric loss angle at room tempera- of unaged value
ture is approximately one-half of the value at 90°C. Elongation at break after 168 hours at 121°C,
80 %
ratio of unaged value
The dielectric loss angle is strongly dependent on the Hot-creep elongation after hot-creep test at
50 %
150°C ±2°C, maximum
compound formulation; the value in the table applies to
Hot-creep set after hot-creep test at 150°C
a high-quality, low-filler-content EPR compound suit- 5 %
±2°C maximum
able for 69- to 150-kV cables.

4-31
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
4.13.4 EPR Thermal Properties
Thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, and specific
heat are important thermal properties of the insulation
that influence the design and operating characteristics
of extruded-dielectric cables.
Thermal Expansion
Ethylene-propylene rubber insulations expand with
input of thermal energy in the form of heat. Due to the
high mineral filler content in EPR insulation, which has
relatively negligible expansion in the temperature range
of interest, and the lower level and size of crystallites of
EPR insulation, the thermal expansion of EPR insula-
tion is less than for LDPE, HDPE, and XLPE insula-
tions, particularly at the higher temperatures. Figure 4-
31, calculated from data in EPRI EL-938, shows the
range of volume expansion of EPR-insulation com-
pounds with temperature (EPRI 1978).
The volume expansion of the higher-voltage, partially
crystalline EPR-insulation compounds lies at the top of
the EPR range that is commonly used for transmission
cables.
Since the thermal expansion of EPR is similar to XLPE
in relation to that of the metals used in the conductor,
shield, and sheath, please refer to Section 4.9.4 for a
more detailed explanation of the significance of thermal
expansion with regard to cable design.
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity of the insulation structure of the
cable, in conjunction with that of the other elements in
the thermal path from the extruded insulation shield to
ambient earth or air, affects the temperature rise of the
conductor carrying current and hence the ampacity of
the cable under normal and emergency operating condi-
Figure 4-31 Thermal volume expansion range of EPR
insulations.
4-32
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
tions. If all other things are held constant, the ampacity
of the cable will be greater when the thermal conduc-
tivity of the insulation structure is higher. The thermal
conductivity and specific heat of the material that
surrounds the conductor and metallic shield/sheath of a
cable influence the transient temperature rise during
short circuits, and hence the short-circuit current-
carrying capacities and the short-time ampacities of
extruded-dielectric cables up to several tens of hours.
Figure 4-32 shows the thermal conductivity of EPR
insulation over a wide range of temperatures (EPRI
1978). The broad ranges of values at each temperature
reflect the variations in three EPR formulations that
were tested. Line A in the plot is applicable to an
EPDM formulation suitable for higher-voltage applica-
tions. The data for this plot were obtained by the same
method (ASTM 1980) as in Reference (EPRI 1978), but
in a different laboratory (Dynatech 1975).
The thermal conductivities in Figure 4-32 can also be
applied to the extruded conductor and insulation
shields if such data are not available.
Specific Heat
The reader is directed to Section 4.9.4 for a discussion
of specific heat and its significance, in conjunction with
thermal conductivity in the short-circuit rating of con-
ductors and metallic shields/sheaths and the short-time
ampacities of extruded-dielectric cables.
The specific heat of a high-voltage EPR-insulation com-
pound was determined in the performance of EPRI
Project 1286-2 (EPRI 1983). The unpublished value
obtained in the investigation was 0.44 cal/gm °C over a
temperature range of 70-140°C.
Figure 4-32 Thermal conductivity of EPR insulation.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
4.14 CONSTRUCTION: CONDUCTOR
Conductors with sizes up to 7000 kcmil (3500 mm2)
have been employed in 66-kV XLPE cables in Japan,
with a maximum manufacturing capability of approxi-
mately 8000 kcmil (4000 mm2). The transition size to
Milliken depends upon the maximum number of wires
that any particular stranding machine can apply in one
pass and upon the reduction in conductor area that can
be achieved by the improvements in the ac resistance of
the Milliken conductor, as described in Chapter 3.
XLPE cables suffer the disadvantage that the contrac-
tion that occurs during the cooling and crystallization
of XLPE after the crosslinking process, compresses the
individual wires together and breaks the natural surface
oxide insulation. This substantially destroys the benefits
of segmental Milliken conductor in reducing the ac
resistance in XLPE cables. Chapter 3 notes that the
ac/dc resistance of large Milliken conductors at 3500
kcmil (1600 mm2) and above can be as high as 40%. For
this reason, CIGRE recommends that the ac resistance
of large conductor XLPE cables be measured as part of
the development and qualification tests. Insulated
strand conductors utilizing an enameled coating or an
oxidized finish have been developed for some XLPE
cable applications (Figure 4-33). The main benefit of
insulated strand conductors is that they overcome the
current-carrying limit imposed by the largest conductor
that a particular factory can strand.
It is important that the outer surface of the conductor is
formed from a layer of tight fitting and smooth wires
(Figure 4-34), which may be either died down or shaped
to produce a nearly true cylindrical shape. This provides
an accurate bed for the semiconducting conductor shield
and also prevents fall-in of the molten semiconducting
and XLPE insulating compounds into the conductor.
Figure 4-33 5000 kcmil (2500 mm2) insulated strand
conductor in 400-kV cable (courtesy of Prysmian Cables
& Systems)
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
General-purpose stranding machines cannot always
handle the wire sizes, shapes, and compacting tensions
necessary to achieve a sufficiently smooth shape. A
compounded semiconducting fabric binder tape may be
wound tightly over the conductor to provide a strong
circular surface. The presence of the binder tape also
affects the handling characteristics of the cable. The
binder tape reduces the grip of the semiconducting
shield onto the conductor such that the cable can be
more easily bent into alignment for jointing (bending is
always difficult for thick-walled transmission class
cables), but the insulation shrink-back at the insulation
cut will be greater during jointing.
It has become common practice for direct-buried cables
to have blocked conductors to prevent the longitudinal
transmission of water in the event of either damage dur-
ing installation or in service. The conductor may be
blocked with either a free or tape-bound water-swellable
powder, a viscous compound, or an elastomeric com-
pound. It is important that the materials are applied
uniformly and do not disturb the smooth surface of the
conductor.
Solid aluminum conductors are both inherently smooth
and perfectly water blocked. However, they are stiffer
and more difficult to handle, both in the cable factory
and during installation, and are usually limited in size to
less than 2400-3200 kcmil (1200-1600 mm2).
The conductor geometry has to be designed to be fed
into a close-fitting circular steel die in the CV line extru-
sion head, which applies the conductor shield in a com-
paratively thin layer of semiconducting compound. The
conductor must have a
• circular geometry to avoid abrasion with the die.
Figure 4-34 Smooth circular stranded conductor
in a 132-kV XLPE cable (courtesy of CCI).
4-33
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
• constant diameter to avoid variations in the thickness
of the semi-conducting shield.
• uniform smooth finish to prevent variations in either
surface friction or surface geometry from causing
compound surging and thickness variations.
• clean surface, free of debris to avoid either swarf pen-
etration through the shield into the insulation, or
accumulations of debris from initiating shield protru-
sions into the insulation.
• dry construction free of wire-drawing lubricant or
liquid cleaning agents that could degrade the perfor-
mance of the semiconducting shield.
Accurate control of circularity is more difficult with a
segmental Milliken conductor, because the shape is
formed from a number of separately stranded, prespi-
raled segments that are wound together in a laying-up
machine. A 1600 kcmil (800 mm2) conductor consists of
four segments that can be held firmly in a cylindrical
shape by a tight fabric binder tape. For larger sizes, six
segments may be used, although some manufacturers
prefer to form the conductor from an unequal number
of segments (i.e., five or seven), such that a shear plane
across the diameter of the conductor is avoided. The
segments lock together and keep the shape circular dur-
ing bending prior to insulation extrusion. Control of the
shape of each segment shoulder is difficult. If sharp,
these shoulders could protrude into the conductor
shield, and, if round, they could leave an interstitial gap
requiring a filler of synthetic string, paper, or water-
blocking tape. It is, therefore, important to significantly
increase the thickness of the semiconducting screen in
comparison with that on a circular conductor such that
protrusions and depressions are smoothed out and are
not present at the insulation interface.
The conductor is bent many times during manufacture,
factory transportation, and extrusion, and is thereby
exposed to the risk of loss of circularity, abrasion dam-
age, and contamination from general factory debris.
Protective measures are to apply at the stranding pro-
cess a disposable barrier tape (this is removed upon
entry to the extrusion line) and to transport the conduc-
tor on suitably shaped rollers.
4.15 CONSTRUCTION: CONDUCTOR AND
INSULATION SHIELDS
The purpose of the conductor shield in an extruded
XLPE or EPR cable is to:
• provide a smooth cylindrical electrically conducting
surface of near constant radius, such that stress rais-
ers formed by irregularities in the outer surface of the
conductor are completely eliminated.
4-34
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
• completely cover the irregular conductor surface with
no holes present.
• bond to the insulation such that they expand and
contract radially as one body, thus preventing the for-
mation of air-filled voids.
• share the same bending flexibility as the XLPE insu-
lation without cracking.
• be sufficiently robust to resist penetration by wires
due to conductor sidewall loading in route bends.
• be extrudable at output rates and die temperatures
that are compatible with the XLPE or EPR insula-
tion.
• be chemically crosslinkable such that the shield
shares the same normal operating temperature of
90°C, emergency overload temperature of 105°C or
130°C, and short-circuit temperature of 250°C, with-
out losing electrical conductivity.
The requirement of the insulation shield is closely simi-
lar, with the exception that it is required to resist the
possibility of penetration and distortion by irregularly
shaped overlying layers such as shield wire conductors
and corrugated metal sheaths, subject to the forces of
thermal expansion and sidewall force in bends.
The interface between the conductor shield and the
XLPE insulation is the most critical part of the extruded
core, because it experiences the highest electrical stress
and the highest operating temperatures. In manufacture,
the shield extruder has the greatest difference in volu-
metric output compared to the insulation extruder and
is sensitive to the risks of: (a) “scorch” due to either too
long a dwell time or to too high a temperature, resulting
in premature curing and blocking in the die and large
protrusions on the shield surface, and (b) to “surging,”
in which the line speed is too low and the extruder out-
put is unstable, resulting in holes in the shield layer. The
conductor shield is also the most remote location for
heat to reach during the crosslinking process and in
cable manufacture is the most inaccessible for quality
inspection.
The other provisions of AEIC CS9-06 and ICEA S-108-
720-04, as well as the manufacturer’s proven capabilities,
should also be taken into consideration when applying
Table 4-8 to any specific application.
AEIC CS9-06 (AEIC 2006) specifies that the shield shall
be filled with “acetylene black” for XLPE insulation
design stresses above 200V/mil (8 kV/mm). AEIC CS9-
06 specifies the maximum design stress for each trans-
mission voltage and for conductor size ranges (Table
4-8). This shows that 115-through 345-kV cables have
higher design stresses and so must use acetylene black
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics

Table 4-8 Internal and External Shield Stress Limits (courtesy of AEIC)a

Internal Shield Stress External Shield Stress Range of Insulation

Conductor Area Limit Limit Thickness
Rated Voltage
kV kcmil mm2 V/mil kV/mm V/mil kV/mm Mils mm
500- 240- 638 16.2
69 wet 100 4.0 50 2.0
4000 2000 638 16.2

500- 240- 390 9.9

69 dry 150 6.0 75 3.0
4000 2000 449 11.4

750- 400- 484 12.3

115 dry 200 8.0 100 4.0
4000 2000 547 13.9

750- 400- 579 14.7

138 dry 200 8.0 100 4.0
4000 2000 638 16.2

750- 400- 638 16.2

161 dry 225 9.0 100 4.0
4000 2000 728 18.5

1000- 500- 728 18.5

230 dry 275 11.0 125 5.0
5000 2500 827 21.0

1000- 500- 913 23.2

345 dry 350 14.0 150 6.0
5000 2500 996 25.3

a. The insulation thicknesses given in Table 4-8 have been derived such that neither internal nor external stress limts
are exceeded (see also CS9 Appendix E “Generic Nominal Insulation Thicknesses,” suggesting standard values for
each rated voltage, spanning the complete conductor size range without exceeding stress levels).

Table 4-9 Stresses Derived from AEIC CS7-93 Specified Insulation Thicknesses (courtesy of AEIC)
Rated Voltage Conductor Size Internal Stress External Stress Insulation Thickness
kV kcmil mm2 V/mil kV/mm V/mil kV/mm Mils mm
500- 103.7 4.1 40.5 1.6
69 253-1013 650 16.5
2000 84.5 3.3 47.5 1.9
750- 138.9 5.5 53.6 2.1
115 380-1520 800 20.3
3000 113.2 4.5 62.7 2.5
750- 160.2 6.3 59.4 2.3
138 380-1520 850 21.6
3000 129.7 5.1 69.9 2.8

shields. Table 4-8 shows that the 69-kV wet and dry
cables in AEIC CS9-06 have internal shield stresses of
less than 200 V/mil (8 kV/mm). Table 4-9 shows that the
full-wall 69- to 138-kV cables in the superseded AEIC
CS7-93 each have low stress; thus these cables could
now be manufactured with lower-cost “furnace black”
shields.
The carbon-black loading is required to achieve the
specified ICEA-S-108-720 (ICEA 2004) resistivity for
the insulation shield to be less than 500 Ωm and less
than 1000 Ωm for the conductor shield under both nor-
mal and emergency operating temperatures. The IEC
limits are less than 500 Ωm for both shields.
When extruded, the acetylene-black semiconducting
compound produces a super smooth finish with minute
protrusions called “asperities.” The size and aspect ratio
of the asperities form electrical stress raisers, which ulti-
mately determine the design operating stress and life of
an otherwise well-made cable.
The cost of the semiconducting compound is high and,
in cables in which greater shield thicknesses are
required, may equal or exceed the cost per unit length of
the extruded XLPE insulation. This is an incentive for
the cable manufacturer to apply the minimum possible
thickness. The minimum point (spot) thicknesses speci-
fied in ICEA S-108-720-2004 (ICEA 2004) are given in
Table 4-10.
The thickness of the insulation shield is given in Table
4-11.
The shape of the outer layer of conductor wires is an
important factor in determining the insulation thick-

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Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

nesses are usually significantly greater than those in

Table 4-10 Conductor Shield Minimum Point Thickness
(ICEA S-108-720-2004, Table 3-1) ICEA S-108-720-2004 (ICEA 2004, Table 3-1). Typical
thicknesses are 60-100 mils (1.5-2.5 mm).
Conductor Area Minimum Point Thickness
kcmil mm2 mils mm
The effect of fall-in is reduced on both concentric and
250-550 127-279 16 0.41
Milliken conductors by wrapping the conductor with a
551-1000 279-507 20 0.51
strong, semi-conductive binder tape. The tape acts as a
1001-1500 507-760 24 0.61
pressure-retaining shell, which blocks the inward flow of
>1500 >760 30 0.76
the melt. The addition of the binder alters the mechani-
Table 4-11 Insulation Shield Minimum Point Thickness cal properties of the cable, because the grip of the
(ICEA S-108-720-2004, Table 5-1) extruded core onto the conductor is reduced. XLPE
Insulation Shield Thickness
cables with binder tapes are perceptibly more flexible
Minimum Insulation Diameter Minimum Maximum
during jointing, and when cut, exhibit a greater retrac-
in. mm mils mm mils mm
tion of locked-in stress from typically two to three times
0-2.0 0-50.8 40 1.02 80 2.03
the length of adjacent core.
>2.0 >50.8 40 1.02 100 2.54
The normal continuous operating temperature of the
conductor shield and insulation is 90°C. ICEA limits
ness, because a significant proportion of the semi-con
the emergency operating temperature to 105°C for
shield is forced by the high pressures in the extrusion
XLPE cables for greater than 138 kV, but allows 105 to
dies and in the CV tube in between the wires, as illus-
130°C for above 46 through 138 kV, but cautions use of
trated in Figure 4-35. The thickness in Figure 4-35 (bot-
130°C. AEIC restricts this to 105°C for all applications,
tom) is inadequate and would result in insulation stress
XLPE and EPR, but allows 130°C for 46- to 150-kV
raisers and probably shield holes, as shown in Figure
EPR only if mutually agreed between purchaser and
4-9. An additional risk is the presence of gaps between
manufacturer.
the wires, because this permits both the semi-con and
XLPE melts to flow into the center of the conductor,
which is called “fall-in.” 4.16 CONSTRUCTION: INSULATION

The construction of conductor sizes greater than 1500-
2000 kcmil (800-1000 mm2 ) are usually changed from
concentric to segmental (Milliken) to reduce the ac/dc
resistance ratio, which is explained in Chapter 3. It is
difficult to keep the surface of a Milliken conductor
smooth and circular, and so the average shield thick-
4.16.1 Insulation Thickness
The selection of the thickness of the insulation for an
extruded dielectric cable is an important part of the
specification and design process. The conductor geome-
try, grade of shields and insulation used, extrusion and
curing processes, types of accessories, voltage and basic
insulation levels, use of a radial moisture barrier, prior
qualification, and operating experience, as well as the
target electrical properties—namely, the capacitance of
the cable—have to be taken into account when selecting
the thickness of the insulation for a particular project or
application.

Further, thicker insulation is not necessarily a better or

more conservative choice, because cables with a compa-
rably thicker insulation may result in larger diameter,
more expensive cables that may not be thermomechani-
cally compatible with existing duct systems or duct sys-
tems with a given diameter that are prevalent in North
America. Likewise, cables with thicker insulation experi-
ence increased radial thermal expansion in service, have
a higher thermal resistance, and are more difficult to
manufacture.

4.16.2 Calculation Methods

Figure 4-35 Top: correct conductor shield thickness.
For all practical purposes, a cable is a concentric cylin-
Bottom: inadequate thickness (courtesy of CCI).
drical capacitance, with the outer conductor shield sur-

4-36
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
face as its inner boundary and the inner surface of the
insulation shield as its outer boundary. More detailed
formulae and considerations are given in Chapter 3. The
selection process for the insulation thickness in an
extruded dielectric cable, however, will be based prima-
rily on the design stress at the conductor shield and the
impulse stress at the insulation shield, which represents
the critical interface with the stress control elements of
the accessory.
The design stress at the conductor shield ECS is given by
the following formula.
Note that if the dimensions of conductor shield d and
insulation diameter D are entered as inches and the volt-
age V as kV, then the unit of stress ECS is V/mil (kV/in.)
Similarly, if the dimensions are entered in mm and the
voltage as kV, ECS will be kV/mm.
Stresses may be calculated in kV/mm and converted to
V/mil by multiplying with the factor 25.4. Or stresses in
V/mil may be coverted to kV/mm by multiplying by
0.039.
ECS =
2V0
D
[kV / mm]
d ln
d 4-3
The design stress at the insulation shield is
2V0
E IS =
D
D ln
d 4-4
The impulse stress at the insulation shield is
V The manufacturer typically provides existing type or
E IMP = E IS IMP
V0 4-5
Where
ECS Electrical stress at the conductor shield
(kV/mm).
Vo Phase-to-ground rms voltage over the insula-
tion (kV).
d Diameter over the conductor shield (mm).
D Diameter over the insulation (mm).
EIS Electrical stress at the insulation shield
(kV/mm).
EIMP Electrical impulse stress at the insulation
shield (kV/mm).
VIMP BIL impulse voltage for the voltage class of
the equipment (kV).
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
As an example, a typical 138-kV XLPE cable with a
2000 kcmil (1000 mm2) copper conductor to ASTM B8,
a 6 mil (0.15 mm) conductor tape, a 50 mil (1.3 mm)
insulation shield and 650 mil (16.5 mm) insulation will
yield the following electrical stress levels:
ECS = 165 V/mil (6.5 kV/mm)
EIS = 93 V/mil (3.7 kV/mm)
EIMP = 762 V/mil (30 kV/mm)
4.16.3 Selection Process
Based on a given conductor size to meet the ampacity
requirements of a given application and the premise that
a cable with a thin insulation is preferable for its smaller
diameter, lower weight, longer delivery lengths, suitabil-
ity for smaller and/or existing ducts and pipes and com-
parably lower cost, the insulation thickness is
determined based on the design stresses at the conduc-
tor shield and at the insulation shield. Further, past and
present practice, regional and customer preference,
industry specifications and standards, and target electri-
cal properties will be considered:
Electrical Tests on Insulation
The cable will be subject to routine/production ac with-
stand testing according to AEIC CS9-06, ICEA S-108-
720-2004, IEC 60840, and/or IEC 62067 or a combina-
tion thereof. For small conductor cables at higher volt-
ages of 230 kV and above, dependent on the specified ac
withstand voltage, the test voltage should not result in a
stress at the conductor shield exceeding 630-690 V/mil
(25-27 kV/mm) to avoid the degradation of the insula-
tion material during testing. The test stress at the con-
ductor shield is ECS divided by Vo and multiplied by the
test voltage.
Range of Approval
qualification test reports or certificates for cables, or
cable systems, which employ the same or similar materi-
als and processes for their manufacture and assembly.
The electrical stresses should not exceed the stresses
used in the type or qualification tests.
Stress Limits at the Insulation Shield for Accessory
Compatibility
As discussed in detail in Chapter 8, a variety of technol-
ogies are available for splicing and terminating extruded
dielectric cables, dependent on the voltage level, the
application, and the manufacturer of the accessory. The
maximum permissible operating and impulse stresses at
the insulation shield largely depend on the manufac-
turer’s design, prior experience, and tests. Therefore,
there are no absolute values in this regard that would
determine the minimum insulation thickness. The stress
levels at the insulation shield will, however, be relevant
4-37
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

for cables with large conductors for the selection of the
insulation thickness.
State-of-the-art premolded accessory designs for XLPE
HV cables today are designed for insulation shield
stresses of 115 V/mil (4.5 kV/mm) up to 200 V/mil
(8 kV/mm) for 400- and 500-kV systems. The impulse
stress levels at the insulation shield are in a range of
760 V/mil (30 kV/mm) up to 1200 V/mil (47 kV/mm) for
the highest voltage designs.
Stress limits in IEC standards do not provide recom-
mended insulation thicknesses or stress levels. They are
performance standards and allow insulation thicknesses
based on the range of approval obtained through system
qualification tests (type tests) or long-term prequalifica-
tion tests. The present worldwide trend is for design
stresses of XLPE cable to increase towards those of
fluid-impregnated paper cables, especially in recabling
applications. In North America the maximum design
stresses are now specified in AEIC CS9 (AEIC 2006),
Table 4-12. Care should be taken in the selection of a
high design stress at phase voltage, because this will also
increase the impulse stress.
AEIC Insulation Thickness and Stress Limits
The superseded AEIC CS7-93 standard was a cable-
only specification that has now been replaced by AEIC
CS9-06. AEIC CS7-93 stipulated insulation thicknesses
by voltage class, independent of the conductor size and
cable geometry. Although these insulation thicknesses
are now considered to be obsolete, they were widely
adopted in North America for many years and so are
recorded in Table 4-9 together with the calculated inter-
nal and external stresses at the extremes of the conduc-
tor range. The cable dimensions were based on ASTM
Class B conductors and ICEA S-108-720-2004 shield
thicknesses.
The AEIC CS7-93 thicknesses are commonly referred to
in North America as “full-wall” insulations, as opposed
to “reduced-wall” insulations that represent stress-
based designs. Further, AEIC CS7-93 mentions stress-
based designs and recommends the use of a metallic
sheath or other effective moisture barrier for cable
designs with an electrical stress at the conductor shield
of 150 V/mil (6 kV/mm) for 69-kV cables and 200 V/mil
(8 kV/mm) for 115- and 138-kV cables. By comparison
with Table 4-8 for AEIC CS9-06, it can be seen that the
138-kV cable with an 850-mil full-wall insulation thick-
ness, if provided with a metallic water barrier, is now
permitted to operate as a 230- to 345- kV cable and rep-
resents a very significant change in practice and in cable
manufacturing technology.
The new standard AEIC CS9-06 stipulates maximum
stress levels by voltage class at both the conductor shield
(internal stress) and the insulation shield (external
stress). The stress limits are given in Table 4-8, to which
have been added the calculated insulation thicknesses
for both the smallest conductor and the largest conduc-
tor sizes.
Wet Cable Designs
Wet designs designate extruded dielectric cables without
a metallic sheath that acts as a radial moisture barrier.
Since transmission class cables operate under higher
stresses than distribution cables, the use of a metallic

Table 4-12 Comparison of Electrical Stresses at the Conductor Shield (courtesy of Southwire)
AEIC CS7 ICEA U.S. European Japanese
Voltage Class Full Wall AEIC CS9 S-108-720 Practice Practice Practice
kV kV/mm (V/mil) kV/mm (V/mil) kV/mm (V/mil) kV/mm (V/mil) kV/mm (V/mil) kV/mm (V/mil)
3.2-4.0 6 6 3.2-5.1 4.4-6.1 5.3-6.0
69
(81-100) (150) (152) (81-130) (112-155) (135-152)
4.4-5.4 8 8 4.4-7.0 5.4-7.6 5.8-6.8
115
(112-137) (200) (203) (112-178) (137-193) (147-172)
5.1-6.2 8 8 5.1-7.4 6.3-7.5* 7.0-8.5
138
(128-158) (200) (203) (130-188) (160-191) (178-216)
9 9 6.0-8.0 6.0-8.4 7.2-8.4
161 --
(225) (229) (152-203) (152-213) (183-213)
11 11 7.9-9.9 8.5-10.2 8.2-10.0
230 --
(275) (279) (201-251) (216-259) (208-254)
14 16 11-13 11.0-12.6 11.2-12.8
345 --
(350) (406) (279-330) (279-320) (284-325)
11.1-13.0 12.0-14.8
400 -- -- -- --
(282-330) (305-376)
13.8-15.0 14.8-16.7
500 -- -- -- --
(351-381) (376-424)
* Compact XLPE cables for replacement of 110-132kV paper cables in pipes operate at stresses of 10.3 kV/mm (262 V/mil).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
moisture barrier is recommended for all transmission
class cables including 69 kV. However, in the United
States, in particular, there is long-term positive operating
experience with wet XLPE and EPR designs, predomi-
nantly at 69 kV, but also up to 138 kV. It has to be noted
that these cables have conservative insulation thick-
nesses, as shown in Table 4-9, and are AEIC CS7 full-
wall- designs, resulting in insulation shield stress levels
mostly below 50 V/mil (2 kV/mm). Further, these cables
are typically installed in duct systems. Opinions differ
whether these stress levels are too high for cables without
a radial moisture barrier. These cables have been used
since the 1970s in the United States, as well as other
countries, including Denmark, Switzerland, and Italy.
AEIC CS9-06 and ICEA Standard S-108-720-2004
specify only one design of “wet” cable—i.e., a cable
without a metallic water barrier, which is at 69 kV. The
external stress limit of 50 kV/mil (2 kV/mm) is suffi-
ciently low that the size and rate of water tree growth
are acceptable. The resulting insulation thickness is 702-
483 mil (17.8-12.3 mm). The stresses permitted in the
“dry” cable designs with metallic sheaths are signifi-
cantly higher, such that if the wet design of 69-kV cable
is protected within a metallic barrier, it could be used as
a 138- to 161-kV cable.
Worldwide Practice
Often referred to as European Practice and Japanese
Practice, stress levels specified and used outside North
America are typically higher (see Table 4-12). With
extruded dielectric cables from most major manufactur-
ers sharing similar materials, technology, and processes
today, stress-based designs will become standard in
North America in the future, especially as AEIC CS9
(AEIC 2006) now specifies the maximum stress at each
transmission voltage.
Figure 4-36 Radial expansion of cylinders of cable insulation: LDPE, HDPE, XLPE, and EPR.
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
Capacitance and Dielectric losses
The capacitance of a cable is dependent on the cable
geometry and therefore the insulation thickness, as dis-
cussed in Section 3.7.3. When the insulation thickness is
decreased for a given conductor size, the capacitance
increases. Therefore, in particular for long cable installa-
tions at high voltages, where the charging current and
capacitance of the cable are a concern, the engineer may
increase the insulation thickness above the levels dic-
tated by specifications, standards, or stress-level criteria.
As given in Chapter 3, Equation 3-55, the dielectric
losses WD in a cable of constant conductor size are pro-
portional to (E .εr. δ), the product of the design stress at
the conductor shield E, the relative permittivity εr and
the dielectric loss angle δ . The loss factor of EPR is
appreciable compared to XLPE, but not to fluid-
impregnated paper (Table 3-11), which is of similar
magnitude. The comparatively low design stresses E
adopted at 138 kV and below for extruded cables, signif-
icantly reduce the dielectric loss and resultant tempera-
ture rise to a small proportion of the conductor I2R loss
such that EPR is competitive with XLPE.
4.17 CABLE CONSTRUCTION: OUTER LAYERS
4.17.1 Bedding Tapes
Bedding tapes are required by AEIC CS9-06 applied
over the extruded core to protect the insulation shield
and insulation from thermal deformation or mechanical
damage from overlying layers. The manufacturer is
required to state the radial expansion allowance
designed into a particular cable construction. Bedding
tapes are also called “cushioning tapes.”
Manufacturers may use a compressible lightly foamed
rubber tape, creped paper tape, nonwoven swelling tape,
or a combination thereof. Figure 4-36 gives the percent-
4-39
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
age radial expansion exhibited by different types of
insulation and was derived from Figure 4-7 for the volu-
metric expansion. For core-radius-to-conductor-radius
ratios of greater than 2:1, the radial expansion allow-
ance is obtained by multiplying the percentage radial
expansion directly by the core radius. For smaller ratios,
it is beneficial to calculate the reduction in radial expan-
sion resulting from the presence of the conductor. Thus
a 50-mm radius XLPE core containing a 25-mm radius
conductor operating at 90°C will expand by 3.5%, which
requires a 1.75-mm radial expansion allowance. The
same core operating at an emergency temperature of
110°C will expand by 7%, which requires a 3.5-mm
radial expansion allowance.
If discrete shield conductors (also called neutral
conductors), such as stranded copper wires or tapes, are
to be applied, or a corrugated metallic sheath is to be
applied, then an expansion allowance is required to
protect the extruded core from deformation. Experience
has shown that lead-alloy sheathed cables are less
vulnerable partly because the inner surface of the sheath
is a smooth cylinder, and because the lead sheath and
polymeric jacket are capable of yielding under internal
pressure. However, it is recommended that cushioning
tapes be applied both to protect the core during the heat
of lead sheathing and to reduce expansion forces to an
acceptable level. Figure 4-37 shows a heat-distorted
insulation shield on a 132-kV XLPE cable that has been
subjected to a high temperature rise during a short-
circuit test for 1 s. The extruded core has expanded and
is heavily indented with the shape of the bedding tape
and the shield wires. AEIC CS9-06 requires that the
bedding limits the deformation to less than 5% of the
insulation thickness.
Sufficient radial thickness of compressible bedding
tapes is required to be calculated. For example, if the
compressibility of a tape is 70%; then for the previous
90°C example, the tape thickness would need to be
1.9 mm and for the 110°C example, 3.9 mm. Water-
blocking tapes are also required to be compressible. For
Figure 4-37 Radial expansion and indention of an
insulation shield during a short-circuit test
(courtesy of CCI).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
a large EHV cable, it is usual to apply a sandwich of
both cushioning tapes and water-blocking tapes. Creped
paper or water-swellable tapes alone may suffice for an
HV cable.
The cushioning and water-blocking tapes are required
to be electrically conducting to transmit the capacitive
charging current from the XLPE insulation to the shield
conductor. The tapes themselves must be protected from
losing conductivity by being crushed or broken by core
expansion, remembering that once the core has cooled
and contracted, there must remain an unbroken radial
path to the shield conductor.
Sufficient expansion allowance and thermal protection
also have to be allowed for the temperature rise in other
manufacturing processes. For example, the extrusion
temperature of an aluminum sheath is above 400°C and
of an HDPE sheath approximately 160°C.
The presence of poor radial contact may be revealed by
the presence of partial discharge “contact noise” during
the routine HV process test. Contact noise (current-
induced PD) from the cushioning and shield layers is as
equally unacceptable as voltage-induced PD from the
insulation because the PD sparks may eventually erode the
insulation shield and lead to primary insulation failure.
4.17.2 Water-blocking Tapes
The water-blocking function is a mandatory require-
ment in AEIC CS9-06 for XLPE insulated cables. Water
may enter a cable laid in a flooded duct-manhole system
or in a buried installation either during installation
through the cable end caps or in service through third-
party dig-in damage. Water may travel longitudinally
under the metallic water barrier and also along the con-
ductor if the cable fails electrically. The electrical
stresses in AEIC CS9-06 (AEIC 2006) are now suffi-
ciently high at both the conductor and the insulation
shield that eventual water tree growth and failure are
significant risks and may require replacement of the
complete cable span. The risk of water entry also exists
in the factory from either a water-cooling bath or from a
water-filled HV test termination.
Water-blocking tapes may be applied over the core and
between the layers of the conductor, such that water
ingress is restricted to a few meters length on each side.
This length is shorter than would be cut back in the
event of electrical failure to provide room for two
straight joints to be inserted. In contact with water,
water-blocking tape rapidly produces a gel that swells in
height by a factor of greater than ten to occupy all avail-
able empty spaces and hence block longitudinal water
flow. Figure 4-38 shows the local swelling of samples of
tape and yarn that have been activated by droplets of
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
water. In addition to swelling, the requirements are
compatibility with the cable insulation and shields, uni-
form dispersion of the water-swelling agent, and ther-
mal stability during the life of the cable. Water-blocking
tapes ensure a uniform dispersion of the agent and are
more practical to handle than a powder in the cable fac-
tory and during jointing.
Water-blocking tapes contain powder, cut fibers, or a
coating of polyacrylate. Polyacrylate is a super-absor-
bent polymer. Super-absorbent materials have been
applied in cable applications since the 1980s. Polyacry-
late is a hydrophilic crosslinked polymer. When dry, the
polymer chain is coiled and lined with carboxyl groups.
When wet, the carboxyl groups change to negatively
charged carboxylates, which force the chains to uncoil,
resulting in a gel with a rapidly expanding volume. In
tape form, the material is usually combined with one or
more nonwoven polyester layers. In the presence of
water, a single tape produces a dramatic swell height of
up to 12 mm. British Standard tests require that the
achieved swell height be greater than 7 mm within a 10-
minute period. When dry, the material contracts and is
capable of being reactivated.
Concern has been expressed that water-blocking tapes
may absorb moisture from the atmosphere in the cable
factory and transfer this via the insulation shield to the
XLPE insulation. It is, therefore, important that the
cable factory is dry and that the cable is sheathed soon
after the water-blocking tapes have been lapped. Sam-
ples of the cable should be dissected during the routine
process test and the moisture content of the shields and
the insulation measured. Specification BS 7970 (British
Standards Institution 2005) requires that the moisture
content of the tape be less than 70% of the equilibrium
value at 75% relative humidity and 20 o C. The XLPE
moisture content required in 09-16 2004 (Energy Net-
works Association 2004) is less than 150 ppm, with no
Figure 4-38 Water-swellable tape and yarn
(courtesy of GECA).
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
value advised for the insulation shield. The moisture
content of a factory-degassed, dry-cure XLPE insula-
tion is typically less than 15 ppm, measured by the Karl
Fischer titration method. The semiconducting insula-
tion shield has a high moisture absorbency and so is a
good indicator of the presence of moisture, with possi-
ble saturation values as high as 1000-2000 ppm. The
normal moisture content varies according to the mate-
rial and cable construction, and so statistical process
control (SPC) values should be recorded for informa-
tion to establish an in-house pass level. A normal shield
from a factory sample typically has a moisture content
of less than 150 ppm.
4.17.3 Metallic Shields and Sheaths
Most extruded dielectric transmission cable designs
include a metallic sheath as opposed to a simple metallic
shield in the form of concentric neutral wires or helically
applied copper tapes. The fundamental difference
between a metallic sheath cable design and a metallic
shield cable design, according to this definition, is that
the metallic sheath provides a radial moisture barrier
and the metallic shield does not. This is the reason why
metal shield cables are also commonly referred to as
“wet designs.”
Wet design cables have large insulation thicknesses and,
therefore, low insulation shield stresses, which are more
tolerant of a tendency to form water trees. The insula-
tion thicknesses are listed in Appendix F of ICEA S-
108-720 for 69-, 115-, and 138-kV cables. AEIC CS9-06
requires that cables with a conductor shield stress of
greater than 4 kV/mm and insulation shield stress of
2 kV/mm shall be provided with a metallic moisture bar-
rier to maintain dry insulation. AEIC only lists a wet
design cable at 69 kV.
Functions
ICEA S-108-720-2004 requires that the metallic shield
or sheath provides a concentric conducting path for
insulation charging currents and leakage current, as well
as neutral current, phase unbalance current, fault cur-
rent, and surge current. If a metal foil water barrier is
fitted, it is in addition to the metallic screen conductor,
which should be designed to carry current alone.
The basic functions of metallic screens and sheaths
relate to the manufacturing, installation, and operation
of a cable and are as follows:
• Carry the capacitive and dielectric loss currents.
• Carry and withstand, thermally and mechanically,
the single-phase fault current.
• Carry the circulating sheath current in a solidly
bonded system and the residual circulating sheath
current in an unbalanced cross-bonded system.
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Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

• Provide a ground path in the event of cable damage have been found to kink and split and then to punc-
for the protection of personnel and to limit the step ture the insulation shield and insulation.
potential. • Helically applied metallic tape shields. Thin copper
• Mechanically protect the cable core. tapes have been found to be stretched during core
• Withstand the mechanical stresses during pulling and expansion, becoming wrinkled and split during con-
traction until finally a sharp edge punctures the insu-
installation.
lation. Sufficient bedding tapes are required to
• Provide a radial moisture barrier in the case of a absorb expansion and protect the core.
metallic sheath.
• Longitudinally applied and overlapped corrugated
• Provide a longitudinal moisture barrier in combina- tape. These tapes are capable of expanding and con-
tion with swellable tapes. tracting, and no adverse effects have been reported.
• Accommodate the thermomechanical expansion and However, caution should be exercised, because they
contraction of the cable core. are primarily used on lower voltage cables, and they
contain sharp inner edges. Protective bedding tapes
The roles of the shield conductor and ground conductor are required.
are detailed in Chapter 3, Sections 3.2.3 and 3.6.5. The • Flat strap shield. Double layers of thick copper tapes
primary requirement is sufficient cross-sectional area to have been found to prevent radial expansion of the
carry the specified short-circuit current and time, with- core, thereby indenting it and also stiffening the
out exceeding the specified short-circuit temperature. cable, reducing its flexibility in duct installations.
Short-circuit temperatures are given in Table 3-2, and These are not recommended for XLPE cables that
the basic method of calculation in Equation 3-28. The may operate near 130 °C.
detailed method is given in Chapter 11.
4.17.5 Wet Designs of Cable with Metallic Shields
The secondary requirement is for solidly bonded shield
Simple metallic screens, consisting of either concentric
circuits, the consequence of which is the flow of circulat-
neutral wires, as shown in Figure 4-39, or helically
ing current during normal operation and the generation
applied copper tapes, are used on many EPR cable
of losses. The relationship between the temperature rise
designs as well some XLPE designs, as discussed in Sec-
and shield resistance is checked to ensure, if freedom of
tion 4.15.
design permits, that an optimal minimum heat genera-
tion exists. The heat generation is partly a function of
Although these metallic screens are very cost-effective,
(I2R) and partly of (V2/R), where R is the shield resis-
they do not provide a radial moisture barrier, elevated
tance, V the voltage induced by the current in the pri-
short-circuit capability (depending on the total cross-
mary conductor and by the shield currents, and I is the
sectional area of the screen wires), or increased mechan-
shield current. Note that within limits the shield resis-
ical protection. Semiconductive swellable tapes are typi-
tance can be increased by reducing the cross-sectional
cally used between the cable core and the neutrals or
area and changing to a higher resistivity metal (for
copper tapes to provide a cushion layer and to prevent
example, from an aluminum to a lead-alloy sheath).
the longitudinal propagation of moisture in the screen
area. Also, a separator tape or a swellable tape is com-
4.17.4 Shield Conductors
AEIC CS9-06 refers to ICEA S-108-720-2004, which
lists shield types in North America.
Types of Metallic Shields
Appendix B of ICEA S-108-720-2004 provides the fol-
lowing useful commentary on performance experience
with different shield types, particularly under emergency
operating temperatures, to which the author’s experi-
ence has been added:
• Wire shields. Wire shields can imbed into the insula-
tion shield; as a result, suitable bedding tapes are
required to minimize the problem. There can also be
a problem if a voltage-equalizing tape is applied in
opposite lay, open spiral, over the wires. Some types Figure 4-39 “Wet” design of XLPE cable
(courtesy of Southwire).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
monly used above the concentric neutrals and under the
cable jacket, because neutrals are not encapsulated in
the jacket, as would be common for distribution cables
in North America.
4.17.6 Metallic Sheaths
A variety of metallic sheaths are used for extruded-
dielectric transmission cables today:
• corrugated extruded aluminum sheath
• aluminum or copper foil laminate
• corrugated welded aluminum sheath
• smooth welded aluminum sheath
• smooth welded copper sheath (special cable applica-
tions)
• corrugated welded copper sheath
• corrugated welded stainless steel sheath
• lead-alloy sheath
The least common types—bronze sheaths, smooth
extruded aluminum sheaths, and, to the extent that they
qualify as metallic sheaths, longitudinally corrugated
tape shields—are not further discussed in this chapter.
Corrugated Extruded Aluminum Sheath
Extruded aluminum sheaths (Figure 4-40) for power
cables were first introduced by Siemens in the 1940s and
have been popular ever since. Corrugated extruded alu-
minum sheaths are preferred in Japan, China, and Sin-
gapore with XLPE cables.
Machined billets of commercially pure aluminum are
extruded over the cable core using a hydraulic press. In-
line with the extrusion press, the aluminum sheath is
corrugated before the sheathed cable core is taken up on
a manufacturing reel.
Figure 4-40 Corrugated extruded aluminum sheath
on 220-kV XLPE cable (courtesy of Jicable).
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
Aluminum forms an oxide layer on the surface, which
may affect the electrical contact between the insulation
shield and the sheath itself. The manufacturer designs
the bedding layer between the insulation shield and the
sheath accordingly and may use semiconductive or
metal-woven tapes for this application. Further, alumi-
num sheaths are typically provided with an external cor-
rosion protection layer consisting of a bituminous
compound. The thickness of an extruded aluminum
sheath depends mostly on the extrusion equipment and
the sheath diameter, and is in the range of 75 to 125 mils
(1.9 to 3.2 mm).
Thus, corrugated extruded aluminum sheaths have a
very high short-circuit capability and provide excellent
mechanical protection. The high conductivity has been
used to advantage in applications in which power cables
are installed adjacent to communication cables, because
the sheath carries a high proportion of the return cur-
rent during a short circuit and so minimizes the external
magnetic field and the induced voltage (Gregory et al.
1999). On the other hand, the high thickness and con-
ductivity of this metallic sheath increase the sheath eddy
current losses. The losses are minimized by increasing
the phase spacing and thence restore the current rating.
As with all corrugated sheath cables, the cable diameter
is larger than for other designs, and the soldering of,
and the connections to, the aluminum sheath require the
appropriate skills and procedures.
Aluminum or Copper Foil Laminated Sheath
Aluminum laminated foil sheaths were first introduced
in Germany in the 1970s and adopted the design and
manufacturing process from telecommunication cables.
Aluminum laminated sheaths have gained popularity
ever since and are dominant in Germany and widely
used in Europe at all voltage levels. Copper laminated
sheaths are a variation using copper foil in lieu of alumi-
num foil and are preferred by some Swiss and a number
of U.S. utilities. Unlike telecommunication cables,
power cables are heavy and are required to withstand
high temperature excursions with radial and longitudi-
nal expansion; as a result, CIGRE published test recom-
mendations in ELECTRA 141 (CIGRE 1992). A new
CIGRE Working Group was set up in 2006 to prepare
updated recommendations to be based on manufactur-
ing and service experience.
Typically, copper concentric wire neutrals are applied to
the cable core over a layer of bedding tapes. In some
cases, aluminum neutral wires have been applied for alu-
minum laminated sheaths, or no neutral wires have been
used, as determined by short-circuit requirements. Note
that a separate shield conductor is now required by
AEIC CS9-06 to carry current when a longitudinally
applied metal foil moisture barrier is used. Another
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Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

layer of semiconductive tape is applied over the neutral The tape is formed to a round tube encapsulating the
wires. The laminated sheath consists of a 6 to 20 mil cable core; it is TIG (tungsten inert gas) welded, and
(0.15 to 0.51 mm) thick copper or aluminum tape that is then corrugated. Compared to its extruded aluminum
longitudinally applied to the cable. The copper or alu- sheath counterpart, the sheath is thinner and has a
minum tape is guided into a spiraled cone through welded seam.
which the cable passes, which forms it into cylinder with
Smooth Welded Laminated Aluminum Sheath
an overlapped tape seam. The copper or aluminum tape
Recently introduced in France as a replacement for lead
is supplied coated with a copolymer, and, as the cable
sheaths, the welded laminated aluminum sheath is gain-
jacket is extruded in-line with the application of the
ing popularity in Europe, because it incorporates some
metal tape, the temperature of extrusion melts the co-
of the advantages of laminated sheaths as well as corru-
polymer and bonds the metal tape to the jacket, or as
gated welded sheaths.
the name indicates, laminates it to the outer jacket. The
bending stiffness of the jacket, together with the layer of
As for the other sheath types, semiconductive or con-
bonded polymer, prevents the metal foil from wrinkling
ductive swellable bedding tapes are applied to the cable
and buckling when the cable is bent. The closure of the
core prior to the sheathing process. The aluminum tape
overlapped longitudinal seam is difficult to achieve with
is applied longitudinally and formed to a round tube
precision and so creates a possible entry point for mois-
encapsulating the core. The aluminum tape thickness is
ture. To achieve a moisture seal, most manufacturers
in the range of 30 to 100 mils (0.8 to 2.5 mm). The alu-
apply a hot melt adhesive prior to the closure of the
minum tube is then laser or TIG welded and coated with
overlap, in addition to the layer of co-polymer. Similarly
a laminating adhesive. The cable jacket is extruded in-
when new spools of tape are fitted to the end of the old
line with the sheath application and laminated to the
spool, the ends of the tape are welded metal-to-metal to
sheath, and thus allows bending of the smooth sheathed
ensure continuity of the moisture seal and to prevent
cable onto the take-up reel without buckling of the alu-
sections of tape from electrically floating and sparking
minum sheath.
in service.
The welded laminated aluminum sheath combines a her-
In most foil laminated sheath applications, the current is
metic design with a small diameter, and substantial short-
carried by a layer of round wire neutrals, which form the
circuit capabilities without the need for additional wires.
shield conductor. For applications with high short-
circuit currents, where the emergency operating temper- Corrugated Welded Copper Sheath
ature is limited to 105°C, one or two layers of flat strip First introduced in Germany by Kabelmetall, corru-
neutrals may be applied to increase the cross section of gated welded copper sheaths are used widely in Switzer-
the sheath, taking care not to restrict the radial thermal land and the United States at all voltage levels.
expansion of the core.
As with the other sheath types, semiconductive swellable
The cables are lightweight and have a comparably small bedding tapes are applied to the cable core prior to the
outer diameter. From an installation and operating per- sheathing process. The copper tape is applied longitudi-
spective, the laminate tape has to be exposed and electri- nally and formed to a round tube encapsulating the
cally bonded to the neutral wires at every splice or core, as shown in Figure 4-42. The copper tape thick-
termination. The thinness of the tape compared to the
jacket requires care to be taken. Mechanical protection
to the cable is provided by the jacket and not by the
metal laminate. For this reason, foil laminate cables are
preferred for semiprotected applications such as cable
tunnels and sealed ducts where the risk of third-party
damage and consequent water entry is reduced.
Corrugated Welded Aluminum Sheath
The corrugated welded aluminum sheath (Figure 4-41)
is similar to both the corrugated extruded aluminum
sheath already discussed and the corrugated welded
copper sheath discussed below. The material used is a
longitudinally-applied aluminum alloy tape with a
thickness between 40 and 80 mils (1 and 2 mm).
Figure 4-41 Corrugated welded aluminum sheath
(courtesy of Southwire).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
ness is in the range of 25 to 50 mils (0.6 to 1.27 mm).
The copper tube is then TIG welded and corrugated
before the sheathed core is taken up on a reel.
The corrugated welded copper sheath has a high short-
circuit capability and provides good mechanical protec-
tion as well as good connectivity for bonding and
grounding. As with all corrugated sheath cables, the cable
diameter is larger than for other designs (Figure 4-43).
Figure 4-42 Copper tube entering TIG welding head
(courtesy of Southwire).
Figure 4-43 Welded copper sheath (courtesy of
Southwire).
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
Corrugated Welded Stainless Steel Sheath
The applications for stainless steel sheathed cables are in
high-power, low-loss circuits, and in corrosive environ-
ments. Low-loss stainless steel sheaths are used in Japan
in some 275-kV and 500-kV applications (Figure 4-16).
Their purpose is to achieve high ampacity by reducing
sheath eddy current losses in cables installed in close
proximity—for example, when cleated together in tun-
nels. Thin stainless steel sheaths have high electrical
resistivity, which minimizes eddy currents, while provid-
ing excellent mechanical robustness and protection to
the cable. A concentric stranded copper wire conductor
is required inside the stainless steel sheath to act as a
shield and ground conductor for capacitive and short-
circuit currents. The shield wires are spaced to prevent
eddy current losses. The sheaths are cross bonded and
so do not carry longitudinal circulating currents. Stain-
less steel has also been selected in Australia and in the
Pacific Rim for installation in chemical plants where a
higher risk of corrosion may exist.
Lead-Alloy Sheath
Lead-alloy sheaths for power cables were first introduced
around 1880 in Switzerland. They have been widely used
for most cable applications and are still preferred in the
Middle East. They are still used in Europe and the
United States, although in declining quantities, while
Japanese manufacturers produce lead-sheathed trans-
mission cables for export only. The first 345-kV XLPE
cable in a long-length duct-manhole circuit with joints in
North America has a lead-alloy sheath (Figure 4-1).
Lead sheaths are made using one of several types of lead
alloys, such as those listed in ICEA S-108-720 Appendix
I, or Cu-Te lead alloy as commonly used in Europe.
These lead alloys are more resistant to intergranular
cracking due to vibration and heat cycling compared to
other alloys. The lead sheath is extruded onto the cable
core using a continuous screw type press. Some manu-
facturers add an anticorrosion layer. Lead sheath thick-
nesses range from 1.5 to 4 mm (60 to 160 mils).
Lead sheaths may not be sufficient to carry the short-
circuit current in some applications due to their higher
resistance and temperature limitations. For such appli-
cations, copper or aluminum concentric wire neutrals
may be added under the lead sheath to improve the
short-circuit capacity and reduce the overall weight.
Lead sheaths have been used for a long time in land and
submarine applications and, as a result, have a long
operating experience. They have excellent corrosion
resistance and are preferred in wet applications. Lead
has a low elastic limit and so lead sheaths readily creep
under the action of ground subsidence and jacket retrac-
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Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
tion, thereby protecting the accessory sheath termina-
tions from experiencing high tensile loads. Lead sheath
cables are heavy compared to other designs and in some
cases limit the lengths of cable that can be transported.
Lead sheaths are malleable and resistant to damage, but
are not as robust in resisting installation and third-party
damage as other thick-wall extruded and welded sheath
types.
4.17.7 Other Sheath Considerations for Extruded
Dielectric Cables
Extruded dielectric cables are subject to substantial
radial expansion and contraction during heat cycling in
service compared to self-contained fluid-filled cables.
The sheath design has to take this expansion and con-
traction into account. When concentric neutral wires
are used, alone or in combination with laminated or
lead sheaths, adequate bedding is required to limit the
indentation of the wires into the cable insulation shield.
For cables with rigid tubes, such as the extruded alumi-
num and the welded aluminum and copper sheaths, an
adequate expansion gap has to be provided for the cable
core expansion. Glued laminated sheaths, and in partic-
ular lead sheaths, have to provide a certain elasticity,
because they expand and contract with the cable core.
The jacket composition, thickness, and application
should be designed accordingly.
All designs have to provide adequate electrical contact
between the cable core insulation shield and the metallic
sheath. Semiconductive, or sometimes conductive
(metal woven), tapes are selected specifically for each
sheath type.
Cables with rigid tube sheaths, in particular corrugated
sheaths, permit higher clamping forces in the installa-
tion design, while other sheath types limit the clamping
force, requiring the use of elastomeric liners or springs.
The allowable short-circuit current for a specific sheath
type is a function not only of the sheath material and
cross section, but also of the maximum allowable tem-
perature as a result of short-circuit duty. This tempera-
ture depends on the nonadiabatic effects, if considered,
as well as on the temperature tolerance of the adjacent
cable components. There are different specifications,
standards, and regional practices, and manufacturers
may permit different maximum temperatures for the
same sheath material.
Addition of DTS Fibers into the Cable
The operating temperature of a cable is mostly calcu-
lated for the cable and its operating environment as
described in Chapter 11. However, variations of the
thermal environment and assumptions and inaccuracies
related to the thermal environment and the calculation
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
methods have utilities interested in the actual distrib-
uted temperature profile of a cable in operation. In addi-
tion, Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS) enables
utilities to implement dynamic rating systems when
fibers, DTS and dynamic rating models are combined.
The typical type of fiber used for this application is
common telecommunication-grade 50/125 μm diameter
multimode fibers. In combination with the temperature-
monitoring devices available today, these fibers offer
good temperature accuracy and spatial resolution but
only for limited lengths. For longer-length cable circuits,
single-mode fibers may become necessary, which in turn
reduces temperature accuracy and spatial resolution.
The cladding and the coating of the glass fiber deter-
mine its temperature tolerance. Standard telecommuni-
c at i o n - g r a d e fi b e r s a re l i m i t e d t o a m a xi mu m
temperature of 70°C. This, however, is sufficient for the
typical operating temperature in the sheath area. Higher
temperature ratings are available at increased cost.
For most designs, one or more single and or multimode
fibers are contained in a small, stainless steel tube. The
diameter of the stainless steel tube varies, but is in the
range of 1 to 2 mm (40 to 80 mils).
The ideal place for the fiber in any cable would be at or
inside the conductor, which is both the hottest part of
the cable and, at the same time, the cable component
with the fastest temperature response to operational
changes. Placement of the fiber in the conductor is,
however, not very practical, considering the conductor
voltage, exposure to high operating temperature, and
complexity of splicing. Therefore, the next best place is
the incorporation of the fiber tube underneath the
sheath, as shown in Figure 4-44.
For cables with concentric neutral wires, one or more
stainless steel tubes typically replace one or more of the
Figure 4-44 Distributed temperature sensing
optical fibers incorporated into bedding
tapes (courtesy of Southwire).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
neutral wires and are applied together. The two adjacent
neutral wires may be oversized relative to each stainless
steel tube in order to provide crush protection for the
tubes and the fibers contained therein.
For other sheath types, the fiber tubes will be sand-
wiched in the bedding tape layers between the cable
insulation shield and the metallic sheath, as shown in
4-44. Additional strength members, such as wires or flat
cable assemblies or semiconductive composites may be
used for both crush protection and to limit the indenta-
tion of the fiber tube into the insulation shield.
Another possibility is to incorporate the stainless steel
fiber tube into the outer jacket encapsulating the metal-
lic sheath, which, while thermally removing the fiber
further from the conductor, avoids any interference in
the interface between the insulation shield and sheath.
In many applications in North America, cables are
installed in duct-manhole systems, which require that
the fiber tube be incorporated into the cable construc-
tion, as described above. Alternatives that have been
used are to strap a fibre cable or an empty auxiliary tube
(sometimes called a sub-duct) to the power cable, in the
latter case the fibre is blown in later. Another solution is
to place a small auxiliary duct in the vicinity of the hot-
test duct within the ductbank. In tunnel and buried
applications, the fiber is often fixed to the outer surface
of the jacket after the cable has been laid and jointed. A
variant of this is to attach an empty tube to the cable
and later blow the fibers into position, thus permitting
replacement of the fibers, should they deteriorate with
time. The advantages of external fiber placement are
that the risk of fiber damage during cable manufacture
and installation is eliminated, and the length of fiber
installed without joints is increased thereby reducing the
number of fiber joints and the total signal attenuation.
The disadvantage in external fibre placement is that the
sensitivity of temperature detection is reduced, both in
reduced temperature rise and in increased time response
to rapid load changes. For more information on DTS,
see Sections 12.2.8 and 11.5.1.
Table 4-13 Jacket Thicknesses for Extruded Cables (ICEA S-108-720-2004)
Diameter over Shield
or Sheath
Shield Type in. mm
0-2.500 0-63.50
Tape or Wire Shield
>2.500 >63.50
0-2.250 0-57.15
Metal Sheath Shield 2.251-3.000 57.18-76.20
>3.000 >76.20
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
4.18 CONSTRUCTION: JACKETS
The integrity of the jacket is internationally recognized
as the key factor in ensuring the longevity of the cable.
The jacket usually deteriorates at a far greater rate, due
to external damage during installation and in service,
than the primary XLPE or EPR insulation, due to elec-
trical and thermal aging. Money should never be saved
by skimping on the quality or the thickness of the
jacket. Thicknesses specified by ICEA S-108-720-2004
are given in Table 4-13. The table also gives the magni-
tude of the factory in-line spark test that is applied after
extrusion. The jackets on specially bonded cables are
supplied with a conducting layer. If this is a graphite lac-
quer, it is applied after the spark test. If a layer of
extruded semiconducting polymer is applied in the form
of a bonded coextrusion, then its thickness may be
included in the values given in Table 4-13 up to a maxi-
mum of 20%. It is no longer possible to perform an in-
line spark test, and so a dc voltage test is specified to be
performed on the completed cable shipping length of
200 V/mil (8 kV/mm) on the average thickness in Table
4-13 up to a maximum of 25 kV for one minute.
The jacket is required to protect the inner layers of the
cable from the ingress of water. The main effects of
water are corrosion of metals, loss of contact conductiv-
ity between metals, and water treeing in PE, XLPE, and
EPR insulations. The jacket is also required to give a
degree of protection from the diffusion of aqueous solu-
tions of natural ionic salts and industrial and agricul-
tural chemicals. Ionic solutions set up an electrolytic cell
between dissimilar conducting materials, such as the
graphites and the different metals, which accelerate cor-
rosion. The rate of corrosion is also increased by the 60-
Hz voltage in specially bonded systems, induced in the
underlying metallic sheath, foil, or shield wires. In these
systems, it is good practice to break the electrolytic cell
by insulating the metal surface by, for example, a bitu-
minous coating.
The diffusion rates for water through different combina-
tions of metallic sheaths and polymeric jacketing mate-
Thickness
Minimum Maximum Spark Test
mils mm mils mm kV
100 2.54 150 3.81 10
125 3.18 185 4.70 12.5
70 1.78 105 2.67 7
85 2.16 135 3.43 7.5
100 2.54 160 4.06 10
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Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

shown in Figure 4-45. Polyethylene, and in particular

Table 4-14 Moisture Diffusion Rates through
Sheath/Jacket Combinations
Diffusion rate
Sheath Jacket [μg.m/m2.day]
Corrugated Aluminum PE 0
Laminated Foil Copper or Aluminum PE <0.005
None HDPE 20
None PE 80
None PVC 350
rials are given in Table 4-14 (Ritter et al. 1994). The only
completely watertight material is an extruded or welded
metallic sheath. The very small diffusion rate reported
for the metallic foil is attributed to the foil overlap.
None of the polymeric jackets is watertight, but they
have waterproofing properties. The diffusion rate
through the HDPE jacket (high-density polyethylene) is
18 times less than that through the PVC jacket. The
HDPE jacket is thus better suited to a wet design of
cable without a metallic sheath, especially where there is
risk of external water.
In addition to the 60-Hz induced voltage, the jackets on
specially bonded sheath systems experience a significant
transient voltage to ground each time the circuit is
switched or when it transmits a lightning surge. The
presence of sheath voltage limiters typically reduces this
to 5% of the surge voltage. The jackets on specially
bonded systems are usually specified to withstand both
a commissioning HV test and a routine maintenance
test to demonstrate that they have not suffered damage
during installation. The jacketing materials must, there-
fore, be good electrical insulators with a high electrical
resistivity, or it will not be possible to apply a suffi-
ciently high test voltage with minimal leakage current
necessary to discriminate the fault current at sites of
jacket damage. Caution should be taken in the selection
of the jacketing material for water-immersed applica-
tion, such as direct burial and in ducts liable to flood,
because fire performance jackets usually contain fillers
that reduce their waterproofing and insulating proper-
ties when saturated.
HDPE, is significantly more robust than PVC at the
higher temperatures that occur due to solar heating dur-
ing installation and due to operation at emergency tem-
peratures. A temperature difference of typically 10°C
exists between the conductor and jacket. Thus when the
conductor is heated to a prolonged emergency tempera-
ture of 105°C, the jacket experiences a temperature of
95°C. Caution should be exercised in the selection of the
grade of PE jacket because an HDPE material at the
lower density end of the grade range will be softened at
95°C and will have melted at 115°C, as indicated in Fig-
ure 4-7.
PVC jacketing materials are softened by the addition of a
plasticizer which gives advantages of high flexibility and
minimal shrink-back. Zero-halogen fire performance
grades, using highly filled PE compounds, have low flam-
mability and have reduced smoke propagation. PVC
jackets become brittle at low temperatures and should
not be installed at sub-zero centigrade temperatures.
PE jackets are more robust, but are stiffer than PVC. PE
jackets can be installed at -10°C. The higher-density
grades of PE jackets are more susceptible to stress
cracking, which is the mechanism in which the combina-
tion of locked-in stress and a surface notch (scratch,
abrasion, or sharp indentation) generates spontaneous
splits with time. ICEA S-108-720-2004 specifies that
each grade passes an environmental stress cracking test
to ASTM D 1693, in which a sample of jacket material
is molded, slit with a razor blade to 20-25 mils
(0.51-0.64mm), bent, and then immersed in the cracking
liquid Igepal CO-630 at 50°C for 48 hours. The density
ranges of the base PE resin, less additives, in kg/m3 are:
LDPE MDPE HDPE
910-925 926-940 941-965

The jacket is required to withstand the abrasion and

penetration that occurs when it is pulled into a duct-
manhole system or into a trench on rollers or skid plates.
In service in a duct system, the jacket experiences contin-
uous abrasion due to thermomechanical cable move-
ments, and high sidewall pressure at bends and indeed
wherever the cable is curved. In a buried installation, the
cable experiences vertical soil and vehicular loading and
at bends sidewall loading, which may cause pebbles to Figure 4-45 Comparative indentation depth of HDPE and
penetrate the jacket. The penetration properties of poly- PVC jackets at different temperatures (courtesy of CCI).
meric jackets are highly temperature dependent, as

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
PE jackets exhibit significant locked-in retraction loads,
which exert high tensile forces on a large cable of 0.5-
1.5 t at the accessories. PE jacket retraction has been
recorded to break plumbs on lead and aluminum
sheaths, the foil on laminate sheaths, and bonding con-
nections to shield wires. Thus accessories are required to
be designed to either withstand the forces or to provide
a tolerance for movement.
4.19 MANUFACTURE OF COMPOUNDS
4.19.1 Manufacture of XLPE Insulating Compound
The supplier of the base PE resin (i.e., PE before it is
compounded with additives) manufactures very high
volumes of low cost “film”-grade PE material for the
general nonelectrical market. The central part of the
manufacturing batch of PE produced in the high-
pressure reactor process is very clean and is the most
suited for high stressed EHV insulation, whereas the PE
at the start and end is suitable for either HV and MV
cable or nonelectrical applications. For EHV applica-
tions, the center of the run is cut and segregated, and the
rate of sample testing is increased to verify that the
center cut is clean. These additional processes and the
reduced volume of high purity material significantly
increase the price of the compound.
Additives are mixed into the PE resin to provide process
capability. The pellets of pure PE resin are first “com-
pounded” (mixed) with antioxidants and process-aids.
The antioxidants protect the PE from the combined
effects of residual oxygen (air) entrained within the
extrudate melt in the factory curing process time of ~10
hours at 150-200°C and within the cable construction in
the service life of around 25-40 years at 90°C. The pro-
cess-aids lubricate the PE through the compounding
and extrusion processes when in contact with the hot
metal surfaces of the extruder, strainer packs, and extru-
sion dies. The penultimate process is to super-filter the
compound melt through 5-10 layers of stainless steel
mesh, with the finest layer being in the range of 700-
1000 mesh, to remove any particles and agglomerations.
To prevent initiation of premature crosslinking during
the compounding and filtering processes, the peroxide is
added last—for example, by melting and adsorbing
through the pellet surface—to achieve a typical level of
2-2.5% by weight.
The compound formulations and processes are propri-
etary to the compound manufacturer. Suppliers of pre-
compounded materials produce utilitarian formulations
suitable for application in a range of types of extruders,
dies, and CV lines, with a range of different insulation
thicknesses and line speeds. When the market demand
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
was mainly for MV and HV cables, this required the
addition of a higher level of peroxide to achieve high
output line speeds for thin-wall insulations. However,
this produced an increased level of scorch contaminants
(ambers) that reduced the length of the extrusion run
and an unnecessary level of by-products in thicker-insu-
lation EHV cables that increased the time of the degas-
sing process. The start of volume manufacture of EHV
XLPE cables (230-500 kV) in 2000-2005 initiated the
development of compounds with reduced peroxide lev-
els and a base PE resin with additional functional side
group molecules that increase the crosslinking efficiency
and so reduce the volume of dicumyl peroxide and its
by-products. The PE resin with functional side groups
has also been developed for dc transmission with the
objective of reducing the loss of dc and impulse voltage
strength due to the space charge accumulation of
charged by-products.
A low-density PE homo-polymer resin is preferred for its
high-stress EHV performance, because it has low viscos-
ity and can be super-filtered to the highest levels of
purity. Viscosity is characterized by the MFI (melt flow
index), in which the weight of compound flowing
through a vertical small bore tube in 10 minutes at 190°C
is measured. The downside is that after extrusion it
exhibits a significant rate of droop off the conductor and
hence loss of circularity and concentricity in some types
of CV lines. Droop is more pronounced on cables with a
high ratio of core diameters and on EHV cables because
of the increased time to raise the thick insulation and
large conductor thermal mass to the crosslinking tem-
perature. Table 4-15 shows that grades of PE are avail-
able with a 250% increase in viscosity to permit the
manufacture of improved geometry cables for EHV
application. The downsides of low-droop compounds
are that the compounds are more difficult to filter to
high purity and that the extrusion torque and power are
Table 4-15 Examples of XLPE Insulation Grades for
Different CV Lines
CV Line CV Line
Type 1 pType 2
Super-
filtration Low Droop
PE Compound Property Material Material
Melt flow rate
g/10min 2 0.8
(2.16kg at 190oC)
Rheometry (Gottfert
Elastograft Nm 0.59-0.74 0.64-0.80
torque value)
Density kg/m3 922 923
CV Lines Type 1: Inherently low droop lines: VCV, CCV silicone
lines, and CCV nitrogen lines with special gas circulation treatment.
CV Lines Type 2: Other types: MDCV and nitrogen CCV lines
without special processes.
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Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

increased by around 10%. The viscosity of the PE can be face, expressed by uniform distribution of particle sizes,
varied by altering the molecular weight (chain length) of minimum particulate contamination, and high chemical
a homo-polymer, or by using a co-polymer. Table 4-15 purity. Acetylene black is obtained by burning acetylene
shows that the density is little changed at 922-923 kg/m3. gas. The insulation and semiconducting compounding,
transporting, storing, and handling plants are com-
Some manufacturers of high-stressed EHV cables, par- pletely segregated within separate sealed buildings to
ticularly those in Japan, compound the insulation in- avoid the risk of cross contamination. The fine black
house to achieve the optimum combination of purity powder is difficult and hazardous to handle, and so is
and processing characteristics best suited to their CV loaded into the polymer to form a “master batch,” which
line and their cable designs. The risk of material con- is then pelletized. The semi-con compound is melted and
tamination by foreign particles during transportation is filtered to break up agglomerates and so minimize the
not changed, because both the base PE resin and the formation of shield protrusions (Figure 4-47). The
XLPE compound have to be transported to the cable dicumyl peroxide crosslinking agent is added last.
factory. In both cases, extreme care is required by the
use of dedicated, large-volume, van boxes, road tankers
(20 ton), or octabins (1 ton). The granules of PE or
XLPE are transferred from the road tanker or bin in
either a clean garage or a clean room. In-house com-
pounding has the advantages that: (a) immediately prior
to the final process, the addition of the peroxide, the
compound is super-filtered; (b) it is handled entirely
within enclosed factory pipe-work handling systems;
and (c) it is stored for the minimum period under con-
trolled temperature conditions in dedicated silos. In
comparison, precompounded material is transported
and stored for longer periods in a range of climatic con-
ditions, which risk sweat-out of the peroxide at low tem-
perature (<13°C), melting at >28°C, and premature
peroxide decomposition reactions at higher solar heat-
ing temperatures. If the temperature is too low, dicumyl-
Figure 4-46 Left: VCV tower. Center: XLPE compounding
peroxide may sweat-out of the pellets in the form of a plant. Right: CCV tower (courtesy of CCI).
surface dust to later form concentrated accumulations
in the extruder feed lines.

The building at the base of the CV tower in Figure 4-46

houses the clean rooms for transfer of PE from road
tankers, the insulation and semiconducting compound-
ing plants, and the storage silos that are directly con-
nected to the extruders in the top of the VCV tower (left)
and in the CCV stub tower (right).

4.19.2 Manufacture of Semiconducting

Compound
Approximately 40 % by weight of carbon black is loaded
into an EBA or EVA elastomeric resin base, which is
used to retain bending flexibility and match it to the
XLPE insulation. Acetylene black is the preferred type
Figure 4-47 Small protrusion from the semi-con
for EHV cables and is specified by AEIC CS9-06. It gives conductor shield into the insulation (courtesy of CCI).
the smoothest and most consistent shield electrical sur-

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics

4.20 MANUFACTURE OF EXTRUDED CABLE The pellets of XLPE insulation and shielding com-
CORE pound are either lifted from the ground floor in sealed
stainless steel air lift pipes, or are lifted in their trans-
For reasons of economy and consistent extrusion qual-
port boxes, which are then located adjacent to the
ity, it is usual to run an extruder in a continuous opera-
extruder or one or two floors below it. The pellets are
tion lasting 10-20 days, termed an “extrusion campaign”
usually, but not always, dried before being fed into the
or “extrusion run.” The conductor is stranded in the
extruder hoppers.
maximum lengths possible that can be wound onto a
process reel and lifted for transportation within the fac-
Figure 4-49 shows a bag of pellets in a Class NASA
tory. This is usually less than the length of a core that
100,000 clean room being fed directly into an extruder
can be extruded in one campaign, and so it is necessary
hopper on the floor below, a method that is popular in
to join lengths of conductor together without stopping
North America for HV cables.
the extruder. The conductors are joined together when
they enter the extrusion line to form a continuous length
It is essential that the pellets are metered into the hop-
by means of temporary flush connections, usually com-
per and into the throat of the extruder at a constant
pression ferrules, but sometimes welded connectors. The
rate, or the phenomenon of “surging” can occur in
conductor is dynamically stored in a number of turns on
which the extruder delivers a time-varying output, as a
an accumulator consisting of two grooved reels. During
consequence of which the core diameter and in particu-
normal operation, the reels are positioned far apart.
lar the shield thicknesses fluctuate. One solution is to
During the conductor connection process, the reels are
use a loss-in-weight feeder.
moved together to release and feed conductor at a con-
stant rate into the extruder. This permits the trailing end
The extruder includes an annular helical gap between a
of the conductor to remain static for sufficient time to
long screw (Figure 4-50) with regions of different pitch
complete the conductor connection.
inside a cylindrical container, both of which are heated in
zones to precise temperatures. The extruders are referred
The speed of extrusion and crosslinking is low—for
to by the diameter of the screw and the maximum output
example, the typical throughput speed of a large 400-kV,
rate. Exam ple screw siz es used to manufacture
4000-kcmil (2000-mm 2 ) XLPE core is 0.15-0.3 m per
400/500-kV cables are 6 in. (150 mm), 7 in. (175 mm),
minute, thus the maximum length that can be extruded
and 8 in. (200 mm). The length-to-diameter ratio is typi-
in a continuous 10-20 day campaign is in the range of
1.3 to 5.4 miles (2.2 to 8.6 km). Taking a typical ship-
ping reel length of 2600 ft (800 m), the extrusion cam-
paign would produce 3-10 shipping reel lengths.

4.20.1 Extruders
Figure 4-48 shows the insulation extruder at the top of a
VCV (vertical continuous vulcanizing tube). The con-
ductor shield extruded is aligned facing the camera. The
insulation shield extruder is out of view on the left side.

Figure 4-48 VCV extruder floor. Left background: Figure 4-49 Insulation pellets loading from Clean
conductor shield extruder. Left foreground: triple head die Room into extruder throat (below floor) (courtesy
set. Right: insulation extruder (courtesy of CCI). of Southwire).

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Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
Figure 4-50 Extruder insulation and semiconducting shield screws (courtesy of CCI).
cally 20:1-22:1; thus an 8-in. (200-mm) screw would be
up to 14.5 ft (4.4 m) long.
The slowly rotating screw has flights of variable pitch
and depth such that the first flights assist pellet mixing
and consolidation, and the final flights compress the
melt and drive it out through the neck of the extruder
(Figure 4-48) as a clear, void-free liquid under pressures
as high as 700-1000 psi (50-70 bar). The pressure is
required to dissolve free air, force the melt through the
high hydraulic impedance formed by the strainer pack
and the die head, and resist the back pressure of 145 psi
(10 bar) from the CV tube.
The neck connects directly to a strainer pack, consisting
of a number of stainless steel meshes that are supported
from bursting by a thick steel breaker plate perforated
with an array of longitudinal holes, as shown in Figure
4-51. The melt passes through layers of progressively
finer woven, stainless steel mesh. The purpose of the
strainer pack is to remove particles and agglomerations,
and to break up ambers and gels that may have been
formed during material handling and extrusion. The
temperature of the melt is held at less than 140°C to pre-
vent premature crosslinking occurring in the strainer
pack and dies. The typical extrusion temperature is
Figure 4-51 Strainer housing and breaker plate
(courtesy of CCI).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
120°C. For EPR extrusion, a strainer pack typically
contains five layers of stainless steel mesh, with sizes
from 7 down to 82 mesh, with a typical hole/light size of
7 mils (170 μm). For XLPE insulation, the mesh size is
typically from 20 down to 100/200 mesh.
Pressure-tight optical windows are provided in some
extruder necks to permit automatic “melt flow inspec-
tion” equipment to monitor the melt. Beams of visible
light count and size the level of residual particulate con-
tamination and in some equipment identify the type of
contaminant.
A similar extrusion process is followed for the semi-con
conductor shield and insulation shield; however, the
volumes of extrudate per unit length of cable are signifi-
cantly smaller than the insulation, requiring smaller
screw diameters and lengths, as shown in Figure 4-50.
The close arrangement of the three extruders necessary
for them to be connected to the triple extrusion die is
called the “extruder group,” as shown in Figure 4-52.
The semiconducting shield melt is injected first into the
upstream end of the die body and then onto the conduc-
tor. Figure 4-53 shows the extrusion channels in different
cross-head dies, which are so named because the melt is
injected into the body of the die at approximately 90° to
the axis in the cross direction of the conductor. The
semi-con melt in Figure 4-53 (left) is divided by a knife
edge gate into two semihelical channels, which change
the direction of the melt and which meet again further
downstream at the opposite side of the die. The down-
stream edges of the channels are of lower level to permit
the melt to overflow them and to form a concentric
annular flow over the cylindrical surface of the die. The
end of the die is formed by the “nipple,” which is a coni-
cal component machined to fit the diameter of the par-
ticular cable. The semi-con melt flows down the nipple
and then along a long cylindrical land until it flows onto
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics

the conductor. The semi-con nipple and nipple holder fit
inside the sleeve next to it, the outer surface of which
holds the helical channels and nipple for the main insu-
lation layer. The insulation nipple holder and nipple fit
inside the sleeve of the outer semicon layer, not shown.
The knife edge gate, which divides the flow into the two
channels, and the arrow head on the opposite side,
which recombines the flow, produce two diametrically
opposite “knit lines” in the insulation melt, which con-
tinue onto the cable. The radial knit lines can be seen in
the finished cable when thin slices are cut from the cable
and viewed under polarized light. The high extrusion
pressures compress the insulation melt, which swells in
diameter when it emerges from the die. This expansion
is guided by a trumpet-shaped flare. The flow of the
melt is not completely parallel and streamlined, proba-
bly due to an inevitable slight eccentricity in the setting
up of the dies at the start of the extrusion run and to the
significant swell of the melt in diameter. In some cables,

Figure 4-52 Extruder group (courtesy of General Cable Corp.).

Figure 4-53 Triple extrusion cross-head dies. Left: inner conductor

shield die and insulation die. Right: Insulation die, front and back
(courtesy of CCI).

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Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
this results in taking a thin wisp of semiconducting com-
pound radially inwards into the insulation along the
length of the cable, thus forming a deadly electrical
stress raiser, as shown in Figure 4-54.
4.20.2 Types of CV Lines
The three layers emerge from the die as viscous liquids at
an extrusion temperature carefully controlled at ~120°C,
which is below the temperature at which the dicumyl
peroxide crosslinking agent becomes reactive. To be able
to crosslink the XLPE insulation and the shield adjacent
to the conductor in a reasonable time, it is usual for the
larger conductors used in HV and EHV cables to be pre-
heated prior to entering the extrusion head.
It is then necessary to start the reaction as quickly as
possible to maintain the circular shape and to limit the
time for the melt to ‘sag’ from the conductor and spoil
the circular shape of the core. The molten cable core
passes directly into a CV tube (continuous vulcanizing
tube), typically containing a heat transfer medium of
nitrogen gas or silicone oil at 145 psi (10 bar) pressure.
The temperature of the insulation and shield melts is
raised to obtain an inner insulation temperature of
around 160°C by a combination of radiant heating from
the tube at 200°C and by circulation of heated gas or sil-
icone fluid. Precise and uniform control of the melt tem-
perature after it has left the die is critical in maintaining
th e cylindrical in sulation shape. As previously
described, special insulation compound with a low MFI
is available to reduce droop, but at the penalty of
increased difficulty in straining.
Different types of CV line have evolved to successfully
meet the common objectives of extruding cable in the
transmission-class range, and this evolution will con-
tinue as the demand for XLPE and EP R cables
increases. When first purchased, each CV line is speci-
fied to be optimized to address a certain product range,
a production throughput rate, and a competitive extru-
Figure 4-54 Cross-section of cable slice: penetration of
semi-con from the insulation shield into the insulation
knit line (courtesy of CCI).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
sion cost. Each line type is also capable of operating
outside its optimal range. Process development contin-
ues to be directed at widening the optimal range of both
existing and new lines to address new cable opportuni-
ties. Specifications such as AEIC CS9 (AEIC 2006),
ICEA S-108-720 (ICEA 2004), IEC 62067 (IEC 2001),
and IEC 60840 (IEC 2004) do not mention types of CV
line, but do give sufficient dimensional tolerance such
that a cable from any of the CV line types, if carefully
operated, would not be precluded. Examples of factors
in CV line specification are:
• Voltage range: comprising insulation and shield vol-
ume, thickness, and overall diameter. Insulation
thicknesses are given in Table 4-8—e.g., 303 mils
(7.7 mm) at 69 kV to 1002 mils (25.5 mm) at 345 kV.
Note that some 400- and 500-kV cables have been
supplied with insulation thicknesses of 1260 mils
(32 mm). The range in thickness is ~4:1.
• Design stress range: comprising material types and
handling, insulation and shield purity, and geometric
precision. Design stresses are given in Table 4-8—e.g.,
100 V/mil (4 kV/mm) at 69 kV to 350 V/mil
(14 kV/mm) at 345 kV. Note that some 500-kV cable
have stress levels of 16 kV/mm. The range in design
stress is ~4:1.
• Conductor range: weight per unit length and reel
weight and conductor type—e.g., concentric, seg-
mental milliken, copper, and aluminum. Dimensions
of conductor sizes can be derived from Chapter 3,
Tables 3-4 to 3-8—e.g., a 250-kcmil compressed cop-
per conductor has a diameter of 0.56 in. (14.2 mm)
and a weight of 0.77 lb/ft (1.15 kg/m) and a
5000-kcmil copper conductor has a diameter of ~2.5
in. (63.5 mm) and weight of 15.9 lb/ft (23.6 kg/m).
The range in weight is 20:1. The highest conductor
weight without insulation, suspended in a 200-m tube
is approximately 4.5 tons. The highest conductor
weight to be withstood and controlled by the input
capstan is typically twice this figure.
• Output: the output of large conductor EHV cable
from a CV line is approximately half that of a tape
lapping and impregnating line; thus a manufacturer
requires twice the number of CV lines to supply the
same market with XLPE cable. This applies strong
commercial drive to the development of higher-speed
CV line types.
There has been a significant move towards VCV lines in
Japan and Europe for EHV cables with large conduc-
tors. Other types of CV lines are in use with a good
track record in the manufacture of 400-kV XLPE cables
with large conductors, and appear likely to continue in
the future. These lines are CCV-Silicone, CCV-Nitrogen,
and MDCV. They are each described below, following
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
the detailed description of a VCV line, because this is
the simplest in concept.
4.20.3 VCV (Vertical Continuous Vulcanization)
VCV lines produce excellent core geometry. The down-
ward movement of the conductor and the gravitational
droop of the PE melt after extrusion are in axial align-
ment, thereby naturally maintaining conductor concen-
tricity and circularity. This also permits low viscosity
(high MFI) XLPE compound to be extruded with the
advantage that it can be pre-strained to the highest lev-
els of purity.
The length of the VCV tube necessary to heat and cool
the core determines the throughput speed and the
height of the tower. The length of the VCV tube has to
match the maximum output of the extruder. A 150-175
mm diameter extruder requires a tower of approxi-
mately 80 m in height, whereas a 200 mm extruder
requires a tower of 100-120 m height.
The disadvantages of VCV lines are that they are expen-
sive to construct and local government planning rules
may prohibit or limit the height of the tower.
The key equipment in the VCV tower is generally com-
mon to each type of CV line. A typical description is
given below in relation to Figure 4-55:
Figure 4-55 VCV extrusion and curing line (courtesy of EPRI).
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
1. The conductor is guided off the input reel into the
base of the tower.
2. Some manufacturers apply a temporary tape after
stranding to protect the surface of the cable and
thence the shield and insulation from damage or
contamination. The protective tape is removed at
the base of the tower.
3. The conductor passes three or more turns around a
dancer accumulator. In normal operation, the mov-
ing wheel is at the extreme of its travel such that the
maximum length of strand is stored. When addi-
tional conductor is required during a continuous
extrusion run, the moving wheel is slowly moved
inwards so that the stored conductor is released at
the normal throughput rate. This gives time for the
new leading end of the conductor to be connected
to the trailing end without stopping the CV line.
4. At the top of the tower, the conductor passes over a
power-driven capstan wheel. The speed of the cap-
stan is the key controllable process variable in the
CV line, and is used to achieve and maintain a con-
stant core diameter. The diameter of the hot core is
measured automatically at the output of the
extruder and at the output of the CV tube at the
bottom of the tower. If the diameter of the cable
starts to reduce, the feedback control automatically
slows down the capstan, so that a greater insulation
thickness is achieved from the constant-output
extruder group.
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Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

5. The conductor is preheated by induction heaters. and the pressure prospectively lost, such that the
6. The extruder group applies the shields and insula- end 100-m length of the core and conductor is also
tion, operating at constant, synchronized screw process scrap. Thus, although a short CV tube may
rotational speeds. Note that the three extruders have have a lower output rate, its percentage yield is
been rotated from plan to elevational view in the higher than a longer tube.
diagram. 12. The core passes through a diameter gauge, as shown
7. An X-ray gauge automatically measures the diame- in Figure 4-56, which measures the final “cold diam-
ter and eccentricity of the hot core. This permits the eter” of the core at ambient temperature. This is the
concentricity of the dies to be adjusted manually at diameter that is checked against the specified value
the start of the run, and the mean diameter of the agreed with the conductor. Because of the uncer-
core to be automatically controlled during the run. tainty of the magnitude of the thermal contraction
between the hot and cold diameter measurements, it
8. In the heating zone, the cable is heated to crosslink-
is usual to apply additional insulation thickness.
ing temperature by a combination of radiant heat-
ing from the induction heated tube and by 13. Optionally the core may pass through an ultrasonic
circulation of heated nitrogen or silicone oil. The monitor, as shown in Figure 4-57, to detect the pres-
CV tube is pressurized to typically 10 bar to keep ence of harmful defects such as shield hang-ups,
the gaseous by-products of crosslinking in solution. particles, and voids. Figure 4-58 shows the cross sec-
The nitrogen gas or silicone oil has to be cleaned tion of a shield hang-up; for clarity, the shield and
and filtered of the crosslinking by-products and of conductor are shown as white in color. The use of
any thermal degradation, to prevent the insulation
from being contaminated by the circulation,
because the heat transfer media to some degree
impregnates the insulation.
9. The cooling zone contains recirculated water, which
is an efficient heat transfer medium. The water has
to be cleaned and filtered to protect the cable insula-
tion and the CV tube.
10. The bottom turn-round wheel alters the core direc-
tion from vertical to horizontal. Some VCV towers
have a vertical shaft that continues underground.
Some VCV lines are completely underground. The
turn-round wheel then turns the cable through 180o
so that it re-ascends the shaft back to the ground
surface. The XLPE insulation has to be sufficiently Figure 4-56 Diameter and eccentricity laser gauge at
outlet of line (courtesy of CCI).
cool that it will not be deformed by the wheel.
11. The cool cable core emerges through a compressed
rubber water seal at the base of the CV line, as
shown in Figure 4-59. The water seal has to with-
stand 10 bar water pressure, while allowing the
extruded insulation shield to slide through without
damage. The CV tube cannot be properly pressur-
ized, and the core consistently extruded, until the
leading end of the core emerges through the seal.
The small vibration of the emergence causes a small
disturbance at the die head and imprints an
unwanted annular “water seal mark” in the core,
which, if significant, produces a secondary mark
when this too emerges through the water seal. Thus
the setting-up process produces a significant in-pro-
cess scrap of one to three times the length of the CV
line—a length of 330-1000 ft (100-300 m). Similarly,
at the end of the extrusion run, when the trailing
end of the conductor and the connection to the Figure 4-57 Ultrasonic in-line monitor at outlet
hawser passes through the die, the core is disturbed of CV line (courtesy of Jicable).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Figure 4-58 Shield hang-ups (courtesy of CIGRE).
ultrasonic detectors is comparatively recent and has
been applied to some EHV and MV submarine
cable applications (Smith et al. 2003).
14. The cable is driven by a caterpillar cable engine onto
a powered take-up reel (drum). The reel usually
accommodates three or four spans of dispatch
lengths as one continuous length, which is dictated
by the lifting capacity and the floor strength of the
factory. When the process reel is full, the cable is cut
and is taken up onto a second reel. Samples are
taken from the leading and trailing ends for analysis
in the routine material laboratory. Further samples
are taken from each successive length.
Figure 4-59 Outlet of extruded core from a VCV line
(courtesy of CCI).
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
4.20.4 CCV (Catenary Continuous Vulcanization)-
Nitrogen
CCV-nitrogen lines have experienced the widest use
worldwide, particularly for HV cables, because the high-
est output rates are achieved at the lowest cost by build-
ing long CV tubes at near ground level so that the rate
of cross-linking is matched to the output rate of the
largest extruders. The extruder group is mounted in a
stub tower, which is significantly shorter and lower in
cost than a VCV tower. Figure 4-46 compares the height
of a VCV tower containing two extruder groups side by
side and a CCV stub tower containing two CCV groups
one above the other.
The components of a CCV line are shown in Figure 4-60,
and are essentially the same as those in a VCV line. The
disadvantages of a CCV-Nitrogen line are gravitational
droop of the melt, which, if not properly managed, can
produce an eccentric and noncircular core, and the core
touches down onto the floor of the cooling zone. CCV-
nitrogen lines are presently being developed to handle
large conductor EHV cable, using high output extruders
with large screw sizes of 7.87-11.8 in. (200-300 mm)
diameter.
The differences in design, as compared to a VCV line,
and methods of reducing droop are described in relation
to the legend in Figure 4-60:
6, 7, 8, and 9: The extruder group and die head are
angled downwards in line with the catenary angle.
10, 11, and 12: The CCV tube is formed in the shape
of an asymmetric catenary.
14: The core has to be tensioned by the turn-around
wheel to keep the core in the heating zone from
touching the side of the CV tube and being partially
flattened. An induction sensor feeds back the posi-
tion of the core to the turn-around wheel. The CCV
tube angle and shape are optimized for the optimum
range of cable dimensions to be manufactured. The
core usually touches down and runs along the side
of the tube in the cooling zone.
11 and 12: Condensed by-products of crosslinking
accumulate at the lowest point of the catenary, and
so a drain is provided in a larger diameter tube posi-
tion, called the “fat boy.”
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Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Figure 4-60 CCV extrusion and curing line (courtesy of EPRI).

Figure 4-61 CCV line: Heating zones MV (shallow) and HV/EHV (steep) curing tubes
(courtesy of Southwire).

Methods of reducing insulation droop in CCV-Nitrogen
lines are:
• Steepen the angle of the catenary tube for higher-
voltage HV and EHV cables, as shown in Figure
4-61.
• Use an increased viscosity (low MFI) XLPE com-
pound.
• Circulate gas locally at the die head, sometimes
heated and sometimes cooled, to achieve more uni-
form temperature and dimensional conformity.
• Rotate the core at the output end by locating an out-
put core twister at 13 in Figure 4-60. The core twister
is a caterpillar drive that is inclined to the axis of the
core, such that a rotational movement is imparted to
the emerging core. The core rotation runs back up the
core through the CCV tube to the die head. The

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
droop is thus reduced in depth by being rotated heli-
cally around the core.
• Rotate the conductor at the input end by locating an
input core twister between 5 and 6 in Figure 4-60.
The twister consists of a caterpillar that is rotated
about its axis. The advantage is that the rotational
torque does not have to overcome the rotational drag
of the core in the touch-down length in the cooling
zone. A possible downside is that the caterpillar has
to be able to grip the conductor without disturbing
the outer layers.
4.20.5 CCV (Catenary Continuous Vulcanization)-
Silicone Oil
CCV-silicone lines produce excellent core geometry and
can use low-viscosity (high-MFI) insulating material. A
few CCV lines have been designed to be suitable for the
manufacture of large-conductor transmission-class
EHV cables by steepening the angle of the catenary tube
and by filling the CCV tube with silicone oil in place of
nitrogen and water. Silicone oil has a similar density to
XLPE, such that the insulation has a near neutral buoy-
ancy, thereby eliminating gravitational droop. Silicone
oil is used as the heat transfer medium to heat the core
to crosslinking temperature and to cool it afterwards.
The advantages of a CCV-silicone line are the same as
the CCV-nitrogen lines—i.e., lower installation cost and
higher output rate. Disadvantages are the cost of the sil-
icone fluid and the presence of a small residual volume
of silicone fluid in the insulation.
4.20.6 MDCV (Mitsubishi Dainichi Continuous
Vulcanization)
MDCV lines extrude at ground level, thus facilitating
the handling and inspection of the conductor, the han-
dling of the insulation and shield materials, the extruder
and die tooling, and the maintenance of the equipment.
The MDCV line can be fitted into an existing factory
building without the need to construct either a VCV
tower or a CCV stub tower.
A significant proportion of transmission-class cables
have been extruded using horizontal “long land” die
lines. Several of the key 400-kV 1600-2500 mm2 cable
projects in Europe were extruded in a long land die CV
line. The name MDCV is derived from the Mitsubishi-
Dainichi Nippon Company, which improved the exist-
ing HCV (horizontal continuous vulcanization) process
to improve concentricity (Tanaka and Greenwood 1983,
page 47).
The layout of the MDCV line is given in Figure 4-62.
The terminology “land” is the name given to the outer
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
annulus of the die adjacent to the “trumpet,” which usu-
ally has a short cylindrical part (the land). The func-
tions of the die and the CV tube are combined by
bolting a tight-fitting tube to the horizontal die assem-
bly, such that the tube becomes a “long land die,” and in
effect acts as a long mold tube with an open end into
which the XLPE melt is cast. The die tube is approxi-
mately 40-60 ft in length (12-18 m) and has to be
machined to suit the specified cable outer diameter. The
length is required to provide sufficient heat transfer and
to generate back pressure.
The XLPE melt is in direct, sliding contact with the
tube, with the frictional constraint and hydraulic imped-
ance generating sufficient XLPE pressure to keep the
gaseous by-products in solution in the insulation. The
tube temperature is heated to 270-350°C to directly heat
the shield and insulation-melt to the crosslinking tem-
perature by conduction. To prevent the liquid-melt from
sticking, the inside of the tube is lubricated by injecting
a layer of silicone oil onto the semi-con insulation shield
through a porous section of the tube wall. The high sur-
face temperature and the presence of diffused dicumyl
peroxide can crosslink the silicone oil and so degrade it.
The solution adopted in the MDCV line is to extrude a
fourth layer over the semi-con insulation shield, com-
prising a buffer layer of semi-con compound not con-
taining the peroxide additive. A small volume of silicone
fluid can be expected to be absorbed by the shields and
XLPE insulation.
The advantage of the MDCV line is that the installation
cost is low, being at ground level, with no need of a
tower, and the resultant core is cylindrical. The disad-
vantages are the conductor tends to be eccentric within
the insulation, because, in a shallow catenary shape, it is
not possible to apply sufficient conductor tension to
keep the conductor absolutely straight and horizontal;
the dies are costly to manufacture, clean, and maintain;
Figure 4-62 MDCV line (courtesy of Blackwell
Publishers).
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Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
the surface temperature of the cable is high, risking
accelerated thermal aging; and the CV tube is compara-
tively short. One solution that is used to improve con-
centricity is to extrude with a higher-viscosity (low
MFI) XLPE insulating compound. A downside is that
the compound is more difficult to strain to high levels of
purity. Another solution is to rotate the conductor and
core using caterpillar twisters.
4.20.7 Degassing Process
XLPE and EPR cables use the same dicumyl peroxide
crosslinking agent, which produces similar volumes of
gas in both cables. Traditionally, degassing processes
were not performed on MV cable designs of less than
46 kV. The gaseous by-products were low and able to
diffuse comparatively quickly through the thin insula-
tion wall, both in the factory and as installed. However,
the thick insulation walls at 138 kV produced sufficient
gas volume to create a pressure of 1.5 bar in the accesso-
ries on metal sheathed cables and in some cases was
noted to inflate the jacket in wet cables. It is now normal
to perform a degassing process on higher stressed cables
at 138 kV and above with metallic sheaths containing
either XLPE or EPR insulation.
The degassing process is a comparatively low technol-
ogy, which uses simple ovens, (Figure 4-63) to gently
heat the cable. The process times of 3-5 weeks for 138-
to 400-kV cables are generally longer than the extrusion
times, and so degassing can become the critical path
that controls the output of shipping reels from the fac-
tory. A large oven capacity is required to keep pace.
Degassing XLPE Cables
Degassing of the insulation is necessary for two reasons.
First, the pressure of the trapped gas in the insulation
can mask insulation defects, in particular voids, from
being detected during the ac withstand and partial dis-
charge factory acceptance tests. Second, metallic
sheaths applied over the core of a cable that has not
been degassed contains the gas such that an equilibrium
Figure 4-63 Bank of four degassing ovens (courtesy of
CCI).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
pressure is created. The pressure can prospectively dis-
place molded insulation in joints and initiate leaks at
terminations.
Specification AEIC CS7-93 required a 20-day waiting
period between extrusion and electrical testing in the
absence of accelerated degassing. It should be noted,
however, that no transmission-class cable will adequately
degas at ambient temperature within 20 days without the
addition of temperature.
Therefore, all manufacturers accelerate and control the
degassing of cables by heating the cable, either in a
degassing chamber, through electrical heating by the
means of conductor current, or a combination of heat-
ing and the application of a vacuum on the conductor.
Materials and processes used in cable extrusion and cur-
ing vary as well as the cable geometry, wall thickness,
elected degassing temperatures, and durations. Typi-
cally, degassing temperatures for XLPE cables range
from 60°C to 75°C. Too high a degassing temperature
distorts the circular shape of the cable, resulting in loos-
ening of the turns of cable and damage of the insulation
shield in the next process.
The duration varies between manufacturers and
depends on the insulation thickness and cable geometry
and ranges from 2 (46 kV) days to approximately 20
(115-220 kV) days, and more with some very large
400-500 kV cables being degassed for up to 35 days.
Degassing EPR Cables
The crosslinking process for EPR cables is similar to
that in XLPE cables. Accelerated degassing, though, is
not a common practice for EPR cables. The reasons for
the different approach include the high filler content in
EPR, the lower peroxide levels, the use of EPR cables at
lower voltages, the curing technique, and the use of EPR
in predominantly wet designs. However, for EPR cables
that receive a metallic sheath, degassing procedures sim-
ilar to those for XLPE cables are in use in Switzerland
and Italy.
4.21 QUALITY CONTROL
An extruded cable is inaccessible for visual inspection
during the extrusion, crosslinking, and subsequent fin-
ishing processes, and so an effective quality system is
vital in achieving consistent reliability in service.
The electrical strength and service life of an extruded
cable are determined by both macro defects and the lev-
els of micro impurities in the extruded insulation. Inten-
sive quality control is, therefore, essential at each stage
in the manufacture of transmission-class cables.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics

The measures of a good cable manufacturer are:
• Routine testing of incoming materials and sampling
of certified supply materials
• Trained factory operatives with knowledge of quality
faults and their causes
• An immediate fault-reporting system
• A no-blame culture
• Sufficient numbers of laboratory technicians to keep
pace with tests on in-process samples
• A “black museum” of defects, causes, and solutions
• A statistical process control (SPC) system
• Quality reporting (fault and SPC) direct to manage-
ment
The typical manufacturing time for an extruded 400-kV
XLPE cable is 12 weeks. Thus, if a defect is detected by
electrical failure at routine HV test, the following four to
six extrusion campaigns will also be in doubt, with a
cumulative in-process cable length of 5 to 32 miles (8 to
51 km) to be placed in embargo until the cause of the
failure is isolated. The routine HV test is a coarse test
that only detects gross defects that cause early failure in
service; it does not improve quality or ensure service life.
Insulation quality is determined at the front end of man-
ufacture during materials compounding and extrusion.
In most cases, cable manufacturers require the com-
pound supplier to perform the 2% sampling test to meet
the AEIC requirement. The compound supplier certifies
the compound to conform to specifications based on the
sampling data. Some manufacturers perform their own
insulation compound inspection.
There are two different inspection methods, both being
off-line. One method is extruded film inspection, and
the other is pellet inspection. More details may be found
in the ICEA standard for distribution cables, ICEA S-
94-649. Figure 4-64 shows an extruded tape inspection
cleanliness checker in an in-house compounding plant.
The instrument uses a light beam to automatically
count, size and label particulate contaminants. For
transmission cables, depending upon the material sup-
pliers’ specifications, the insulation material should not
include any contaminants larger than either 4 mils
(102 μm), or 3 mils (76 μm), as shown in Table 4-16.
Semiconducting Compound
AEIC CS9-06 requires that the sulfur and ash contents
be less than 0.005% and 0.01%, respectively, and that
acetylene-black-filled compound be used for conductor
shield stresses of greater than 200 V/mil (8 kV/mm).

The manufacturing and quality control measures are

described for XLPE cables, but they are closely similar
for EPR cables. Where appropriate, the test levels are
given for both XLPE and EPR cables, noting that AEIC
CS9-06 and ICEA S-108-720-2004 specify requirements
for both cable types together. Section 4.21.2 describes
additional quality measures specific to EPR material
and cable.

4.21.1 Materials Inspection (XLPE and EPR)

The AEIC raw material and inspection requirement is
not typically applied in Europe, but is agreed between
purchaser and supplier. Therefore, materials for cables
in North America are specifically tested according to
AEIC CS9-06 or better.
Figure 4-64 Cleanlness of insulation compound
Insulating Compound being checking on extruded tape in in-house
compounding plant (courtesy of CCI).
Specification AEIC CS9-06 requires the inspection of
2% of the insulation material volume for contaminants;
material not inspected by the supplier must be inspected Table 4-16 Allowable Numbers of Insulation Contaminants
by the cable manufacturer. AEIC does not specify a Insulation Insulation Contaminant Size [μm]
Applica- Contami-
maximum number or size of any contaminants, but tion nants 50 – 70 70 –100 100 – 200
requires reporting of the size and number of contami-
EHV Number/kg 10 0 0
nants for information and a requirement for statistical
analysis of the data. HV Number/kg - 10 0

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Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Table 4-17 Allowable Number of Shield Protrusions • Moisture content

Materials Inspection Specific to EPR • Silica content
Width of Shield Protrusions
at 50% Height: [μm]
• Particle size distribution
Shield • Grit content
Application Protrusions >150 >200 >500 1500-2500
EHV II Number/m2 20 10 1 0 • Residue on a 325 mesh size screen
EHV I Number/m2 50 20 1 0 • Wettability
HV Number/m2 - 40 2 1 • Maximum allowable percentage of metal salts
• Iron content
Typical smoothness specifications agreed with suppliers • Type and degree of treatment (if pretreated)
for semiconducting material used for both conductor
and insulation shields are given in Table 4-17. The table The specification for the antioxidant should specify the
gives the maximum allowable numbers of shield protru- chemical designation, melting point sharpness, and per-
sions per square meter of surface segregated by the pro- centage of allowable insoluble particles. The specifica-
trusion width at 50% height (W50). An example of the tion for the red-lead stabilizer should indicate the red-
shape of a protrusion is shown in Figure 4-47. lead content in the master batch. The degree of purity
should be specified in all raw material specifications
4.21.2 Materials Inspection Specific to EPR defining the type and amount of contaminants.
A high-voltage EPR-insulation compound typically
consists of seven to nine ingredients, of which all but If a raw material cannot be procured commercially in
two or three (copolymer or terpolymer, mineral filler, the purity and form deemed necessary to achieve the
and polyethylene, if used) are present in the compound required end results, then it is necessary to treat the
in less than 5% by weight. Hence, in addition to the for- material to achieve the required form and purity. In
mulation of the compound, quality-control procedures addition to incoming raw material inspections, certified
are essential to ensure the quality uniformity and clean- test reports covering each batch of each ingredient,
liness of all ingredients. Quality-control procedures showing test results and demonstrating compliance with
must also ensure uniform dispersion of the ingredients the applicable material specification, should be submit-
in the mixing operation to achieve a homogeneous com- ted by the vendor prior to shipping the ingredient. No
pound free of significant contamination. These steps are changes in the ingredients for chemical composition,
essential to achieve a high-quality, high-voltage trans- method of processing, or approved supplier should be
mission cable insulation. permitted without prior approval of the purchaser.

Raw Material Specifications EPR Compound Specification and Requirements

Raw material specifications are of paramount impor-
tance. They should clearly define the minimum require-
ments to achieve the desired performance. For example,
the specification for the polymer should include the fol-
lowing:
• Copolymer or terpolymer
• Ethylene content or degree of crystallinity
• Mooney viscosity
• Volatile matter
• Moisture content
To optimize ingredient dispersion and ensure a homoge-
neous compound free of significant contamination, mix-
ing should be done in either a dedicated intensive
internal mixer or a thoroughly cleaned continuous
mixer. Further, mixing should be done in master batches
with fine screening (using a no. 200 or smaller mesh
screen) of each batch and rescreening of the final com-
pound prior to pelletizing.
Quality-Control Tests for EPR Insulation
Quality-control tests for a high-voltage EPR-insulation
compound should include the following:

• Gel content • Specific gravity serves to verify that the compound

has been mixed in accordance with the formulation.
• Purity
• Appearance of the compound serves to indicate the
• Form
degree of dispersion of the ingredients and the clean-
• Packaging liness of the compound. An industry standard is
needed to provide a method to measure dispersion
The specification for the mineral filler should specify and to set limits for various voltage ranges.
such items as: • Unaged physical properties indicate that the com-
• Bulk density pound formulation has been followed in the mixing

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
operation, particularly when the results are compared
with data from other batches cured under the same
conditions. These properties show that the insulation
from the completed cable will meet specification
requirements.
• Aged physical properties also indicate that the com-
pound formulation has been followed in the mixing
operation, particularly with regard to the antioxi-
dant, and that the aged insulation from the com-
pleted cable will meet specification requirements.
• Specific gravity and unaged and aged physical prop-
erty tests are typically performed on molded slabs
cured for five minutes at 177°C, prepared in accor-
dance with ASTM D 3182 and following the proce-
dure of ASTM D 412 using Die C.
• Viscosity measurements—i.e., Mooney Scorch Test
and Monsanto Oscillating Disc Rheometer Curves—
determine the time to achieve optimum crosslinked
density of the material. Specifically, the Mooney
Scorch Test provides information on resistance to
precuring, and the Monsanto Rheometer measures
the viscosity before cure and the hot modulus of the
compound.
• Electrical properties—i.e., dielectric constant, dissipa-
tion factor, ac dielectric strength, and impulse
strength—are critical to the performance of the cable.
They are best measured on model cables extruded and
cured in the laboratory for each batch of compound.
All of the above tests should be completed with satisfac-
tory results before incorporating the compound into the
plant delivery system. Both the material specification
Figure 4-65 Example quality monitoring positions on a VCV line.
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
compliance and consistency with the test results
obtained on prior batches of the same compound
should be considered.
4.21.3 Quality Control of CV line
An example of typical quality monitoring positions in a
VCV line is shown in Figure 4-65. Other similar, or
alternative, methods may be applied to CCV and
MCDV lines. The monitoring positions are described
below in relation to the numbered legend:
1. Pellets of uncrosslinked PE insulation are sampled
and extruded into tape, which is automatically light
scanned and particle counted. This is usually under-
taken before the pellets are admitted to a sealed
storage silo at the base of the VCV tower. A batch of
nonconforming material should not be admitted to
the silo.
2. The melt of uncrosslinked PE insulation leaving the
extruder is filtered by a stainless steel strainer pack.
The pressure rise across the strainer pack is moni-
tored to detect when the increasing number of
ambers, gels, and other contaminants near the end
of the extrusion campaign are starting to block the
strainer. The campaign must be aborted before this
occurs to prevent the pack from suddenly bursting
and releasing pieces of stainless steel wire into the
insulation.
3. In some CV lines, a light scan automatically counts
and identifies types of particles within the transpar-
ent melt as it passes through the neck connecting
the extruder to the die head. Nonconforming insu-
lation would require either its position in the cable
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Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

to be noted or the extrusion campaign to be management staff to accept the defect and thereby
aborted. A benefit of a melt scanner is that the pro- avoid the high cost of scrap and program delays.
cess can be monitored near the end of the extrusion 8. Finally each reel length is fitted with test termina-
campaign (run) when the number of ambers and tions, and the HV acceptance tests are performed.
other contaminants increases to an unacceptable These tests include an HV voltage withstand test, a
level. partial discharge test, and a measurement of insula-
4. The conductor is centered within the extruded mol- tion capacitance. The resistance of the conductor is
ten insulation by an X-ray gauge. This is also used also measured. Samples of core are taken, and simi-
to measure the thickness of the shields and insula- lar tests to those described in item 6) are under-
tion. This geometric information is used to keep the taken.
diameter of the cable constant by controlling the
speed of the capstan wheel inputting the conductor 4.21.4 Inspection of Cable Insulation
into the extruder. It should be noted the measure- Samples of cable are cut from the ends of the process
ments are “hot” measurements, and allowances for reel “cut positions” during each extrusion campaign for
thermal contraction have to be made to calculate in-process tests and from the ends of the cable length on
dimensions at ambient temperature. the shipping reel for formal routine acceptance tests.
5. In some CV lines, the extruded core exits the CV Triplicate samples are produced.
tube and passes through a small water bath to per-
Shield Protrusions and Insulation Particle Counts
mit it to be continuously scanned by an annulus of
and Voids
ultrasonic transducers (Smith et al. 2003). The
The first two samples have the conductor removed to
transducers are set to detect shield and insulation
produce the cylindrical core samples in Figure 4-66 for
defects, particles, and impurities. The dimensions of
particle counting. One set is stripped of the insulation
the insulation and shields are also monitored and
shield and is heated to greater than 120°C for transpar-
recorded. The position of a nonconforming cable
entization in either an air-heated oven or in a bath of sil-
core is automatically recorded, and an alarm initi-
icone oil or glycerol. This permits a general qualitative
ated. A decision is taken to cut out the affected
visual examination for the presence of particulate con-
length or to abort the extrusion campaign. The ben-
tamination and “clouds” in the insulation and defects
efits are that the positions of unacceptable macro
on the conductor shield; however, defects at the outer
defects are located with accuracy in the extrusion
shield cannot be seen.
campaign, and the lengths of unaffected sound core
are identified, permitting them to be released into
The second core sample is then spiral cut on a lathe to
service. This kind of monitoring is optional and is
produce 20 to 50 turns. The spiral is then cut into circu-
supplementary to the final electrical routine test (8),
lar “slinkies,” as shown in Figure 4-67. The thickness
which is mandatory.
required in AEIC CS9-06 is about 25 mil (0.64 mm).
6. The diameter of the cable core at near ambient tem-
perature is monitored by a laser gauge and compared
to the specified nominal and minimum insulation
and shield thickness and eccentricity values.
7. The cable core is cut into the maximum lengths that
can be wound onto factory process reels. Samples of
core are cut out at the leading and trailing ends and
at the intermediate cut positions. Similar samples
will be taken after the degassing process. The sam-
ples are microscopically examined for the correct
geometry and the absence of defects. Samples of the
insulation and screens are removed for measure-
ment of physical properties. A length of core is
heated and made transparent, and a simple visual
internal examination is undertaken of the insulation
and shield interfaces. It is important that these tests
are performed quickly to permit remedial action to Figure 4-66 Samples of XLPE insulation cut from
be taken following the discovery of a nonconfor- extrusion runs; the conductor has been removed
mance, since late discovery at the end of manufac- (courtesy of CCI).
ture puts unnecessary pressure on the factory

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics

A statistically significant number of slinkies are then The types of insulation inclusions can be subdivided
mounted in a microscope, and a general scan is per- under the three types listed in AEIC CS9-06 into the fol-
formed to identify large particles or voids of greater lowing categories:
than approximately 2 mil (50 μm) in the insulation and • Voids: Note that it is difficult to identify whether
protrusions greater than 2 mil (50 μm) present on the
voids are gas or liquid filled.
shield interfaces. If particles in the higher stressed cables
of greater than 5 mils (125 μm) are present and are iden- • Contaminants:
tified to be metals or blacks, the cable length and extru- —“Metals”: the type of metal can be identified by
sion run is placed in embargo, while a decision is taken scanning electron microscope (SEM).
on scrapping the length(s) and an investigation is per- —“Blacks”: usually burnt PE.
formed to locate the source of the problem. If no large
—“Gels”: transparent polymer.
particles are present, then the slinky is divided into a
number of squared graticules scratched on the surface, —“Others”: fibers, silicas, friable materials, nonme-
and a more detailed count is taken of the insulation and tals, etc.
of the shield interfaces at magnifications of (X50 to • Ambers: oxidized PE.
X250), as shown in Figure 4-68.
The maximum permitted AEIC CS9-06 insulation
inclusion sizes and shield (inner and outer) defects are
given in Tables 4-18 and 4-19 for a range of conductor
shield stresses.
Table 4-18 Maximum Permitted Dimensions of Insulation
Inclusions (AEIC CS9-06, with additions by author)
Conductor
Shield Stress Void Contaminant Amber
V/mil kV/mm mil μm mil μm mil μm
100 4 2 50 5 125 10 250
125 5 2 50 5 125 10 250
150 6 2 50 5 125 10 250
175 7 2 50 5 125 10 250
200 8 2 50 5 125 10 250
225 9 2 50 5 125 10 250
Figure 4-67 A circular ‘slinky’ cut from a spiral of XLPE 250 10 1.5 38 5 125 10 250
insulated core (courtesy of CCI).
275 11 1.5 38 5 125 10 250
300 12 1.5 38 5 125 10 250
325 13 1 25 4 100 8 200
350 14 1 25 4 100 8 200

Table 4-19 Maximum Permitted Dimensions of Shield

Defects (AEIC CS9-06, with additions by author)
Stress Void Protrusion
Shield V/mil kV/mm mil μm mil μm
100 4 2 50 3 75
125 5 2 50 3 75
150 6 2 50 3 75
175 7 2 50 3 75
200 8 2 50 3 75
Conductor 225 9 2 50 3 75
250 10 1.5 38 3 75
275 11 1.5 38 3 75
300 12 1.5 38 2.5 63
325 13 1 25 2 50
350 14 1 25 2 50

Figure 4-68 Routine particle counting on XLPE

Insulation All All 2 50 5 125
cable slinkies (courtesy of CIGRE).

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Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

The maximum permitted AEIC CS9-06 and ICEA S- hot set and tensile tests, as shown in Figure 4-13. AEIC
108-720-2004 insulation eccentricity limits are given in CS9-06 refers to ICEA S-108-720-2004. Generally the
Table 4-20. The percentage eccentricity is defined as: test results will be significantly within the limits, and so
it is good practice to plot an SPC chart of the actual
(Tmax − Tmin )
x 100 results with time. A sudden test divergence from one
Tmax sample, even though the result is still within specifica-
tion, may indicate either that the cable has been over-
The eccentricity percentages may be applied to the heated by controller failure as revealed by the aging test,
range of insulation thicknesses in Table 4-8, calculated or underheated perhaps by a heater burnout as revealed
from AEIC CS9 (AEIC 2006) stress limits, to determine by the hot creep test.
typical maximum permitted variations in thickness— Insulation Crosslinking
e.g., 12% on a 69-kV cable with 303 mils (7.7 mm) insu- “Hot creep” tensile tests (named “hot set” tests in
lation is 36.3 mils (0.92 mm), and 10% on a 345-kV Europe) are performed to check that the insulation has
cable with 1002 mils (25.5 mm) insulation is 100 mils sufficient crosslinking. It is good practice to take sam-
(2.6 mm). ples from the inner, mid-insulation, and outer insulation
Insulation Physical Properties if the insulation is sufficiently thick. If the elongation is
Figure 4-69 shows longitudinal slices approximately greater than 75% for XLPE, then the insulation has a
2 mm thick that are cut from the samples to permit high proportion of uncrosslinked material. Similarly if
“dumbbell” tensile test samples to be stamped out for the residual extension, after deloading and cooling back
to ambient temperature, is greater than 10% for XLPE,
Table 4-20 Insulation Eccentricity Limits (AEIC CS9-06, there is insufficient elasticity, again indicative of inade-
with additions by author) quate cross linking. The ICEA S-108-720-2004 test con-
Conductor Area Eccentricity ditions and requirements are given in Table 4-21 and
Rated Voltage
kV kcmil mm2 %
IEC 62067 in Table 4-22. The IEC test temperature is
500- 240-
higher, the limit for elongation under load is the same,
69 wet 12 and the allowance for tensile set is greater. In ICEA S-
4000 2000
108-720-2004, EPR Class I is for discharge-free and dis-
500- 240- charge-resistant designs, and Class II is for discharge-
69 dry 12
4000 2000 free designs only. IEC 62067 does not distinguish the
115 dry
750- 400-
12
type of EPR.
4000 2000
750- 400- Insulation Aging Antioxidant Content
138 dry 12
4000 2000 The ICEA S-108-720-2004 insulation requirements for
161 dry
750- 400-
10
resistance to aging are shown in Table 4-23 and IEC
4000 2000
1000- 500-
230 dry 10 Table 4-21 Requirement for Degree of Crosslinking (Hot
5000 2500
1000- 500-
Creep), ICEA S-108-720-2004
345 dry 10
5000 2500 Requirement XLPE EPR I and II
Time in air oven 15 minutes 15 minutes
Temperature 150oC 150oC
Applied stress 29 psi 0.2 MPa
Elongation ≤175% ≤50%
Tensile set ≤10% ≤5%

Table 4-22 Requirement for Degree of Crosslinking (Hot

Set), IEC 62067
Requirement XLPE EPR
Time in air oven 15 minutes 15 minutes
Temperature 200oC 250oC
Applied stress 29 psi 0.2 MPa
Elongation ≤175% ≤175%
Figure 4-69 Sample of XLPE cable taken from an Tensile set ≤15% ≤15%
extrusion campaign cut (courtesy of CCI).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics

62067 in Table 4-24. The purpose of the aging test is to
show that sufficient antioxidant has survived the extru-
sion and crosslinking processes to protect the insulation
for its specified service life. The effect of aging is embrit-
tlement and discoloration, as evinced by loss of elastic-
ity (elastic extension) and reduction in tensile strength.
Shield Crosslinking
The degree of crosslinking of the shields is checked by
the ICEA S-108-720-2004 “wafer boil” test. A complete
ring of the core at least 25 mil (0.64 mm) thickness, con-
taining the insulation and inner and outer shields, is cut
from one of the core samples shown in Figure 4-66. The
sample is immersed in boiling decahydronaphthalene or
xylene with 1% by weight of Antioxidant 2246 for 5
hours. A complete ring of each of the shields shall
remain without interruption or cracking, although it is
permitted for some loss of shield material and separa-
tion of the bond with the insulation.
4.21.5 Tests on Extruded Core
Insulation Shrink-back
Insulation shrink-back, called insulation retraction in
Europe, is the contraction that occurs when the cable is
cut. Shrink-back has two parts. The first is the locked-in
thermal contraction stress produced when the cable
cools from 107°C to ambient temperature, which is a
function of the contraction that occurs when the semic-
rystalline lamellae structure is formed. The second is
higher and occurs when the cable is heated during joint-
ing or in service above the crystalline melting point of
107°C, thus releasing the locked-in memory formed by
contraction from the insulation mean crosslinking tem-
perature of 160-180°C. The latter dictates that accesso-
ries be specially designed to resist and contain shrink-
back if a cable system is required to operate above 90°C.

Table 4-23 Requirement for Insulation Resistance to Aging, ICEA S-108-720-2004 specifies a limiting shrink-back
ICEA S-108-720-2004 value to provide a degree of protection for accessories in
Requirement XLPE EPR I EPR II the normal operating range of less than 90°C. Shrink-
Unaged tensile ≥1800 ≥12.5 ≥700 ≥4.8 ≥1200 ≥8.2 back of the insulation cut prospectively opens a large
strength psi MPa psi MPa psi MPa void at the center of a straight joint, resulting in imme-
Unaged elonga- diate failure. It is recommended that accessories are also
250% 250%
tion at break
designed to limit the retraction by positioning the insu-
lation cut in an electrically nonstressed area and provid-
Ageing time in air
168 hours 168 hours ing an axial tolerance before the insulation cut retracts
oven
Ageing into the stressed region.
121oC 121oC
temperature
Ratio of aged to The degree of insulation shrink-back is a variable
unaged tensile ≥75% ≥75% ≥80% between different cable designs and different CV pro-
strength
cesses. Cables with binder tapes over the conductor
Ratio of aged
to unaged ≥75% ≥75% ≥80% exhibit a greater shrink-back because this reduces fric-
elongation tional grip. Extruded cores that experience too great a
thermal shock in the CV line when being cooled below
Table 4-24 Requirement for Insulation Resistance to crosslinking temperature also produce increased shrink-
Aging, IEC 62067 back.
Requirement XLPE EPR
Unaged tensile
≥1800 psi ≥12.5 MPa ≥700 psi ≥4.2 MPa ICEA S-108-720-2004 requires that five 1.5 ft (0.45 m)
strength cable samples be heated at 50°C for 2 hours and then be
Unaged elonga- allowed to cool for two hours at room temperature. This
200% 200%
tion at break
cycle shall be repeated three times. The distance between
the edge of the insulation and the end of the conductor
Aging time in air
168 hours 168 hours (total of both ends) shall be less than 0.3 in. (7.62 mm).
oven
Aging tempera-
135°C 135°C
ture IEC and BS 7912 measure the total prospective shrink-
Tensile strength: age by heating to above crystalline melting point. The
Maximum varia- ±25% ±30% 200-mm samples are heated to 130°C for 6 hours. The
tion after aging
distance between measuring cut marks is 200 mm. The
Elongation at
break
±25% ±30% maximum permissible shrinkage of the total sample
length is 4%.

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Crosslinking By-product Concentration
At present, tests to ensure that a satisfactory degree of
degassing has been performed are not included in North
American or in IEC specifications, and so a formal
request has been made to CIGRE to investigate.
Measurements were made in the United Kingdom on a
range of production cables with up to 400-kV insulation
thicknesses. These showed that a normal degassing pro-
cess should remove methane and water vapor by more
than 1% by weight of the insulation, leaving typically 1
to 1.5% of the low volatile by-products permanently and
harmlessly in the insulation. UK specification BS 7912
for the manufacture of XLPE cables up to 132kV
includes a test to check degassing and is described below
for information:
Five small samples of insulation are taken from
extruded core that has been submitted to a factory
degassing process, each 20 mg in weight, from the inner,
middle or outer part of the insulation. A thermo-gravi-
metric test is then performed (apparatus which heats
and measures weight change). The samples are heated
from 30°C to 175°C at 50°C /min (i.e. in 2.9 minutes)
and held at 175°C for 30 mins. The elevated test temper-
ature and small sample size produce a more rapid diffu-
sion than the low factory process temperature. The test
temperature is above the boiling point of water, methane
and alpha-methyl styrene (160-165 °C) and is below the
boiling points of acetaphenone of 202°C and cumyl
alcohol of 215-220 °C. The total weight loss during the
30 minute test period is required to be less than 1.6% of
the original insulation weight. Additionally the weight
loss in the first 5 minutes is required to be less than
0.9%: the weight loss in the next 10 minutes is to be less
than 0.475% (record for information only) and the
weight loss in the last 15 minutes is to be less than
0.225%.
CS9-06, with the voltages given in Table 4-25. It can be
seen that the withstand test voltages are in the ratio of
2:1 to 3:1 to the phase-to-ground voltage. The 2:1 test
voltage for the 345-kV cable produces the limiting stress
at the conductor shield of 700 V/mil (28 kV/mm). It is
potentially damaging to apply a constant ratio test volt-
age irrespective of the design stress, because of the risk
of damage to an otherwise sound cable. It is known that
there will always be a population of inclusions present in
extruded insulation, and in the absence of macro defects
this will dictate the breakdown strength and service life.
Jocteur showed that the endurance of PE insulation
samples containing deliberately added metallic particles
was reduced when the applied stress exceeded 760 V/mil
(30 kV/mm) (Jocteur et al. 1972) For full-sized cables, it
is accepted practice to apply a safety margin and limit
the maximum test stress to 700 V/mil (28 kV/mm).
It is good practice to perform a partial discharge at low
voltage upon first energizing to ensure that there is an
absence of voltage-induced PD in the insulation and
contact-induced PD between the shields and the shield
conductors. The PD equipment is then usually discon-
nected to protect it in the event that failure occurs dur-
ing the main withstand test. The PD equipment should

4.21.6 Electrical Tests on Main Insulation Figure 4-70 Screened room routine electrical
Each shipping reel is subjected to the voltage withstand production test on XLPE cable (courtesy of
test and the partial discharge test required in AEIC Southwire).

Table 4-25 Electrical Tests on Main Insulation, AEIC CS9-06

Max
Voltage Stress Withstand Test Partial Discharge Voltages
V Vg BIL 2.0 Vg 2.5 Vg 3.0 Vg Vt/Vg Vt/Vg Vt/Vg
kV kV kVp V/mil kV/mm 1.0 hr 0.5 hr 0.25 hr 1.0 1.5 2.0
69 40 350 150 6 80 100 120 40 60 80
115 70 550 200 8 135 160 200 65 100 135
138 80 650 200 8 160 200 240 80 120 160
161 92 750 225 9 185 230 280 95 140 185
230 132 1050 275 11 265 330 N/A 135 200 265
345 200 1300 350 14 400 N/A N/A 200 300 400

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics

then be reconnected at the end of the withstand test and nal internal pressure of 3-5 psi of dry air or nitrogen
the formal PD test performed. AEIC CS9-06 and ICEA within the extruded metal-sheath. A pressure gauge has
S-108-720 specify that no discernable PD should exist been fitted, such that the integrity of the end caps could
with a minimum detection sensitivity of less than 5 pC. be checked in transit and installation.
Allowing a conservative signal-to-noise ratio of 2:1 pro-
duces a prospective PD pass level of less than 10 pC. Residual methane gas will continue to diffuse from the
The latter level is too high for modern high-stressed insulation even though the cable core has been subjected
transmission-class cables. to a factory degassing process. Care should be taken to
vent the gasses prior to cutting the cable and prior to
Manufacturers of EHV (230-500 kV) cable worldwide installing it in an enclosed space, with the objective of
generally work to higher standards by testing in electri- reducing the risk of fire and suffocation. The jointing
cally screened rooms, as shown in Figure 4-70, with area should be well ventilated and checked with a meth-
screened power supplies and with filter detection sys- ane gas detector prior to commencement of work.
tems that permit quiet detection frequencies to be
selected in between the spectrum of frequencies gener- 4.23 DESIGN STRESS AND SERVICE LIFE
ated by external radio frequency and atmospheric noise.
The selection of safe design stresses at the conductor
Manufacturers have regarded the investment in screened
shield and insulation shield is a key choice in ensuring
rooms as equally important as the clean-room materi-
that the specified service life will be achieved. Figure
als-handling equipment and the CV line. It is normal to
4-17 gives the variation of design stress against transmis-
be able to detect PD in the range of 1-2 pC or less, with
sion voltage from an EPRI worldwide survey showing
a background noise level of approximately 0.3 pC.
how the conductor shield design stress has approxi-
Should a 1-2 pC persistent voltage-induced PD pulse be
mately been doubled from 8 kV/mm at 220/230 kV to
detected and confirmed to be within the cable, the cable
16 kV/mm at 500 kV (EPRI 2002). Figure 4-18 and
should not be released into service, even though this is
Table 4-2 show that for large-conductor cable systems
below the minimum 5pC specification detection limit.
containing joints, the design stress has been limited to
14.6 kV/mm. The conductor stress limit has primarily
For more details on testing, refer to Chapter 14.
been driven by the need to reduce the cable diameters to
obtain a worthwhile length on the cable shipping reel.
4.22 SHIPPING These lengths are then competitive for the applications
The length of cable that can be shipped on a reel is met by the smaller-diameter fluid-filled SCFF cables,
determined by the dimensions of the reel: the minimum which operate at between 15 and 18 kV/mm. Equation 3-
diameter DH of the drum (also named hub), the internal 71 in Chapter 3 shows that the reel length is approxi-
width (traverse)W, and the outer diameter DO. The mately inversely proportional to the cable outer diame-
equation for the cable length is given in Chapter 3, Sec- ter, hence the drive to reduce the thickness of the XLPE
tion 3.6.7, Equations 3-71, 3-72, and 3-73. In AEIC insulation. The limit in conductor shield stress for large-
CS9-06 (AEIC 2006), the minimum drum diameter DH conductor cables at 500 kV is set to limit the stress expe-
is expressed by multiples k of the cable outer diameter
DC for different sheath types and different insulation
thicknesses, as given in Table 4-26. Table 4-26 Minimum Diameter of Reel Drum for Extruded
Cables (AEIC CS9-06, Table 10-1-1, with editorial changes
by author)
Having produced high-quality dry cable insulation, it is
important that the ends of the cable are sealed to be Insulation Reel Drum
Thickness Diameter
completely watertight. The end caps and pulling bolts Ratio
should be capable of withstanding submersion in water- Sheath mils mm k=DH/DC
filled ducts and trenches, and internal gas pressure <500 <12.7 14
expansion and contraction due to changes in ambient Lead alloy 500-800 12.7-20.3 18
temperature. The cable caps should also be reinforced >800 >20.3 22
onto the jacket and metallic sheath, if present, to pre- Aluminum tubular all all 30
vent the retraction forces present in PE jackets from Aluminum tubular bonded to
all all 18
breaking the watertight seal. jacket
Corrugated copper or <800 <20.3 18
Some large-conductor, high-value 230-kV, 400-kV, and aluminum >800 >20.3 22
500-kV XLPE cables in the United Kingdom and Japan
have been supplied with the added protection of a nomi-

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Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
rienced by the accessories to 8 kV/mm operating stress,
as shown in Figure 4-18 and in Table 4-2. It should be
noted that the majority of 500-kV accessories previously
used in Japan are field-molded designs and not factory
premolded one-piece types, as now used in other coun-
tries, which generally have lower design stresses. It can be
seen that, at 400 kV, lower conductor shield stresses of
11.5-12.7 kV/mm has been used, and this has limited the
accessory/insulation shield stresses to 5-6 kV/mm. The
stress limits given in AEIC CS9 (2006) for 345-kV cable
of 14 kV/mm at the conductor shield and 6 kV/mm is in
accord with the highest international experience at the
400-500 kV system voltage levels.
The question then arises: What tests and calculations
have been performed to give reasonable assurance that
345-500 kV cable systems at these high design stresses
will achieve a 40-year life? Service applications are still
new, with the oldest circuits with large conductors
(greater than 1600 mm 2 ) and joints having less than
10-15 years experience (Table 4-1).
The following sections describe the range of test and cal-
culation methods that have been performed to give a
40-year-life prediction.
4.23.1 Factors Affecting Design Stress
The calculation of design stress for XLPE and EPR
cables has been hampered from the start of the technol-
ogy by the lack of knowledge of the insulation defects
that initiate breakdown and therefore the inability to
predict failure from first principles. However, cable engi-
neers have long experience in the inability to scale up
stress levels from bench-top experiments to full-size
cables, although this experimental data is useful in
explaining trends in full-size cable phenomena. The insu-
lation design data is always derived from testing many
full-size cables, usually during development and qualifi-
cation tests, and then extrapolating the design stress to
other system voltages and conductor sizes. A design fac-
tor is then applied to ensure predictable success both in
qualification testing and in service operation.
This was the case in the low-pressure fluid-filled paper
cable. These cables fortuitously contained a geometri-
cally repeatable “defect,” that reduced the variable
strength of the fluid-impregnated paper to a completely
predictable stress level. The defect is the fluid-filled butt
gap between adjacent tapes. The thickness of the butt
gap is precisely known and controllable, being the thick-
ness of the paper tape, and this ensures that the fluid
does, or does not, break down at a predictable stress
under lightning impulse voltage conditions. The next
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
step in design is to apply a performance margin of say
10% to the breakdown stress to ensure that the cable will
predictably pass the specified qualification BIL level.
The outer diameter of the insulation and its thickness
are then calculated according to Chapter 3, Equations
3-40 and 3-47. The stress (E) at normal working voltage
is calculated simply by dividing the impulse design stress
by the ratio of lightning impulse voltage to working
voltage. This ratio is derived from the insulation coordi-
nation levels for the particular transmission system, as
given in Chapter 3, Table 3-1 for North America. For a
large-conductor 400-kV cable, this typically results in a
design stress of E = 15 kV/mm at ac working voltage.
The second fortuitous occurance is that, although the ac
strength of the insulation reduces with time t according
to a E n t = k life relationship, as given in Chapter 3,
Equations 3-60, 3-61, and 3-62, the long-term break-
down strength of the cable insulation is high, at approx-
imately E = 30 kV/mm. The latter provides an inherent
design margin of 2:1—i.e., a 100% factor of safety. How-
ever, it took some 40 years of development before the
knowledge and means were gained to achieve the insula-
tion quality to predictably pass qualification tests and
operate at the highest system voltages. The limitation
was usually the accessories; however, the cable design
margin also provided a margin for them, although
somewhat reduced.
The breakdown strength of extruded cables is now also
well known to be dictated by the presence of “defects,”
not by the inherent strength of the polymer. The defects
in this case are contaminants (particles and voids) in the
crosslinked insulation, protrusions on the semiconduct-
ing shields, and variations in the extrusion morphology.
Unlike a taped insulation, the defects are not inherently
controlled in geometry, location, or numbers. Thus the
materials and manufacturing technologies have had to
evolve with the objective of limiting the size and num-
bers of the contaminants and protrusions to give the
degree of predictability necessary for design at the high
stresses for EHV operation.
It has been suspected that a threshold stress exists under
which XLPE insulation does not age. Much research is
directed to proving this on both bench-top samples and
full-size cables. One attractive theory is that ac electrical
stress induces an alternating mechanical stress at the
insulation/defect interface, and that aging is one of
mechanical fatigue, and then crack growth followed by
electrical tree initiation. If this is the case, then insula-
tion polymers and compounds could be modified to give
greater mechanical fatigue strength permitting further
increases in design stress, accessories permitting.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
4.23.2 Comparison with Other Manufacturers’
Experience
As an alternative to carrying out their own research,
development, and experimental work, manufacturers
may elect to draw on the common body of experience
within the public domain and use the same electrical
stresses being used on similar installations—for exam-
ple, from Figures 4-17 to 4-21 and Tables 4-1 and 4-2.
The choice of stress will be supported by the completion
of qualification and long-term prequalification tests.
This is the lowest-cost route for the manufacturer,
because it follows other manufacturers, thereby learning
from their previous mistakes and avoiding the costs of
extensive test/verification programs.
It would be prudent for the user to insist that qualifica-
tion/prequalification tests include the following sup-
porting information for the design stress levels for the
particular application:
• The safety margin used in the design. Note that the
safety margin within the design will not have been
validated; the only fact known is the compliance with
the qualification test regime.
• Although competitors’ operating stresses will be
known, details of competitors’ grades of insulating
and semiconducting compound, material-handling
and quality-checking procedures, and extrusion
know-how will not be known.
• Other key elements such as conductor design, dimen-
sional tolerances, degassing procedures, metal sheath
design, and routine test regimes are difficult to deter-
mine and emulate.
• Long-term prequalification tests must still be per-
formed on the cable and its accessories even if the
designs are identical to those of other manufacturers.
4.23.3 Mechanistic Approach to Design
The new AEIC CS9 (2004) specification is an excellent
example of the mechanistic engineering approach to
cable design based on limiting the defects in XLPE cable
to size limits specified in factory routine acceptance
tests. Appendix A of AEIC CS9 (2004) gives two design
formulae. One formula calculates the maximum permis-
sible void-design stress relationship to yield the void size
limits given in Table 4-19. The second formula calcu-
lates the maximum permissible contaminant-design
stress relationship for the insulation. The same relation-
ship is used to determine the maximum permissible size
of a shield protrusion on the assumption that its shape
is the same as that of the insulation contaminant (an
ellipsoid), but that it is cut in half on its minor axis. The
maximum permissible size of the insulation contami-
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
nants is given in Table 4-18 and the shield protrusions in
Table 4-19. The “metallic” and “black” contaminants
for the purposes of stress calculation are taken to be
conducting particles. The ambers are taken to be high-
permittivity dielectric particles with a permissible length
simply twice that of the metallic particle. The design for-
mulae for the contaminants and protrusions include fac-
tors based on the following:
• An ac breakdown stress in the XLPE adjacent to the
tip of the contaminant of 300 kV/mm at 20°C in a 15-
minute ramp test to failure.
• A service life of 40 years.
• A deterioration coefficient (ratio of stresses E1/E2)
based on the (Ent = k) aging law with an aging expo-
nent of n = 15 for the XLPE adjacent to the contami-
nant.
• A stress raiser calculated at the tip of the idealized
conducting contaminant with an assumed tip radius
of 10 μm.
• A breakdown stress reduction factor of 1.2 (20%) for
operation at 90°C.
• A design factor of safety of 1.1 (10%).
The factors of safety in the formulae in AEIC CS9
(2004) Appendix A were based on design methods from
Japan that had been proven to be suitable by many test
results and service experience on full-size cable systems
in the laboratory. In particular, the Japanese manufac-
turers had developed impressive test technology that
detected PD from incipient pre-failure and, at high
speed, to automatically remove test voltage, thereby pre-
venting disruptive failure of the insulation. They were
then, by painstaking dissection of the cable loop, able to
find the site of the incipient activity to prove that it had
been initiated by a contaminant of measurable size. The
full-size test results were then correlated with bench-top
tests on insulation samples containing artificial stress
raisers such as needles of semiconducting compound.
However, the success of the mechanistic design approach
is largely dependent on the size of the selected factors of
safety and in particular on the achievement of very high
quality standards in material and manufacturing.
A similar approach to the above considered the effect of
larger sporadic shield defects that either caused short-
term failure of HV and EHV cables at factory accep-
tance test or were discovered during routine examina-
tion of insulation samples (Smith et al. 2003). The
geometry of the defects was field plotted, and the break-
down stress in the short times to failure of less than 5
minutes was determined to be typically 100 kV/mm. An
endurance line was then extrapolated according to the
4-71
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
(Ent = k) law, and the times-to-failure of different mag-
nitude shield defects were calculated at service voltage.
The sizes of defects that could pass the HV withstand
test and pass unfailed into service were calculated,
thereby prospectively risking premature failure. This
work emphasized the benefits of stringent quality con-
trol and in-line monitoring measures at the start of
manufacture and during extrusion.
4.23.4 Statistical Breakdown Testing
Samples of insulation are taken from the shipping reel
as part of the factory acceptance test, permitting the
contaminant and protrusion levels to be measured, as
specified in AEIC CS9 (2006). However, the sampling
volume is necessarily very low compared to the volume
of insulation in the long length of cable on the reel. A
significant variation in contaminant shapes, sizes, and
numbers is expected along the reel length. Thus, if short
10-m lengths of cable are cut from production runs
either for statistical quality breakdown tests, or experi-
mental tests, a wide variation in breakdown strength is
experienced.
Figure 4-71 shows the results of experimental ac ramp
breakdown tests, which compare two grades of insula-
tion on model cables of small conductor size and several
millimeters of insulation. The results are plotted as a
Weibull probability distribution. It can be seen that 1%
(i.e., 1 in 100) of the samples of the Y grade material
failed at a stress of 20 kV/mm, and 63% of the samples
at 70 kV/mm, a ratio in breakdown stress of 3.5:1. The
63% stress (an arbitary value at which a log function in
the formulae is equal to unity) is useful for comparing
the performance of materials Y and X; material X
clearly being superior.
Figure 4-71 AC voltage breakdown results on thin wall
model cables (courtesy of CIGRE).
4-72
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
The key parameter for material quality and process con-
trol is the slope of the line; theoretically it should be ver-
tical such that each sample fails at exactly the same
predictable stress.
The key value for cable design is the lowest breakdown
stress, 20 kV/mm, which is coincidental in this distribu-
tion with a 1% probability of failure. It is important to
dissect the samples to find the “gross” defect that initi-
ated failure at this low stress. This minimum breakdown
stress is extrapolated by the (E n t = k) calculation to
obtain its residual strength at the end of the 40-year life.
The residual 40-year strength must be greater than the
original cable design stress level, as given in AEIC CS9
(2006).
The maximum ac breakdown stress level in Figure 4-71
is 100 kV/mm. This illustrates that if the model results
were extrapolated to samples of 345-kV production
cable having a design stress of 14 kV/mm at 199 kV
phase voltage, a maximum ac test voltage of 1.42 MV
would be required. Similarly a 500-kV cable with a
design stress of 16 kV/mm would require a test voltage
of 1.8 MV. For this reason, some manufacturers, partic-
ularly in Japan, have equipped their laboratories with
test sets capable of testing in excess of 3 MV to permit
full-sized EHV cables to be tested to failure.
The compromise test method, when a high-voltage test
set is not available, is to extrude and test a model cable
with a reduced insulation thickness—for example, a 15-
or 35-kV cable. One practical disadvantage is that com-
mercial production of EHV cable is significantly delayed
when the model cable is extruded. Other disadvantages
are that the conductor size and manufacturing conditions
are significantly different. As the insulation is thin com-
pared to the conductor diameter, the insulation and con-
ductor shield stresses are likely to be of similar
magnitude, resulting in a significant proportion of the
failures occurring where the insulation shield had been
removed within the test terminations and not in the cable.
Figure 4-72 shows the results of statistical process con-
trol tests performed on production cables using impulse
voltage instead of ac voltage. It has been found that
impulse voltage is also able to initiate failure at defects
(Peschke et al. 1995). The maximum breakdown stress
in Figure 4-72 is seen to be approximately 200 kVp/mm,
this being 2.3 times the BIL design level of 87 kVp/mm
for an AEIC CS9 230-kV, 1050-kVp BIL cable. Thus it
requires an impulse breakdown voltage of 2.4 MVp to
initiate failure, which is comparatively readily available
in HV laboratories. A further advantage of statistical
impulse testing is that the test loop can be assembled
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
faster than an ac test loop, often without need to remove
the outer shield, since in some cables the shield can use-
fully act as a resistive potential divider under transient
voltage. If experimental correlation tests have been per-
formed, it is also possible to obtain an indication of the
equivalent ac breakdown stress.
Figure 4-72 Impulse breakdown results on
production cable (courtesy of Jicable) (Peschke et
al. 1995).
Figure 4-73 Time-to-failure tests on different size XLPE cables (courtesy
of Jicable) (Peschke et al. 1995).
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
4.23.5 Endurance Tests on Cables
These tests are intended to establish the stress/time rela-
tionship, the residiual strength, and the value of the
aging exponent n. Figure 4-73 shows stress/time plots
for 100-m loops, different size cables at ambient temper-
ature, and n (the reciprocal of the slope). The tests are
shown to have been performed for up to 50,000 hours
(5.7 years). In the top graph for EHV cable samples with
31-mm insulation thickness and HV samples with
12-mm thickness, some cable samples failed at stresses
between 30 and 50 kV/mm within 30 hours, whereas
samples with stresses in the range of 12-20 kV/mm con-
tinued without failure up to 15,000 hours (1.7 years).
The aging exponent n is greater than 12. In the lower
graph, samples of 20-kV MV cable with an insulation
thickness of 5.5 mm had withstood a stress of
10.9 kV/mm with 95°C load cycles under dry conditions
and had then been subjected to short-term ramp tests at
1 hour, 10,000 hours, and 50,000 hours, with short-term
failure occurring at a similar stress in the range of 40-
70 kV/mm, showing that no obvious aging had occurred
to the surviving samples.
4.23.6 Endurance Estimation on Full-Sized Cable
Systems, CSEM Method
The performance of a complete cable system is limited
by other factors than the cable insulation, principally by
the accessories and by thermomechanical effects. The
complete system performance can be modeled by ana-
lyzing the endurance time of both test loops and service
installations containing cables and accessories. This
4-73
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
approach is termed the Cable System Endurance Model
(CSEM) (Attwood 1998).
Figure 4-74 shows endurance data in the form of load
cycles survived at specified stresses for XLPE cable sys-
tems up to 1998. The time in service is plotted for com-
mercial circuits. The high-stress data represent cable
breakdown tests at elevated temperatures under daily
load cycles. Thus, any endurance curve must lie towards
the right-hand edge of the installed cable system sur-
vival data and to the left of the cable-only failure data.
The position of the endurance line may be further
refined by the estimation of the scale parameter for the
surviving cables using th e m ethod of Weibayes
(Attwood et al. 1998). This method assumes that the
cable systems will fail, under a voltage ramp, in the same
manner as cables at elevated temperatures. The assumed
shape parameter (β in Figure 4-75) and the estimated
scale enable the position of the endurance curve to be
estimated at any desired level of probability of failure.
Figure 4-74 Endurance data for XLPE cable systems
(courtesy of Jicable).
4-74
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
To enable the extrapolation of the endurance curve to
the design life, an aging model is required. The extrapo-
lations included in Figure 4-74 are based on the inverse
power approximation. Extrapolation of this line to the
prescribed design life (in this case, a 40-year life—i.e.,
1.46 x 104 daily load cycles) gives the limiting value of
electrical design stress at the conductor shield.
The conductor shield design stress identified by this
approach was 11 kV/mm for XLPE insulation based on
early service and test experience up to 1998. The conser-
vative cable dimensions predicted by this model are
shown in Table 4-27. It is noted that 500-kV cable sys-
tems with design stresses up to 14.6 kV/mm with an insu-
lation thickness of 27 mm have since been placed in
service (Table 4-2).
The CSEM model has some significant engineering
attractions, namely:
• It tracks real cable system performance.
• The cable systems have been subject to either the rig-
ors of transmission network operation or the acceler-
ated test protocol.
• The analysis is based on large sample numbers of
cables and accessories.
• The low probability estimate (Weibayes estimates) of
the endurance curve is inherently conservative.
• It is a continually evolving and responsive model as
service experience (years in service), new type
approval, and prequalification test data are added
year on year.
Table 4-27 Insulation Dimensions Predicted by CSEM for
Selected Voltages and Conductor Sizes at a 1% Probability
of Failure
Voltage Conductor Size Insulation Thickness
(kV) (kcmil) (mm)
230 1000 19
230 2500 16
345 2500 25
400 4000 31
400 5000 30
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
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Peschke, E., R. Schroth, and R. Olshausen. 1995.
“Extension of XLPE Cables to 500 kV Based on
Progress in Technology. Jicable 1995 paper A.1.2.
Rath, R. A. V. and J. B. Allison. 1956. Polyethylene.
New York: Interscience. Figure 5-8.
Ritter, L. R. Scherer, M. Laurent, R. Bautz, and H.
Zimmermann. 1994. “HV Cable Experience in Switzer-
land—Particularities and Experience.” Paper 21-04.
CIGRE Conference. 1994 Session.
Sato, T., M. Muraki, N. Sato, and Y. Sekii. 1993.
“Recent Technical Trends of 500 kV XLPE Cable.”
Page 59. IEE Third International Conference. Power
Cables and Accessories. IEE Conference Publication
382.
Schiweck, L. 1969. “Investigations into the Breakdown
Process in Epoxy Resin Mouldings at High Voltages.”
Elektrotechnische Zeitschrigt (A). Vol. 90. May. Pp. 675-
678.
Sheldon, R. P. and K. Lane. 1965. “Thermal Conductiv-
ities of Polymers II—Polyethylene.” Polymer. Vol. 6. p.
205.
Silver, D. A., R.G. Lukac, and R.A. Hartlein. 1983.
Optimization of the Design of Metallic Shield—Concen-
tric Conductors of Extruded Dielectric Cables Under
Fault Conditions. April. EPRI Report No. EL-3014.
Project 1286-2.
Simmons, D. M. 1923. “Cable Geometry and the Calcu-
lation of Current-Carrying Capacity.” AIEE Transac-
tions..
Simmons, D. M. 1932. “Calculation of the Electrical
Problems of Underground Cables.”
The Electric Journal. East Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
May/ November.
4-78
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Smith, C., S. Galloway, B.Gregory, S. Lloyd and D.
Notman, 2003 “The Development of an Ultrasonic
Quality Monitoring Process for the Manufacture of
Enhanced Reliability HV And EHV XLPE Cables”,
Paper A.2.6, Jicable 2003 Conference.
Steenis, E. F. 1989. Water Treeing—The Behavior of
Water Trees in Extruded Cable Insulation. N.V. Kema.
St. Onge, H., R. Bartnikas, et al. 1978. Research to
Determine the Acceptable Emergency Operating Temper-
atures for Extruded Dielectric Cables. November. EPRI
Report No. EL-938. Project 933-1.
Tanaka, T. and A. Greenwood. 1983. Advanced Power
Cable Technology. Boca Raton, Florida.CRC Press Inc.
ISBN 0-8493-5165-0 (Vol. I) and 0-8493-5166-9 (Vol.
II).
Toriyama, Y. et al. 1967. “Degradation of Polyethylene
by Partial Discharge.” IEEE Transactions on Electrical
Insulation. Vol. El-1. August. Pp. 83-92.
Union Carbide Company. n.d. “A Critical Comparison
of XLPE and EPR for Use as Electrical Insulation on
Underground Power Cables.” Kabelitems. Wire and
Cable. No. 157
Union Carbide Company. n.d. “Treeing Update Part I:
History.” Kabelitems. Wire and Cable. No. 150.
Union Carbide Company. n.d. “Treeing Update Part
III: Water Trees.” Kabelitems. Wire and Cable No. 152.
Wartusch, J. and H. Wagner. 1977. “About the Signifi-
cance of Peroxide Decomposition Products in XLPE
Cable Insulations.” IEEE Trans on Electrical Insulation.
Vol. 12. pp. 395-401.
Whitehead, S. 1951. Dielectric Breakdown of Solids.
Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Woodruff, L. F. 1938. Principles of Electric Power Trans-
mission. 2nd Ed. New York. John Wiley & Sons.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY—WATER TREES
Bahder, G., T. W. Dakin, and J. H. Lawson. 1974.
“Analysis of Treeing Type Breakdown.” CIGRE. Paper
15-05. Paris.
Crine, P., S. Pelissou, and H. St. Onge. 1987. “Elemental
and Ionic Impurities in Cable Insulation and Shields.”
JICABLE. Paris. September. pp. 206-213.
Groeger, J. H., J. L. Henry, and A. Garton. 1988.
“Location and Concentration of Ionic Impurities in
Polymeric Cable Insulation.” Conference Record. IEEE
International Symposium on Electrical Insulation. Bos-
ton. June. pp. 300-305.
Illdstad, E., et al. 1990. “Influence of Mechanical Stress
and Frequency on Water Treeing in XLPE Cable Insula-
tion.” IEEE International Symposium. Toronto. June.
Kitchin, D. W. and O. S. Pratt. 1958. “Treeing in Poly-
ethylene as a Prelude to Breakdown.” AIEE Transac-
tions. Vol. 77, pt. III. June. pp. 180-186.
Chapter 4: Cable Construction: Extruded Dielectrics
McMahon, E. J. and J. R. Perkins. 1963. “Volume Dis-
charges and Treeing: a Primer.” Proceedings of the 5th
Electrical Insulation Conference. Chicago. pp. 98-100.
Mashikian, M. S. and J. H. Groeger. 1987. “Ionic Impu-
rities in Extruded Cable Insulation: Analytical Detec-
tion Techniques, Sources, Nature and Effects.”
JICABLE. Paris. September. pp. 199-205.
Steenis, E. F. 1989. Water Treeing—The Behavior of
Water Trees in Extruded Cable Insulation. N. V. Kema.
Tanaka, T. and A. Greenwood. 1983. Advanced Power
Cable Technology. Vols. I & II. Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Press.
Union Carbide Company. n.d. “Treeing Update Part I:
History.” Kabelitems. Wire and Cable No. 150.
Union Carbide Company. n.d. “Treeing Update Part
III: Water Trees.” Kabelitems. Wire and Cable No. 152.
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 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

CHAPTER 5 Cable Construction:

Pipe-Type
Authors: Frank L. Kuchta, Prysmian Cables and Systems
Jay A. Williams, Power Delivery Consultants, Inc.

Reviewer: Joseph T. Zimnoch, Consultant

Pipe-type cables have been the preferred cable type in North America from the earliest
transmission cable installations in the 1930s through the start of the twenty-first century,
and they still account for the largest percentage of installed length. Although extruded-
dielectric cables are becoming more common—even at 345 kV—there is still a great deal
of activity in the pipe-type cable industry, in uprating, relocating, and modifying existing
systems as well as installing new circuits both on land and for significant water crossings.

This chapter provides details of cable construction for each component of the cable sys-
tem, from conductor through pipe coating, and provides specific parameters that may be
referenced when designing a pipe-type cable system. The material provides a historical
perspective on insulations and on dielectric fluids used for impregnating the insulation
and filling the cable pipe, and addresses the innovations in these components in the last
several decades. The chapter also includes a discussion of pipe-type cable manufacturing
and quality control.

Related information may be found in other chapters. Chapter 2 describes the pipe-type
cable as well as other cable system types and their common applications. Chapter 3 pro-
vides details on components such as conductor constructions and sizes, etc. Chapter 8
describes accessories for all cable types. Chapter 9 provides important information on the
hydraulic design and cooling of pipe-type cables. Chapter 10 addresses the corrosion pro-
tection system that is vital for a long, trouble-free life of the cable pipe. Chapters 12 and
13 cover designing and installing the cable system, Chapter 14 describes testing, and
Chapter 15 addresses Operation and Maintenance. Chapter 16 reviews power system
considerations for all cable types.

Frank L. Kuchta received his BSEE degree from Fairleigh Dickinson

University in 1982. Upon graduation, he joined Prysmian Power
Cables and Systems (formerly Pirelli Cable Corporation), and has held
various positions in design and application engineering. He is currently
Assistant Chief Engineer Manager of High Voltage Engineering in the
Research, Development and Engineering Department. His duties
include development of new products, high-voltage cable system
design, and industry standards for the North American operations. Mr.
Kuchta is currently President of the Insulated Cable Engineers Association (ICEA), a
Member of the IEEE Power Engineering Society and Standards Association, a Voting
Member of the Insulated Conductors Committee (ICC), a Member of CSA, and a
Member of CIGRE. He is the author of multiple technical papers and publications and
the holder of two patents.

5-1
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
Jay Williams has degrees from Brown
University and New York University.
He worked in the cable section at Con
Edison in the 1960s and early 1970s
when the utility was installing major
lengths of 345-kV cable. He was part
of the design team for the Waltz Mill
Test Facility, and was in charge of the
utility advisory committee for early EPRI supercon-
ducting cable projects. Mr. Williams spent 20 years at
Power Technologies, Inc., where he headed the cable
5-2
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
engineering group. He co-founded Power Delivery Con-
sultants, Inc. in 1992, and has continued to specialize in
underground transmission cable systems. He was
technical editor and principal author of the 1992
edition of the Underground Transmission Reference
Book, and was project engineer for several other major
EPRI projects including the original Underground
Transmission Workstation. Mr. Williams is a Fellow of
the IEEE and a registered Professional Engineer in New
York and Ohio.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Impregnated-paper insulation has been the most widely
used dielectric material for power transmission cables
through the start of the twenty-first century. Pipe-type
cables using impregnated paper or laminated paper
polypropylene have predominated in North America,
and there are significant pipe-type cable installations in
Ireland, South America, the Middle East, and Japan.
The first pipe-type cable was installed in 1932, and
there are many new pipe-type cable projects under way
in 2006.
Pipe-type cables have been the most commonly used
transmission cable type in North America for several
major reasons:
• The pipe itself is very rugged.
• The system is reliable.
• The pipe can be installed in relatively short street
openings, minimizing traffic disruption in crowded
urban areas, and it can generally be installed in
longer lengths with fewer manholes and more quickly
than a concrete-encased duct bank.
• Presence of the dielectric liquid provides several
options for cooling to improve the circuit rating.
Since the development of pipe–type cables in the mid
1930s, more than 80% of the 4200 approximate circuit
miles of underground high-voltage transmission cables
installed in North America, at voltages up to 345 kV,
have been pipe-type cables.
The first commercial usage of laminated paper polypro-
pylene (LPP) insulation instead of conventional paper
insulation occurred in 1987 at the 345-kV voltage level.
Since that date, over 2 million conductor feet of this
LPP insulated pipe-type cable have been installed in new
345/230-kV circuits and for recabling the pipes of older
existing 138/115-kV circuits.
5.1.1 General Description
Pipe-type cables have the three cables, insulated with
tapes of kraft paper or laminated paper polypropylene,
installed in a common steel pipe. The pipe is pressur-
ized, usually with a dielectric liquid, and then is called a
high-pressure fluid-filled (HPFF) or high-pressure liq-
uid-filled (HPLF) cable system. This cable system was
called high-pressure oil-filled (HPOF) until the 1970s,
when synthetic dielectric liquids began to replace the
mineral oils that had been used earlier. Pipe-type cables
rated up to 138 kV (and possibly 230 kV in the future)
can also be pressurized with nitrogen, and are then
called high-pressure gas-filled (HPGF) cables.
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
The three phases making up a line are pulled together
into a previously installed, coated and cathodically pro-
tected steel pipe, with distances commonly 3000 ft
(980 m) between splices for 345-kV cables. After the
entire line is installed, including splices and termina-
tions, and the pipe welding is completed, the line is evac-
uated, then filled with a dielectric liquid (or possibly
nitrogen gas for HPGF cables). The liquid is pressurized
to a nominal 200 psig (1380 kPa) using a pressurizing
plant that also has a reservoir tank to accept volume
changes due to system thermal expansion and contrac-
tion, as well as pumps, controls, and alarm systems. The
presence of the dielectric liquid and need for a pressuriz-
ing plant must be taken into account for the HPFF
cable system, but those considerations do not exist with
a high-pressure gas-filled cable system. Figure 5-1 shows
a 345-kV HPFF cable.
This chapter describes the construction of pipe-type
cables. Section 5.2 reviews the main conductor designs.
Section 5.3 discusses conductor and insulation shields.
Section 5.4 covers the insulation of pipe-type cables,
including the history of its development, impregnated
paper, laminated paper polypropylene, applications,
electrical and physical properties, breakdown mecha-
nisms, and impregnating liquid. Section 5.5 describes
the outer layers and filling medium. Section 5.6 identi-
fies quality control procedures, and Section 5.7 identi-
fies specifications relevant to pipe-type cables.
5.2 CONDUCTORS
The main conductor designs utilized in pipe-type cables
in the United States are round (concentric, compressed,
or compact) and compact segmental. The conductor
construction used in a particular cable application
depends on the conductor size, cable type, conductor
material, cable rating, and installation conditions. Cop-
per compact segmental conductors are used for a major-
Figure 5-1 345-kV HPFF pipe-type cable (courtesy of
The Okonite Company).
5-3
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
ity of the high-current installations in North America.
For example, several utilities have standardized on
2500 kcmil (1266 mm2) compact segmental copper con-
ductors for 345-kV installations. Aluminum conductors
have been used, but are much less common. Chapter 3
provides more detail on conductors, including physical
and electrical properties. The following section provides
comments specific to pipe-type cables.
Copper conductor strands are either uncoated or coated
with tin or lead alloy. Since earlier paper-cable impreg-
nating fluids had a tendency to increase the dissipation
factor slightly when in contact with bare copper, tin and
lead-alloy-coated strands were employed when it was
desirable to minimize this change. These practices are
considered unnecessary today.
Insulating enamel coatings have been applied to copper
conductor strands or the strands were intentionally oxi-
dized to increase the interstrand resistance and thereby
reduce conductor losses due to proximity effects. The
use of enamel-coated strands is quite rare, however,
because the marginal increase in ampacity does not jus-
tify the increase in cost and difficulty in joining the con-
ductor. Aluminum readily forms a tenacious, high-
resistance oxide layer and no additional coatings are
needed. See Chapter 3.
For pipe-type cables of siz es larger than about
1250 kcmil (633 mm2), up to which conventional round
conductors have been used, segmental conductors are
primarily utilized. The advantage in reduced ac resis-
tance is quite significant. This is directly related to the
close proximity of the cables in the pipe. Copper is used
in most installations. However, there are a smaller num-
ber of cases in which segmental aluminum conductors
have been used (Roughley 1974). Copper conductors are
usually the preferred economic selection for pipe-type
cables, despite their high transverse conductivity relative
to aluminum.
In recent years, with the advent of reduced-wall cable
designs (Prime 1981, 1986) and hot-impulse withstand
requirements for pipe-type cables, it was found that a
very smooth and round conductor helped to ensure sat-
isfactory performance. One method of improving
5-4
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
roundness on segmental conductors was to use four
equal-size segments with sharp corners and a tight-
fitting, solid copper rod as a center filler. The copper
rod stabilizes the conductor segments during bending,
and the sharp corners and equal-size segments make it
possible to obtain a very circular conductor with little
or no fillers. With this method, all segments are
wrapped with paper to keep the segments insulated from
one another. Two of the segments are wrapped with
insulating paper, while the other two are wrapped with a
carbon-black paper tape, thereby ensuring electrical
continuity between the conductor and the conductor
shield. It was found through measurements of ac/dc
resistance ratio that all four segments could be wrapped
with the carbon-black paper without increasing the con-
ductor losses. This is because the carbon-black paper
has a sufficiently high resistance to prevent circulating
currents from flowing across the segments. Figure 5-2
shows an older conventional segmental conductor and
an example of a typical improved design.
Another commonly used variation of this improved
design utilizes two bare copper segments and two
slightly smaller segments, which are spirally wrapped
with a very tough special insulating paper tape for seg-
ment isolation, along with only one close-fitting nylon
rod filler in the center interstice.
Figure 5-2 Conventional segmental conductor and
improved design.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
5.3 SHIELDS
5.3.1 Conductor Shield
The conductor shield of an impregnated-paper-insu-
lated cable consists of two or more carbon-black paper
tapes (or occasionally metallized paper tapes) applied
with an open butt, with each overlying tape covering
the butt gaps in the underlying layer. In some designs
of extra-high-voltage (EHV) cables, a duplex carbon-
black tape is applied over the carbon-black paper tapes.
The duplex tape consists of an insulating tape and a
carbon-black paper tape, which are bonded together.
The duplex tape is applied with the carbon-black side
against the conductor shielding. Such a tape provides a
more uniform transition from the conductor shield to
the insulation wall. The use of the duplex tape in EHV
cable is often necessary to meet very low dissipation-
factor requirements. It has been theorized that, when
the butt gaps at the conductor have one surface consist-
ing of a carbon-black tape, movement of the carbon
particles in the applied electric field causes an apparent
increase in the measured cable dissipation factor
(Gooding and Blodgett 1964; Gazzana-Priaroggia et al.
1964; Kojima et al. 1965). The duplex tape minimizes
such butt gaps. Figure 5-3 illustrates conductor shield-
ing for impregnated-paper-insulated cables.
5.3.2 Insulation Shield
The insulation shield design varies with pipe-type cable
voltage class and dissipation-factor requirements. The
most basic insulation shield, used in lower-voltage
classes, consists of a metallized paper tape that is
applied with the metallized side facing away from the
insulation. The metallized paper tape consists of a paper
tape bonded to a thin aluminum foil. This is also
Figure 5-3 Conductor shielding for paper cables
(courtesy of Prysmian Cables & Systems).
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
referred to as a foil-backed paper tape. Some manufac-
turers employ a perforated metal foil in this tape to
facilitate drying and impregnating the paper insulation,
while others have used a no perforated foil with satisfac-
tory results.
In higher-voltage cables, the insulation shield is a mirror
image of the conductor shield, including the optional
duplex paper tape (carbon side out) and carbon-black
paper tapes beneath the perforated metallized paper or
metallized carbon-black paper tapes.
5.4 INSULATION AND IMPREGNANT
5.4.1 Background—Paper and Laminated Paper
Polypropylene Insulation
Paper Insulation
The first use of paper tape applied helically as a wire
insulation is thought to have been in 1872 by
Wortendyke, a Virginia paper manufacturer, for a bell
system in his home. McCracken improved on Wor-
tendyke’s crude taping machine and patented the
concept of paper-insulated wire in 1884. Vacuum drying
and hot, pressurized impregnation were patented in
1885 by Jacques. The Norwich Wire Company, founded
by McCracken, began manufacturing paper cables in
1892. In the late 1890s, rubber and paper, both covered
with a lead sheath, competed for supremacy as the
preferred power cable insulation, but by 1902, paper was
the clear winner. Paper-insulated cables impregnated
with rosin oils or compounds and covered with lead
sheaths provided the means for the early evolution of
modern power systems in the first two decades of the
twentieth century.
In 1917, Luigi Emanueli developed the fundamental
fluid-filled, pressurized cable system, which permitted
higher voltages and the use of lighter mineral fluids in
place of the lossy rosin compounds. The 1920s saw
improvements in fluids and paper selection that raised
the performance levels of both solid-type and fluid-filled
paper-insulated cables. A 66-kV solid-type system with
fluid reservoirs on each joint was installed in Cleveland
in 1923. In 1926, a 66-kV fluid-filled cable was installed
in England, and 132-kV fluid-filled cables were installed
in Chicago and New York. In 1932, Okonite provided
the first experimental “Oilostatic” fluid-filled pipe-type
cable operating at 200 psi (1380 kPa) for a 66-kV line at
Plymouth Meeting near Philadelphia, and the British
installed a gas-pressurized pipe-type cable in London.
In 1934, the first commercial 138-kV pipe-type cables
were installed by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company
in Baltimore tunnels.
5-5
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

From the 1930s through the end of the twentieth cen- domestic paper producers, and the door opened to
tury, pressurized paper-insulated cables dominated the foreign suppliers. Medium-and high-density Fourdrinier
underground transmission industry with no significant papers, in use for some time in Europe in self-contained
changes in basic concepts. There has been, however, a fluid-filled (SCFF) cables, began to be imported as a
continuing evolution of this technology in response to second source of paper, putting further pressures on
increasing performance levels and changing market con- domestic producers.
ditions. In the mid-1950s, four cable companies in the
Laminated Paper Polypropylene Insulation
United States, working with their paper suppliers,
Impregnated-paper laminar insulation provided efficient
achieved cable characteristics suitable for 345-kV sys-
and reliable cable insulation for distribution and trans-
tems, and each supplied cables and accessories to a dem-
mission cable applications throughout most of the twen-
onstration project at Cornell University sponsored by
tieth century. However, as power demands in the United
the Association of Edison Illuminating Companies
States increased steadily, with projections of continuing
(AEIC), Edison Electric Institute (EEI), and the cable
rise, research seeking lower-loss synthetics for laminar
and accessory manufacturers (AEIC 1966). That pro-
insulation was intensified worldwide.
gram was successfully completed in 1964. Consolidated
Edison Co. of New York had already installed the first
It was clear that for the higher-voltage 800- and
of many 345-kV cable systems. Paper-insulated pipe-
1100-kV voltage systems, transmission cables would
type cables reached their highest level of development in
require a new, low-loss laminar insulation superior to
a second industry-sponsored program to establish
impregnated-cellulose paper. This basic concept of
500-kV cable systems. In 1972, cable systems provided
combining layers of paper and polymer tapes was
by the same four U.S. manufacturers successfully com-
originally cited in a 1963 U.S. patent describing a
pleted a four-year test program at the Waltz Mill Test
modified high-voltage cable, which employs a bonded
Site in Pennsylvania. Each of these systems demon-
laminate insulation of synthetic film and synthetic paper
strated complete stability and the lowest dielectric losses
(Kang 1963). However, synthetic paper never proved
ever obtained with large-scale paper dielectrics.
practical or successful. Polypropylene film replaced
polyethylene in subsequent industry developments,
The 1970s witnessed turmoil in the transmission cable
principally to attain higher temperature capabilities that
industry. Expenditures for new circuits fell off rapidly,
at least matched the thermal stability of conventional
creating competitive pressures on all of the manufactur-
cellulose-paper insulation.
ers. Paper costs came under close scrutiny; this led to
compromises in controllable properties that had taken
In the United States, the Electric Power Research Insti-
years to establish. During this time, the utility industry
tute sponsored R&D projects that resulted in the suc-
imported the high-temperature impulse withstand
cessful laboratory development of a 765/800-kV
requirements used in Europe. It was quickly found that
laminated paper polypropylene (LPP)-insulated pipe-
papers so carefully developed to optimize dielectric loss
type cable system, which subsequently completed the
characteristics could not easily meet the impulse criteria
two-year Waltz Mill field test programs and earned
at elevated temperatures. Higher-density papers were
industry approval for commercial applications in 1985
required, resulting in increased dielectric losses.
(Allam 1982; Allam et al.1986). Further developments
and refinements by the mid-1980s produced a 345-kV
There was also a restructuring within the paper industry.
LPP-insulated pipe-type cable system, consolidating the
The energy crisis and environmental pressures caused
new technology for LPP cable applications in the
irreversible changes in the availability of many high-
138-500 kV, U.S. commercial range (Allam et al. 1988;
performance papers. The declining production of cable
Eich et al. 1976). (The AEIC designation for this insula-
papers coupled with the general demand for paper and
tion is laminated paper polypropylene. A variety of
paper products contributed to the problem. The early
abbreviations are used worldwide. LPP is used in the
1970s saw a worldwide shortage of pulp, which limited
2007 edition of this book, replacing the trademarked
options open to paper makers. One supplier of a
term PPP that was used in the 1992 edition.)
premium high-alpha pulp, which yielded papers with
exceptionally good loss characteristics, discontinued
Transmission systems insulated with LPP can signifi-
production in favor of high-volume, standard pulp
cantly reduce capital and operating costs and provide an
grades. Cylinder paper machines, which had produced
attractive new alternative for utilities that are planning
most of the cable papers in service, were unable to
system expansion. Although somewhat higher in cost
compete with the faster Fourdrinier machines. As a
than conventional paper, LPP insulation is cost-effective
result, cable manufacturers had to qualify new types
in view of cumulative system benefits, including smaller
and sources of paper. There was a rearrangement of
cable diameter, smaller pipe size for pipe-type cable,

5-6
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
smaller and fewer joints and manholes, longer pulling
lengths, and lower installation and operating costs.
Additionally, the significant savings in cost-of-losses is a
major factor.
LPP is applicable both for new installations, and for re-
cabling existing systems (retrofits for voltage and/or con-
ductor-size upgrade). LPP is equally applicable to
medium- or high-pressure self-contained fluid-filled
cables, which are employed extensively for underground
transmission in most countries. LPP laminate is avail-
able from overseas suppliers.
MVA ratings for paper-insulated versus LPP-insulated
345-kV pipe-type cables are compared in Figure 5-4 for
a range of copper conductor sizes. A physical-size com-
parison, shown in Figure 5-5, of equally rated systems
illustrates the reduced size of the LPP-insulated cable
assembly, leading to reduced costs and improved ther-
Figure 5-4 Comparative MVA ratings for 345-kV pipe-
type cables.
Figure 5-5 Comparable cable cross sections of paper-insulated and LPP-insulated 345-kV cables (courtesy of
Cablec Utility Cable Company). (Note that this figure uses the term PPP, which is Cablec's trademark for the
laminate that is now commonly called LPP.)
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
mal characteristics of the LPP-insulated cable system
(Allam et al.1988).
5.4.2 Impregnated Paper
The term “paper” is an extremely broad term. Paper is
made by suspending fibers in water to form pulp, then
depositing the pulp onto a wire screen or felt and
removing the water to leave the fibrous stock in sheet
form. The raw material is usually derived from plants
containing cellulose, but papers can be made from syn-
thetic fibers such as nylon or polypropylene. Synthetic
papers are differentiated from cast or extruded films of
the same polymer by having a finite air resistance, or the
ability to pass some amount of air through the sheet.
Films are said to have infinite air resistance.
The properties of a paper depend on the choice of raw
material, its preparation, the use of additives, the nature
of the paper-forming process, and treatment after for-
mation. The process is so complex that it is virtually
impossible to produce the exact same paper in two dif-
ferent mills. The characterization of paper at each step
in the process of formation and in its final form is done
in accordance with test methods set up by TAPPI, the
Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry.
The American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) has also established many test methods that
are useful in the relation of paper characteristics to
functional requirements. ASTM-D 202 is the general
characterization and testing specification for electrical-
grade papers (ASTM 2002a).
Paper classification begins with the raw material that is
used to make pulp, and the process of reducing the raw
material to pulp. Prior to 1850, the only practical source
of cellulose was used rags of cotton and linen. The
5-7
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
chemical reduction of wood to pulp by the soda process
was introduced in 1855. In 1867, the Keller process for
the mechanical reduction of wood to pulp reached the
United States from Germany. The sulfite process arrived
in 1882, and the sulfate process, which was predomi-
nantly used through the 1980s, was first applied in 1909.
Semichemical pulping, which combined mechanical
reduction with various chemical processes, was intro-
duced in 1925, opening the door to the use of hard-
woods, which were plentiful in the United States. The
sulfite process is being used again now because of the
lower level of residual acidity in the paper and the
improved archival qualities.
The first papers used for electrical insulation were of the
hemp family, using fiber reclaimed from used cordage as
the source of cellulose. The increase in electrical perfor-
mance required by the move to higher voltages in the
1920s, together with cost considerations, caused a shift
to kraft papers made with pulp produced by the newly
implemented sulfate process. Kraft papers were more
uniform and easily tailored to meet specific structural
requirements, one of which was the need to obtain more
thorough impregnation. Rope papers, while mechani-
cally tough, had poor dimensional control and relatively
high dielectric losses—factors that kraft papers dramati-
cally improved. Since the 1950s, virtually all of the paper
used for 69-kV and higher-voltage cables in the United
States has been kraft paper.
Kraft paper is made from coniferous wood such as pine,
spruce, and cedar. Wood consists of about 40% cellu-
lose, 30% hemicellulose, and 30% lignin. Lignin is an
amorphous polymer that binds the cellulose fibers and
hemicellulose into the strong textured wood structure.
Sulfate or sulfite processes are used to chemically sepa-
rate the cellulose from lignin and hemicellulose mate-
rial. As in most separation processes, the more complete
the separation, the more time-consuming and costly is
the process. Also, the sought-after cellulose is damaged
as the process progresses, so the process must be opti-
mized to obtain the desired pulp/paper characteristics at
reasonable cost and yield.
The main component of paper is the cellulose fiber. Cel-
lulose is a carbohydrate, specifically a polysaccharide
whose base sugar unit is C6H10O5. The number of units
in the chain-type molecule is called its degree of poly-
merization (DP). The individual molecular chains tend
to align themselves into bundles known as microfibrils,
which consist of crystalline regions separated by amor-
phous regions. Thousands of microfibrils combine into
a long tubular structure called a fibril, or fiber. Many
properties of paper are improved by making the paper
5-8
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
with cellulose of long chain lengths, or a high DP. This
preferred structure is the alpha cellulose, which exhibits
a DP that may be as high as 10,000. Alpha cellulose is
not soluble in water or alkali solution. Beta cellulose
and gamma cellulose are shorter chain structures that
will dissolve in an alkali solution.
Hemicellulose is a nonfibrous polysaccharide material,
with a shorter chain structure than cellulose. The DP of
hemicellulose is in the range of 150. The hemicelluloses
can contribute to interfiber strength, but they are also
quite lossy. Papers suitable for EHV cable are made with
high-alpha pulp which has low levels of hemicellulose.
The transformation of pulp into paper is accomplished
by spreading the pulp uniformly over a flat surface and
removing the water. The individual fibers are strongly
attracted to each other by molecular forces. As water is
removed, the fibers settle in to form a coherent sheet.
The preparation of the fibrous stock is crucial to the
successful formation of the paper sheet. The pulp is put
through a mechanical beating process, which has the
effect of breaking up large groups or bundles of fiber
into a smoother suspension of smaller fiber groups. In
so doing, the attractive forces between fibers are
increased. In fact, the pulp becomes noticeably sticky
after beating, even when no additional sizing has been
added. In general, more beating produces a stronger
paper up to a point. Since beating is an intensive activ-
ity, some damage to individual fibers is unavoidable.
Too much beating causes more loss in fiber structure
than is gained in interfiber attraction, and the paper
strength falls off.
The characteristics of the paper sheet are determined by
the manner in which the fibers orient themselves as they
settle into the sheet. If all of the fibers were to lay down
parallel to the surface and in the same direction, the
paper would be very dense and have high tensile
strength in the direction of the fibers (grain-long direc-
tion), but very low cross-grain strength (e.g., newsprint).
If the fibers were made to lie randomly in all directions,
the paper would be less dense and have a moderate ten-
sile strength in any direction. This sheet would be called
“square,” because it would have isotropic mechanical
properties (e.g., bond paper). If some of the fibers were
oriented obliquely to the plane of the sheet, and the
sheet thickness was large relative to fiber length, the
paper would be soft and have a low compressive modu-
lus (e.g., tissue paper). Beating establishes the capabili-
ties of the pulp; the wet end of the paper machine
controls the actual formation of the paper sheet. Refer-
ences (Casey 1961; Grant 1957; Kelk and Wilson 1965;
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Bartnikas and Srivastava 1987) provide good back-
ground information on paper for high-voltage cable use.
As noted previously, two fundamental machines are
used for the manufacturing of essentially all papers used
in modern times. The first was the Donkin machine
invented by Louis Robert in France in 1799 and devel-
oped into a commercial production machine by Gryan
Donkin in England in the early 1800s. Since the Donkin
machine development had been financed by the Four-
drinier Brothers, this type of machine assumed their
name. The first Fourdrinier machine to be constructed
in the United States was set up at Saugerties, New York
in 1836.
The Fourdrinier machine uses a continuously moving
belt made of a wire mesh. Pulp suspended in water is
uniformly poured onto the wire at the start of its hori-
zontal run. The wire passes at high speed over several
rolls that support the wire and, with the help of gravity,
much of the water is drained off, leaving the pulp
behind. The wire then passes over a series of suction dri-
ers, which pull off the bulk of the remaining water
through the wire. As the fiber sheet dries, it picks up
strength. By the time the fiber sheet passes the suction
boxes and one last suction roll, it can support its own
weight. The sheet is then lifted off the wire and trans-
ferred to a continuous felt belt. On the felt, the sheet
passes through roller presses, steam-heated drier rolls,
and finishing rolls to emerge from the machine in its
final dry form.
One of the most critical points in the machine is the flow
spreader, where the pulp suspension first contacts the
wire. The properties of the paper are controlled by the
manner in which the individual fibers in the pulp settle
onto the wire. The flow tends to provide some alignment
of fiber in the direction of motion, known as the
machine direction, which imparts anisotropic properties
to the paper. If the wire is made to travel slightly faster
than the flow, the pulling action of the wire on the pulp
fibers results in more orientation of the fibers. In gen-
eral, however, Fourdrinier paper tends to be only
slightly anisotropic because of the lack of a positive
means to orient fiber in the machine direction. This is
an advantage for most paper applications. The Four-
drinier machine is capable of very high running speeds,
limited only by the rate that water can be withdrawn
from the sheet. Fourdrinier machines dominate the
paper industry because of their high running speed and
low production costs.
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
The second type of machine is the cylinder machine that
was invented by John Dickinson in Germantown, Penn-
sylvania in 1809, and put to use before the Fourdrinier
machine reached America. The cylinder machine forms
the paper sheet on a wire mat, which covers a large cyl-
inder. The cylinder is mounted in the horizontal plane
and sits in a vat of the pulp/water suspension with about
one quarter of the cylinder above the liquid surface. The
cylinder wall is open and the ends of the cylinder are
hydraulically isolated from the vat, allowing the water
level inside the cylinder to be maintained at a lower level
than the water in the vat. As the cylinder rotates, water
flows inward through the wire and the cylinder wall and
deposits the fiber on the wire. A continuous felt belt
contacts the cylinder at the top and transfers the sheet
from the cylinder to the felt.
The characteristics of the paper are established by the
fiber orientation on the wire, which is affected by the
radial flow of the pulp suspension through the wire into
the cylinder, the tangential flow of the wire surface rela-
tive to the pulp suspension in the vat, and the centrifu-
gal forces caused by the cylinder rotation. Unlike the
Fourdrinier machine, these controlling variables act on
the formation process for almost the entire time that the
sheet is in contact with the wire. Flow through the wire
and centrifugal force tend to orient the fiber normal to
the surface of the sheet which helps build a thick soft
sheet. Tangential drag forces cause the fibers to lay
down on the wire in the machine direction. Flow in the
vat can be either in the direction of rotation, to mini-
mize fiber laydown, or opposite to rotation to maximize
machine-direction orientation. The former is used for
paperboard production, and the latter is the configura-
tion for very thin but strong (in the machine direction)
papers such as cable paper. Cylinder papers are inher-
ently anisotropic, either in the machine direction or in
the direction normal to the sheet. It is almost impossible
to make isotropic paper of any strength and quality on
this type of machine.
The initial and the operating costs of cylinder machines
are low compared to the Fourdrinier machine, but their
running speed is limited predominantly by the centrifu-
gal forces tending to throw the fiber and sheet off the
cylinder. The Fourdrinier machine has about a 10:1 run-
ning speed advantage, which explains why most paper is
made on them. Paperboard and thin, highly anisotropic
papers serving niche markets occupy most cylinder
machines. In the 1980s, these niche markets deteriorated
due to the increase in the use of synthetic materials and
competition from Fourdrinier machines.
5-9
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
Paper Characteristics
The paper characteristics that are critical to the manu-
facture of high-quality cable are:
• Tensile strengths in both machine and cross-machine
directions
• Compressive modulus normal to the surface (soft-
ness) and in the cross-machine direction (stiffness)
• Tensile modulus of elasticity
• Torsional modulus
• Surface friction in the cross-machine direction
• Hygroexpansivity
• Air resistance
• Density
• Dielectric loss
• Dielectric strength
All of these characteristics are under the control of the
paper manufacturer. Needless to say, a cable manufac-
turer has a very close relationship with his paper sup-
plier. Slight changes in any of these characteristics can
upset a delicate balance.
5.4.3 Laminated Paper Polypropylene
LPP insulation utilizes a composite construction involv-
ing a layer of low-loss, electrical-grade, homocast
polypropylene film (unoriented), bonded without adhe-
sive between two layers of high-purity kraft electrical-
insulating paper, as shown in Figure 5-6. This laminate
tape looks and handles like a paper-insulating tape of
equal thickness. The LPP composite is manufactured by
Figure 5-6 Laminated paper polypropylene insulation
(courtesy of Cablec Utility Cable Company).
5-10
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
laminating an extruded polypropylene film that is sand-
wiched, while hot, between two cellulose-paper layers.
The three layers are bonded using two pressure rollers.
No adhesive or copolymer materials are used in making
the LPP laminate.
The LPP-insulated cable approach was successfully
developed in Japan, the United Kingdom, and the
United States, because extensive worldwide research had
shown that synthetic and semisynthetic dielectric mate-
rials alone, in general, could not meet some of the fol-
lowing critical basic requirements:
• Low dielectric loss
• High dielectric strength
• Good resistance to swelling in oil
• Adequate ratio of tensile modulus to compressive
modulus
• Cost-effectiveness
The major advantages of LPP over conventional paper
in EHV cables are due to the polypropylene film and
include the following:
• Lower dielectric loss
• Higher ac and impulse strength
• Thinner insulation walls
• Higher ampacity ratings
Pipe-type, LPP-insulated cable designs up to 800 kV are
now commercially available. The basic electrical, physi-
cal, and thermal properties of LPP insulation and LPP
cables are described in following sections.
5.4.4 Cable Application
General
The dielectric properties of impregnated paper have
made this material suitable for many insulation func-
tions ranging from motors and transformers to capaci-
tors and cables. However, it is the mechanical attributes
of paper that make this the material of choice for such a
broad range of applications. The dielectric strength of
paper is greatest when the electrical stress is normal to
the paper surface, which is consistent with the wrapping
of a high-voltage conductor with paper tape. The
mechanical strength of the tape becomes the limiting
factor for the wrapping operation, especially for cable
manufacture where high production speed is essential.
Early cables used paper made from rope fiber because
this type of paper has the highest strength obtainable
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
with natural fiber. The change to dielectrically superior
kraft papers was made possible by improvements in the
paper industry and the cable manufacturing equipment.
Manufacturing requirements are very similar for LPP
insulation except for the drying and impregnating cycles
as discussed later.
Manufacturing Requirements
Cables are made by the helical application of many lay-
ers of tape to a conductor in a horizontal taping
machine. Conductor is supplied on a reel that is set up
behind the taping machine. The conductor comes off its
reel, passes through the taping machine where it is insu-
lated and is taken up on the larger, impregnating reel.
When full, this reel is transported to the impregnating
vessel, in which the paper is dried and impregnated with
insulating liquid at high temperature and vacuum.
When impregnation appears to be complete, as deter-
mined by monitoring the cable’s capacitance, the pres-
sure in the vessel is raised to several atmospheres, to
ensure complete impregnation, and the tank is slowly
cooled to room temperature. Once cool, the impregnat-
ing reel is removed from the tank and transported to a
machine that applies the skid wire to the cable. The fin-
ished cable is taken up on a shipping reel and moved to
the test department for full-reel tests.
The process described above is called “mass impregna-
tion,” because the cable is dried and impregnated in a
tank before its outer covering is applied. This is the pre-
ferred process when the impregnant is a high-viscosity
fluid, because these fluids must be at elevated tempera-
ture to be pumped from a storage vessel to the impreg-
nating tank and back to the storage vessel. At or near
room temperature, the impregnant is too thick to drain
out of the paper before the cable is covered.
High-voltage cables are made in taping machines that
contain many taping heads installed in tandem. Each
head is a rotating frame designed to apply a fixed num-
ber of tapes to the core in the same direction. The paper
tape rolls are mounted in the head with a series of guide
rollers that transfer each tape to the core at a controlled
angle and position, and with a controlled tension as the
head rotates around the core. Figure 5-7 shows a cable-
taping line and the details of an individual taping head.
The head design fixes the number of rolls per head, and
the maximum roll diameter that can be mounted. Com-
mon machines use 10-, 12-, or 16-roll heads, but heads
holding up to 40 rolls have been used successfully. As
the head rotates, each tape is wrapped onto the core.
The core must move in synchronism with the head rota-
tion to ensure a uniform application of the tape with an
open butt space between successive turns.
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
This butt space is required to allow the core to bend
without causing the adjacent tape turns to collide and
wrinkle. Smooth bending is possible only if each tape
can slide between the tapes below and above it. Sliding
is dependent on the coefficient of friction between two
layers of paper and the compressive force in effect. The
position of each tape must be carefully controlled rela-
tive to the tape that it covers to ensure the optimum dis-
tribution of butt spaces. The paper must have sufficient
stiffness to resist collapsing into a butt space of either of
its neighbors. It also must have enough strength in the
cross-machine direction to withstand the tensile force on
the outside of a bend that is trying to split the paper.
As the number of tapes applied under tension increases,
the compressive force between the lower layers increases
and causes the diameter of each layer to be reduced.
This, in turn, relaxes the tension in the lower tapes in
accordance with their modulus of elasticity and prevents
the compressive forces from building to infinity. A suc-
cessfully taped cable will have a positive interlayer pres-
sure between all tapes and will bend without wrinkling
or tearing any tapes, or collapsing any tapes into adja-
cent butt spaces. This requires a careful balance of
paper characteristics and taping tensions. Each time a
taping line is set up for a new production run, a dry
bend test must be conducted before starting production.
This test consists of bending the cable to the impregnat-
ing reel diameter and carefully dissecting a few feet of
insulation to check for proper tape sliding and butt
space distribution. Fine-tuning the tape tensions and
positions is done at this time. The setup and dry bend
tests consume a few hundred feet (about 100 m) of con-
ductor and require considerable time.
High-voltage pipe-type cables require from 50 to 200
tapes to build the insulation wall. This requires many
taping heads in tandem. It is customary to reverse the
direction of rotation of each successive head to balance
the torque being applied to the core. Reversing direction
also eliminates the necessity of direct coupling between
successive heads to ensure proper tape overlay. With
opposite rotation, the speed of each head (relative to
core movement) can be different. This allows the use of
Figure 5-7 Cable-taping line and taping head (courtesy of
Prysmian Cables & Systems).
5-11
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
different tape widths, increasing as the diameter
increases, which has become standard practice. It is also
customary to increase tape thickness as the diameter
increases to reduce the number of tapes required to
build the wall thickness. Tape thickness establishes the
butt gap thickness, which can limit the dielectric
strength of the cable. Increasing butt gap thickness as
the diameter increases takes advantage of the decreasing
radial voltage stress in the outer portion of the wall.
Most cable engineers believe that graded constructions,
where both the tape thickness and width are increased
with diameter, result in the best mechanical and electri-
cal performance.
An added complication is the fact that the paper’s
mechanical characteristics change when the paper is
dried. Most notably, the tapes shrink, and their fric-
tional interaction also changes when impregnated.
Thus, the cable structure changes considerably in the
impregnating tank. In its final form, there must still be
positive interlayer pressure throughout the insulation
wall, and the tapes must still slide to avoid collapse,
tearing, or wrinkling. In general, impregnation
improves the mechanical stability of the structure, which
is why shipping reels can be reasonable in size and
installation bending can be more severe than on cable in
the dry state.
The reduction in paper dimensions upon drying causes
a major problem on cables with insulation walls greater
than 0.5 in. (1.3 cm). The solution is to predry the paper
before it is applied to the cable. Paper in equilibrium
with normal atmospheric conditions, where the relative
humidity is in the 60% range, contains about 5% water
by weight. The cable manufacturer receives paper in
jumbo rolls, which may weigh up to 1000 lb (450 kg)
and are about 30 in. (76 cm) wide. The paper is pro-
cessed by a slitting machine to make rolls of the correct
width and diameter. By drying the paper at the slitting
operation and maintaining the taping machine in a con-
trolled, low-humidity environment, it is possible to
lower the moisture content of the paper to about 1.5%.
This improvement, though expensive, is necessary to
achieve the performance levels required by kraft-paper
EHV cables. LPP tapes are not dried to such low mois-
ture levels.
The relationships between taping tensions and bending
characteristics can be analyzed mathematically. The
classic work on this subject is a small textbook by
Gazzana-Priaroggia, Occhini, and Palmieri of Prysmian
(for merly Pi rel li) published in 1960 (Gazzana-
5-12
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Priaroggia 1960a). When the paper characteristics are
known, the interlayer pressure profile can be calculated
for an assumed distribution of taping tensions. Upper
and lower limits for successful sliding can also be
calculated. Taping tensions are selected that result in an
interlayer pressure profile that lies within the limits.
Each manufacturer must apply considerable experience
to the problem of establishing the best taping tensions.
The capabilities of the machine, the properties of the
paper, the changes that occur on impregnation, and the
intended service of the cable must be considered.
S e r i o u s p ro b l e m s c a n d e v e l o p d u r i n g t h e
manufacturing process. Cables that develop visible
flaws on the impregnating reel or in the skid wire
machine bring the entire manufacturing line to a halt.
Although single-point damage can usually be repaired,
visible buckling, creasing, or other indications of
improper taping usually result in scrapping the entire
length, and may involve redesigning and requalifying
the taping structure.
5.4.5 Insulation Electrical Properties
The electrical behavior of the dielectric insulation of a
metallic conductor can be fully characterized by the fol-
lowing four parameters:
• Electrical capacitance
• Dielectric loss
• Insulation resistance
• Dielectric strength
General Comments: Kraft Paper
Capacitance
The capacitance of a cable is proportional to the relative
permittivity, sometimes called SIC (specific inductive
capacity) or dielectric constant, of the dielectric, and
depends on the geometry of the conductor and shield
that defines the boundaries of the dielectric. Paper den-
sity exerts the most influence on relative permittivity,
which increases with increasing density. The values in
common use include 3.4 for low-density, impregnated-
paper insulations, such as the early 345-kV cables pro-
duced in the 1960s; 3.5 for medium-density cables in the
69 to 161-kV class; and 3.5-3.6 for cables made with
higher-density papers, which include HPGF pipe-type
cable to 138 kV and the newer EHV cables made to
withstand hot-impulse requirements.
The capacitance of a paper cable presents a convenient
means for monitoring the impregnation process. The
cable’s capacitance is proportional to the relative per-
mittivity of the materials that comprise the dielectric.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
The cellulose fiber may have a relative permittivity in the
range of 5 or 6 but only occupies about 60% of the
paper volume. Impregnants have a relative permittivity
between 2.0 and 2.3. When the impregnant fills the
empty space around the cellulose fiber and the open
butt spaces, the capacitance of the cable increases by up
to 10%. Continuous monitoring of the cable capacitance
can indicate when the empty space in the cable has been
essentially filled with impregnant. Only then is it safe to
raise the pressure on the cable to ensure complete
impregnation. If the pressure is raised before sufficient
fluid has entered the cable, the insulation wall may be
crushed by the imbalance of pressures. The crushing
results in a pressure ridge or crease running axially in
the paper tapes. When the crushing occurs at the top of
the tank, it is due to premature pressurization; when it
occurs at the bottom of the tank, the insulation wall is
most likely too soft to withstand the initial pressure
caused by the head in the tank.
The ability to monitor cable capacitance during impreg-
nation requires that the cable have a conducting outer
shield. This is provided by one or two carbon-black
and/or metallized paper tapes. In the early days of mass
impregnation, the metallized tape was perforated to
enhance the drying of the paper and the flow of impreg-
nant radially into the insulation wall. In the 1970s, it
was determined that perforated metallized tapes may be
an unnecessary complication for standard impregnants.
Modern cables may or may not use perforated metal-
lized tapes for this function.
Dielectric Loss
Dielectric loss in a cable insulation is undesirable,
because it increases the cost of losses and results in a
temperature rise of the conductor, which reduces the
cable’s ability to carry current and transfer power.
Dielectric loss is the result of several mechanisms within
the dielectric. In general, three main categories of loss
mechanism exist: ionic conduction, polar rotation, and
gaseous ionization. Pressurized, fluid-filled cables are
expected to have no gaseous ionization at normal oper-
ating stress, so that this mechanism, which limits the
performance of solid-type and gas-filled cables, is not a
factor for fluid-filled cables. The loss inherent to the
dried paper structure is the lower limit of loss achievable
in a completed cable. This loss is the result of the ionic
conduction and polar rotation mechanisms. Ionic con-
duction loss results from the dissociation of residual
contaminants and the small amount of water not
removed by drying, while the molecular structure of the
alpha cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin contribute
varying degrees of polar loss mechanisms, mostly in the
hemicellulose and lignin.
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
When the empty space in the paper is filled with the
impregnant, the loss is increased due primarily to con-
duction mechanisms in the fluid. Mineral oils are more
active in this respect than synthetic fluids such as poly-
butene and alkylbenzene. Conduction loss can show an
increase with stress because of the Wien effect, which
predicts that there will be more dissociation at higher
fields. It can also exhibit a decrease with increasing
stress due to barrier effects caused by the paper fiber,
which tend to limit the travel of ionic species, a mecha-
nism suggested by Garton (Garton 1941). Improve-
ments in the production and treatment of dielectric
fluids have almost eliminated the effects of impurities in
cable fluids. The dielectric loss of modern cables is
essentially that of the dry paper. It shows almost no
change with stress and has a characteristic, slightly U-
shaped curve with temperature as shown in Figure 5-8.
Water is a major contributor to dielectric losses. In
bound form, it is a polar molecule that causes rotational
loss in an ac field. Unbound water that is free to enter
the impregnant readily dissociates to contribute conduc-
tion loss. Drying the paper insulation at high tempera-
ture and vacuum is mandatory for successful operation
of transmission cables. The actual degree of drying usu-
ally determines how close the final loss characteristic of
a particular cable comes to the theoretical dry paper
level achieved in a lab cell. Drying at temperatures in the
range of 120-130°C with vacuum levels in the tank
under 100 microns will produce cable with a final mois-
ture content of its paper on the order of 100 ppm. When
the moisture content is increased to 500 ppm, the cable
dissipation factor begins to show an upturn at room
t e m p e r at u re a n d t e m p e r at u re s ove r 1 0 0 ° C. A t
1000 ppm, these upturns are enhanced, and the
midrange level is slightly raised. Higher moisture con-
tent causes the U-shape to disappear, and the loss
Figure 5-8 Dissipation factor vs. temperature for typical
impregnated paper.
5-13
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
increases with temperature over the entire range of
interest. Figure 5-9 shows dissipation factor vs. moisture
content for a typical impregnated paper.
Figure 5-9 Dissipation factor vs. moisture content for
typical impregnated paper.
Figure 5-10 Comparison of dissipation factor between low-voltage PILC cables and high-voltage pressurized cables.
(Note: This figure uses the abbreviation SCLF [self-contained liquid-filled], which is termed SCFF [self-contained
fluid-filled] in this reference book.)
5-14
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Paper density and purity establish the basic level of loss
obtainable in the finished cable. Other things being
equal, loss increases with increasing density. The quality
of the paper also plays an important role. The introduc-
tion of deionized water in the paper mill was an impor-
tant step in improving paper purity. This was done by
running the paper machine with a closed water system
that was equipped with a deionizing electrostatic filter.
The evolution of cable technology, which includes
improvements in taping, drying, and impregnation, and
the papers and fluids used by the industry, is illustrated
in Figure 5-10, which plots the maximum cable dissipa-
tion factor allowed by the AEIC cable specifications for
paper-insulated, lead-sheathed (PILC) cables, SCLF
cables, and HPFF pipe-type cables against time. A log
scale is used for dissipation factor to improve readabil-
ity. This graph clearly shows the distinction between
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type

low-voltage PILC cables and high-voltage pressurized the butt space, may use very thin tapes near the conduc-
cables used for power transmission. tor, 2-2.5 mils (0.05-0.06 mm) thick. These inner tapes
are manufactured to have very high density (super-
Insulation Resistance
dense) and very high air resistance (supercalendered) to
Insulation resistance is a parameter of interest for dc
minimize the damage that can be caused by ionization.
applications and dc testing of ac cables. Ideal dielectrics
Table 5-1 summarizes the important electrical properties
would have infinite insulation resistance. This is
of impregnated-paper insulation. Several references
achieved in vacuum and gaseous dielectrics; very pure
(McAvoy and Waldron 1971; Constanitov 1964; Tanaka
extruded polymeric insulations come close to this ideal,
and Greenwood 1983; Salvage and Gibbons 1960; Gaz-
but impregnated-paper dielectrics have finite insulation
zana-Priaroggia and Palandri 1955; Hall and Kelk 1956;
resistance due to inherent conduction mechanisms asso-
Dieterle 1960) provide relevant background information
ciated with the cellulose chain structure. The fluid
on dielectric strength of cable papers.
impregnant provides the medium to support additional
electrolytic activity. Laminated Paper Polypropylene Electrical
Properties
Dielectric Strength
The electrical properties of LPP insulation are summa-
Dielectric strength is the parameter that determines the
rized in Table 5-2. The primary characteristics include
physical dimensions of a cable. The primary function of
dissipation factor, relative permittivity, ac breakdown,
a cable’s insulation is to support the voltage applied
and impulse breakdown. Although a single-tape mea-
between the conductor and the grounded shield. This
surement of dissipation factor is included for basic ref-
voltage is the nominal phase-to-ground operating volt-
erence, all properties have been evaluated on either full-
age augmented by occasional surges caused by switching
size or miniature cable constructions.
operations and faults on the power system, and over-
voltages due to lightning strikes on connected overhead
lines and other exposed electrical equipment. Table 5-1 Electrical Properties of Impregnated-Paper
Insulation
The dielectric strength of cables is affected by several Characteristic Typical Value Sample
parameters under the control of the paper and cable Dissipation factor – % (tan δ) 0.23 Cable
manufacturers. The controlling test is the basic insula- Ac step-breakdown volts/mil
1300 (50) Miniature cable
tion level (BIL) impulse test; ac tests seldom result in (kV/mm)
breakdown. Cables are designed to have a strength in Impulse step-breakdown
3300 (130) Miniature cable
excess of the required BIL. Density and air resistance are volts/mil (kV/mm)
two paper properties that are generally agreed to influ- Relative permittivity 3.5 Cable
ence surge strength, with higher values of either property Dielectric loss factor (tan δ x rel-
0.0081 Cable
ative permittivity)
increasing strength. Paper thickness also contributes to
strength for two reasons: thinner papers have higher
strength, other things being equal; and paper thickness Table 5-2 Electrical Properties of LPP Insulation
establishes butt gap thickness, which may inversely affect
Temp. Typical
surge strength. Increased density is accompanied by Characteristic
(°C) Value Sample
increased dielectric loss, so one must compromise on Dissipation Factor—% Single LPP
80 0.07
density. Air resistance of the paper is achieved by slower (tan δ) tape
running speeds on the paper machine, increased beating Dissipation factor—%
80 0.075
345-kV pipe-
of pulp, and more calendering in the finishing section of (tan δ) type cable
the paper machine, all of which raise the cost of the Ac step-breakdown
105 1300 (50) Model cable
volts/mil (kV/mm)
paper. Paper thickness establishes the number of tapes
Impulse step-breakdown
required to build the insulation wall. There are pressures 105 3800 (150) Model cable
volts/mil (kV/mm)
on the manufacturer to use as few tapes as possible and Impulse step-breakdown 345-kV pipe-
90 3300 (130)
as few thicknesses as possible to simplify material han- volts/mil (kV/mm) type cable
dling. High-voltage, pipe-type cables use only two thick- Relative permittivity 80 2.8
345-kV pipe-
nesses of paper, typically 5 mils (0.13 mm) and 6.5 mils type cable
(0.17 mm). EHV cables may use three or four thick- Dielectric loss factor
345-kV pipe-
(tan δ x relative permittiv- 80 0.0021
nesses, starting with 4 mils (0.10 mm) at the conductor type cable
ity)
and going to 8 mils (0.20 mm) on the outside of the
cable. HPGF cables, which have to operate with gas in

5-15
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
5.4.6 Physical Properties
Kraft Paper
The specific design of a cable—which involves the selec-
tion of paper quality, tape thicknesses, tape widths, and
tape tensions—is the responsibility of the cable manu-
facturer, who determines the balance of design parame-
ters to satisfy the functional requirements of the cable
based on experience. One aspect of a cable that usually
varies from one manufacturer to the next is the per-
ceived hardness or firmness of the insulation. The ten-
dency to correlate cable hardness with impulse strength
is generally supported by test data. A hard cable has a
higher density than a soft cable, which gives it greater
strength, but also higher loss. It is unwise, however, to
presume that all cables should be as hard as possible,
because there are many other factors to be considered.
A cable’s hardness is determined by the interlayer pres-
sure throughout the insulation wall after drying and
impregnation. It is increased by higher taping tensions
and decreased by the change in moisture content in the
drying operation. It is also affected by the average butt
space width, paper density, and elastic modulus. After
taping, the cable must be wound onto the impregnating
reel without distress, deformation, or uneven sliding of
tapes. This requires a careful balance of taping tensions
and humidity in the taping room. In general, harder
cables are more difficult to manufacture consistently,
and have a greater tendency toward localized tape dis-
turbance during handling and subsequent service, due in
part to the higher stored mechanical energy in the insu-
lation wall. Table 5-3 summarizes the important physi-
cal properties of impregnated-kraft paper insulation.
The principal thermal characteristic of paper insulation
is its thermal resistivity. This parameter determines the
temperature rise of the conductor relative to the shield
for a given geometry. The thermal resistivity of HPFF
insulations lies between 500 and 600C°-cm/W. It is
affected by paper density, cable hardness, and type of
Table 5-3 Physical Characteristics of Impregnated-Kraft
Paper Insulation
Characteristic Typical Value
Tensile modulus a
E1(MD) psi x 10-3(MPa) 1800 (12,500)
E2(CD) psi x 10-3 (MPa) 670 (4,600)
Compressive modulus—E3 psi x 10-3 (MPa) @
3500 (24,000)
1 kg/cm2
Thermal resistivity with polybutene ρi : C°- 600
cm/W
a. The physical moduli, as well as tensile strength, control the
physical stability of the taped cable core during manufac-
ture and throughout service life.
5-16
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
impregnant. For example, paper impregnated with min-
eral oil has a resistivity of about 500C°-cm/W, but the
same paper impregnated with polybutene has a resistiv-
ity of 600C°-cm/W. Higher density and hardness result
in lower resistivity. Resistivity is best determined by
direct measurement on a piece of completed cable. It is
necessary to energize the cable with dc current to estab-
lish a known heat source at the conductor. The resistiv-
ity is then proportional to the temperature rise of the
conductor relative to the shield. Resistivity is a trade-off
parameter because of its interaction with dielectric loss,
relative permittivity, and dielectric strength.
High-voltage HPFF cables benefit from low resistivity,
because dielectric losses are low, and the temperature
rise that they cause is minor. EHV cables, on the other
h a n d , h ave h i g h e r di e l e c t ri c l o s s a n d a h i g h e r
temperature rise due to dielectric loss. This temperature
ri s e i s p ro p o r t i o n a l t o t h e p ro d u c t o f t h e r m a l
resistivity, relative permittivity, and the dissipation
fac to r of the in sul ati on , wh ich give s ris e to
optimization of these parameters.
Laminated Paper Polypropylene
Physical design characteristics of LPP insulation (as
with cellulose paper) are highly important in determin-
ing essential taping parameters used for manufacturing
the insulated cable core. Since the outer surfaces of the
LPP laminate are paper, the same EHV taping line facil-
ities can be utilized in cable manufacturing.
The ultimate objective of the design procedure is to
develop a proper combination of paper/polypropylene
laminate ratio and tape sizes, coordinated with appro-
priate taping tensions and angles, to produce a uniform
and firm, insulated cable core, which is stable during
bending, particularly in the dry-core state.
The basic and essential physical characteristics that
describe LPP insulation are presented in Table 5-4.
Basically, LPP insulation (as cellulose paper) is limited
thermally to operating temperatures in the region below
120-130°C. Specified maximum continuous ratings are
limited to the 80-90°C range. The paper and polypropy-
lene in laminates are well matched thermally.
It has been well established that cellulose paper
insulations afford marginal stability at temperatures
above 120-130°C, since they exhibit increasing thermal
degradation in physical properties over time beyond
these limits (Gazzana-Priaroggia 1960b). The industry
recommends limits of 100-105°C for long life. Since
melting temperatures of 160-170°C for polypropylene
materials are cited, thermal ratings for LPP-insulated
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type

cable systems are at least equivalent to those for paper- ing surge or operating voltage may then trigger ioniza-
insulated systems. tion discharge, creating an incipient flaw (carbonized
track), and leading to eventual failure.
A representative section of the Waltz Mill 345-kV LPP
cable was thermally evaluated in the laboratory (Allam Breakdown mechanisms for impregnated laminar insu-
et al.1988). An average thermal resistivity value, ρi of lations, such as LPP or paper, essentially involve a com-
575 C°-cm/W, was measured, and a working “design” mon process. However, the central polypropylene film
parameter for ρi of 600 C°-cm/W was established for element in LPP tends to enhance its dielectric strength
use in determining ampacities on LPP-insulated cables. compared to paper, thereby permitting a significant
reduction in insulation-wall thickness. In addition, the
5.4.7 Breakdown Mechanisms close match in relative permittivity between the film ele-
Under normal operating conditions, including proper ment and the fluid impregnant reduces stress concentra-
temperatures and pressures, HPFF pipe-type transmis- tion in butt-space channels.
sion cables (employing either LPP or paper insulation)
exhibit excellent dielectric strength under ac voltage and 5.4.8 Impregnating Liquid
impulse or switching-surge duty. As with all cable sys- The choice and application of impregnating fluid are
tems, surge arresters provide system protection from critical to the manufacturing and performance of pipe-
excessive transient-voltage excursions. Breakdown in type cables.
pipe-type cable is possible under abnormal operation,
such as loss of either system pressure or surge-arrester Mass-impregnated cables require a moderately viscous
protection, or possibly as a result of thermomechanical impregnant that will not drain excessively after leaving
aging and degradation in service. A lightning or switch- the impregnating tank. In general, the highest viscosity
fluid that can be readily filtered, degassed, and pumped
Table 5-4 Physical Characteristics of LPP Insulation between the impregnating tanks and the storage tanks
Temperature is chosen.
Characteristic (°C) Typical Value
Tensile modulusa Pressurized fluid-filled cables overcome the shortcoming
E1 (machine direction) psi x 10-3
25 1100 (7,600) of solid-type cables by eliminating voids in the insula-
(MPa) tion, which ionize under stress and cause damage to
E2 (cross-machine direction) psi both fluid and paper.
25 650 (4,480)
x 10-3 (MPa)
Compressive modulus—E3 psi x
10-3 (MPa) @ 1 kg/cm2
25 800 (5,515) Cables pressurized with gas are designed to tolerate
Polymer ratio—%b 25 45
voids by keeping the pressure in the voids high enough
Thermal resistivity with poly-
to prevent serious ionization. The requirements of the
impregnant for gas-filled cables are similar to nondrain-
butenec ρi : C°-cm/watt
85 600
ing solid-type cables. The impregnant must be highly
Adhesion—peel strength in poly-
25 0.40 (0.071) viscous to keep it in place during handling in the plant
butened lb/in. (kg/cm) width and throughout its service life. In self-contained cables
Cable freeze stabilitye –100 Stable with gas channels, the impregnant must not be allowed
Coefficient of friction (CD) (cross- to clog the channels and cut off the pressure source. In
25 0.35 (Dry)
machine direction)f
high-pressure gas-filled pipe-type systems, a thick
Tendency to swell in oilg 90 Minimal
impregnant is desired to minimize the tendency of the
a. The physical moduli, as well as tensile strength, control the impregnant to drain out of the insulation into the pipe,
physical stability of the taped cable core during manufac- a phenomenon that is accelerated by high operating
ture and throughout service life.
temperature and elevation differences.
b. Polymer ratio influences the electrical properties.
c. Thermal resistivity strongly influences ampacity ratings.
d. Adhesion of the laminate influences cable The primary function of the impregnant is to fill and
structural stability. wet the individual paper fibers with a dielectrically sta-
e. Freeze stability ensures cable safety in performing hard ble and chemically inert substance. The combination of
freeze system repairs. paper and a suitable impregnant has a dielectric
f. Coefficient of friction influences dry core cable stability in strength much higher than either component alone. The
bending and handling. improvement in the dielectric strength of impregnating
g. Stability to oil swelling is essential for uniform cable flexi-
bility, as well as to ensure efficient oil flow during impreg-
fluid when its volume is filled with paper fiber is
nation and subsequent cable system operation in service. undoubtedly caused by barrier effects, which limit the

5-17
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
mobility of ionic species and electronic charges exposed
to the accelerating forces of electrical stress. The
improvement in paper strength when impregnated is
likely due to several effects, including the containment
of free charges associated with the paper fiber by molec-
ular interaction with the hydrocarbon, the reduction of
stress enhancement at the surface of the fibers caused by
permittivity mismatch, and a quieting of ionic activity in
the space surrounding the fiber caused by the high den-
sity of the impregnant.
The key point is that each paper fiber must be wetted by
the impregnant to achieve the necessary improvement in
dielectric strength. When properly impregnated, the
next level of dielectric weakness of the paper-fluid com-
bination are voids, where charged particles can accumu-
late sufficient kinetic energy to initiate the destruction
of the material surrounding the void. This weakness is
countered by higher pressure (density) in the void, as in
gas-filled systems, or prevention of void formation, as in
fluid-filled systems. The next level of strength is limited
by the unavoidable free-liquid volume associated with
butt spaces between successive paper turns. This weak-
ness is aided by keeping the butt gap width as small as
possible and controlling the radial thickness of the gap
in proportion to the local radial stress. The butt space
electrical strength is improved by higher viscosity
impregnant and higher pressure.
Mineral oils served as the source of impregnants and
filling fluids for decades, but have been displaced by
synthetic fluids for a number of reasons. Polybutene flu-
ids were introduced in the 1950s as a means to lower
dielectric losses for EHV pipe cables. Their use as
impregnants and pipe-filling fluids has since become
common. In the 1970s, mineral oils suffered from short-
ages of crude and from pressures on the environmental
front, particularly in the disposal of waste from the acid
wash necessary to reduce the loss characteristic to toler-
able levels. This resulted in the increased use of poly-
butene and blends of polybutene and alkylbenzene. By
the mid 1980s, all pipe-type cables made in North
America—both kraft paper and laminated paper
polypropylene—used polybutene as their impregnant,
and pipe-filling fluids were low-viscosity polybutene or
alkylbenzene or blends of polybutene and alkylbenzene.
5.5 CABLE OUTER LAYERS AND FILLING
MEDIUM
5.5.1 Outer Layers
All cable components external to the insulation shield
layer (the basic semiconducting carbon-black papers or
metallized-paper layers in direct contact with the outer
5-18
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
surface of the insulation) of pipe-type cables are referred
to as outer cable layers. These components are
employed in pipe-type cable designs to provide one or
more of the following:
• Metallic drainage of capacitive charging current
• Adequate short-circuit current-carrying capability
• Protection against external mechanical damage
• Protection from moisture ingress into the cable
• Reduction of impregnant drainage during shipment
and storage
• Mechanical strength during and after installation
• Pressurizing enclosure
Moisture Seal/Outer Shielding Assembly
The first component applied outside the insulation
shield of a pipe-type cable is referred to as either the
moisture seal or the outer shielding assembly.
The primary purposes of the moisture seal/outer shield-
ing assembly are to provide a semipermeable seal over
the insulation structure, so that impregnating fluid can-
not readily drain from the cable insulation, and to pre-
vent moisture from entering the cable insulation during
storage, transportation, and installation. The assembly
is purposely made semipermeable to allow fluid to move
between the cable insulation and the pipe-filling fluid
and vice versa during load cycling, thereby preventing
the creation of voids in the insulation due to fluid star-
vation during the cool-down portion of the load cycle.
The secondary purpose of the outer shielding assembly
is to provide mechanical protection to the insulation
and insulation shield during handling and installation in
the pipe.
The moisture seal/outer shielding assembly consists of
one or more layers of metallized polyester tape applied
directly over the insulation shield. Polyester is impervi-
ous to cable-impregnating fluids. The metallizing con-
sists of a thin layer of aluminum, which is bonded to the
polyester. The tapes are helically intercalated with the
metallized side of one tape facing the insulation shield
and the metallized side of the other tape facing away
from the insulation shield. In this way, electrical conti-
nuity is maintained between the insulation shield and
the subsequently applied metallic coverings.
One factor affecting the drainage of pipe-type cable
impregnant is the diameter of the shipping reel. Drain-
age is a function of the head pressure developed
between the top and bottom sections of a layer of cable.
For this reason, it is desirable to apply a second set of
metallized polyester tapes on large cables that must be
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
placed on large shipping reels. The second set is applied
with a lay direction opposite to that of the first set.
Cable for long-duration shipment, especially to tropical
areas, often has a second set of moisture barrier tapes,
as well.
The second component of the moisture seal/outer
shielding assembly is a nonmagnetic metal tape applied
helically and intercalated with a plain or metallized
polyester tape (metallized side facing conductor),
commonly called the shielding tape. The metal tape is
usually copper, tinned copper, zinc alloy, or stainless
steel. The purpose of the intercalated polyester tape is to
cover the exposed edges of the metal shielding tape and
increase the effective impedance of the metal shielding
layer and, thereby, reduce the cable shield losses due to
circulating currents in these components. Zinc alloy is
used because of its low cost. Tinned copper has been
used in earlier cables rated 345 kV or above, having
stringent dissipation-factor requirements, where the
possibility of an increase in fluid dissipation factor
could result from contact of bare copper with earlier
cable impregnants and pipe-filling fluids. Stainless steel
has been used because of its high strength. In present-
day practice, most manufacturers use only stainless steel
and zinc alloy materials. Figure 5-11 shows the moisture
seal/outer shielding assembly on HPFF cable.
Skid Wire Assembly
The next component of the outer layers of a pipe-type
cable is the skid wire assembly. The purpose of the skid
wire assembly is to protect the outer shielding assembly
and reduce the coefficient of friction between the cable
and pipe during installation. The skid wires have a
“D”-shaped cross section. Two wires are generally
applied with the flat face of the “D” against the cable
surface. AEIC specifications require that the axial spac-
ing between adjacent turns must be a nominal 1.5 in.
(3.8 cm). The standard dimensions of the skid wires are
0.1 x 0.2 in. (2.5 x 5 mm) height and width. Typical skid
Figure 5-11 HPFF cable showing moisture seal and
outer shielding assembly (courtesy of Prysmian Cables
& Systems).
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
wire materials are zinc alloy, bronze, brass, or stainless
steel depending on the cable weight and installation
conditions. Stainless steel provides the highest resistance
to abrasion and the lowest coefficient of friction. Chap-
ter 12 describes the effect of the coefficient of friction on
cable-pulling forces.
Armoring (Optional)
In special applications, one or two other components
may be included in the outer layers of a pipe-type cable.
Armoring is employed in cables intended for operation
in vertical configurations such as long riser cables. The
armor is clamped inside the pipe and supports the cable
weight. Armoring may also be required in installations
in which the pipe has sections with a large sloping pro-
file to prevent the cables from shifting downhill during
load cycling. This downhill shifting can result in the
cable accumulating in the lower regions of the pipe, and
more seriously, it can cause damage to joints or adjacent
cable in these regions by bending them within the joint
casing and/or wedging them against the downhill reduc-
ers (EPRI 1988, 1990; Bankoske et al.1978; Chamberlin
1980). Chapter 8 describes the anchor joints at the top
of the slope and the skid joints at the bottom.
Armoring generally consists of one or more layers of
rectangular nonmagnetic stainless-steel strips with
rounded edges. The strips are applied helically over the
outer shield assembly and under the skid wires. The
width and number of armor strips are chosen so that
there is 100% coverage around the core. The thickness
of the armor strips is usually 0.02-0.035 in. (0.5-
0.9 mm), and the width is about 0.315 in. (8 mm) for a
typical 345-kV cable. These dimensions vary depending
on the cable’s overall diameter. By nature of its design,
the armoring and skid wire assembly has a much lower
impedance than the normal outer covering, and this
may adversely affect the ampacity due to increased
shield losses.
Lead Sheath (Optional)
Sometimes a temporary lead sheath is applied to cables
that are expected to be kept in storage for long periods
of time, such as spare cable lengths. The temporary
lead sheath is generally 0.1 in. (2.5 mm) thick, and one
or two fine steel rip wires installed underneath to facili-
tate stripping. It is necessary to pressurize the sealed
length with nitrogen gas at about 5 psig (34 kPa) to
monitor the sheath’s integrity continuously during
long-term storage.
Pipe
The final outer component for pipe-type cable is the
pipe. Three individually insulated and shielded conduc-
tors are installed in the pipe. The pipe provides the her-
metic seal and enclosure for keeping moisture out and
5-19
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
containing the pressurizing fluid (liquid or gas) under
which these cables must operate. The pipe provides
mechanical protection to the cable as well as a path for
fault current.
Carbon-steel line pipe is used for practically all multicon-
ductor (three cables per pipe) cable installations.
Although pipes and pipe systems of various alternative
designs—such as fiberglass-reinforced aluminum, stain-
less steel, steel/epoxy laminates, and carbon steel with
high-permeability liners—have been proposed and stud-
ied (Eager and Silver 1982; EPRI 1982), none has been
used extensively. Although these proposed systems often
offer savings due to increases in MVA rating versus higher
installation costs, the carbon-steel pipe is most versatile
with regard to handling, joining, and bending in the field.
Nonmagnetic stainless-steel pipe is used for cable riser
sections. In rare single-cable-per-pipe installations, non-
magnetic stainless steel and fiberglass-reinforced alumi-
num have been used (Grosser 1973). Nonmagnetic
stainless steel was also used for one trial installation with
three cables inside in the 1970s but not used again after
that because of cost and other installation difficulties.
Carbon-steel pipe per ASTM A523 Specification
(ASTM 2001), which has been coated internally and
externally, is employed in pipe-type cable circuits. The
wall thickness of the pipe is generally 0.250 in. (6.4 mm),
except for submarine crossings where a 0.375 in.
(9.5 mm) or even heavier wall thickness is used for
greater ruggedness and long-term reliability. The coat-
ing on the inside of the pipe is a rust-inhibiting epoxy,
which protects the inner surface during storage, facili-
tates cleaning after installation, and provides a smooth
surface for pulling in the cables.
The outer surface of the pipe is covered primarily for
corrosion protection and to provide an insulating cover-
ing, so that impressed-current cathodic protection can
be applied. In early pipe-type cable installations, the
pipe was coated with Somastic (asphalt mastic) or bitu-
mastic coal tar saturated glass tape and felt. The coating
layer was about 0.5 in. (12.7 mm) thick for Somastic and
about 0.18 in. (4.6 mm) thick for the coal tar coating.
Present-day practice is to use pipe coated with layers of
butyl-rubber and high-density polyethylene or adhesive-
bonded extruded polypropylene. These coatings are rel-
atively thin (0.06-0.12 in. [1.5-3.0 mm]) and have excel-
lent resistance to bacterial and chemical attack,
abrasion, and mechanical damage. The pipe for long
water crossings using horizontal directional drilling is
typically coated with a fusion-bonded epoxy, followed
by a tough polymer-concrete coating. Chapter 10 pro-
vides further information on corrosion coatings.
5-20
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
5.5.2 Pipe-Filling Medium
Applications in Power Cables
The principal types of liquids historically used in cables
in the United States are mineral oils, polybutenes, and
alkylbenzenes. Alkylbenzene liquid has also been
blended with mineral oil to reduce its tendency to gas
under voltage stress and with polybutene liquid to
reduce viscosity. Both polybutene and alkylbenzene liq-
uids and blends of both are being used as make-up flu-
ids in HPFF cables (i.e., to top-off the fluid in the
system in the event of leaks or feeder rearrangement).
Blending of Insulating Liquids
Mineral oils, polybutene, and alkylbenzene liquids of
the types commonly used in high-voltage cables can be
blended with each other, generally without any unusual
effects.
Lower-viscosity liquids may be obtained by blending a
very-low-viscosity liquid (often an alkylbenzene) with
the existing pipe-filling fluid to achieve the desired vis-
cosity. The viscosity of the resultant blend of liquids
may be calculated using the following formula:
C = AxB1-x (cSt) 5-1
⎛C⎞
log ⎜ ⎟
X= ⎝ B⎠ 5-2
⎛A⎞
log ⎜ ⎟
⎝ B⎠
Where:
A = Viscosity of one liquid, cSt.
B = Viscosity of second liquid, cSt.
C = Desired or resultant viscosity, cSt.
X = Proportion of liquid A, by volume.
1-X = Proportion of liquid B, by volume.
The accuracy of this formula is highest when the specific
gravities of the two liquids are the same. In practice, the
specific gravity of liquids used as cable impregnants and
filling materials does not differ enough to significantly
affect this calculation.
Blends can also increase gas absorption, reduce oxida-
tion during aging, improve voltage breakdown strength,
decrease moisture transmission, and reduce dissipation
factor before and after aging. Care must be taken in
blending, because in some cases, adverse effects can
result. For example, the mixture may have a higher dissi-
pation factor than either of the two liquid components.
The properties of mixtures should be evaluated prior to
use. Polybutene liquids with different viscosities can be
blended to secure intermediate viscosities.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Types—Mineral Oils, Polybutene, Alkylbenzene,
and Mixtures
Mineral Oils
Mineral oils were the liquids that were used predomi-
nantly in the United States as impregnants and filling
oils in transmission cables through the late 1960s
(Whitehead 1935; Gemant 1933). They were obtained
from crude petroleums, which are a naturally occurring
mixture, essentially comprising hydrocarbons removed
from the earth in liquid state. Those suitable for trans-
mission cables are often classified as paraffinic, naph-
thenic, or aromatic, depending on the main constituent
of their distillation residue. The main components of
mineral oil are carbon and hydrogen, together with
small amounts of sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen, and trace
amounts of vanadium, sodium, nickel, and iron. Car-
bon and hydrogen are present in paraffinic, naphthenic,
and aromatic hydrocarbons; sulfur, nitrogen, and oxy-
gen are present with carbon and hydrogen in the hetero-
aromatic compounds. Mineral oil thus is a complex
mixture of hydrocarbons with generally a small amount
of hetero-aromatic and metallic compounds.
Since transmission cables operate at high-voltage
stresses, the crude oil must be highly refined, so that it
has good electrical properties, oxidation stability, and
low gas-evolving properties. This requires low sulfur
and nitrogen content and a proper aromatic content.
This is accomplished by successive distillation, filtra-
tion, and chemical treatments. The principal aims of the
refining process are to remove or reduce waxes, sulfur,
nitrogen, and oxygen-containing compounds, and to
control the aromatic hydrocarbons. Although mineral
oils show excellent insulating properties after the refin-
ing processes, they still possess measurable electrical
conductivity and dielectric loss and are subject to rapid
deterioration in the presence of small quantities of air
and moisture, especially when catalyzed by contact with
cuprous materials.
Typical electrical, chemical, and physical properties of
mineral oils that have been commercially used in trans-
mission cables in the United States are given in
Table 5-5. The properties of oils that are used differ in
practice in some cases from the values shown in
Table 5-5 because of sources and refining processes. The
properties shown for high-pressure fluid-filled (HPFF)
cable impregnants are similar to those shown for gas-
pressurized cable impregnants.
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
Polybutene Insulating Liquids
Polybutene liquids were the first to replace mineral oils
in high-voltage cables in the United States. Beginning in
the 1930s, these liquids were used as impregnants for
HPGF pipe-type cables (Sticher et al. 1948). Subse-
quently, they have been used as impregnants in solid-
type paper-insulated riser cables, in HPFF pipe-type
cables both as the impregnant and pipe-filling fluid, and
as the filling fluid in SCFF cables. Polybutene liquids
are synthetic hydrocarbons. They are produced from
petroleum, natural gases, or byproducts of coal gasifica-
tion. Similar to mineral oils, the main constituents of
polybutene liquids are carbon and hydrogen.
Generally, in the manufacture of polybutene liquids,
butylene or iso-butylene gas is separated from other
gases at the refinery and is typically distilled using a cat-
alyst and an acid activator. The molecular weight range
of typical polybutene liquids is 300 to 3500 AMU. The
liquids later are purified by removal of the catalyst, fol-
lowed by neutralization of the activator, distillation,
drying, and filtering to remove moisture and impurities
to produce a satisfactory insulating liquid.
Typical electrical, chemical, and physical properties of
polybutene liquids commercially used in cables in the
United States are given in Table 5-6. Polybutene liquids
may have slightly different properties in practice than
those shown in Table 5-6 because the butylene gas used
may differ in molecular structure, which can result in
different properties in the final product. The polybutene
liquid used as an impregnant for HPGF pipe-type
cables was developed expressly for this product.
The polybutene liquid used for HPFF pipe-filling fluid
has also been used as make-up fluid in existing cable
systems. The polybutene liquid used in HPGF pipe-type
cables is an important component, because it must not
significantly drain from the insulation structure during
service. Consequently, an impregnant that has a high
viscosity, even at high temperatures, is necessary.
The properties of polybutene liquids inherently are simi-
lar to paraffinic petroleum oils. However, the poly-
butene liquids are produced from a substantially pure
gas, and the molecular weight can be varied over a wide
range. The final electrical properties depend on the
maintenance of purity and the removal of contaminants
introduced by the catalyst and activator, and on the dis-
tillation process.
5-21
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Alkylbenzene Liquids tent product than mineral oil with superior gassing
Alkylbenzene liquids were introduced in SCFF cables in properties under electrical stress. These liquids have fre-
the late 1960s as an alternative to mineral oil (IEEE quently been used as HPFF pipe-filling liquids, often
[Japan] 1968). Alkylbenzene liquids were a more consis- blended with polybutenes.

Table 5-5 Typical Properties of Mineral Oils Commonly Used in U.S. Transmission Cables
ASTM D Test HPFF Cable-
HPFF Pipe-Filling Oil
Method Impregnating Oil
Electrical Properties
Dissipation factor, % (100 tan δ)
100°C. 60 Hz
As received 924 0.3 0.6
Aged, max. 1934A 2.0 2.8
Dielectric strength, kV, 60 Hz, 0.1 in. (2.5 mm)
877
spacing at
25°C >30 >30
80°C >30 >30
Dc volume resistivity,
x 1012 ohm-cm, 100°C
As received 1169 60 20
Aged, min. 1934A 0.1 0.5
Chemical Properties
Corrosive sulfur 1275 Noncorrosive
Total sulfur, % 129 0.07 0.09
Neutralization no., mg KOH/g
As received 974 0.02 0.05
Aged, max. 1934A 0.06 0.10
Water content, ppm, max. 1533 30 30

Gassing under electrical stress, µl /min., 80°C 2300B –2 –2

Physical Properties
Viscosity, SUS at 88
100°F (37.8°C) 3350 775
210°F (98.9°C) 115 60
Pour point, °C 97 9 –20
Flash point, °C 92 235 193
Color, ASTM number, max.
As received 1500 2.0 1.5
Aged 1934A 5.0 4.0
Interfacial tension, dyne/cm 971 – 40
Coef. of thermal expansion x 10-4 1903
°F 3.7 3.7
°C 6.7 6.7
Specific heat. 32°F (0°C), 2766
Btu/lb 0.40 0.40
J/gram 0.93 0.93
Thermal conductivity 2717
Btu/hr-ft-°F 0.072 0.072
W/cm-°C 0.00125 0.00125
Specific optical dispersion, x 10-4 1807 113 110
Molecular weight, AMU 2224 450 370
Specific gravity. 15.6°C 1298 0.93 0.93

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type

Alkylbenzene liquids are synthetic hydrocarbons. They chloride or hydrofluoric acid. The product is then puri-
are produced by first making the appropriate aromatic fied by the removal of the catalyst and acid by-products.
and n-paraffin, or olefin, then reacting the polymer with This is followed by distillation, filtration, and drying to
benzene in the presence of a catalyst such as aluminum produce an acceptable electrical-insulating liquid.

Table 5-6 Typical Properties of Polybutene Dielectric Liquids Commonly Used in U.S. Transmission Cables
ASTM D Test HPFF Cable-Impregnating
HPFF Pipe-Filling Liquid
Method Liquid
Electrical Properties
Dissipation factor, % (100 tan δ)
100°C, 60 Hz
As received 924 0.05 0.10
Aged, max. 1934A 0.20 0.20
Dielectric strength. kV, 60 Hz, 0.1 in. (2.5 mm)
877
spacing at
25°C >35 >35
80°C >35 >35
Dc volume resistivity,
x 1012 ohm-cm, 100°C
As received 1169 712 150
Aged, min. 1934A - 100
Chemical Properties
Inorganic chlorides and sulfates 878 None None
Organically bound chloride, W% 2522 0.004 0.004
Neutralization no., mg KOH/g
As received 974 0.02 0.02
Aged. max. 1934A 0.10 0.10
Water content, ppm, max. 1533 35 35

Gassing under electrical stress, µl /min., 80°C 2300B -20 -30

Physical Properties
Viscosity, SUS at 88
100°F (37.7°C) 3500 560
210°F (98.9°C) 164 65
Pour point, °C 97 -20 -30
Flash point, °C 92 150 140
Specific gravity, 15.6°C 1298 0.87 0.85
Color, ASTM number, max
As received 1500 0.5 0.5
Aged 1934A 1.0 1.0
Coef. of thermal exp.
x 10-4/°F 1903 4.0 4.0
x 10-4/°C 7.2 7.2
Specific heat. 32°F (0°C), 2766
Btu/lb 0.48 0.46
J/gram 1.12 1.07
Thermal conductivity 2717
Btu/hr.-ft.-°F 0.062 0.062
W/cm-°C 0.00107 0.00107
Molecular weight. AMU 2224 550 400

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Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Typical electrical, chemical, and physical properties of liquids. Table 5-7 presents data on two typical liquids,
alkylbenzene liquids commercially used in transmission one having a conventional viscosity for the type of cable
cables are given in Table 5-7. The alkylbenzenes possess represented, and the other a lower viscosity.
low viscosity compared to mineral oils or polybutene

Table 5-7 Typical Properties of Alkylbenzene Cable Liquids

ASTM D Test
HPFF Pipe-Filling Liquid
Method
Low
Regular Viscosity
Electrical Properties
Dissipation factor, % (100 tan δ)
100°C, 60 Hz
As received 924 0.04 0.04
Aged, max. 1934A 0.20 0.20
Dielectric strength. kV, 60 Hz
877
0.1 in. (2.5 mm) spacing at
25°C >35 >35
80°C >35 >35
Dc volume resistivity,
x 1012 ohm-cm, 100°C
As received 1169 500 500
Aged, min. 1934A - -
Chemical Properties
Neutralization no., mg KOH/g
As received 974 0.02 0.02
Aged. max. 1934A 0.10 0.10
Inorganic chlorides and sulfates, ppm 878 None None
Organically bound chloride, ppm, max. 2522 40 40

Gassing under electrical stress, µl /min., 80°C 2300B -30 -30

Water content, ppm, max. 1533 35 35
Physical Properties
Viscosity, SUS at 88
100°F (37.8°C) 150 98
210°F (98.9°C) 41 37
Pour point, °C 97 -40 -50
Flash point, °C 92 160 160
Specific gravity, 15.6°C 1298 0.87 0.87
Color, ASTM number, max. 1500
As received 1.0 1.0
Coef. of thermal exp. x 10-4 1903
°F 4.2 4.4
°C 7.6 7.9
Specific heat. 32°F (0°C), 2766
Btu/lb 0.45 0.45
J/gram 1.05 1.05
Thermal conductivity 2717
Btu/hr.-ft.-°F 0.06 0.06
W/cm-°C 0.00104 0.00104

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Both branched and linear alkylbenzenes are used for
high-voltage cables. In general, the branched type is pre-
ferred because of higher autoignition temperature,
greater resistance to oxidation, and biodegradability.
The greater availability of linear alkylbenzenes, however,
has resulted in their more extensive use.
Electrical Properties
Dissipation Factor
The dissipation factor (commonly called the power fac-
tor) of impregnating and filling liquids in transmission
cables is an extremely important parameter. It must be
low initially to limit dielectric loss, and remain reason-
ably low while the cable is in operation to avoid cable
failure due to excessive local heating of the insulation.
While dissipation factor values are dominated by the
cable paper, the dielectric liquid plays a major role as
well.
The dissipation factor is a measure of the losses as a
consequence of the component of current in the liquid
that is in phase with the applied voltage and, when asso-
ciated with cable-insulating liquids, is generally consid-
ered as tan d, as shown in Figure 5-12 (Emanueli 1930).
In this figure,
E = applied voltage, kV.
I = total current, A.
Ia = absorption current.
I’a = component due to capacitance.
I’’a = component due to absorption.
Io = true conductance, current.
Ic = capacitance current.
Figure 5-12 Current in typical cable dielectric liquid due to
applied voltage.
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
The power dissipated in the liquid that impregnates the
cable insulation and has an apparent capacitance (C) is
given by the following expression:
W=IE cos θ, (watts) 5-3
= (Ic +I’a) tan δ (see Figure 5-12)
= ωC E2 tan δ
Where:
W = power dissipated in the cable-impregnating
liquid, watts.
ω = 2πf angular frequency, radians.
f = frequency of the applied voltage, Hz.
tan δ = dissipation factor, dimensionless.
If the liquid had no pure conduction or absorption cur-
rents, both I’a and I’’a would be zero, and the specimen
would act like a gas. The pure conduction current is ionic,
and the absorption current is due to the movement of
ions, dipoles, and space charges. Low-dissipation-factor
liquid is achieved through proper refining and removal of
moisture and gas.
The dissipation factor of polybutene and alkylbenzene
liquids is markedly lower than mineral oils. This is
because of their greater purity, which results in lower
ionic content, and the lack of dipoles and space charges.
The increase in dissipation factor of the synthetic liq-
uids, when aged in oxygen, is significant but much lower
than in mineral oils. Because the synthetic liquids are
made from pure gas, proper processing can achieve a
low dissipation factor even with low-viscosity liquids
and even after aging in the presence of oxygen.
Dielectric Strength
The voltage breakdown strength of liquids must be high
for use in transmission cables. High breakdown voltage
is achieved by proper purification, refinement, and
removal of even small quantities of water.
There are two types of voltage breakdown in liquids
used in power cables—pure electric and thermal. The
former type does not occur often in high-voltage cable
while in service and is independent of pressure and tem-
perature. The latter type of breakdown is more com-
mon. The final stages of thermal breakdown generally
are the liberation of gas, gaseous ionization, cumulative
heating, and, finally, electron avalanche. The original
heating may be due to the pure conduction and absorp-
tion currents. High pressure significantly increases the
breakdown strength, because it suppresses ionization
and reduces the liberation of gas. This is one reason that
HPFF pipe-type cable is successful.
All commercial-grade dielectric liquids, with physical
properties suitable for use in transmission cable possess
approximately the same voltage-breakdown strength
5-25
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
wh e n m e a s u re d u n d e r s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s. T h e
breakdown strength of unused dielectric liquid depends
principally on the purity achieved by the distillation
and filtering processes at the refinery. The breakdown
strength is dramatically reduced by small amounts of
water or particulates and somewhat reduced by the
presence of gas. Aside from these factors, the voltage-
breakdown stress depends on the spacing between test
electrodes. The unit-breakdown stress for a given
insulating liquid increases significantly as the thickness
of the film is decreased; this is why thinner paper is
often used near the cable conductor to give thinner butt
gaps. Aside from water and gas, contaminants not
removed during refining or that have unavoidably been
a d d e d t o t h e l i q u i d s u c h a s p ap e r fi b e r s, e t c .
significantly reduce voltage-breakdown strength. As the
temperature of the dielectric liquid is increased, its
voltage-breakdown strength decreases. The only
physical property of unused mineral oil that has an
effect on its breakdown strength is its viscosity, and the
effect is minimal. The basic classifications of mineral
oil, paraffinic or naphthenic, have little if any effect on
voltage-breakdown strength.
The voltage breakdown strength of polybutene and
alkylbenzene liquids is considerably higher than mineral
oils. The higher voltage-breakdown strength of these
liquids is most likely due to their higher inherent purity
and low level of contaminants, rather than the basic
properties of the liquids.
Resistivity
The resistivity of an insulating liquid depends on its
composition and refining process, moisture and gas con-
tent, metallic contaminants, and other ingredients such
as acids, esters, phenols, and sulfonates. Mineral oils
have lower resistivity than polybutene and alkylben-
zenes. Resistivity decreases with increasing temperatures
and decreasing viscosity.
The resistivity of insulating liquids is subject to the
Ohm’s law expression only at low-voltage gradients
(Whitehead 1935). The resistivity decreases nonlinearly
above a voltage stress of about 50 V/mil (2 kV/mm),
principally because of ionization. This voltage gradient
is less than gradients in the butt spaces and other liquid-
filled spaces that exist in transmission cables. Further-
more, the resistivity increases with time immediately
after the application of voltage stress in a nonlinear
fashion before reaching a steady value. The resistivity
decreases markedly with temperature so that in trans-
mission cables, the additional complication exists that
the resistivity of the liquid near the conductor is lower
than that of the liquid near the insulation shield. Even
after removing the contaminants by highly purifying the
5-26
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
liquid by filtration and removing the air and moisture
by degassing and dehydration, the liquid (particularly
mineral oil) possesses anomalous conductivity or
absorption characteristics because of the existence of
dipoles and space charges. Many of these factors that
affect conductivity correspondingly affect resistivity,
both dc and, to a somewhat different degree, ac. The
industry has responded to this wide influence of
variables by relying on the low-voltage-stress dc
resistivity parameter to characterize liquids for use in
transmission cables.
Relative Permittivity
The relative permittivity of mineral oil is approximately
the same for all types, regardless of the source of the
crude. When the oil is degassed and dehydrated, the rel-
ative permittivity at 60 Hz is usually in the range of
2.15–2.35. Theoretically, the relative permittivity is
equal to the square of the index of refraction. An empir-
ical formula that relates specific gravity (sp gr) of min-
eral oil with relative permittivity is:
relative permittivity = 0.237 + 2.23 x sp gr 5-4
Since the typical specific gravity at 15.6°C of HPFF
cable impregnating fluid is 0.93, the relative permittivity
given by the above formula is equal to 2.31.
The relative permittivity of polybutene liquids at 60 Hz
is approximately the same as that of mineral oils; the
range is 2.08-2.30. The slightly lower values observed in
polybutene liquids are due to their low content of
dipoles and space charges.
The relative permittivity of alkylbenzene liquids at
60 Hz is slightly higher than that of mineral oils and
polybutene liquids. The range is 2.1-2.5 depending
upon the number of aromatic rings present. The
higher relative permittivity is associated with the mul-
tiple ring structures.
The variations of relative permittivity of the various
l i q u i d s a re n o t s i g n i fi c a n t i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e
c ap a c i t a n c e o f t h e c abl e a n d di e l e c t ri c l o s s o f
impregnated-paper insulation because the relative per-
mittivity of dry paper is generally in the range of 4.5-5.5,
and this has a greater influence on the impregnated-
paper relative permittivity. There is little change in the
relative permittivity of liquids over the temperature
range encountered by transmission cables.
Physical Properties
Viscosity
Viscosity is the most important physical property for
liquids used in cables (Gemant 1933; Emanueli 1930).
The optimum viscosity to use depends on the type of
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
cable system. For HPFF cables, a relatively viscous liq-
uid is required for the impregnant. The viscosity must
be low enough for the liquid to move through the paper
insulation during temperature changes due to loading in
service, but high enough not to drain from the cable
during certain steps in cable manufacture, storage, and
installation. On the other hand, the viscosity of the
pipe-filling liquid for HPFF cable must be low enough
so that pressure can be maintained throughout the
length of the pipe at all times and pressure drop can be
limited during rapid circulation. Low-viscosity liquid
reduces transient pressures and permits longer feeds.
For HPGF pipe-type cables, a viscous liquid is required
to prevent excessive drainage from the cable insulation
into the pipe during normal service.
The viscosity of liquids decreases to a considerable
extent with increasing temperature. The viscosity-
te mperat ure relatio nship, or vi scosity index, is
important in cable applications. Viscosities of typical
cable liquids, as related to temperature or viscosity
index, are given in Figure 5-13.
The curves of Figure 5-13 can be obtained if the viscos-
ity of a liquid is known at two temperatures. This is true
generally for cable liquids from approximately 5°C
above the pour point to 5°C below the flash point. The
viscosity scale is based on an empirical equation that
relates viscosity to temperature, as follows:
log log (υ + k) = A +B log (T)
Figure 5-13 Viscosities of typical liquids used in U.S.
cables. (Note: This figure uses the abbreviation SCLF
[self-contained liquid-filled], which is termed SCFF [self-
contained fluid-filled] in this reference book.)
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
Where:
υ = viscosity, cSt.
T = absolute temperature, K.
A&B = constants for a given liquid.
k = a universal constant for values of υ greater
than 1.5.
Polybutene liquids can be manufactured to a specific
viscosity. The commercial range is quite wide, varying
from about 115 to 112,000 Saybolt Universal Seconds
(SUS) at 100°F (37.8°C). This makes polybutene liquids
attractive to the cable industry because, as can be
observed in Table 5-6, polybutenes have applications in
cables requiring a wide range of viscosities, not feasible
with mineral oils even with additives. Furthermore,
polybutene liquids have a smaller change in viscosity
with temperature than mineral oils. They are character-
ized by tackiness, which prevents excessive draining
from the insulation structure during shipment and
installation of HPFF pipe-type cables and during ser-
vice of HPGF pipe-type cables. The viscosities of poly-
butene liquids render them suitable for impregnation in
cable accessories since they have less tendency to drain
at operating temperatures.
Alkylbenzene liquids are characterized by low viscosity.
The commercial range used for high-voltage cable is
approximately 35-550 SUS at 100°F (37.8°C).
Pour Point
5-5 The “pour point” is the lowest temperature at which a
frozen liquid just begins to flow when thawed at a pre-
scribed rate of temperature change. The pour point is an
important parameter for cable liquids, particularly for
filling liquids. For mineral oils, the pour point of the
crude is quite high, particularly for the paraffinic crudes.
The pour point is lowered in temperature by the refining
process when the waxes of the crude are reduced or
removed and further reduced by blending the mineral
oil with other types of liquids such as polybutenes. The
pour point of polybutene and alkylbenzene liquids is
lower than that of mineral oils for the same viscosities.
Flammability
The ease with which a liquid ignites and burns is an
important parameter, particularly for filling liquids in
HPFF and SCFF cables. The degree of flammability of
a liquid can be determined by a number of tests; the one
commonly used in the United States is the flash point.
The “flash point” is the lowest temperature at which
sufficient vapor is produced to ignite momentarily when
a flame is applied to the liquid under controlled condi-
tions of temperature, time, and flame size (ASTM D
92-02, 2003a). When the temperature of a liquid during
handling or in operation is significantly below that of its
flash point, it is not considered to be a fire hazard.
5-27
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
Mineral oils are flammable, and their combustion is an
exothermic reaction that promotes fire propagation.
Vapors of petroleum oil explode when mixed in the right
proportion with oxygen if ignited by a spark. Such mix-
tures can occur in tank cars, drums, and other contain-
ers where oil is handled or stored. The higher viscosity
and molecular weight oils have higher flash points.
The flammability properties of polybutene and alkylben-
zene liquids vary somewhat from those of mineral oils
used in power cables. The flammability of polybutene liq-
uids can be modified to some extent by narrowing the
boiling range during the manufacturing process.
Interfacial Tension
The tension at the interface between two liquids is
known as interfacial tension. The interfacial tension of
mineral oils against water is the usual method employed
(ASTM D 971-99, 1999) to measure this parameter.
This method is very sensitive to polar and ionic contam-
inants in the oil that increase dissipation factor, reduce
resistivity, decrease voltage-breakdown strength, and
decrease resistance to oxidation.
The interfacial tension of polybutene and alkylbenzene
liquids generally is not measured in new supplies
because, in their manufacture, the polar and ionic com-
ponents are not significant in commercial grades used for
cables. After being in service, however, these liquids can
pick up contaminants from pipes and system equipment.
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion, Specific Heat, and
Thermal Conductivity
The coefficient of thermal expansion, the specific heat,
and the thermal conductivity of mineral oils vary with
molecular weight and specific gravity. Table 5-5 shows
typical values for various applications of mineral oils
used in the United States. Although the refining process
alters these properties, they are not significantly
changed, and more attention is given to obtaining an oil
with good electrical properties, oxidation stability, and
gas-absorbing properties. The specific gravity is gener-
ally lowered during the refining process, indirectly
affecting these properties.
The above parameters of polybutene and alkylbenzene
liquids vary with molecular weight and are quite similar
to mineral oils. Tables 5-6 and 5-7, respectively, show
typical values for the different types used in cables in the
United States. The thermal conductivity is slightly lower
than that of mineral oil; however, the smaller change of
viscosity with temperature ensures fluidity over a wider
temperature range. The specific heat increases with tem-
perature and is slightly higher than for mineral oils of
the same viscosity. The coefficient of expansion of poly-
butene and alkylbenzene liquids is slightly higher than
5-28
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
that of mineral oils. However, the differences among the
cable liquids in these parameters are not significant in
cable operation.
Specific Optical Dispersion
The specific optical dispersion of a mineral oil is the dif-
ference between the refractive indices of light of two dif-
ferent wavelengths (ANSI 1978). It can be used to
determine the amount of unsaturated compounds
present in the oil. Because the dispersion values are
essentially the same for naphthenic and paraffinic oils,
values bear a direct relationship to the amount of aro-
matic compounds present in the oil. Typical values for
mineral oils are given in Table 5-5. The refractive index
varies with the amount of contaminants held in solu-
tion. It is advantageous for the mineral oil to have a rea-
sonably high aromatic component to impart adequate
gas-absorbing tendencies, especially if subjected to ionic
bombardment in air spaces and voids. This is particu-
larly true in SCFF cable applications. The specific opti-
cal dispersion characteristic is not important in
polybutene and alkylbenzene liquids, because they
absorb gas under conditions of ionic bombardment.
Chemical Properties
Sulfur Content
Sulfur in a mineral oil can decompose on heated metal
surfaces, become corrosive, and produce metal sulfides
that can affect the electrical properties of the oil and
provide nuclei for discharge, causing incipient gas gener-
ation in the oil (ANSI 1978). Therefore, the sulfur con-
tent of the oil should be maintained at a low level, and
this is accomplished in the refining process. Electrical
insulating oils require good electrical properties, oxida-
tion stability, and gas-absorbing properties. This
requires low sulfur and nitrogen content. The sulfur
content of typical mineral oils is shown in Table 5-5.
When tested for corrosive sulfur in accordance with
ASTM D 1275-03 (ASTM 2003c), the results should be
“noncorrosive.” The purpose of this test is to detect
objectionable quantities of free sulfur and corrosive sul-
fur compounds.
Because polybutene and alkylbenzene liquids are syn-
thesized, their chemical compositions and purity can be
controlled more tightly than mineral oils. Consequently,
the presence of sulfur in the liquids is not likely. Alkyl-
benzene, because of its high solvency, may have a ten-
dency to contain sulfur indirectly through other
contaminants.
Acidity
The acidity of mineral oil is due to the presence of trace
acid contaminants. The acidity is determined by mea-
suring the quantity of a base material (potassium
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
hydroxide) required to titrate all acidic constituents
present in 1 gram of sample, generally expressed as the
neutralization number. Typical maximum allowable
neutralization numbers for mineral oils are given in
Table 5-5. When oil is aged in the presence of oxygen,
the acidity increases. Acid contaminants, in conjunction
with moisture and solid contaminants, affect the electri-
cal properties of fluids and are corrosive to metals.
The acidity of polybutenes must be controlled, because
this type of contamination can be introduced in the
manufacturing process. The presence of hydrogen and
aluminum chloride introduces chloride compounds and
dielectric instability, which cannot be tolerated in
impregnants and filling liquids used in transmission
cables. Inorganic chlorides and sulfates should not be
present in the liquid. Organically bound chlorides must
be controlled, and the neutralization number must be
low. The oxidation stability of polybutene is low, and the
liquid oxidizes readily under normal conditions to form
acids. The addition of antioxidant and passivating addi-
tives reduces the rate of oxidation to an acceptable level
for transmission cables.
The acidity of alkylbenzene liquids must be controlled
similarly to polybutene liquids in the manufacturing
process. Also, because alkylbenzenes have high solvent
power, greater care must be taken when handling this
liquid to avoid contaminants that may introduce acids.
Water Content
The contamination of mineral oil by water is a common
and natural occurrence. Proper refining and careful han-
dling of new oil generally keep the moisture content
below 50-100 ppm. Moisture is easier to keep low in
polybutene and alkylbenzene liquids. However, for all
three liquids, it is imperative to protect the liquid from
moisture ingress and to remove the moisture from the
liquids prior to their use. Moisture increases electrical
conductivity and dissipation factor and decreases break-
down voltage; it also accelerates aging due to oxidation
and aging of paper, which readily absorbs moisture. The
amount of water in insulating liquids is usually deter-
mined by the Karl Fischer Method (ASTM D 1533-00,
2000a), and typical maximum values allowable for the
new insulating liquids are given in Tables 5-5, 5-6, and
5-7. Impregnating liquids are carefully dehydrated prior
to cable impregnation.
Gassing
Gas evolution may occur in the impregnant or filling
liquid under the influence of the high-voltage field, such
as occurs in a termination. This can lead to partial
discharges and ionization. Also, chemical changes, such
as polymerization of the dielectric liquid and condensa-
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
tion, generate hydrogen, ethylene, ethane, methane,
carbon monoxide, and other substances of low
molecular weight. These changes have a tendency to
increase normal ionization by collision in the liquid and
thereby increase the dissipation factor and electrical con-
ductivity of the liquid, which could lead to ultimate cable
thermal electric failure. The resistance of an insulating
liquid to ionization is increased when it contains
sufficient aromatic compounds. Gaseous ionization in
capillary channels and interstices of the fibrous structure
of the paper also can occur at high-voltage stresses. This
is because it is virtually impossible to remove all of the
air from the paper during the drying process in the cable
manufacturing plant. The gassing properties of typical
mineral oils used in transmission cables are given in
Table 5-5. Although numerous test methods have been
devised, one commonly used is described in ASTM
D 2300 (the “Modified Pirelli Method”) (Pirelli is now
Prysmian Cables & Systems) (ASTM 2000b). This
method is used to measure the rate at which gas is
evolved or absorbed by dielectric liquids when subjected
to electrical stress of sufficient magnitude to cause
ionization in the liquid. The test is used as a measure of
stability and as a means to determine if the liquid
absorbs gas. Mineral oils generally tend to evolve gas in
this test and are refined to contain aromatics or blended
with liquids that absorb gas.
Typical gassing properties of polybutene liquids under
electrical stress are shown in Table 5-6. Tests show that
polybutenes are good gas absorbers when used at volt-
age stresses characteristic of transmission cables. The
gas absorption of polybutene liquids tends to decrease,
however, with an increase in viscosity.
Alkylbenzene liquids absorb gas at a much higher rate
than mineral oils and at a higher rate than polybutene
liquids. This high absorption characteristic exists even at
high operating and overload cable temperatures. The
use of alkylbenzene in place of mineral oil significantly
reduces degradation during cable insulation aging at
high temperature and high-voltage stresses.
5.6 QUALITY CONTROL
5.6.1 Cable Manufacturing Quality Control
In general, quality-control procedures closely follow the
requirements established for producing paper-insulated
transmission cables, as described in Section 5.4.2. How-
ever, since LPP insulation is a more complex dielectric
than cellulose paper, with more sensitive electrical prop-
erties, controlling LPP quality assumes a greater impor-
tance in the overall cable production program.
5-29
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
With regard to LPP laminate quality control, the fol-
lowing basic properties are closely checked on every
production lot:
• thickness
• polymer ratio
• cavities
• apparent density
• surface friction angle
• tensile strength
• elongation
• dissipation factor
• dielectric breakdown
• adhesion (delamination)
Dissipation factor, dielectric breakdown, and adhesion
tests are conducted after the LPP is impregnated with
dielectric fluid. In view of the very low dissipation
factor (tan δ), LPP is highly sensitive to contamination
or other deleterious reactions affecting the quality of
the laminate.
The laminar materials, which are processed into LPP
laminate by the tape supplier, meet rigid and compre-
hensive specifications, both for high-purity kraft paper
and polypropylene film. Quality control at the LPP fab-
ricating plant is initially focused on the physical proper-
ties of the product, so that mechanical features are
immediately certified to comply with the cable manufac-
turer’s specifications covering LPP laminate production.
In addition, representative sample sheets from each new
production run are promptly treated, impregnated, and
checked for dissipation factor, dielectric breakdown,
and adhesion, to provide complete approval for accep-
tance to cable manufacturing stock. The dissipation fac-
tor of each cable reel and sample length is closely
monitored during LPP cable manufacturing as well.
5.6.2 Quality Control of Dielectric Liquids
The desired quality of liquids used in cables and acces-
sories is maintained over time with the aid of test speci-
fications that provide acceptable values for electrical,
chemical, and physical properties. These specifications
and related testing procedures have been prepared by
cable manufacturers and ASTM Committee D 27 on
Electrical Insulating Liquids and Gases, in conjunction
with electrical insulating liquid suppliers. Continuity
tests to ensure quality of a given liquid are important
for both mineral oils and synthetic liquids. Since min-
eral oils are complex mixtures of different hydrocarbons
and are of natural origin, it is extremely difficult to
obtain consistently uniform characteristics over long
5-30
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
periods of time. Synthetic liquids are man-made and
composed of “tailored molecules”; therefore their char-
acteristics are easier to control and maintain. Table 5-8
summarizes the relevant ASTM standards.
The liquid may be purchased untreated or treated and
ready for installation in the cable system. When the liq-
uid is supplied, treated, and ready for installation (with-
out field treatment), it is pretreated by the supplier and
shipped in clean and dry tank trucks or rail cars under
slight nitrogen pressure (about 3 psig [21 kPa]) to pro-
tect it from contamination during shipment.
When the liquid is not treated by the supplier and
shipped untreated without a protective pressurized
nitrogen blanket, it should be treated at the job site
prior to being pumped into the system. The treating
consists first of heating the liquid, then filtering it to
remove foreign matter that may have accumulated dur-
ing shipment. The liquid is sprayed into a vacuum dehy-
dration tank to remove moisture and to free dissolved
gases. It is then cooled and transferred to the cable sys-
tem. Polybutenes, especially, require careful selection
and control of temperature, and vacuum levels to avoid
loss of the more volatile components (the “light ends”).
Acceptance tests performed in the field are generally
dielectric strength (ASTM Method D 877-02, 2002b),
dissipation factor (ASTM Method D 924-03, 2003b),
moisture content (ASTM D 1533-00, 2000a), color
(ASTM Method D 1500-02, 2002c), and visual inspec-
tion. The procedures for obtaining liquids for testing are
very critical because the liquid may become contami-
nated or, if exposed to an atmosphere of high humidity,
absorb moisture. As a result, the electrical properties
can be drastically changed. Devices for sampling electri-
cal insulating liquids and procedures for their use are
described in ASTM D 923 (ASTM 1997).
When the liquid is supplied to the cable system by the
cable manufacturer, it is generally the practice to pro-
vide a liquid free of added oxidation inhibitors. The
cable manufacturer generally checks properties of the
liquid to an extent depending on the past history of the
liquid supplier and internal policy. The tests most often
conducted in the field prior to using the liquid are
dielectric strength, dissipation factor, moisture content,
color, and visual inspection. More extensive testing is
performed by the cable manufacturer when a change in
processing is made by the liquid supplier or if a change
is made in the handling of the liquid.
When make-up liquid is supplied to the cable system by
the manufacturer, it is expected that laboratory tests
specified by the purchaser will be conducted on the
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type

liquid. These tests may be as specified in Tables 5-5, 5-6,
or 5-7, as applicable. In addition, specifications to
ensure the quality of make-up electrical insulating
liquids for SCFF (ASTM D 1818-90, 1990a) and HPFF
(ASTM D 1819-90, 1990b) systems prepared by ASTM
Committee D 27 are given in Table 5-8. These specifica-
tions are useful as a guide for new cable installation as
well as for liquid make-up purposes. They are designed
to ensure continuity of the quality of the liquids used for
cable systems. It is recommended to match the
viscosities of any make-up electrical insulating liquids as
closely as possible to the original insulating liquids in
the cable system.
The AEIC has issue d sp ecifi cation CS 31-95,
“Specifications for Electrically-Insulating Pipe Filling
Liquids for High Pressure Pipe-Type Cable,” which
addresses polybutenes and alkylbenzenes for both static
(no fluid circulation) systems and systems designed for
fluid circulation.

Table 5-8 Specification Properties to Ensure Quality of Liquids Used in Transmission Cables
ASTM D HPFF
Test Method Pipe-Filling Liquid
Electrical Properties
Dissipation factor, % (100 tan δ)
100°C, 60 Hz, max. 924 0.60
Dielectric strength, kV, 60 Hz, 0.1 in.
(2.5 mm) spacing
25°C, min. 877 30
Dc volume resistivity, x 1012 ohms-cm
100°C, min. 1169 2.5
Chemical Properties
Inorganic chlorides and sulfates 878 Nil
Neutralization number, initial, max., mg KOH/g 974 0.05
Sulfur, corrosive 1275 Noncorrosive
Total sulfur, max., weight % 129 0.35
Physical Properties
Viscosity, (a)cSt at 88, 45, 2161
40°C (104°F) 140-150
100°C (212°C) 12 max.
Pour point, °C, max. 97 -21
Flash point, °C min. 92 193
Water content, ppm max. (as shipped in drums) 1533 45
Water content, ppm max, (as shipped in tank trucks or rail
1533 30
cars under nitrogen pressure)
Specific gravity, 15.6°C 1298 0.895-0.940
Color, Initial, max. 1500 2
Specific optical dispersion, 1807
25°C, min. 110 x 10-4(b)
113 x 10-4(c)
Aging Tests (after 96 h at 115°C) 1934A
Color, max. 4
Neutralization number, max., mg KOH/g 0.1
Dissipation factor, % (100 tan δ) 2.8
Resistivity, min., x1012 ohm-cm, 100°C 0.5

a. To convert viscosity to SUS, see ASTM D 2161.

b. Acceptable.
c. Desirable.

5-31
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

5.7 SPECIFICATIONS AND STANDARDS ASTM D 1533-00 (2000). Test Methods for Water in
RELEVANT TO PIPE-TYPE CABLES Insulating Liquids.
Chapter 2 describes the industry organizations that
develop specifications and standards that apply to ASTM D 2300-00 (2000). Test Method for Gassing of
underground transmission cable systems. This section Electrical Insulating Liquids Under Electrical Stress
lists the specifications and standards that are relevant to and Ionization (Modified Pirelli Method).
pipe-type cables.
ASTM A 523-96 (2001). Specification for Plain End
5.7.1 AEIC Specifications Seamless and Electric Resistance-Welded Steel Pipe for
High-Pressure Pipe-Type Cable Circuits.
AEIC CS2-97 (6th Edition—March 1997). Specifica-
tions for Impregnated Paper and Laminated Paper
ASTM D 202-97 (2002). Test Method for Sampling and
Polypropylene Insulated Cable High-Pressure Pipe-
Testing Untreated Paper Used for Electrical Insulation.
Type.
ASTM D 877-02 (2002). Test Method for Dielectric
AEIC CS31-95 (2nd Edition—December 1995). Specifi-
Breakdown Voltage of Insulating Liquids Using Disk
cations for Electrically Insulating Pipe Filling Liquids
Electrodes.
for High-Pressure Pipe-Type Cable.
ASTM D 1500-02 (2002). Test Method for ASTM
AEIC CG1-96 (3 rd Edition—April 1996). Guide for
Color of Petroleum Products (ASTM Color Scale).
Application of AEIC Maximum Insulation Tempera-
tures at the Conductor for Impregnated-Paper-Insulated
ASTM D 92-02 (2003). Test Method for Flash and Fire
Cables.
Points by Cleveland Open Cup Tester.
AEIC CG3-2005 (2nd Edition—January 2005). Guide
ASTM D 924-03 (2003). Test Method for Dissipation
for Installation of Pipe-Type Cable Systems.
Factor (or Power Factor) and Relative Permittivity
(Dielectric Constant) of Electrical Insulating Liquids.
5.7.2 ASTM Standards
ASTM D 1818-90 (1990). Specification for Continuity ASTM D 1275-03 (2003). Test Method for Corrosive
of Quality of Electrical Insulating Oil for Low-Pressure Sulfur in Electrical Insulating Oils.
Cable Systems.
5.7.3 IEEE Standards
ASTM D 1819-90 (1990). Specification for Continuity
IEEE 1406 (1998). Guide to the Use of Gas-In-Fluid
of Quality of Electrical Insulating Oil for High-Pressure
Analysis for Electric Power Cable Systems.
Cable Systems.
IEEE 1425 (2001). Guide for the Evaluation of the
ASTM D 923 (1997). Standard Practice for Sampling
Remaining Life of Impregnated Paper- Insulated Trans-
Electrical Insulating Liquids.
mission Cable Systems.
ASTM D 971-99 (1999). Test Method for Interfacial
Tension of Oil Against Water by the Ring Method.

5-32
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
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ASTM. 1990b. ASTM D 1819-90. Specification for
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ASTM. 1997. ASTM D 923. Standard Practice for Sam-
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ASTM. 2000a. ASTM D 1533-00. Test Methods for
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ASTM. 2000b. ASTM D 2300-00. Test Method for Gas-
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ASTM. 2001. ASTM A 523-96. Standard Specification
for Plain End Seamless and Electric-Resistance-Welded
Steel Pipe for High-Pressure Pipe-Type Cable Circuits.
ASTM International. West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM. 2002a. ASTM D 202-97. Test Method for Sam-
pling and Testing Untreated Paper Used for Electrical
Insulation. ASTM International. West Conshohocken,
PA.
ASTM. 2002b. ASTM D 877-02. Test Method for
Dielectric Breakdown Voltage of Insulating Liquids
Using Disk Electrodes. ASTM International. West Con-
shohocken, PA.
ASTM. 2002c. ASTM D 1500-02. Test Method for
ASTM Color of Petroleum Products (ASTM Color
Scale). ASTM International. West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM. 2003a. ASTM D 92-02. Test Method for Flash
and Fire Points by Cleveland Open Cup Tester. ASTM
International. West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM. 2003b. ASTM D 924-03. Test Method for Dissi-
pation Factor (or Power Factor) and Relative Permittiv-
ity (Dielectric Constant) of Electrical Insulating
Liquids. ASTM International. West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM. 2003c. ASTM D 1275-03. Test Method for Cor-
rosive Sulfur in Electrical Insulating Oils. ASTM Inter-
national. West Conshohocken, PA.
Bankoske, J. W., et al. 1978. “Mechanical Effects of
Load Cycling on Pipe-Type Cable.” IEEE Transactions
on Power Apparatus and Systems. Vol. 97. No. 3.
May/June.
Bartnikas, R., and K. D. Srivastava, eds. 1987. Power
Cable Engineering. Waterloo, Ontario. Sanford Educa-
tional Press.
Casey, J. P. 1961. Pulp and Paper. Vol. 3. New York.
Interscience.
Chamberlin, D. M. 1980. “Thermomechanical Bending
Problems on the Northfield Mountain 345 kV Pipe
Cable.” IEEE Power Engineering Society, Insulated Con-
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Constantjnov, T. E. 1964. “Dielectric Materials Mea-
surement, and Applications.” lEE Conference. London.
Dieterle, W. 1960. “Contribution to the Knowledge of
the Impulse Strength of Insulating Paper.” S.E.I. Bulle-
tin. No. 13. p. 637.
5-33
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
Eager, G. S., and D. A. Silver. 1972. “Reduction of
Losses in Conductors and Pipe of Pipe-Type Cables.”
IEEE Underground Transmission Conference. Pittsburgh
Eich, E., E. M. Allam, and W. H. Cortelyou. 1976.
Some Theoretical Considerations Affecting Design of
Lapped Plastic Insulation for Superconducting Power
Transmission Cables. Appendixes to December 1976.
EPRI Report No. EL-269.
Emanueli, L. 1930. High Voltage Cables. New York.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
EPRI. 1982. Determination of AC Conductor and Pipe
Loss in Pipe-Type Cable Systems. February. EPRI
Report EL-2256.
EPRI. 1988. Thermomechanical Bending Effects on
Extra-High Voltage Pipe-Type Cables. July. EPRI
Report EL-5880.
EPRI. 1990. Evaluation of Pipe-Type Cable Joint
Restraint Systems. March. EPRI Report EL-6760.
Garton, C. G. 1941. “Dielectric Loss in Thin Films of
Insulating Liquids.” Journal of lEE. Vol. 88. Pt. 2. pp.
103-120.
Gazzana-Priaroggia, P., and G. Palandri. 1955.
“Research on the Electric Breakdown of Fully Impreg-
nated Paper Insulation for High Voltage Cables.” Trans-
actions of the AIEE. Vol. 74. Pt. III. p. 1343.
Gazzana-Priaroggia, P., et al. 1960a. “A Brief Review of
the Theory of Paper Lapping of a Single-Core High-
Voltage Cable.” Proceedings of the IEE. Monograph no.
390S. p. 25.
Gazzana-Priaroggia, P., et al. 1960b. “The Influence of
Aging on the Characteristics of Oil-Filled Cable Dielec-
tric.” Institution of Electrical Engineers (lEE). Paper
No. 3348S. November.
Gazzana-Priaroggia, P., E. Occhini, and N. Palmieri.
1964. “Dielectric Phenomena Related to the Use of Car-
bon Black Paper Screening in High-Voltage Fully
Impregnated Paper Cables.” IEEE Transactions on
Power Apparatus and Systems. Vol. 83. Pt. 3. February.
Gemant, A. 1933. Liquid Dielectrics. New York. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Gooding, F. H., and R. B. Blodgett. 1964. “Parameters
Affecting Increase in Dielectric Loss, Caused by Carbon
Black Paper Screen, for Oil Paper Dielectrics.” IEEE
5-34
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems. Vol. 83.
Pt. 3. February.
Grant, J. 1957. A Laboratory Handbook of Pulp and
Paper Manufacture. London. Edward Arnold & Co. p.
221.
Grosser, E. H., and E. J. Steeve. 1973. “Isolated Phase
Pipe-Type Cable in Aluminum-Fiberglass Pipe.” IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems. Vol. 92.
March/April.
Hall, H. C., and E. Kelk. 1956. “Physical Properties and
Impulse Strength of Paper.” Proceedings of the lEE. Vol.
103A. p. 564.
IEEE (Japan). 1968. “Improved Aging Characteristics
of Oil-Filled Cable Dielectrics Due to Alkyl Benzene as
Low-Viscosity Impregnant.” IEEE (Japan) Conference
Publication. No. 44. September.
Kang, B. P. 1963. U.S. Patent No. 3,077,514. February
12.
Kelk, E. and I. O. Wilson. 1965. “Constitution and
Properties of Paper for High Voltage Dielectrics.” Pro-
ceedings of the IEEE. Vol. 112. No. 3. pp. 602-612.
Kojima, K. et al. 1965. “The Influence of Carbon Paper
Screen on the Power Factor vs. Voltage Characteristics
of Oil-Filled Cable.” Sumitomo Electric Technical
Review. No. 5. January.
McAvoy, F. M., and R. C. Waldron. 1971. “EEl-Manu-
facturers 500/550 kV Cable Research Project. Cable A-B
High Pressure Oil Paper Pipe Type.” IEEE Transactions
on Power Apparatus and Systems. Vol. 90. No. 1. p. 205.
Prime, J. B. et al. 1981. “Development of a Reduced
Wall 138 kV HPOF Pipe-Type Cable and Joints for Re-
Conductoring of Existing 69 kV Lines on the Florida
Power & Light Company System.” IEEE Transactions
on Power Apparatus and Systems. Vol. 100. No. 7. July.
Prime, J. B. et al. 1986. “Update on the Development of
Reduced Wall 138 kV HPOF Cables and Joints for Re-
Conductoring of Existing 69 kV Lines on the Florida
Power & Light Company System.” IEEE Transactions
on Power Delivery. Vol. 1. No. 4. October.
Roughley, T. H. et al. 1974. “Design and Installation of
a 138 kV, High-Pressure, Gas-Filled Pipe Cable Utiliz-
ing Segmental Aluminum Conductors.” IEEE Transac-
tions on Power Apparatus and Systems. Vol. 93.
March/April.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Salvage, B., and J. A. M. Gibbons. 1960. “The Impulse
Strength of Impregnated Paper Dielectrics as Used in
High Voltage Cables.” Proceedings of the lEE. Vol.
107A. p. 405.
Sticher, J., et al. 1948. “High-Pressure Gas-Filled Cable
Impregnated with Extra-High-Viscosity Oil.” AIEE
Paper no. 49-84. Winter Power Meeting. New York.
Tanaka, T., and A. Greenwood. 1983. Advanced Power
Cable Technology. Boca Raton, Florida. CRC Press.
Whitehead, J. B. 1935. Impregnated Paper Insulation.
New York. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
ADDITIONAL READING
Ball, E. H., and G. Maschio. 1968. “The AC Resistance
of Segmental Conductors as Used in Power Cables.”
IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems.
Vol. 87.
Bartlett, S. C. et al. 1957. “Improved Cable Insulating
Oils.” AIEE Conference Paper no. 57-858. Montreal.
June.
Basseckes, H., and M. W. Barnes. 1957. “The Gassing of
Liquid Dielectrics Under Electric Stress—The Influence
of Voltage and Pressure.” AIEE Conference Paper no.
57-239.
Berberich, L. T. 1938. “Influence of Gaseous Discharge
on Hydrocarbon Oils.” Industrial & Engineering Chemis-
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Clark, F. M. 1935. “The Dielectric Strength of Mineral
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Clark, F. M. 1940. “Effect of Dissolved Moisture on
Dielectric Strength of Insulating Liquids.” AIEE Trans-
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Eager, G. S., et al. 1978. “Progress in the Determination
of AC/DC Resistance Ratios of Pipe-Type Cable Sys-
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Graneau, P. 1979. Underground Power Transmission.
New York. John Wiley & Sons.
Kang, B. P. 1970. “Stability of Electrical Insulating
Oils.” IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation. Vol.
EI-5. No. 2. June.
Chapter 5: Cable Construction: Pipe-Type
McKean, A. L., and E. I. Merrell. 1960. “Correlation
Between Impregnant Stability Under Vacuum Dis-
charge and Life of Solid-Type Oil-Impregnated Paper
Cable on Accelerated High Voltage Load Cycle Test.”
AIEE Conference Paper. No. CP 60-394.
Melchiore, J. J., and I. W. Mills. 1967. “Factors Affecting
Stability of Electrical Insulating Oils.” IEEE Transac-
tions on Electrical Insulation. Vol. EI-2. No. 3.
December.
Meyerhoff, L., and G. S. Eager. 1949. “AC Resistance of
Segmental Cables in Steel Pipe.” AIEE Transactions.
Vol. 68.
Race, H. H. 1931. “Some Electrical Characteristics of
Cable Oils.” AIEE Transactions. No. 5.
Reynolds, E. H., and S. C. Clarke. 1959. “Influence of
Constitution of Oils on Their Gassing Under Electrical
Stress.” Electrochemical Society Symposium on Electri-
cal Insulation. Philadelphia. May.
Riley, T. N., and R. T. Scott. 1928. “Insulating Oils for
High Voltage Cables.” Journal of Institution of Electrical
Engineers. Vol. 66.
Sommerman, G. M. L. 1937. “Properties of Saturants
for Paper-Insulated Cables.” AIEE Transactions. Vol.
56. May.
Tanaka, T., and A. Greenwood. 1983. Advanced Power
Cable Technology. Vols. I & II. Boca Raton, FL. CRC
Press.
Thompson, A. W. 1951. “The Application of Petroleum
Oils in the Manufacture of Power Cables.” Proceedings
of the Third World Petroleum Congress. Section VII.
Watson, P. K. 1956. “The Effect of Hydrostatic Pressure
and Applied Voltage Duration on the Breakdown
Strength of Insulating Oil.” IEEE Winter General
Meeting Conference Paper. No. 56-424.
Whitehead, J. B., and F. E. Mauritz. 1937. “Oxidation in
Insulating Oils.” AIEE Transactions. Vol. 56.
Wiseman, R. J. 1948. “AC Resistance of Large Size Con-
ductors in Steel Pipe & Conduit.” AIEE Transactions.
Vol. 67.
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 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

CHAPTER 6 Cable Construction: Self-Contained

Fluid-filled
Author: Stephen J. Galloway, Cable Consulting International Ltd.
Reviewer: W. Graham Lawson, Energy Cable Consultants, Inc.

Since their invention in the 1920s, self-contained fluid-filled cables have become the pre-
eminent design for HV and EHV applications worldwide. Today they are used on ac and
dc systems and have become the most highly evolved type of cable with low-loss dielec-
trics and robust constructions. Self-contained fluid-filled cables have been used in instal-
lations with the highest service voltage of 525 kV and in the highest rated circuit at 3800
A. They have been proven to be extremely reliable and versatile, and are in service in a
wide variety of installations such as in long tunnels, in deep shafts, and for use as subma-
rine cables. Today there are several major new projects under construction worldwide.

This chapter gives details of the self-contained fluid-filled cable construction and an
appreciation of the manufacturing path followed by single-core and three-core cables.
The special impregnant is described as well as tests that apply only to fluid-filled cables,
where these are not covered in Chapter 14. The application of this type of cable to dc sys-
tems is outlined, as are the special features applicable to installation in a submarine envi-
ronment (see Chapter 7). Throughout the text, references to supporting information are
made, to provide the reader with a greater depth of knowledge than can be imparted in
this chapter alone.

Stephen J. Galloway is a Senior Consulting Engineer with Cable Con-

sulting International Ltd. He was awarded a Bachelor of Science
honours degree from the University of Southampton, U.K. in 1976. Mr.
Galloway joined BICC Cables Ltd. in 1976 and moved to BICC's
Supertension Cable factory in 1977. There he held a series of senior
posts in the development of cables and accessories in the voltage range
of 33 to 525 kV, and was at one time responsible for installation engi-
neering design and technical specifications. Later he was part of a small
team dedicated to expanding the business into supertension long-length submarine cable
manufacture. In 2001, Mr. Galloway joined Cable Consulting International, where he
carries out advanced finite element analysis and cable engineering design and installation
studies. Mr. Galloway is a Chartered Engineer and a member of the Institution of Engi-
neering and Technology.

6-1
Chapter 6: Cable Construction: Self-Contained Fluid-filled EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

6.1 INTRODUCTION 6.2 SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

The self-contained fluid-filled (SCFF) cable is the most
widely used cable type for HV and EHV cable systems in
the world and has held this preeminent position since
the first cables were installed. SCFF cables are in service
in every developed country in the world. In the U.K.
system alone there were over 625 miles (1000 km) of
SCFF transmission cable in 2004 (ENA 2006). Today
major new installations involving hundreds of miles of
SCFF cable are in progress in the Far East and in the
Middle East (IPG 2006).
Some of the main characteristics of an SCFF cable sys-
tem include the following:
• SCFF cable systems are extremely reliable—many
systems have been in service for over 40 years.
• Very large conductor sizes are available, and the rating
can be enhanced using special bonding techniques.
• The system may be used in conjunction with a variety
of forced-cooling methods.
• The system operates at the equal highest continuous
conductor temperature of any cable system.
• Higher voltage SCFF cable systems use a low-
dielectric-loss insulation material.
• The cable is of small diameter; hence long lengths
may be transported and installed.
• The standard low-pressure system needs no rotating
parts such as pumps in order to operate.
• The system may be installed directly buried, in air, in
ducts, in troughs, in tunnels, in deep shafts, and on
the seabed.
• A full range of accessories is available.
6.2.1 SCFF Cable Landmarks
The invention of the first SCFF cable is credited to
Luigi Emanueli (1883-1959), who in 1920 designed and
manufactured an SCFF cable to operate at 80 kV. The
field trials on this cable were so successful at 132 kV
that, in 1926, 36 miles of single-core 132-kV cable were
ordered by the New York Edison Company (Hunter and
Hazel 1956).
After this excellent start the SCFF cable saw rapid
development, especially in the post-war years when the
requirement for cables for transmission voltages rose
sharply. Development kept pace with demand, and the
first 275-kV fully developed SCFF cable entered opera-
tional use in 1959. This was followed by the first 400-kV
SCFF cable entering service in 1969. Today SCFF
cables are commonplace at 500 kV, and they are in ser-
vice at 525 kV in North America (see Figure 6-1) (Ray et
al. 1973; Foxall et al. 1984); these installations have the
highest service voltage of any cable type worldwide.
As well as keeping up with transmission voltages, the
SCFF cable current-carrying capacity has also risen
with demand. One submarine installation has a
6000-kcmil (3000 mm2) conductor, operates at 500 kV
dc, and is rated 2800 MW (Sugata et al. 1996).

Section 6.2 provides a few details of some of the land-

marks in the development of self-contained fluid-filled
cables and a general description of how the cable works.
Sections 6.3 and 6.4 describe the conductor and conduc-
tor shield. Sections 6.5 and 6.6 review the insulation and
insulation shield. Sections 6.7 through 6.10 cover the
construction processes following insulation—including
laying up, drying and impregnation, metal sheathing,
reinforcement, and jacketing or oversheathing. Sections
6.12 through 6.15 discuss activities related to quality
control—routine tests, shipping, electrical tests, and
hydraulic and fluid quality tests. Section 6.16 describes
cable fluid. Sections 6.17 and 6.18 discuss special appli-
cations, specifically cables for submarine use and cables
for operation on dc. Figure 6-1 SCFF cable for 525-kV operation (courtesy
author).

6-2
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Self-contained fluid-filled cables have also been installed
as part of the highest rated transmission line in the
world at 2640 MVA (3800 A) (Arkell et al. 1977). A
cross-section of the cable is shown in Figure 6-2. For
this installation, the cables were installed inside rein-
forced glass-fiber water-cooling pipes. Extra cooling for
the joints was provided by longitudinal movement of
fluid through the cable duct.
The SCFF cable has been installed in conjunction with
integral pipe-cooling systems, external pipe-cooling sys-
tems, and trough- and weir-cooling systems. Tests have
been successfully conducted on an internally forced-
cooled design with a duct internal diameter of 2 in. (50
mm). This design is capable of matching a 2200 MVA
overhead line rating (Brotherton et al. 1977). Even so,
most SCFF cable is installed buried direct where the
cable is naturally cooled, or in air.
Additionally, SCFF cable has been installed in many
onerous installation conditions. There are several major
submarine links in service around the world, many of
which are listed in Chapter 7.
SCFF cable has also been installed and given satisfac-
tory service in the vertical and inclined, deep shafts
often found in hydroelectric generating facilities. In one
such installation, 275-kV SCFF cables with reinforced
lead sheaths are installed in a vertical shaft 1060 ft
(323 m) deep and are designed to withstand a pressure
of 425 psi (3000 kPa). In addition to circumferential
reinforcement, longitudinal reinforcement is provided
by aluminum wire armor. Figure 6-3 shows a 400-kV
Figure 6-2 400-kV SCFF cable for 3800 A forced-cooled
rating (courtesy author).
Chapter 6: Cable Construction: Self-Contained Fluid-filled
cable with this type of additional reinforcement. Two
other cable systems at 330 kV of similar construction
are also installed in vertical shafts. These installations
have given over 40 years of trouble-free service (Arkell
and Blake 1968).
I n 1 9 8 8 , 5 0 0 - k V S C F F c abl e s wi t h 5 0 0 0 - k c m i l
(2500 mm 2 ) conductors were installed in a route that
crossed ten bridges. The bridges also carried road traffic
and railway tracks. The recurrent longitudinal change of
the bridge due to thermal movement alone was over
20 in. (500 mm), and the total longitudinal change due
to all factors including the traffic was almost 4 ft 11 in.
(1500 mm). Accommodation of longitudinal movement
in a SCFF cable requires careful consideration so that
the metal components do not fail through over-bending
or fatigue, and the insulation remains in good condition
without displacement of the insulation tapes. In this
installation, a special link mechanism was developed,
tested, and installed, which controls the bending of the
cables during bridge movement (Minemura and
Maekawa 1989).
Major developments to every aspect of the cable design
have taken place. Some major developments so far have
been:
• The development of the Milliken conductor, which
significantly reduces the ac resistance of large con-
ductors.
• The increase of the continuous operating temperature
of the conductor to 90ºC.
• The dielectric losses in the insulation were signifi-
cantly reduced by the adoption in the 1980s of lami-
nated paper polypropylene (LPP) insulation. This
Figure 6-3 400-kV SCFF cable with LPP insulation and
aluminum wire armor for high-pressure operation
(courtesy author).
6-3
Chapter 6: Cable Construction: Self-Contained Fluid-filled
material also enables a higher design electrical stress
to be used, hence reducing insulation thickness. This
results in a smaller cable diameter and facilitates
longer reel lengths.
• The development of extruded aluminum sheaths in
the 1950s led to a more robust design, and the number
of instances of fluid leakage dropped dramatically.
• The replacement of taped servings with extruded
jackets, initially of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), but more
recently of polyethylene. This has reduced corrosion,
and has been of sufficient electrical quality such that
advantage may be taken of the increase in transmis-
sion capacity associated with special bonding.
• The replacement of mineral oil impregnants with
alkylbenzene cable fluid led to a more environmen-
tally friendly cable system.
Developments have also taken place on SCFF cables
outside the present voltage range requirements. Cables
have been tested for use at 765 kV (Couderc et al. 1996),
and full-scale tests have been completed on cables for
use at 1100 kV (Farneti et al. 1984). Figure 6-4 shows
the reels of cable at the test laboratory, and a cross sec-
tion of the cable tested. The cable operated at a pressure
of 200 psi (1.40 MPa), which enabled the kraft paper
insulation to operate at the high electric stress of
760 V/mil (30 kV/mm). The program was positively con-
cluded, and it was demonstrated that a three-phase
forced-cooled 1100-kV underground SCFF cable system
can be capable of transmitting a continuous load of
3000 MVA during normal operation and a theoretically
continuous emergency overload of 8000 MVA. The
overload capacity cannot be considered as a continuous
load for practical reasons as the external and internal
force cooling systems cannot be run continuously with-
out maintenance.
Figure 6-4 Installation of the test circuit and cross section of 1100-kV SCFF cable (courtesy
Prysmian Cables and Systems).
6-4
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Design studies and experimental tests on cables
intended for use at 600 kVdc have shown that the system
is suitable for dc systems at 1000 kV (Arkell and Gre-
gory 1984).
6.2.2 Description of Design
The self-contained fluid-filled cable is designed on the
basis that the insulation is at all times completely
impregnated. Previous designs of taped-paper-insulated
cable were impregnated with a thick viscous material,
which gave rise to contraction voids in the body of the
insulation when the cable was subjected to thermal
cycling in service. At the higher voltages, these voids
would allow partial discharge to occur and eventually
lead to cable failure. This early type of cable design was
thus limited in terms of operating stress, and this, in
turn, limited the size of the highest voltage practical for
cable manufacture and installation. The SCFF cable
eliminated this limitation.
In the SCFF cable, the central duct is filled with fluid,
which is allowed to flow through the wires of the con-
ductor into the insulation. The volumetric change in the
fluid due to the heating effects of load currents is com-
pensated by connecting the duct in the center of the
conductor to fluid reservoirs or tanks at intervals along
the route using special “stop” or feed joints or at the
ends of the route. A general description of joints and
terminations for SCFF cables is given in Chapter 8. For
a more detailed description of all accessories for SCFF
cables and for the method of determining the size and
location of fluid reservoirs, refer to the Electric Cables
Handbook (Moore 1997).
When the cable cools, the fluid is driven back into the
cable by maintaining the reservoirs at a positive pressure
at all temperatures. The pressure is kept as low as possi-
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
ble, consistent with the profile of the route, with the
minimum pressure at 3 psig (20.7 kPa). A low-viscosity
impregnant is chosen to ensure that the fluid will flow
readily through the duct, especially during heating and
cooling transients and thus maintain the internal
pressure within the design range. As the fluid flows
freely throughout the insulation, the cable has some self-
healing properties, because there are no voids in the
insulation or joints. If any air is inadvertently included,
this may dissolve into the fluid or may be removed by
flushing fluid through the system. Additionally, as the
cable fluid is common with the accessories, it insulates
the interface between them, thus making the SCFF
system very tolerant of variations in accessory design as
well as variations in the proficiency of the installation
jointing personnel. The use of a fluid in common with
the accessories also makes the attainment of higher
insulation stresses feasible.
Figure 6-5 details the component parts of an SCFF
cable with a corrugated aluminum sheath.
6.3 CONDUCTORS
Self-contained fluid-filled cables have conductors
stranded from copper or aluminum wires.
The wire is drawn down from rod delivered to the fac-
tory in coils of typically 0.3 to 0.4 in. (8 to 10 mm) diam-
eter. The rod is then pulled through a series of tungsten
carbide dies of progressively decreasing diameter until
the required size is reached. The wire is then annealed in
line with the wire-drawing machine by passing an elec-
tric current through it between two pulleys in the
annealer. Aluminum wires do not need to be annealed.
Conductors for three-core cables are stranded from cir-
cular wires. Very small (up to 190 kcmil [95 mm2]) con-
ductors for three-core aluminum cables may be of solid
rod. During stranding, the wires are passed through a
Figure 6-5 400-kV self-contained fluid-filled cable
(courtesy author).
Chapter 6: Cable Construction: Self-Contained Fluid-filled
series of dies to reduce the overall diameter of the con-
ductor. This type of stranded conductor is also used on
other types of cable such as XLPE and HPFF.
Conductors for single-core cables have a central fluid
duct, whose function is to provide a low-impedance
path for the fluid impregnant throughout the length of
the cable.
Small conductors consist of a number of layers of round
wires, each layer stranded in the opposite direction to
the one beneath, and stranded onto a steel spiral duct.
Larger conductors consist of a number of keystone-
shaped copper segments, which form a self-supporting
central duct, over which further layers of flat wires or
segments are stranded until the required resistance is
reached. The wires have a transverse indentation at reg-
ular intervals to promote the flow of fluid between the
central duct and the insulation. In some designs, the
segments are provided with an additional longitudinal
tongue-and-groove interlocking system to give greater
stability to the conductor. This type of conductor is
sometimes called a “Conci” conductor, and the inter-
locked version is shown in Figure 6-6A.
Large conductors are of the Milliken type. Conductors
above about 2000 kcmil (1000 mm 2 ) are of sufficient
diameter for the skin and proximity effects to be signifi-
cant factors in the calculation of the conductor ac
losses. These effects are reduced by the Milliken conduc-
tor, which consists of a number of smaller, individually
stranded and shaped conductors laid up together to
form the overall conductor. For SCFF cables, the num-
ber of individual conductors or segments is usually six.
Alternate segments are lightly insulated using two insu-
lating paper tapes. The segments between are lapped
with two semiconducting carbon papers, which provide
electrical continuity between the conductor wires and
the shield, and also serve to confine any minute particles
that may have been created in the stranding process to
within the individual segment. A six-segment Milliken
conductor is shown in Figure 6-6B.
Figure 6-6 Hollow-core Conci and Milliken conductors.
6-5
Chapter 6: Cable Construction: Self-Contained Fluid-filled
The Milliken segments are laid up around a steel spiral
duct and bound together with nonmagnetic tapes such
as tin-bronze or austenitic (300 series) stainless steel.
The steel duct is present to give stability to the structure
of the conductor under bending. Where it is important
that the duct presents as low an impedance to the flow
of fluid as possible, the duct may be omitted, as in the
cable shown in Figure 6-2.
Milliken conductors for cables insulated with LPP often
have a thicker metal binder applied to withstand the
crushing force that may be imparted by any swelling of
the polypropylene material.
6.4 CONDUCTOR SHIELD
The conductor shield consists of a number of carbon or
metallized carbon tapes applied around the conductor
to eliminate concentrations of electrical stress caused by
the individual wires of the strand. The conductors
intended for use on LPP insulated cables may have extra
carbon tapes to absorb the higher interfacial pressures
associated with this type of insulation.
In some designs of extra high voltage cable, a duplex
carbon-black paper tape is applied on the outside of the
carbon tapes. The duplex tape consists of an insulating
tape and carbon-black paper tape, which are bonded
together. The duplex tape is applied with the carbon-
black side against the other shielding tapes. It is claimed
that duplex tapes assist with meeting the dissipation fac-
tor (dielectric loss angle) requirements of modern cable
specifications. However, it is recognized in the specifica-
tions that cables shielded with carbon-black paper will
have a slightly higher rise in dissipation factor with volt-
age than those shielded with metallized tapes (AEIC
1993; IEC 1993a).
6.5 INSULATION
The insulation of SCFF cables consists of either a high-
quality kraft paper or laminated paper-polypropylene,
which is applied over the conductor shield in the form of
helically applied tapes. Successive layers are applied until
the specified insulation thickness is reached. The thick-
ness of the insulation is based on the electric strength of
the insulation under impulse voltage conditions.
The kraft paper is manufactured from all-wood pulp,
mostly from North America and Scandinavia, using the
kraft or sulphate process (from the German word
“kraft,” meaning strength). The pulp is digested with
sodium sulphide and sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) at
6-6
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
high temperature and pressure to remove the impurities
such as lignin and resin. The beating of the pulp and the
amount of subsequent calendaring control the impor-
tant properties of the insulation paper, such as the thick-
ness, density, and impermeability. Paper for fluid-filled
cables is washed with deionized water to achieve the
highest purity and thus the lowest dielectric loss angle.
The paper is usually of the two-ply type, and thicknesses
vary from 3 mils (75 µm) to about 8 mils (200 µm); den-
sity varies from 3.6 lbs/in3 to 2.5 lbs/in 3 (100 g/cm3 to
70g/cm3). The impermeability is a measurement of the
porosity and can be varied independently of density.
Other parameters such as tensile strength and elonga-
tion are important, and have to be controlled, bearing in
mind the width of tape used and the required bending
performance of the final product.
For SCFF cable insulation, the higher the density and
impermeability of the paper, the higher the electric
strength. However, once the insulation is impregnated,
the gaps between adjacent turns of tape take on a major
significance, because these gaps are filled with the
impregnant alone, and the electric strength of the
impregnant reduces with increasing gap. It is thus com-
mon practice to apply the higher-density, thinner papers
near to the conductor, where the electrostatic stress is
highest, and the lower–density, thicker papers towards
the outside of the insulation. Additionally, for satisfac-
tory bending performance, the surface finish of the
tapes is highly important, and the tapes on the inside are
narrower than those on the outside.
To construct an insulation with satisfactory bending
performance, it is necessary that the interfacial pres-
sures between the layers of tapes are controlled. It is
possible to calculate the interfacial pressures from the
tension in the tapes. However, the paper material
shrinks when it is dried, which makes the interfacial
pressures change dramatically. To overcome this effect,
the paper is predried before application, which ensures
that most of the shrinkage has taken place before appli-
cation to the cable. The final drying then takes place in
the drying vessel. Based on the known and stable char-
acteristics of the material, the tension in the tapes can be
optimized so as to give a pressure distribution through-
out the insulation with the maximum resistance to buck-
ling during bending (Heyda 1967; Gazzana–Priaroggia
et al. 1961).
For cables operating above 220 kV, laminated paper
polypropylene (LPP) is an alternative to kraft paper.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 6: Cable Construction: Self-Contained Fluid-filled

LPP consists of a film of polypropylene with a layer of where increasing dielectric losses of the paper insulation
paper bonded to both sides, as illustrated in Figure 6-7. restrict power rating. Figure 6-8 shows a machine for
the manufacture of LPP laminate. The figure shows the
The lapping process for LPP differs from that for paper two sheets of paper entering the machine from either
because the material swells when in contact with hot side and going through guides towards the base. The
hydrocarbon fluids. A value of between 3% and 7% head of the polypropylene extruder is seen in the center
swelling under constant pressure has been reported of the picture, withdrawn from its position when the
(Endersby et al. 1992). Different manufacturers have machine is running.
different methods of counteracting this effect. One
method is to lap the cable in a manner similar to kraft
paper cable with the objective of achieving the same Table 6-1 Typical Properties of 4 mils (100 µm) Paper and
bending performance during installation. When the LPP Insulation (Moore 1997)
cable is heated in service, the effect of the impregnant is Property LPP Paper
to produce prospective swelling. In this construction, Tensile strength, MN/m2 50 110
the two layers of paper withstand a hoop stress, which Elongation at break, % 2.0 2.5
prevents swelling, and thus the diameter of the insula- Air impermeability G s Infinity 15,000
tion remains unchanged. Many circuits in successful Density, g/cm3 0.9 0.9
operation have been manufactured with this technique. Relative permittivity at 90°C 2.7 3.4
Dielectric loss angle at 90°C 0.0008 0.0023
Another method is to provide space within the cable for Dielectric loss factor at 90°C 0.0021 0.0078
the polypropylene layer to expand in service. This is Impulse strength, kV/mm 160 135
accomplished by either humidifying the LPP laminate Short time ac strength, kV/mm 55 50
or by spraying droplets of water onto the material such
that a raised pattern is produced on the surface. A dis- Note: The reference from which the values in Table 6-1 are
advantage of this method is that interfacial pressures are taken gives slightly different values to those quoted in Tables
reduced when the cable is lapped and dried. 3-9 and 3-11.

Other techniques of reducing prospective swelling have

been investigated and include the use of bidirectionally
orientated polypropylene in the film, and by heating the
material to achieve a crystalline phase change.

Compared with paper, LPP can be operated at a higher

electrical stress, and has a lower dissipation factor and a
lower permittivity (see Table 6-1). These characteristics
make it attractive at the higher operating voltages,

Figure 6-8 Machine for the manufacture of laminated

paper polypropylene (courtesy author).
Figure 6-7 Laminated paper polypropylene (courtesy
author).

6-7
Chapter 6: Cable Construction: Self-Contained Fluid-filled
Compared to paper, the benefit of the lower dielectric
loss angle and lower permittivity on the current rating is
shown in Figure 6-9. At a voltage of 1100 kV, there is
still a useful current capability, and there are significant
improvements down to 200 kV.
The higher impulse strength of LPP has allowed 500-kV
cables operating at a working voltage stress of 463 V/mil
(18.2 kV/mm) to be installed (Endersby et al. 1993a).
In the factory, the insulation process begins with predry-
ing the rolls of paper. The paper is passed over heated
rollers and stored in a low humidity enclosure. The
moisture content of the rolls of paper when received is
about 7% by weight, and the predrying process reduces
this to about 1.5%. The tapes are then slit onto narrow
reels or “pads.”
The insulating operation takes place in a controlled
humidity atmosphere on a multiheaded lapping
machine in which successive heads of tapes are applied
in alternate directions, until the specified thickness is
achieved, as shown in Figure 6-10. Each head applies a
number of tapes, usually either 12 or 16, in the opposite
direction to its predecessor. A standard 400-kV cable
designed for a working stress of 381 V/mil (15 kV/mm)
and with a 1300-kcmil (630-mm2) conductor will need in
excess of 150 tapes.
Each tape is applied with a small gap, or butt space,
between the turns so that when the cable is bent, the
tapes will slide over each other without wrinkling or
creasing. The relative registration of the tape in each
Figure 6-9 Variation of current rating with operating
voltage for paper and LPP insulation; conductor size 5000
kcmil (2500 mm2) (Moore 1997) (courtesy Blackwell
Science).
6-8
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
head is important to avoid the successive alignment of
butt spaces in the radial direction. Figure 6-11 shows a
high-definition X-ray of fluid-filled paper insulation.
T h i s s h ow s t h e bu t t s p a c e s, t h e ove rl ap o f t he
metallized shielding tape, the copper continuity wires
between shield and metal sheath, and the corrugated
aluminum sheath.
Precision in the tensioning of each tape is provided
either by a friction braking system, or sometimes for
EHV cables, by electroservo control, which maintains
uniformity of tension whether the machine is stopped,
accelerating, or running. Figure 6-12 shows a head of an
insulating machine with electromechanical control.
6.6 INSULATION SHIELD
The insulation shield provides a conducting grounded
electrode around the insulation. It is important that the
shield is continuous and smooth to ensure the electric
field is constrained to the insulation. Gaps in the shield
will cause localized increase in the electric field, which
may eventually lead to failure of the cable insulation.
For single-core cables, the insulation shield or screen
often mirrors the conductor screen and consists of car-
bon and metallized carbon paper tapes used in combi-
nation. Metallized carbon papers are usually either
embossed or perforated to facilitate the extraction of
water vapor during the drying process, and to allow flow
of impregnant during impregnation.
Figure 6-10 Lapping machine (courtesy Prysmian Cables
and Systems).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Three-core cables go through a laying-up process (see
Section 6.7) before impregnation and sheathing, and in
some cases a more robust shield is applied for this
design of cable to ensure that the shield goes forward
undamaged. Each core is provided with a carbon paper
followed by a metal tape, either copper or aluminum,
applied overlapped and intercalated with a paper or car-
bon paper tape. The metal tape is overlapped to ensure
complete coverage of the insulation beneath, and the
intercalated tape allows for outward flow of moisture
vapor during drying and for flow of impregnant.
6.7 LAYING UP
Following insulation, the cores for three-core cables
must be laid up to form the three-core cable, similar to
that in Figure 6-16. At this time, ducts and fillers are
Figure 6-11 X-ray of cable insulation and corrugated aluminum sheath (courtesy author).
Figure 6-12 Lapping head with electromechanical control (courtesy author).
Chapter 6: Cable Construction: Self-Contained Fluid-filled
also included to ensure the finished construction has a
circular shape. It is possible to include metal sheathed
optical fibers into the construction at this point if
required. Cables with a corrugated aluminum sheath do
not need spiral ducts incorporated into the assembly,
because the aluminum sheath is sufficiently robust to
retain its circular shape during the bending operations
associated with subsequent manufacture and installa-
tion on site.
Two techniques for laying up are in use today. The first
is called the “sun and planet” technique. In this method,
individual bobbins of insulated and screened core,
together with the ducts and fillers, are loaded onto the
carriage of the machine. The carriage is rotated about its
longitudinal axis as the components are drawn off,
6-9
Chapter 6: Cable Construction: Self-Contained Fluid-filled
taped together, and wound onto a drum mounted on a
conventional fixed take-up.
The second technique is called the “drum-twister” tech-
nique. In this method, the bobbins of core and fillers are
set on fixed pay-off stands on the factory floor, and the
components drawn off, taped together, and taken up
onto a drum, which rotates about its transverse axis as
well as its longitudinal axis.
Both techniques lay the cores together without
imparting a twist. This is fundamental, because it
prevents distortion of the conductor and creasing in the
tapes of the insulation. The cores and fillers are bound
together with a fabric tape binder. This binder has one
or more copper wires woven into it to provide continuity
for the charging current between the dielectric shields
and the metal sheath.
6.8 DRYING AND IMPREGNATION
Following insulating in the case of a single-core cable, or
the laying up of a three-core cable, the manufacturing
process continues with loading of the cable into the dry-
ing and impregnating vessel. The cable is then dried by
being heated under vacuum to 120 to 130°C. The heat-
ing is provided by radiant heat from the vessel walls, and
it may be supplemented by passing a dc current at low
voltage through the conductor. This latter technique
speeds up the drying process as the cable core is heated
from the inside as well as the outside. The dryness of the
cable may be measured directly by checking the capaci-
tance of the insulation. Alternatively, the amount of
moisture in the entire vessel may be checked by isolating
the vessel from the vacuum pumps and measuring the
pressure rise over a fixed time. Where it is believed that a
cable is properly dried, but is failing the pressure rise
test, it may be that the impregnation vessel itself is leak-
ing, and allowing small quantities of air to enter. In
these cases, an Equilibrium Vapor Pressure (EVP) test
may be conducted. This test samples the vacuum in the
vessel and compares the vapor pressure of the sample to
the same vacuum that has had all moisture removed. A
desiccant such as phosphorus pentoxide may be used for
this purpose.
Early processes then removed the reel of dried cable
from the vessel and placed it on a turntable or stand on
the factory floor. It was then immediately sheathed with
lead to prevent moisture ingress. Once sheathed, the
cable was placed in another vessel, where it was evacu-
6-10
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
ated and heated externally in an attempt to remove any
moisture that it might have “picked up” awaiting or dur-
ing sheathing. Clean, degasified fluid was then admitted
to the cable via one of the end fittings, while vacuum
was maintained at the other. Once the cable came under
pressure, impregnation was complete.
The drying and impregnating process was greatly
improved in the 1960s by the adoption of mass impreg-
nation. In this process, the drum of cable is placed into
the vessel and, after drying, the entire vessel is filled with
the impregnating fluid. The cable is then fed into the
lead or aluminum extruder under fluid via a siphon
tube. The cable is thus sheathed under low pressure of
fluid, which prevents the insulation from becoming con-
taminated with moisture. This technique produces insu-
lation with a slightly better dielectric loss angle than the
earlier method. However, cleanliness of the equipment is
paramount if low-dielectric-loss angles are to be main-
tained and so, to facilitate cleaning, the process drums
and impregnation vessel are manufactured from stain-
less steel.
For paper insulation, the temperature of impregnation is
not critical, and the insulation may be allowed to cool
before admitting the impregnant if required. For cables
insulated with LPP, it is common practice to allow the
insulation to cool to near-ambient temperature before
admitting the fluid, so that the possibility of the
polypropylene swelling in the fluid is kept to a minimum.
Where the cable is to be sheathed with extruded alumi-
num, impregnation may, alternatively, take place after
sheathing. In this process, the cable is dried in a mass
impregnation vessel and, before impregnation, is then
removed to a transfer vessel behind the aluminum
extruder. The transfer vessel is connected via a stainless
steel tube to the extruder, and the vessel and tube are
evacuated. The cable is then aluminum sheathed under
vacuum. Once sheathing is complete, one end of the
cable is opened to vacuum, and clean, degasified fluid
impregnant is admitted to the other end until the cable
comes under pressure, at which time impregnation is
complete. This process is called “vacuum sheathing,”
and it produces an insulation with a loss angle at least
equal to one that has gone through the mass impregna-
tion route.
For details of the impregnant, please refer to Section
6.16.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
6.9 METAL SHEATHING
The metallic sheath of an SCFF cable has two main pur-
poses. The first is to retain the fluid impregnant, and the
second is to conduct short-circuit current. The most
common types of sheaths for SCFF cables are lead alloy
or corrugated aluminum. Early lead-sheathed cables
were sheathed using a ram press. This had the disadvan-
tage that “stop marks” were produced in the sheath
when the ram of the press was raised to allow the barrel
to be recharged with metal. Modern fluid-filled cables
are sheathed with a continuous lead extruder such as
that shown in Figure 6-13. Stop marks do not occur
with these machines. The lead alloy is chosen to mini-
mize creep and fatigue deterioration arising from instal-
lation configurations along the cable route.
Where three-core cables are terminated into potheads, it
is necessary to separate the cores of the cable using a tri-
furcating joint. As the conductors of the individual
cores do not have a central fluid duct, the single-core
cables (or “tail” cables) between the joint and the
potheads have a specially extruded lead sheath with
flutes on the inside to provide for a flow of fluid beneath
the sheath.
Continuously extruded aluminum provides a much
stiffer sheath than that manufactured from lead alloy,
and aluminum sheaths are normally corrugated to pro-
mote flexibility. The corrugations are rolled into the
sheath in a helical manner to provide for fluid flow
under the sheath. Where special installations dictate, it
is possible to apply a smooth sheath with increased
thickness—for example, for use at the bottom of deep-
shaft installations.
The metallic sheath for the single-core tail cables of
three-core, aluminum-sheathed cables consists of a short
Figure 6-13 Continuous lead extrusion machine
(courtesy author).
Chapter 6: Cable Construction: Self-Contained Fluid-filled
length of loose aluminum tube slipped over the exposed
ends of the cable cores themselves.
Additionally, metallic sheaths manufactured from cop-
per are available, and stainless steel has been used on an
experimental basis. Both of these are applied corrugated
and welded longitudinally. The use of stainless steel gen-
erally requires an additional copper conductor to carry
fault current.
6.10 REINFORCEMENT
Cables sheathed with lead alloy are invariably provided
with a taped reinforcement to contain the internal fluid
pressure. This reinforcement is almost always applied
under the anticorrosion polymeric jacket, but installa-
tions do exist where the tapes are outside the jacket (Ice-
ton 1985).
The reinforcement tapes are most commonly either a
tin-bronze alloy or austenitic (300 series) stainless steel.
O t h e r m at e ri a l s i n c l u d e c a d m i u m c o p p e r a n d
galvanized steel (three-core cables only). For normal
systems, up to a maximum internal static pressure of 76
psi (525 kPa), one layer of tapes is sufficient. For
higher pressures, or where the installation conditions
are considered to be onerous such as for submarine
installations, it is common practice to apply a double
layer of tapes.
A fabric bedding tape is provided between the lead alloy
sheath and the tapes to prevent the edges of the tapes
from damaging the sheath during subsequent bending.
The reinforcement tapes are applied in pairs and with a
double start. This technique balances the sideways
forces on the cable due to the tension in the tapes and
prevents excessive bending during application. The
tapes are covered with a coating of bitumen compound
and with a fabric binder tape. The bitumen compound
enhances anticorrosion performance and longitudinal
water blocking. The fabric tape helps keep the tapes cov-
ered with compound during their service life and pro-
vides a smooth surface for the application of the
anticorrosion jacket.
Joints in tin bronze tapes may be soldered or brazed;
joints in stainless steel tapes should be spot welded.
For cables with very high internal pressure (150 psi
[1034 kPa]), it is possible to apply a layer of armor
wires to give longitudinal reinforcement to the lead
sheath. For single-core cables, aluminum armor wires
are used in preference to galvanized steel to avoid
losses due to magnetic hysteresis. Figure 6-3 shows a
6-11
Chapter 6: Cable Construction: Self-Contained Fluid-filled
400-kV cable with aluminum wire armoring for longi-
tudinal reinforcement.
Once the reinforcement process is complete, it is good
practice, especially for large three-core cables, to apply a
high internal pressure to the cable. This pressure forces
the lead sheath quickly to expand until restrained by the
reinforcement. The sheath expansion gives a good circu-
lar shape to the cable for the application of the poly-
m e ri c j a c ke t o r ove r s h e at h , a n d h e l p s p reve n t
intercrystalline cracks forming in the lead material due
to slow creep.
Sheaths manufactured from aluminum, copper, or stain-
less steel do not require additional reinforcement. The
manufacturing process produces a strong and flexible
sheath, which is inherently strong enough to retain the
internal pressure. One installation has a cable with an
extruded smooth aluminum sheath without additional
reinforcement and operates at 360 psi (2500 kPa)
(Moore 1997).
6.11 JACKETING OR OVERSHEATHING
SCFF cables are provided with a high-grade extruded
polymeric jacket or oversheath. In addition to providing
corrosion protection, it forms the insulation required for
insulated sheath systems. It, therefore, has to be of the
highest quality and integrity.
Before the jacket is applied, the metallic sheath is given
a thin, complete coating of bitumen compound. This
coating acts as a corrosion inhibitor and helps prevent
longitudinal water penetration in the event of jacket
damage.
The jacketing material in most common use is medium-
or high-density polyethylene. PVC has seen common use
in the past, and rubber materials such as neoprene have
also been used. Polyethylene provides a very robust
oversheath with a relatively low thermal resistivity, and
is the most common material where the cables are direct
buried or installed in ducts. PVC is used where cables
are installed in buildings such as substations or in tun-
nels because it can be formulated with a reduced flame
propagation performance and with low smoke and fume
emission characteristics. Heavily filled jacketing materi-
als that exhibit low-smoke performance under fire con-
ditions and do not emit acidic halogens, although in
common use at lower voltages, have not found favor at
the higher voltages, because they tend to have lower
6-12
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
mechanical strength and absorb moisture. These charac-
teristics put these materials at a disadvantage for heavy
transmission-class cables and those intended for use in
specially bonded systems where the long-term electrical
integrity of the jacket is important.
Antitermite additives can be incorporated into polyeth-
ylene or PVC.
Once extruded, one or more lines of text can be
embossed or printed onto the jacket. Additionally, a dif-
ferent colored stripe may be coextruded into the jacket
using a “piggy-back” extruder.
Following an in-line spark test, a conductive coating is
applied to the outside of the oversheath to facilitate
high-voltage quality control testing. These tests are car-
ried out during manufacture and on site.
6.12 ROUTINE TESTING
Routine tests for fluid-filled cables are specified in
AEIC CS4 (AEIC 1993) and in IEC 60141-1 (IEC
1993a). Other national specifications exist, and these
and the specifications quoted specify the same generic
electrical tests:
• Conductor resistance
• Insulation capacitance
• Insulation dielectric loss angle (ionization factor test)
• High-voltage withstand
• Dc withstand on anticorrosion polymeric jacket
Additionally, checks on the dimensions of the cable
components and on the cable fluid are carried out.
Where the tests are specific to fluid-filled cables, these
are described in Section 6.14 for electrical tests and in
Section 6.15 for hydraulic and fluid tests. An overview
of Routine Testing may be found in Chapter 14.
6.13 SHIPPING
After tests are complete, a pulling eye is normally fitted
to one or both ends of the cable, and these are fixed to
the sides of the reel. Cables for land routes are shipped
on robust reels made from steel or timber. Each length is
fitted with a pressure-compensating tank to keep the
cable under positive pressure for all expected ambient
temperatures. It is good practice to fit a small pressure
gauge to the pipe work so that this aspect can be regu-
larly checked until the cable is installed.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 6: Cable Construction: Self-Contained Fluid-filled

6.14 ELECTRICAL TESTS APPLICABLE TO Note that, in AEIC CS4, slightly smaller conductor
FLUID-FILLED CABLES sizes are given for three core cables at 69 and 138 kV.
The test voltages are the same whether the cable is of a
6.14.1 High-Voltage Withstand Test single-core or of a three-core design.
This is a routine test and is carried out on every reel
before shipment. For this test, the cable has to with- 6.14.2 Measurement of Dielectric Loss Angle
stand the test voltage for 15 minutes without break- This test, also known as the dissipation factor test or
down. Table 6-2 shows IEC and AEIC values of the tan δ measurement, is a very important test, because it
test voltage. measures the inherent electrical properties of the insula-
tion. Requirements for paper and LPP cables are shown
in Table 6-3. The specifications give values for the
Table 6-2 Routine Test Withstand Voltages
“base” or initial measurement at working voltage and
Cable Sys- IEC 60141-1 AEIC CS4
tem Voltage
also the amount by which the loss angle may rise with
V kV Test Volt- Conductor Size Test voltage. The base value is a function of the characteris-
age kV
kcmil
Volt- tics of the insulation material and the way it has been
mm2 (a) age kV processed. For example, a cable that has not been
60 to 69 (b) 82 4/0 to 4000 110 to 2030 85.5 properly dried will have a relatively high value of base
350 to 750 180 to 380 130.5 loss angle.
110 to 115 (b) 138
800 to 4000 400 to 2030 117.0
350 to 750 180 to 380 135.0
120 -
800 to 4000 400 to 2030 121.5 Once the base value has been measured, the voltage is
500 to 900 250 to 460 149.0 increased, and the rise in loss angle is measured. This
130 -
1000 to 4000 510 to 2030 129.0 test, called the “tan delta difference” or “ionization
132 to 138 (b) 162
550 to 900 280 to 460 151.5 factor” test, checks for ionic impurities in the paper or
1000 to 4000 510 to 2030 136.5 impregnant. Additionally, if air is trapped in the
750 to 900 280 to 460 177.0 insulation, this will cause partial discharge and thus
150 to 161 (b) 184
1000 to 4000 510 to 2030 159.0
high ionization.
1000 to 2000 510 to 1010 228.0
220 to 230 (b) 220
2250 to 4000 1140 to 2030 186.0
275 to 287 275 - - - 6.15 HYDRAULIC AND FLUID QUALITY TESTS
1000 to 2000 510 to 630 310.5
330 to 345 (b) 325
1500 to 4000 760 to 2030 276.0 6.15.1 Expulsion Test
380 to 400 375 - - -
This test is designed to check that the cable is com-
2000 to 2500 1010 to 1270 402.0
500 495
2500 to 4000 1270 to 2030 375.0 pletely impregnated. AEIC CS4 specifies that an Expul-
sion Test shall be carried out on reels of complete cable.
a. Approximate conversion kcmil to square millimeters
Fluid is withdrawn from the pressurized cable until all
b. Where a range of system voltage is shown, the AEIC value
corresponds to the highest value in that range. flow ceases. The volume of fluid and the drop in pres-

Table 6-3 Dielectric Loss Angle Requirements for Paper and LPP Cables at Routine Test (IEC 60141-1)
System Rated Cables Not Screened with Carbon Black Paper Cables Screened with Carbon Black Paper
Voltage, Voltage,
V (kV) Vg (kV) Max Dielectric Loss Angle Max Difference Max Dielectric Loss Angle Max Difference
x 10-4 x 10-4 x 10-4 x 10-4
At Vg At 1.67 Vg Between Vg and At Vg At 1.67 Vg Between Vg and
1.67 Vg 1.67 Vg
Paper LPP Paper LPP Paper LPP Paper LPP Paper LPP Paper LPP
220-230 127 30 14 34 16 5 4 30 14 36 19 7 6
275-287 160 30 14 34 16 5 4 30 14 36 19 7 6
330-345 190 28 14 31 16 4 4 28 14 34 19 7 6
380-400 220 28 14 31 16 4 4 28 14 34 19 7 6
500 290 28 14 31 16 4 4 28 14 34 19 7 6

6-13
Chapter 6: Cable Construction: Self-Contained Fluid-filled
sure are measured, and the Expulsion Constant (Ke) is
calculated using Equation 6-1.
dV
Ke =
dP × A × L × 51.7
Where:
dV = Volume of expelled fluid (cm3).
dP = difference in pressure before and after
expelling fluid (psi).
A = cross sectional area of the cable inside the
metallic sheath (in2).
L = length of the cable under test (x103 ft).
The value of Ke may not be greater than 0.065.
6.15.2 Impregnation Coefficient Test
The Impregnation Coefficient Test is a similar test to the
Expulsion Test and may also be conducted on every reel
of cable before shipment from the factory. In addition,
the British Standards Institution specification BS 7922
(British Standards Institution 2004) requires that the
test is also repeated on completed installations at the
time of commissioning, and Energy Networks Associa-
tion ENA C84/2 (ENA 2000) recommends it whenever
the cable is taken out of service or repair work is carried
out. Like the Expulsion Test, this test is intended to
check that there is no free air trapped in the insulation
or other space contained within the metallic sheath. It
differs from the Expulsion Test in that only a relatively
small volume of fluid is withdrawn, and thus there is no
risk of losing all pressure from the cable. Also a more
precise value for the volume of fluid in the system is
used, which allows a tighter pass level to be set.
To conduct the test, the feed tanks are first isolated from
the cable. A measured quantity of fluid is then with-
drawn from the cable over a fixed time, and the conse-
quent drop in pressure noted.
The impregnation coefficient (Ki) is then defined as:
dV 1 their associated lengths). Thus one part would be for the
Ki = × 6-2
V dP
Where:
dV = the volume of fluid withdrawn from the
system (l).
V = the total volume of oil in the installation
(l).
dP = the measured drop in pressure (bar).
The specifications give a pass value for Ki of 4.5 x
bar -1 for all sizes and constructions of cable. In the
factory where individual reels of cable are tested, the
6-14
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
pass value can be more readily achieved for aluminum-
sheathed cables than for lead-sheathed cables due to
the greater inherent stiffness of the aluminum sheath
material.
6-1
However, this is a searching test and is very sensitive to
pressure variations associated with ambient temperature
changes. It is much less easily measured on completed
installations, where the temperature rise associated with
the sun coming from behind some clouds during the test
has been known to cause the expected pressure drop
actually to become a pressure rise. It is, therefore, pru-
dent to conduct this test when the ambient temperature
is at its most stable, and thus the test is often conducted
in the early hours of the morning.
6.15.3 Flow Test
The purpose of this test is to ensure that no abnormal
restriction to fluid flow is present in the cable duct, joints,
and associated pipework. This is achieved by measuring
the drop in pressure for a measured flow rate of fluid.
This value is then compared to a calculated value. The
flow rate may be calculated from Equation 6-3.
Pr 4
Q= 6-3
25.5ηL
Where
Q = Flow rate (l/sec).
P = Total pressure difference on the hydraulic
section (including allowance for route pro-
file) (bar).
r = internal radius of the cable duct or feed
pipe (mm).
η = Viscosity of the fluid at the test tempera-
ture (centipoise).
L = length of the cable section (m).
The flow rate varies with the fourth power of the radius
of the duct, and thus the calculation is very sensitive to
this parameter. It is, therefore, necessary to split the cal-
culation into as many parts as there are pipe radii (with
flow in the cable duct, another for the feed pipework,
and perhaps another for a length of cable with a differ-
ent sized duct.
For three-core cables, the value obtained from Equation
6-3 is multiplied by three.
The measured value rarely correlates precisely with the
10-4 calculated value, and the specifications give no pass
level. The figures obtained serve as a guide to ensure
that no undue obstructions are present in the system.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
6.15.4 Residual Gas Pressure Test
This test takes the Impregnation Coefficient Test one
step further by measuring the amount of air dissolved in
the fluid. It is also useful as a tool to check the quality
of the fluid in feed tanks, and the output of fluid treat-
ment units, which by their nature, cannot be checked
using the Impregnation Coefficient Test.
The test finds most use in systems where the electric
stress in the cable and joint insulation are at their
highest and, therefore, more prone to deterioration due
to contamination of the fluid with air. The SCFF cable
system will age naturally mainly due to deterioration of
the insulation material. This is not critical until the
pressure of dissolved gas approaches that of the system
itself. When diversionary or remedial work is carried
out, a balance should be struck between the value when
the system was new and that practicably achievable in
the time available. For guidance, a value of 10 Torr
(mm Hg) should be achievable for new installations at
system voltages above 200 kV, and a value expected for
such installations that have been in service is 50 Torr
(mm Hg). After flushing the installation, values of
twice that achieved for new installations are acceptable.
Values for lower system voltages are less stringent
(ENA 2000).
Different cable installation companies use different
designs of specially constructed measuring equipment,
one of which is described here (see Figure 6-14). Other
equipment works on similar principles.
Figure 6-14 Schematic of residual gas pressure (RGP) test apparatus (courtesy author).
Chapter 6: Cable Construction: Self-Contained Fluid-filled
The fluid to be sampled is sprayed in a fine jet into a
vacuum enclosed by the domed end of a glass tube. The
fluid falls under gravity to the base of the tube. The tube
stands in a larger glass outer tube to which it is com-
mon at the base. The outer tube fills with the fluid from
the inner tube to a predetermined level set by an over-
flow or drain tube. The space above the fluid in the
outer tube is a vacuum common with the reservoir at
the base of the apparatus and is thus an adjustable and
measurable vacuum. As the fluid is sprayed into the
inner tube, the gas comes out of solution such that the
pressure in the upper part of the tube is the same as that
in the fluid at the base. The vacuum in the outer tube is
varied until the level of fluid in the outer tube is the
same as the level in the inner tube. At this equilibrium
point, the pressure in the two tubes is the same, and this
can be measured in the outer tube. This pressure is
known as the RGP of the fluid.
6.15.5 Fluid Cleanliness Test
For cables intended for use at 200 kV and above, it is
good practice to check the quality of the fluid for partic-
ulate contamination. The distribution of particle size in
the fluid is such that it is only necessary to specify the
number of particles in the smallest size range to ensure
that the overall cleanliness of the fluid is satisfactory.
This is set at 50,000 particles per 100 ml of fluid in the
2-5 µm range (ENA C84/2 [ENA 2000]).
6-15
Chapter 6: Cable Construction: Self-Contained Fluid-filled EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

6.15.6 Fluid Electrical Tests system has been installed in vertical shafts as well as
Common electrical tests on the cable fluid are the cable tunnels. Figure 6-15 shows fire-retardant 400-kV
volume resistivity test, the dielectric loss angle test, and SCFF cables installed in a 1968-ft (600-m) deep vertical
the measurement of breakdown strength. AEIC CS4 shaft in a power station in Italy.
requires the latter two tests to be carried out as a routine
test on samples of fluid extracted from the cable on its Alkylbenzene liquids are synthetic hydrocarbons. They
reel before dispatch from the factory. The resistivity and are produced by first making the appropriate aromatic
loss angle tests are carried out at the operating and n-paraffin, or olefin, and then reacting the
temperature of the conductor in a laboratory. The polymer with benzene in the presence of a catalyst such
electric breakdown strength is also used as an as aluminum chloride or hydrofluoric acid. The
acceptance test for drums of fluid delivered to site and is product is then purified by the removal of the catalyst
carried out at ambient temperature in a portable test cell. and acid by-products. This is followed by distillation,
filtration, and drying to produce an acceptable
It is possible to dramatically improve the electrical prop- electrical insulating liquid.
erties of the fluid by treating it with Fuller’s earth or
molecular sieve. An impregnant consisting mainly of dodecylbenzene is
now primarily used for SCFF cables, and either
branched chain or linear dodecylbenzene may be used.
6.16 CABLE FLUID
In general, the linear type is preferred, because it is
Highly refined low-viscosity mineral oils were used as more readily available and is able to be classified as
cable impregnants for many decades; however, alkylben- “readily biodegradable” (Endersby et al. 1993b).
zene materials were introduced into fluid-filled cables in
the late 1960s and 1970s as an alternative. Alkylbenzene
fluids are a synthetic material and are, therefore, per-
ceived as a more consistent product. They have signifi-
cantly superior gassing properties relative to mineral
oils, because their ability to absorb gas under electrical
stress increases with temperature, and they have a high
resistance to oxidation. At present, synthetic alkylates of
the dodecylbenzene type are the preferred impregnant
for SCFF cables, and today dodecylbenzene has effec-
tively completely replaced mineral oil (Moore 1997).

In the 1980s, development work was carried out to find

an alternative impregnant that had a superior perfor-
mance under conditions of fire. The resulting cable sys-
t e m wa s p ri n ci p a lly i nt en de d fo r u s e i n t un n el
installations. In Europe, type approval testing was suc-
cessfully conducted on such an SCFF cable system with
a low-flammability impregnant. The system comprised
standard construction cable and accessories, impreg-
nated with a silicone oil, which had an additive to Figure 6-15 400-kV SCFF fire-retardant cables installed
improve the gassing characteristics (Lanfranconi 1986 in a vertical shaft (courtesy Prysmian Cables and
and US Patent). The type tests were successful, and the Systems).

6-16
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 6: Cable Construction: Self-Contained Fluid-filled

Typical electrical, chemical, and physical properties of seabed. It is, however, recommended to bury the cable in
dodecylbenzene fluid commercially used in transmission sections of the route that are prone to damage, espe-
cables are shown in Tables 6-4 and 6-5. cially where the cable crosses busy shipping channels
and at the shore ends.
6.17 SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS FOR
SUBMARINE USE The length of a SCFF submarine cable is often limited
by the need to feed the full length of the route with fluid
SCFF cables have seen extensive use on ac and dc
to maintain it under positive pressure at all times. The
submarine systems, and dominate the market at the
most onerous condition is during the cooling transient.
present time. Very large new projects are being installed
This is easier to achieve with three-core cables, because
(IPG 2006).
these designs have three ducts, and thus their hydraulic
impedance is much less than their single-core counter-
SCFF cables intended for submarine use are invariably
parts. The length of single-core cable that can be
armored to provide tensile strength and protection dur-
installed may be considerably extended by increasing
ing laying and to prevent damage when installed on the
the diameter of the central fluid duct. It is also possible
to use a special ultra-low-viscosity impregnant to extend
Table 6-4 Typical Properties of Dodecylbenzene Cable the length of cable that can be installed. Some long-
Impregnating Fluid length submarine installations are equipped with
Property Test Method Value pumping plants to maintain the system under pressure
Density, gm/cm3 at 20°C ASTM D 1298 0.86 at all times.
Kinematic viscosity – centis-
ASTM D 445
tokes
The remainder of the construction of a submarine fluid-
At 40°C 4.0 – 4.5
filled cable is more robust than that intended for use on
At 60°C 2.5 – 3.0
land. The operating stress of the insulation is slightly
At 90°C 2.0 – 2.2
lower. The lead sheath is slightly thicker, and this is rein-
Flash point, °C ASTM D 93 130
forced with a double layer of tapes (Foxall et al. 1984).
Pour point, °C ASTM D 97 -45
The anticorrosion polymeric jacket may be protected
Corrosive sulfur ASTM D 1275 Noncorrosive
with thin metal “anti-teredo” tapes. These tapes are usu-
Neutralization value, mg KOH/g ASTM D 974 0.01
ally made of copper or brass. However, it is the armor
Expansion coefficient, per °C ASTM D 1903 0.00080
layer, or layers, which constitute the major difference
Specific heat capacity, kJ/kgK ASTM D 2766 1.67
between submarine and land cables.
Gassing under electrical stress, ASTM D
-0.02 (min)
ml/min 2300B
Biodegradability (linear dode- Readily biode-
Most submarine cables are armored with a single layer
OECD 301D of round, galvanized steel wires. A single layer of wires
cylbenzene) gradable
allows the cable to be coiled, thus avoiding the need for
specialized cable-laying vessels with turntables (Arkell et

Table 6-5 Quality Control Properties of Dodecylbenzene Cable Fluid

Property Test Method Value
Material Supplied in Material Supplied in Output from Fluid
Bulka Barrelsa Treatment Unit
Dielectric loss angle 90°C and
ASTM D 924 0.001 0.002 0.003
40 – 60 Hz
Volume resistivity at 90°C, 1010
ASTM D1169 100 50 50
Ω-m
Breakdown voltage, kV ac ASTM D 1816 40 30 50
Moisture content, ppm ASTM D 1533 75 75 20
Less than 50,000 parti-
Particle count IEC 970 No requirement No requirement cles in 2-5µm range
per 100 ml
Residual gas pressure, mm Hg Special apparatus Not applicable Not applicable 1.0

a. Values from IEC 60867 (IEC 1993b).

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Chapter 6: Cable Construction: Self-Contained Fluid-filled EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

al.1989). However, the act of coiling imparts a twist to
the cable, and it is important to ensure that the lay direc-
tion and length of all components are correct to ensure
that damage does not occur.
Where submarine cables have a double layer of armor,
then these are usually applied with opposite lay
directions; however, it is not possible to coil this design.
It is, however, much easier to produce a design that is
torque balanced and, therefore, less prone to twist and
to throw a loop in the catenary between the cable vessel
and the seabed.
Cables with either a single- or a double-layer of wires
may be wound onto a turntable, and this is generally
accepted as being the safest option.
Cables intended for operation in a dc system may have
steel wire armor applied without loss of rating. In these
systems, there is no alternating magnetic field external
to the cable to create hysteresis losses in the armor.
Cables for ac systems with steel wire armor must either
be of a three-core construction (see Figure 6-16)
because the magnetic field external to the three cores in
trefoil formation is minimal (Arkell et al. 1989), or, for
single-core designs, a copper return conductor must be
provided beneath the steel wires to reduce the magnetic
field to an acceptable level (Grzan et al. 1992) and thus
minimize hysteresis losses in the armor. In some cases, a
copper armor is applied, and the wires thus have a dual
role (Foxall et al.1984; Dominguez Miguel et al. 1994).
6.18 SELF-CONTAINED FLUID-FILLED CABLES
FOR OPERATION ON DC
The most significant differences between cables that
operate on dc compared with those that operate on ac
are the insulation and armoring. The significance of the
armoring is discussed in Section 6.17.
In an ac cable, the electrostatic stress in the insulation
does not vary with temperature. For a single-permittiv-
ity insulation, it is at all times governed by the dimen-
sions of the cable. The magnitude of the stress in zones
of the insulation may be varied slightly by altering the
permittivity of the insulation. The equations are given in
Chapter 3.
The thickness of the insulation in an ac cable is designed
such that the cable will withstand the lightning impulse
test carried out as part of type approval testing. The
normal operating voltage is a small fraction of the
impulse test voltage, and the associated electrical stress
under normal operating conditions is well below the
withstand capability of the insulation. Figure 6-17
shows a 270-kV dc SCFF cable.

Armor wires are bound down with multiple polypropy-

lene strings. Strings are preferred on submarine cables,
because extruded finishes are likely to slip through the
laying machinery, and may split if they sustain local
damage. Strings provide a good gripping surface and
contain any damage to a small area that may be more
easily repaired. The use of multicolored strings allows
easy observation of the cable through cameras
attached to remotely operated cable-burying machinery
on the seabed.

For long lengths it is necessary to bond the armor wires

to the metal sheath to prevent overvoltages appearing
across the polymeric jacket. These are installed about
every 3 miles (5 km). Alternatively, a semiconducting
anticorrosion jacket may be provided (Foxall et al. 1984). Figure 6-16 Three-core armored submarine SCFF cable
(courtesy J-Power Systems).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 6: Cable Construction: Self-Contained Fluid-filled

For cables for use on dc, there is no lightning impulse
test requirement; however, cables are designed to with-
stand a polarity reversal that can arise with some types
of dc converters. For dc cables under steady-state condi-
tions, the stress in the insulation is dependent on,
among other factors, the electrical resistivity of the insu-
lation. The insulation resistivity itself is highly depen-
dent on the temperature and to a lesser extent on the
applied electrical stress. The electrical stress distribution
across the insulation is, therefore, influenced by the
thermal characteristics of the insulation and by the heat
generated by the load current (see Figure 6-18). Analy-
sis of these effects leads to the well-known phenomenon
of “stress inversion,” whereby the stress on the outside
of the insulation is greater than the stress adjacent to the
conductor when the cable is under load. It is, therefore,
good practice to grade the insulation so as to take into
account this effect rather than using a conventional ac
cable paper-grading design. The impulse and long-term
dc strength of these papers increase with increasing den-
sity and with decreasing thickness.
tapes are similar to those used on ac. The insulating
paper used for dc cables has a density in the range 62
lbs/ft3 to 44 lbs/ft3 (1000 kg/m3 to 700kg/m3), and thick-
nesses from 4 mils (100 µm) to 8 mils (200 µm).
It is also possible to use LPP as an insulating material
for SCFF dc cables. The first commercial use of LPP in
dc SCFF cable is in the 500-kV dc submarine cable sys-
tem across the Kii channel in Japan. Many development
tests were carried out, and it was concluded that, under
dc conditions, LPP had a superior performance com-
pared to kraft paper, as had been found with ac cables.
Figure 6-19 shows the improved dc breakdown strength
of LPP compared to paper. The tests were carried out
on models consisting of three thicknesses of 5-mil
(125-µm) laminate with a hole in one tape to simulate a
butt space. The results show the dc breakdown strength

As well as electrical performance, it is necessary for the

cable to have a satisfactory mechanical performance.
For large insulation thicknesses, it is usually necessary
to have thicker paper tapes on the outside of the cable to
achieve this. Thus the density of the papers may be var-
ied in the wall of the insulation. In one design (Arkell
and Gregory 1984), four different densities of paper, but
only three different paper thicknesses, are used.

It is customary to use the same insulating machine for

dc as for ac cables, and thus the dimensions of the paper

Figure 6-18 Stress distribution in the insulation of the

cable in Figure 6-17 (Arkell et al. 1984) (courtesy IEEE).

Figure 6-19 Dc breakdown strength of LPP and kraft paper

measured on models of 5-mil (125-µm) tapes (Sugata et al
Figure 6-17 270-kV dc 1600-kcmil (800-mm2) SCFF cable 1996) (courtesy author).
(courtesy author).

6-19
Chapter 6: Cable Construction: Self-Contained Fluid-filled
of LPP to be 1.6 times that of kraft paper at the cable
conductor operating temperature (Sugata et al. 1996).
This particular dc installation operating at 500 kV, with
a 6000-kcmil (3000-mm2) conductor and LPP insulation
6-20
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
is believed to be the highest rated, naturally cooled cable
in the world and demonstrates how the SCFF cable has
evolved with LPP insulation, not only on low-loss ac
systems, but also on dc systems at the highest level.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
REFERENCES
AEIC. 1993. AEIC Standard CS4-93. Specifications for
Impregnated-Paper-Insulated Low and Medium Pressure
Self-Contained Liquid Filled Cable. 8th Edition. Associ-
ation of Edison Illuminating Companies. New York.
Arkell, C. A., and W. E. Blake. 1968. “Installation of E.
H.V. Oil Filled Cables in Deep Shafts.” IEE Conference
Proceedings: Progress in Overhead Lines and Cables
200 kV and Above. London.
Arkell, C. A., W. E. Blake, A. D. R. Brealey, K. J. H.
Hacke, and G. E. A.Hance. 1977. “Design and Con-
struction of the 400 kV Cable System for the Severn
Tunnel.” Proceedings IEE. Vol. 124. No. 3.
Arkell, C. A. and B. Gregory. 1984. “Design of Self
Contained Oil-Filled Cables for UHV DC Transmis-
sion.” Paper No. 21-07. CIGRE. Paris.
Arkell, C. A., B. Gregory, and J. E. Hawkes. 1984.
“Design and Testing of 270 kV D.C. Self-Contained Oil-
Filled Cable for the Land Section of the UK-France
Connection.” IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution
Conference. Kansas City, Missouri.
Arkell, C. A., S. J. Galloway, E. B. Parsons, B. G. Wood-
cock, and D. E. Woolmer. 1989. “Design, Manufacture
and Installation of 150 kV Submarine Cable System for
the Java-Madura Interconnection.” IEE Proceedings.
Vol. 136. Pt. C. No. 3.
British Standards Institution. 2004. “BS 7922 Electric
Cables: Fluid–filled Paper- and PPL-insulated, Metal
Sheathed Cables and Accessories for Alternating Volt-
ages up to and Including 400 kV (= 420 kV). Require-
ments and Test Methods.”
Brotherton, W., H. N. Cox, R. F. Frost, and J. Selves.
1977. “Field Trials on Internally Oil-Cooled Cables.”
IEE Proceedings. Vol. 124. No. 3.
Couderc, D., Q. Bui Van, A. Vallee, R. Hata, K.
Murakami, and M. Mitani. 1996. “Development and
Testing of a 800 kV PPLP-Insulated Oil-Filled Cable
and its Accessories.” Paper No. 21/22-04. CIGRE. Paris.
Dominguez Miguel, M., M. Ruiz Urbieta, E. Gallango
Faraco, A. Benchekroun, and O. El-Kindi. 1994.
“Technical Requirements for the Submarine Electrical
Interconnection Spain-Morocco.” Paper 21-205.
CIGRE. Paris.
Chapter 6: Cable Construction: Self-Contained Fluid-filled
Endersby, T. M., B. Gregory, and S. G. Swingler. 1992.
“The Application of Polypropylene Paper Laminate
Insulated Oil Filled Cable to EHV and UHV Transmis-
sion.” Paper No. 21-307 CIGRE. Paris.
Endersby, T. M., B. Gregory, and S. G. Swingler. 1993a.
“Polypropylene Paper Laminate Oil Filled Cable and
Accessories for EHV Application.” IEE Third Interna-
tional Conference on Power Cables and Accessories
10 kV-500 kV. Conference Publication No. 382.
Endersby, T. M., S. J. Galloway, B. Gregory, and N. C.
Mohan. 1993b. “Environmental Compatibility of
Supertension Cables.” IEE Third International Confer-
ence on Power Cables and Accessories 10 kV-500 kV.
Conference Publication No.382.
ENA. 2000. Energy Networks Association. “Engineering
Recommendation C84/2. Code of Practice for the Main-
tenance of Self-contained Fluid-filled Pressure Assisted
Cable Systems up to 400 kV Operating Voltage.”
ENA. 2006. Energy Networks Association Website.
2006. www.energynetworks.org.
Farneti, F., P. Menesatti, E. Dotti, and G. Luoni. 1984.
“Testing of a 1100 kV, 3 to 9 GVA Underground Trans-
mission System.” IEEE/PES Winter Meeting. Dallas,
Texas. Paper 84 WM 190-5.
Foxall, R. G., K. Barlow-Larsen, and G. Bazzi. 1984.
“Design, Manufacture and Installation of a 525 kV
Alternating Current Submarine Cable Link from Main-
land Canada to Vancouver Island.” CIGRE. Paris.
Paper No. 21-04.
Gazzana-Priaroggia, P., E. Occhini, and N. Palmieri.
1961. “A Brief Review of the Theory of Paper Lapping
of a Single Core High-Voltage Cable.” IEE Proceedings.
Vol. 108C.
Grzan, J., E. I. Hahn, R. V. Casalaina, and J. O. C. Kan-
sog. 1992. “The 345kV Underground/Underwater Long
Island Sound Cable Project.” IEEE.
Heyda, P. G. 1967. “Theoretical Aspects of Mechanical
Stresses in a Paper-Lapped Cable Insulation.” IEE Pro-
ceedings. Vol. 114. No. 10.
Hunter, P. V., and J. T. Hazell.1956. Development of
Power Cables. George Newnes Limited. London.
6-21
Chapter 6: Cable Construction: Self-Contained Fluid-filled
Iceton, J. W. 1985. “The 50 MW Jersey – France 90 kV
A.C. Line.” IEE Fourth International Conference on
AC and DC Power Transmission. Conference Publica-
tion. No. 255.
IEC. 1993a. International Electrotechnical Commis-
sion. Standard 60141-1. “Tests on Oil-Filled and Gas-
Pressure Cables and their Accessories Part 1: Oil filled,
Paper–Insulated, Metal Sheathed Cables and Accesso-
ries for Alternating Voltages up to and Including
400kV.”
IEC. 1993b. International Electrotechnical Commis-
sion. Standard 60867. “Insulating Liquids. Specifica-
tions for Unused Liquids Based on Synthetic Aromatic
Hydrocarbons.”
IPG. 2006. International Power Generation Website.
www.ipg.antfx.com.
Lanfranconi, G. M., and B. Vecellio. 1986. “Fire Retar-
dant Oil-Filled Cables.” CIGRE Report No. 21-11. Ple-
nary Session. Paris.
6-22
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Minemura, S. and Y. Maekawa. 1989. “500 kV Oil-
Filled Cable Installed on Bridges.” IEEE/PES Transmis-
sion and Distribution Conference. New Orleans, Louisi-
ana. Paper 89 TD 352-2 PWRD.
Moore, G. F. 1997. The Electric Cables Handbook.
Blackwell Science. Oxford, UK.
Ray, J. J., C. A. Arkell, and H. W. Flack. 1973. “525 kV
Self-Contained Oil-Filled Cable Systems for Grand
Coulee Third Powerplant – Design and Development.”
IEE London Paper No T73.
Sugata, T., Y. Koga, H. Takashima, T. Imajo, R. Hata,
O. Fujii, S. Yoshida, and M. Shimada. 1996. “Develop-
ment of 500 kV DC PPLP-Insulated Oil-Filled Subma-
rine Cable.” CIGRE. Paris. Paper No. 21-302.
United States Patent 4967039. 1990. “Insulating Liquids
and Electric Cables.”
 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

CHAPTER 7 Cable Construction:

Special Applications
Authors: Phil Bolin, Mitsubishi Electric Power Products, Inc. (Section 7.2)
W. Graham Lawson, Energy Cable Consultants, Inc. (Section 7.3)
Allen MacPhail, BC Hydro (Section 7.3)
Ernesto Zaccone, Prysmian Cables and Systems (Section 7.3)
David Lindsay, Southwire (Section 7.4)
Reviewer: Pierre Argaut, Silec Cables

A number of cable types are used for special applications. These installations typically
involve high costs and require a great deal of engineering analysis and design.

One of these cable types is gas-insulated lines (GIL). First installed in 1972, GIL is pres-
surized with sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) gas and is used in high-power applications.

Special-application cables also include dc and submarine cables. The demand for HVAC
and HVDC submarine power transmission links has continued steadily since the 1950s.
A review of worldwide experience presented in Section 7.3 shows that, while the maxi-
mum route length of HVAC links approaches approximately 65 miles (100 km) at the
60–90 kV level or about 25 miles (40 km) at the 500-kV level, longer lengths are possible
if intermediate islands allow the use of shunt reactor compensation. Submarine HVDC
links have continued to increase in length, reaching approximately 350 miles (560 km) in
2007, and a voltage level of 500 kV in 2006.

The basic cable types employed in submarine HVAC and HVDC cable systems are gener-
ally the same as those employed in HVAC underground systems. Therefore, Section 7.3
focuses on differences in design and testing requirements for HVAC and HVDC subma-
rine cable applications.

A third area of special application cables includes superconducting cables. Since the dis-
covery of high-temperature superconducting (HTS) materials in 1986, there has been
continuing interest in developing underground superconducting cables that would have
the capability of carrying three to five times more power than conventional cables. Today
there are a number of projects worldwide demonstrating HTS cables.

Phil Bolin is General Manager of the Substation Division of Mitsubishi

Electric Power Products, Inc., responsible for the supply Gas Insulated
Substations (GIS), large power transformers, generator circuit break-
ers, and Static Var Compensators (SVC) on both an equipment and
turnkey basis. Previously Mr. Bolin worked for 20 years in the develop-
ment and production of GIL for High Voltage Power Corporation and
Westinghouse Electric. He has 16 patents and published many papers
related to GIL. He is a Fellow of the IEEE and is active in the IEEE
Substations Committee, CIGRE, and IEC. Mr. Bolin has a B.S. and M.S. from MIT in
Electrical Engineering.

7-1
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
Graham Lawson graduated with a
B.Sc. in physics from Edinburgh Uni-
versity and a Ph.D. in electrical engi-
n e e r i n g f ro m t h e U n iv e r s i t y o f
Southampton prior to joining Pirelli
Cables (now Prysmian Cables & Sys-
tems) in 1970. His career in Research,
Development and Engineering
(RD&E) with Pirelli involved extended periods in Italy,
Brazil, the United Kingdom, and North America, where
he held the position of V.P. RD&E. In 1992, he joined
Power Technologies, Inc. (now Siemens PTI, Inc.) as
Manager of the Underground Cables Group. In 1997,
he founded Energy Cable Consultants, Inc., a small
business corporation registered in New York State.
Since 1992, Dr. Lawson has provided consulting services
in the field of underground and submarine cables to a
worldwide client base. Among his most recent U.S.
activities, Dr. Lawson has provided consulting services
to the NeptuneRTS Project, the 500-kVdc, 660-MW sub-
marine cable link between New Jersey and Long Island,
and the 138-kV, 300-MVA Connecticut to Long Island
submarine cable link that is to replace the 1969 SCFF
cable circuits. Dr. Lawson is a Fellow of the IET (UK), a
Senior Member of the IEEE, and an individual Member
of CIGRE.
G. Allen MacPhail graduated from the
University of British Columbia, Van-
couver, with a BApSc (EE) in 1972.
He then joined BC Hydro, specializing
in underground and submarine cable
engineering for most of his career. Mr.
MacPhail’s experience includes most
phases of a typical project cycle from
feasibility studies through to commissioning tests and
maintenance, for cable systems ranging from 15 to
525 kVac and up to +/-450 kVdc. It also includes HV
and EHV cable condition assessment, life expectancy
and extension; up-rating feasibility studies; real-time
dynamic rating and fiber optic distributed temperature
sensing systems. In addition to in-house responsibilities,
Allen has been active with BC Hydro International sub-
marine cable projects in Central America, Alaska, Ire-
land, Egypt, and Jordan, at voltage levels from 35 to
400 kV. Activities also include acting as an advisor to
EPRI’s Underground Transmission Task Force. He is a
contributor to the IEEE ICC as past Vice Chair of the
Accessories Subcommittee, past Chair of the Cable
Construction and Design Subcommittee, and partici-
pant in many discussion and working groups. He is also
7-2
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
a CIGRE member and past Chair of AEIC’s Task
Group for developing CS9 “Specifications for Extruded
Insulation Power Cables and Their Accessories Rated
Above 46 kV Through 345 kVac.” Since retiring from
BC Hydro in 2006, Mr. MacPhail has formed a small
consulting company, Cabletricity Connections, special-
izing in power cable application engineering.
Ernesto Zaccone is currently with the
R & I ( Re s e a rc h a n d I n n ovat i o n )
department of Prysmian Cables and
System (formerly Pirelli Cables) based
in Milan, Italy. He obtained a degree
in Electrotechnical Engineering in
1969. During the same year, he joined
the power cable industry, where he was
engaged in a number of different activities such as
projects in high-voltage testing laboratories and high-
voltage cable system design. In particular, he was
involved in the study, design, and realization of some
major EHV (Extra High Voltage) extruded cable
projects. He was also the author of several studies on the
application and impact of EHV cables when integrated
in transmission systems. Currently he is involved in a
number of innovative underground cable projects and in
international standardization activities. Mr. Zaccone is
the Chairman of the CEI CT 20 Italian standardization
body for power cables. He is the Co-convenor of the IEC
TC20 WG 16, which is responsible for the international
standardization of high-voltage cables and their accesso-
ries, and is an active member of CIGRE and IEEE.
David T. Lindsay is the Business Man-
ager for HTS Cable Systems at South-
wire Compa ny. I n this role he is
responsible for all business and techni-
cal activities related to development
a n d c o m m e rc i a l i z at i o n o f h i g h -
temperature superconducting (HTS)
cable technology. David joined South-
wire Company in 1998 as a Development Engineer to
work on new product designs and manufacturing pro-
cesses. Since that time he as been involved with all HTS
activities at Southwire. David is also Director of the
joint venture Ultera through which Southwire partners
with nkt cables of Germany to develop HTS cables. He
holds a Bachelors Degree in Materials Engineering from
the Georgia Institute of Technology and Masters of
Business Administration from the University of West
Georgia. He is a member of the IEEE Power Engineer-
ing Society.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications

7.1 INTRODUCTION 7.2 GAS-INSULATED LINES (GIL)

Extruded-dielectric, pipe-type, and self-contained fluid-
filled ac cables account for the majority of installed
lengths of transmission cable systems throughout the
world. However, a number of other novel cable types
also exist—including gas-insulated lines, dc cables, long-
length submarine cables, and superconducting cables.
These cables are being used, or developed for use, in
special applications, and have unique aspects to their
design, installation, and specifications.
Gas-insulated lines (GIL) are used in applications where
high-power capabilities are required, such as substation
ties and through tunnels. GIL is similar to the SF 6 -
insulated metal-clad bus bar connected to switchgear.
Submarine cables may be either HVAC or HVDC, with
most HVDC cables being installed in longer length
(≥ 25 miles [40 km]) submarine crossings. Submarine
cables have many design aspects in common with under-
ground cables. Their mechanical design, however, must
permit very long splice-free lengths and allow installa-
tion at significant water depths.
Research has been underway for several decades on
underground transmission cables utilizing supercon-
ducting materials. Superconducting cables offer the
potential for lower losses, high efficiencies, and greater
utilization of rights-of-way due to the higher power den-
sity at a given voltage level.
This chapter describes these cable types. Section 7.2 cov-
ers GIL. Section 7.3 discusses dc and long-length sub-
marine cables. Section 7.4 describes superconducting
cables.
For each of these cable types, Chapter 7 provides infor-
mation on application experience, design basics, con-
s t r u c t i o n , i n s t a l l at i o n p r a c t i c e s, a n d i n d u s t r y
specifications and standards. The sections also discuss
special issues that are unique to each cable type.
GIL is described in general in Section 2.8.1. This section
describes the construction of two presently available
types of GIL—factory assembled and tested shipping
units, and field assembled and tested lines. Both use sul-
fur hexafluoride (SF6) gas (or SF6-N2 mixtures) at a
moderate pressure (about 60 psig [500 kPa]) to insulate
a high-voltage aluminum conductor supported by epoxy
spacers inside a grounded aluminum enclosure.
7.2.1 SF6 Gas and SF6-N2 Mixtures for High-
Voltage Insulation
SF6 gas is widely used for high-voltage insulation in
circuit breakers and Gas-Insulated-Substations (GIS)
for its excellent electrical insulation and arc interruption
capabilities. For a GIL, the conductor/enclosure diame-
ter ratio is approximately 3 for a near-optimum electric
field distribution. The overall size is chosen to pass the
lightning impulse withstand voltage type test while
avoiding condensation of SF6 at low temperatures.
See Table 7-1 for typical GIL sizes and electric field
stress levels.
SF6 Physical and Environmental Characteristics
SF6, a sulfur atom surrounded by six tightly bonded flu-
orine atoms, is a dense, colorless, odorless, nontoxic gas
that is stable up to more than 300ºC. It is an excellent
electrical insulator due to having heavy molecules with a
strong electronegative characteristic. When exposed to
an electric discharge or arc, it decomposes into reactive
sulfur (S) and fluorine (F) based components that will
react with contaminants (H2O, O2) to form small
amounts of HF, SOF2, SO2, and so on, but mostly the
decomposed gas quickly recombines into SF6.
SF 6 does not affect the earth’s ozone layer, but is a
strong greenhouse gas, having an anthropogenic green-
house gas potential of about 23,000 times that of CO2
on a weight basis. SF6 is included in the 1996 Kyoto Pro-
tocol as one of the six greenhouse gases slated for emis-
sion reduction. Although prior standards allowed as

Table 7-1 Size and Electric Stresses for GIL (courtesy Mitsubishi Electric)
Voltage Operating Factory Test Ratio of Factory/ Max Stress
Class kV Std. Factory Conductor OD Enclosure ID Stress kV/mm Stress Operating at BIL kV/mm
(L-L) BIL kV Test kV mm mm RMS kV/mm RMS Stress Peak
72 350 160 51 152 1.49 5.75 3.85 12.57
145 650 310 89 229 1.99 7.37 3.70 15.46
242 900 425 102 292 2.60 7.92 3.04 16.78
362 1300 500 127 362 3.14 7.52 2.39 19.54
550 1550 740 178 495 3.49 8.13 2.33 17.03
800 1800 860 178 610 4.21 7.85 1.86 16.42
1200 2175 1100 279 749 5.03 7.98 1.59 15.79

7-3
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
much a 3%/year leak rate, the present IEC 62271-100
(IEC 2006a) leak rate limit is 0.5%. The objective for
manufacturers of SF6 high-voltage equipment is a limit
of 0.1%/year. Mixtures of SF 6 and N 2 further reduce
SF6 emission potential. Governments presently address
concerns with SF6 for high-voltage equipment in rela-
tion to global warming through voluntary SF6 emission
reduction programs (EPA n.d.).
Contamination Control—Purity, Moisture, and
Conducting Particles
SF6 is easily handled in a liquefied state at pressures of
600 psig (4137 kPa) at 20ºC. It is produced by reacting
fluorine with sulfur, filtered and furnished in cylinders
at 99.99% purity and a very low moisture level (less than
10 ppmv). The GIL interior must be dry enough so that
after evacuation of air to below 200 microns and filling
with SF6, the moisture level will stay below 1000 ppmv
for the life of the installation. This will ensure that the
dew point of the gas inside the GIL will only occur at
temperatures lower than the freezing temperature for
water. If the moisture content is high enough for liquid
water to condense on the surface of an epoxy spacer, a
conductor-to-enclosure arc (flashover) will occur, as
shown in Figure 7-1. However, the formation of ice is
not a problem, as shown in Figure 7-1.
SF 6 can be reused using commercially available gas-
handling systems that liquefy the SF6 for compact stor-
age and include filters to remove reactive contaminants
and moisture. Reuse criteria are established by IEC
60480 (IEC 2004a). The required purity level is 98%.
Figure 7-2 shows that small amounts of air have very lit-
Figure 7-1 Effect of moisture in GIL (courtesy
Mitsubishi Electric).
7-4
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
tle effect on the insulation level. This figure also shows
that most of the benefit of using a mixture of SF6 with
air (or N2) is obtained with only 20% SF6.
The cleanliness of the interior of the GIL is extremely
important, because small conducting particles can ini-
tiate an internal electric arc. Figure 7-3 shows the effect
of free-conducting particles on a coaxial gas gap. Small
particles below 3.2 mm (0.125 in.) in length cause break-
down at test-voltage levels, while larger particles cause
breakdown at operating-voltage levels. There are strong
pressure and time dependencies for particle effects. A
free-conducting particle exposed to the electric field
gains a charge from the electrode that it is contacting,
proportional to the electric field at that location and
time. The electric force on this induced charge is also
proportional to the product of the charge and the elec-
tric field, so the force becomes proportional to the
square of the electric field.
Figure 7-2 Effect of mixing air with SF6 gas
(courtesy Mitsubishi Electric).
Figure 7-3 Effect of free-conducting particles on
breakdown voltages (courtesy Mitsubishi Electric).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
When the force becomes greater than the force of gravity
on the particle, the particle lifts and moves in the direc-
tion of the electric field. For a coaxial system under dc
voltage, with the particle initially resting at the bottom
of the system (enclosure side), the particle travels to the
highly stressed conductor and, if conditions are suitable,
initiates a breakdown by acting as a sharp projection on
the conductor surface. Under ac voltage, the electric
field reverses direction each half cycle, but a particle
already moving freely in the gas gap cannot change the
polarity of its charge, so it is decelerated and perhaps
even driven back to the electrode that it just left.
Impulse and switching-surge voltages are over before
the particle has time to move, so they are less affected by
particles unless the particle already happens to be in a
high-field region (for example, deposited by vibration or
an ac voltage on a spacer surface near the conductor). It
is obvious that the effects of particles are both impor-
tant and complex. Techniques to deal with particles
include cleanliness, conditioning, and particle traps.
Cleanliness is fundamental, and it is not difficult to
achieve. The objective is to keep the gas gap between the
conductor and enclosure (especially the spacer surface)
free of particles above a critical size. Since particles can
collect together and act as a larger single particle, the
need for cleanliness extends down from the theoretical
critical size, from about 40 mils (1 mm) to dust size. The
initial assembly, the shipped units, the field-assembled
system, and the operating cable must remain clean.
Conditioning in gas insulation is the application of elec-
tric stress in such a way as to raise the subsequent break-
down voltage of the system. The physical basis is that, in
many gases, a low-energy-level breakdown will destroy
the initiating disturbance (free-conducting particle or
projection on the electrode surface), while the gas itself
will recombine without leaving behind any by-products
that would reduce the breakdown voltage. SF6 is excel-
lent in this respect. Conditioning without breakdown is
achieved by raising the voltage slowly enough or in steps
so that free-conducting particles have time to migrate
into low-field regions without causing breakdown.
Particle traps are deliberate or natural low-field regions
in the system where the motion of the particle is inhib-
ited or prevented. Because particle motion is propor-
tional to the square of the electric field, there is a strong
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
tendency for particles to move until they abruptly stop
in low-field regions. Deliberate particle traps are simple
metal pieces placed in the lowest region of the enclosure,
creating areas partially shielded from the electric field.
They may be continuous along the length of the cable,
but experiments and experience have shown that placing
particle traps at each spacer is sufficient. A typical
particle-trap system associated with a spacer is shown in
Figure 7-4.
7.2.2 Epoxy Spacers
Spacers are used at intervals of about 20 ft (6 m) to sup-
port the conductor in the center of the enclosure. Epoxy
spacers include Bisphenol A and Cycloaliphatic. Pow-
dered fillers—such as aluminum oxide, fused silica, and
aluminum trihydrate—are used for rigidity and resis-
tance to damage by electric discharges. The temperature
limit of the epoxy formulation is above 110ºC. Vacuum
casting is used to ensure that there are no voids inside
the spacer that might have electrical discharges at the ac
system voltage. Electric field stress inside the spacer is
kept below 127 V/mil (5 kV/mm) rms for a service life
on the order of 50 years. Surface electric field stresses
are generally lower. Each insulator is tested for freedom
from partial discharges at an ac voltage of from 1.9 to
3.8 times the operating voltage stress.
The critical “triple point,” where the metal of the con-
ductor or enclosure meets the epoxy spacer and insulat-
ing gas, is shielded by shaping the adjacent metal or
Figure 7-4 Particle-trap system (courtesy CGIT Westboro).
7-5
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
epoxy material to reduce the electric stress. Electric field
plots for typical designs are shown in Figure 7-5.
Conical spacers are used when a gas barrier is required
to limit the amount of gas to a practically handled
amount of less than 2205 lbs (1000 kg). The conical
spacer can be a gas-pass-type by making it with holes.
Post-type spacers have cost and particle control advan-
tages, and are used only where support of the conductor
is needed—in most designs the post space assembly is
fixed to the conductor and slides or rolls on the inside of
the enclosure.
GIL spacers are entirely encapsulated inside the enclo-
sure, immune to degradation from water, sunlight, or
other environmental factors.
7.2.3 Enclosures, Enclosure Joints, Mechanical
Design, and Corrosion Protection
Enclosures are extruded, longitudinally rolled, and
welded or spiral welded from strong, high-
electrical-conductivity aluminum alloys (6061-T6,
6063-T6, AlMg3). Extrusions are limited to about 14 in.
(350 mm) diameter tubes with relatively thick walls of
around 0.3 in. (8 mm). Spiral welded enclosures are
made on special machines using continuous automated
welding, and can be as large in diameter with as thin a
wall as desired. Longitudinally welded enclosures have
only been used in countries where spiral welding is not
accepted by local pressure vessel codes. The interior of
the enclosure must be smooth and clean before being
Figure 7-5 Typical electric-field designs for GIL (courtesy
Mitsubishi Electric).
7-6
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
used—various polishing and washing techniques
are used.
Enclosure section length is limited for convenience of
transport to about 60 ft (18 m). Flanges or butt welds
join the sections. Flanges have “O” ring seals. Butt
welds use a backup ring with special high-temperature
seals to prevent contamination of the interior of the
GIL during welding. Welding of flanges or butt welds
can be automated, but manual welding by a suitably
trained welder is adequate. Both metal-inert-gas and
tungsten-inert-gas welding are used.
Selection of enclosure wall thickness is a result of manu-
facturing limits, pressure vessel requirements, and electri-
cal resistance. The resulting relatively thick wall tolerates
shipping and handling stresses without difficulty.
The enclosure is effectively mechanically decoupled by
the spacer design from the much more flexible conduc-
tor, so thermal expansion and flexibility of the enclosure
can be considered separately. For direct-buried GIL, the
enclosure is locked in position by the sand backfill, so
the enclosure and its joints must be able to withstand
the resulting thermal expansion stress. GIL enclosures
above ground or in a tunnel accommodate thermal
expansion (and contraction) using flexibility from direc-
tion changes or periodic stainless steel bellows. The
amount of thermal expansion movement is about
+/-4 in. per 330 ft (100 mm per 100 m) of GIL length.
Direction changes with a radius of more than 650 to
1300 ft (200 to 400 m) (depending on enclosure diame-
ter) are accommodated by flexing of the enclosure. For
sharper direction changes, prefabricated “elbows” are
added to the straight bus sections, as shown in Fig-
ure 7-12.
Enclosure aluminum alloys do not need any added cor-
rosion protection for atmospheric exposure. For buried
applications, a thick plastic corrosion protection coating
is used in conjunction with cathodic protection. For
Figure 7-6 Plug and socket contact for GIL
conductor joint (courtesy CGIT Westboro).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications

high current applications in air, special paint that
reflects sunlight but emits infrared radiation is used.
Enclosures are bonded to each other at each end and
periodically as required by the installation situation.
The bonding connection allows circulating currents
approximately equal to the conductor current to flow
through the enclosures. These circulating currents cause
losses and heating of the enclosures, but reduce external
magnetic fields and allow thorough grounding for per-
sonnel safety.
resistance, leakage, and high-voltage ac withstand with
partial discharge monitoring. After testing, the section
is filled with dry air or nitrogen, provided with shipping
caps, and packed in containers or truckload-sized fix-
tures for shipping for field–joining, as shown in
Figure 7-7. A post-type spacer mounted on the conduc-
tor that can roll on the inside of the enclosure to accom-
modate differential thermal expansion of the conductor
relative to the enclosure is shown in Figure 7-8. A gas-
barrier-type insulator is shown in Figure 7-9.

7.2.4 High-Voltage Conductor and Conductor

Joints
High-electrical-conductivity extruded aluminum alloys
(6101-T64, for example) are used for the high-voltage
conductor. The production length is up to 60 ft (18 m)
for shipping and handling convenience. Wall thickness is
chosen to minimize electrical resistance. Walls thicker
than 0.6 in. (15 mm) are not used due to current distribu-
tion skin effects at 50 or 60 Hz system frequency. The
interior of the conductor should be reasonably clean and
dry. The exterior that will be exposed to the highest elec-
tric field stress must be smooth, without significant elec-
Figure 7-7 Factory-assembled GIL sections being
tric field-enhancing protrusions. It is usually polished, joined by bolted flanges for the enclosure and plug-
cleaned, and then handled with care to avoid scratches. socket conductor contact (courtesy CGIT Westboro).

Conductor sections are joined by welding, bolting, or

sliding plug-in contacts. The overall system design dic-
tates the techniques used. Sliding plug-in contacts are
used as needed for the convenience of field-joining sec-
tions and to accommodate the differential thermal
expansion of the warmer conductor relative to the
cooler enclosure. The plug-in contact has multiple low-
force silver-plated copper fingers transferring current
from the socket to plug. With high-quality silver plat-
ing, the socket and plug material can be either copper or
aluminum. Specially chosen lubricants are used to
ensure a long life. The contact assembly is covered by a Figure 7-8 Factory-assembled and -tested spacer
with particle trap (courtesy CGIT Westboro).
shield to prevent enhancement of the electric field and
capture any particles that might be created by contact
motion, as shown in Figure 7-6.

7.2.5 Factory-assembled and -Tested GIL

Factory-assembled and -tested GIL requires the follow-
ing steps: receiving and storing conductor and enclosure
material, casting and proof-testing epoxy spacers,
assembling conductor contacts, cutting enclosure and
conductor tubing to length, preparing the ends for con-
tact assemblies or flanges, welding the contacts or
flanges in place, polishing and cleaning the conductor
and enclosure, mounting spacers on the conductor, and
inserting and fixing the conductor inside the enclosure.
The assembled section is then tested to check contact Figure 7-9 Factory-assembled and -tested
gas barrier spacer (courtesy CGIT Westboro).

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Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
Constructing a GIL from factory-assembled and tested
shipping units is simple in terms of site work. The ship-
ping units are unloaded, moved into position, shipping
caps removed, and the shipping unit joined to the next
section. The conductor contact plugs in while the bolted
or welded enclosure joint is made. A factory technician
ensures that the work is done with appropriate attention
to avoiding contamination of the interior and achieving
a leak-free seal.
Practical shipping lengths are limited to 60 ft (18 m), so
that a 0.6-mile (1-km) circuit length requires about 300
factory units, including some allowance for elbow and
termination sections. About 18 truckloads will bring the
GIL sections to the site. A site crew of five can install
about five sections per day, so 60 work days (12 weeks)
are needed. Another week will be used for evacuation,
gas filling, and high-voltage test.
7.2.6 Field-assembled and -Tested GIL
Field-assembled and -tested GIL saves most of the fac-
tory work described above by having 40- to 60-ft (12- to
18-m) long enclosure and conductor sections shipped
directly to the site from the tubing manufacturer. The
time required to assemble the GIL in the field depends
on site conditions, the skill of the workers, and the effi-
ciency of automated joining equipment. Components
such as spacers are separately shipped to the site. Enclo-
sure sections are joined into long lengths by automated
welding. Conductor sections are similarly joined by
welding, provided with simply mounted spacers and
inserted into the enclosure. A typical construction
sequence is shown in Figure 7-10. At appropriate inter-
Figure 7-10 Field-assembled installation and test of GIL (courtesy Siemens).
7-8
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
vals, special conductor contacts, enclosure bellows,
elbow, gas barrier, and test sections are added, as shown
in Figures 7-11 through 7-14.
7.2.7 Field Test
Measurement of conductor resistance (including the
plug-in contacts) is done after installation to confirm
proper assembly and verify the condition of the plug-in
conductor contacts. Gas moisture level is also measured.
A high-voltage ac withstand test is done to “condition”
the GIL in terms of particle control (see “Contamina-
tion Control” in Section 7.2.1) and to prove voltage
withstand. Series resonant test sets with either variable
inductance or variable frequency are commercially
available. Based on observations of particle movement
during testing, a gradual increase in test voltage to the
final level in a two-hour sequence of steps is effective
and efficient.
High-voltage impulse voltage tests have not proven to
add significant value and would be very difficult for
long GILs.
7.2.8 Operation and Maintenance
Other than periodic checking of a gas density monitor
that will alarm if the GIL leaks about 5% of the initial
charge of gas, there are no operation or maintenance
tasks. GIL is a sealed system without any need for inte-
rior inspection. The exterior should be visually
inspected once a year to check for damage or corrosion.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Figure 7-11 Field-assembled GIL typical straight section
(courtesy Siemens). (Note long stroke of the conductor
plug-in contact.)
Figure 7-12 Field-assembled GIL elbow section for abrupt
direction changes (courtesy Siemens).
Figure 7-13 Field-assembled GIL bellows section to
absorb thermal expansion and contraction of the enclosure
(courtesy Siemens). (Note the long conductor contact
overlap and movement capability.)
Figure 7-14 Test port section for GIL.The conductor section
in the center can be unbolted and a test bushing installed
on the top port to test in either direction (courtesy Siemens).
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
7.3 DC CABLES AND LONG-LENGTH
SUBMARINE
7.3.1 Introduction
There are considerably more HVAC underground and
submarine cable installations in the world compared to
HVDC, simply because the latter are relatively expen-
sive in comparison. This is mainly because of the high
cost of ac/dc converters to transform ac to dc and back
again, usually exceeding $100M (~€75M), depending on
voltage and power. However, when cable lengths exceed
the critical length for effective transmission of ac real
power, dc systems become necessary.
The choice of a dc power transmission cable system in
preference to the more conventional ac cable option
would generally be made in cases where the power trans-
fer requirement is greater than 150–300 MW and one or
more of the following characteristics apply:
• Long length (typically ≥ 25 miles [40 km]) submarine
cable link or interconnection, with length limits
mainly dependent on system voltage and ampacity.
• Intermediate length (typically 5 to 25 miles [8 to
40 km]) submarine cable interconnections between
two large ac transmission networks where power
transfer control is a potentially serious problem. A dc
cable system provides an asynchronous or flexible
transmission interconnection.
• Reinforcement of a long-length ac transmission
system in areas of high load density (cities) without
increasing the interrupting duty of ac circuit
breakers.
The relationship of cable length to the choice of an ac or
dc transmission voltage lies in the capacitance of the
cable. As the ac cable length and voltage increase, the
capacitance and hence the ac charging current, increases
in proportion (charging current is equal to the voltage
divided by the cable’s capacitive reactance). At the so-
called critical length, the capacitance charging current
equals that of the thermal current rating of the cable,
and no real power can be transmitted. For short- to
medium-length ac cable systems, the charging current
can be compensated for by the use of shunt reactors at
the cable terminations, or in the case of submarine
cables, at intermediate islands. For long cable lengths,
however, this becomes impractical, and dc power trans-
mission is necessary.
7-9
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
Figure 7-15 summarizes transmission distances and
capacities for various ac and dc cable types.
As regards the use of a dc cable system as a reinforce-
ment of an ac system in an area of high load density, the
only known application is the 36.5-mile (59-km) long
±266 kV, 640 MW link between the Kingsnorth power
plant and the Willesden substation in the city of Lon-
don. This trial installation commenced service in 1971,
but was retired a few years later (Last et al. 1970).
Prior to 1997, with one exception, all dc cables at volt-
ages ≥ 100 kV were submarine cables with, in some
cases, associated land cable installations. The exception
was the 1993 St. Lawrence River ± 450 kV, 2000 MW
project (Bell et al. 1992), which was installed in a tunnel
and in short direct-buried sections. In 1997, a new volt-
age source ac/dc converter (VSC) and XLPE dc cable
technology (Apland et al. 1998) was introduced, which
has resulted in the implementation of several under-
ground cable projects. The most notable of these
projects is the ± 150 kV, 220 MW Murraylink Project
(Australia), which was installed in 2002 (Normark
2002). The route length is 112 miles (180 km), which is
to date a world record for long-length underground
cable installations. Among the stated advantages for the
new technology are a significant reduction in project
lead time due to modularized manufacturing and instal-
lation of VSC converters, and a capability to transmit
electricity over long distances with efficient operation at
Figure 7-15 Transmission cable system selection criteria for various
cable types and capacities (courtesy Prysmian Cables and Systems).
7-10
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
a lower investment level than conventional HVDC
power transmission systems (Ruter 2002). Later subma-
rine applications are in service for the ± 150 kV, 330
MW Long Island Sound and the ± 150 kV, 350 MW
Finland-Estonia crossings.
The following subsections are devoted primarily to a
review of the state-of-the-art in ac and dc submarine
cable technology and, to a lesser extent, because of their
limited use, to the state-of the-art in dc underground
cables. Section 7.3.2 reviews worldwide submarine cable
experience, while Section 7.3.3 reviews HVDC under-
ground cable experience. Sections 7.3.4 and 7.3.5 discuss
the design and testing aspects of submarine and dc
cables that are unique to these cables. Because of the
high cost and long outage times associated with subma-
rine cable system failures, reliability in service is of
major importance. As a result, Section 7.3.6 concludes
with a discussion of submarine cable hazards and miti-
gation methods.
Note: The units quoted throughout Section 7.3 are
those taken from the original references. Approximate
conversions to U.S. units can be obtained as follows:
• km x 0.62 = miles
• mm x 40 = mils
• mm2 x 2 = kcmil
• kV/mm x 25 = V/mil
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications

7.3.2 A Review of Worldwide Submarine Cable SCFF cables were introduced in the early 1920s and
Experience today are used extensively, as indicated above, at all HV
and EHV levels up to 525 kV in both underground and
Ac Submarine Cables submarine transmission line applications. Various prob-
In the HV and EHV ranges—that is, from 110 kV and lems, such as fatigue failure of lead sheaths and thermo-
upwards—ac submarine cable links on the order of 10 mechanical failure of splices, have had to be overcome
km or more are dominated by the self-contained, fluid- over the years, as the service voltage and power trans-
filled cable type (SCFF) with XLPE cables that are nor- mission capacities were increased. In consequence of a
mally used up to 150 kV and are beginning to be applied rather long development and service history, SCFF
at the 230-kV to 420-kV levels. Up to a voltage of cable technology is now mature and highly reliable.
150 kV, submarine cables have, in principle, a three-core
configuration to facilitate the installation in one opera-
tion, thereby reducing the cost for cable protection. For
higher voltages, the cable design is typically single core.
Figure 7-16 shows a sample of the submarine cable con-
necting the islands of Sardinia (Italy) and Corsica
(France). The cable connection is 15 km long, laid at a
depth of 75 m, and buried in the seabed. At the shore
ends, additional protective cast iron shells have been
applied. The cable weight is 75 kg/m in air and 48 kg/m
in water, and the overall diameter is 207 mm. The cable
is rated 150 kV for the transmission of 150 MVA. Each
copper conductor’s cross-sectional area is 400 mm2. A
fiber optic element has been placed in the cable inter-
stices for data and signal transmission. Similar cables
have been used for the connection of large off-shore
wind farms in the European North Sea, as indicated in
Table 7-2. Figure 7-16 HVAC 150-kV XLPE submarine cable
(courtesy Prysmian Cables and Systems).

Table 7-2 Listing of Many of the World’s Major Ac Submarine Cable Links
Voltage Conductor Cable Length Max. Water Depth
Name of Link Date (kV) (mm2) (km) (m) Cable Type
Vancouver Is. 1956 138 225 24 + 4 190 SCGF
Mallorca-Menorca 1973 132 500 4 x 42 90 SCFF
Long Island Sound 1977 345 2500 MCM 3 x 2.1 30 HPFF
Prince Edward Is. 1977 138 3 x 240 3/C x 14 30 SCFF
Norway (Oppland Fylkes Elverk) 1981 145 630 4 x 1.2 N/A XLPE
Vancouver Is. 1984 525 1600 4 x 39 400 SCFF
Karlskrona 1986 145 500 3x7 N/A XLPE
Labuan-Beaufort (Malaysia) 1989 132 3 x 190 3/C x 15 N/A SCFF
South Padre Is. 1991 138 380 3 x 14 1.5 XLPE
Long Island Sound 1991 345 2000 4 x 13 35 SCFF
Negros-Cebu (Philippines) 1993 138 300 4 x 18 60 SCFF
Leyte-Cebu (Philippines) 1995 230 630 4 x 32.5 280 SCFF
Penang Island (Malaysia) 1996 275 800 6 x 14 20 SCFF
Spain-Morocco 1997 400 800 4 x 26 630 SCFF
Gulf of Aqaba (Egypt-Jordan) 1997 420 1000 4 x 13 840 SCFF
Isle of Man (UK) 2000 90 3 x 300 3/C x 105 40 XLPE
Galveston Island (USA) 2001 138 3 x 630 3/C x 4.6 <15 XLPE
Horns Rev Wind Farm (Denmark) 2002 150 3 x 630 1 x 21 <20 XLPE
Seas Roedsand Wind Farm (Denmark) 2003 132 3 x 760 1 x 22 <20 XLPE
Sardinia-Corse Islands 2005 150 3 x 400 1 x 15 75 XLPE
Norway-Gossen Is. 2006 420 1200 4 x 2.2 210 XLPE

7-11
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
Cable and accessory designs and manufacturing pro-
cesses are now more or less standardized at an interna-
tional level.
A listing of some of the major ac submarine cable links
is presented in Table 7-2. The following details for some
of the more significant links are provided to supplement
the information listed in the table:
• Mallorca-Menorca, 1973: The longest (42 km) SCFF
ac submarine cable link ever installed. The 90-m-deep
link was designed for both 132 kVac and ± 200 kVdc
operation.
• Vancouver Island, 1984: This double-circuit, 325-m-
deep link continues to hold the world record for the
highest voltage (525 kV) and power transmission
capacity (1200 MW/circuit). The 30 km and 8 km
long routes, including an intermediate island with
shunt reactive compensation, place this link among
the longest ac EHV transmission cable links ever
installed (see Figure 7-17).
• Long Island Sound, 1991: The 20-km submarine por-
tion of this 345-kV, 750-MVA interconnection con-
sists of four cables, with one being kept as a spare for
use in case of failure on one of the energized phases.
The cable is the largest and most heavily armored sin-
gle-core ac submarine cable ever manufactured with a
diameter of 170 mm and a mass of 83.5 kg/m.
• Gulf of Aqaba, 1997: The 13-km link consists of three
420-kV cables plus a spare. The transmission capacity
is 550 MW. Cables were laid in a maximum water
depth of 840 m, which is considered to be close to
the limit for SCFF cables, although a sea trial for
Figure 7-17 HVAC 525-kV SCFF copper flat wires
armored submarine cable connecting Vancouver
Island with the Canadian (BC) mainland (courtesy
Prysmian Cables and Systems).
7-12
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
this project was successfully carried out at a 900-m
water depth.
• Isle of Man, United Kingdom, 2000: The world’s long-
est XLPE HVAC submarine cable is the Isle of
Man—U.K. Mainland link, which is 105 km and 90
kV. Single-core flexible factory-installed splices were
spaced at intervals of 5–7 km.
• Norway-Gossen Island, 2007: The world’s highest
voltage ac XLPE submarine cable system is 2.2 km
long, 210 m deep, and 420 kV.
Dc Submarine Cables
Four types of submarine power cable can be considered
for high-voltage, direct-current (HVDC) operation,
namely:
• Self-contained, fluid-filled cables (SCFF cables)
• Self-contained, mass-impregnated cables (MI cables)
• Self-contained, pre-impregnated, gas-filled cables
(SCGF cables)
• Self-contained, solid dielectric cables (XLPE and
EPR cables)
The first three cable types in the above list all have insu-
lation consisting of paper tapes impregnated with a
dielectric fluid, but are distinguished either by the type
of impregnant or by the use of a fluid-pressurizing sys-
tem. In the case of the SCFF cables, a low-viscosity syn-
thetic fluid—usually an alkylbenzene—is maintained
under pressure by oil-pumping stations placed at one or
both cable ends. The MI and SCGF cables both employ
a high-viscosity compound. In the latter case (as the
name implies), the paper tapes are impregnated with the
compound prior to being applied to the cable conductor,
and the resulting spaces between tapes are filled with
nitrogen gas at a pressure of around 1300–1400 kPa
(200 psi). The impregnation process for the MI cable is,
on the other hand, carried out on the entire cable core
after application of the paper tapes—hence the name
“mass-impregnated.”
The use of HVDC solid dielectric cables has been
delayed due to complications with insulation design,
which are caused by the buildup of space charges in the
insulation and their subsequent distortion of the electri-
cal stress distribution. This phenomenon manifests itself
in a significant reduction in the dc and impulse electric
strength of the insulation when the temperature
increases and a 30–40% decrease in the dc electric
strength when the polarity is reversed (Ruter et al. 2000).
Recent progress in the development of modified XLPE
using special “functional groups” (Satoru et al. 1999)
has apparently been successful in solving the space-
charge problem. As a result, the first modified-XLPE
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications

HVDC submarine cable link (the 150-kVdc, 330-MW
Cross Sound Cable Link) was installed in Long Island
Sound in 2002. The second modified-XLPE submarine
cable link between Finland and Estonia, a distance of
some 75 km, was commissioned in 2006, operating at
150 kVdc and transporting 350 MW of power.
Table 7-3 lists the majority of important HVDC subma-
rine cable links in service worldwide at the present time.
As can be seen by referring to this table, the total
installed cable length is on the order of 3,000 km, and
the total service experience can be summarized as
approximately 52,000 km-years. Other significant con-
clusions include the following:
• The state of the art in depth of laying is the 1000 m
deep Italy-Greece link, but a 1650 m depth project at
the voltage of 500 kV is in progress, between Sardinia
and Italy.
• The 150-kV, 330-MW Cross Sound cable system is
the first dc submarine cable system to operate with
the relatively new voltage source control (VSC) con-
verter technology (Apland et al. 1998).
7.3.3 A Review of HVDC Underground Cable
Experience
HVDC underground cables can be discussed under two
major categories, namely:

• MI cables account for approximately 80% of the
entire installed cable length.
• SCFF cables are only used for relatively short routes
(a few 10s of km).
• The state of the art in long-length MI cable technol-
ogy is the 450-kV, 700-MW, 580-km Norway to
Netherlands link in the North Sea.
• Cables on land connecting converter stations to the
submarine cable segments of the circuits
• Cables not associated with submarine cable links
In the former case, the distance from the shoreline often
determines the type of cable to be employed. If the
distance is not too great, the submarine cable can be

Table 7-3 Listing of Many of the World’s Major Dc Submarine Cable Links
Name of Link Date Voltage (kV) Power (MW) Length (km) Max. Water Depth (m) Type
Gotland 1 1956 100 20 100 160 MI
Italy - Sardinia 1965 200 100 2 x 118 450 MI
Cook Strait 1 1965 250 300 3 x 39 300 PIGF
Konti-Skan 1 1965 285 300 64 80 MI
Vancouver Is. 1 1969 300 156 3 x 27 200 MI
Skaggerak 1,2 1976 263 250 2 x 125 600 MI
Vancouver Is. 2 1976 300 185 2 x 35 200 MI
Hokkaido/Honshu 1980 250 150 2 x 42 290 SCFF
Gotland 2,3 1983 150 160 2 x 100 160 MI
Cross-Channel 2 1986 270 250 8 x 50 55 MI
Konti-Skan 2,3 1988 285 300 2 x 64 80 MI
Fenno-Skan 1989 400 500 200 117 MI
Cook Strait 2 1991 350 500 3 x 40 300 MI
Skagerrak 3 1993 350 500 125 500 MI
Cheju (Korea) 1993 180 150 2 x 96 160 MI
Baltic Cable 1994 450 600 250 60 MI
Sweden - Poland 1999 450 600 253 90 MI
KII Channel Japan 2000 500 2800 4 x 49 70 SCFF
Italy - Greece 2001 400 500 1 x 160 1000 MI
Moyle (UK) 2001 250 500 2 x 55 100 MI
Cross Sound (USA)a 2002 150 330 2 x 42 40 XLPE
Bass Link (Aus) 2005 400 500 1 x 290 75 MI
Norway-Netherlands 2007 450 700 1 x 580 410 MI
New Jersey - Long Island (Neptune) 2007 500 660 1 x 84 25 MI
2008 500 1 x 420
Sardinia-Italy 500 1650 MI
2010 500 1 x 420

a. First HVDC Submarine Cable System with VSCs and XLPE Insulation.

7-13
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
pulled ashore from the cable-laying vessel, as shown in
Figure 7-18.
An example of the use of an HVDC submarine cable for
the underground connection to the converter station is
found in the 450-kV Baltic Cable Project (Eriksson et al.
1993). In this case, the link from the Swedish converter
station is routed southwards, first via a 12 km overhead
line then underground for a distance of approximately
5 km. The submarine MI cable was installed in a precut
trench using a combination of 1600 regular and 100 syn-
chronized motor-driven cable rollers.
An example of the use of a different cable type for the
underground section of an HVDC interconnection is
provided by the 270-kVdc Cross Channel Project
(Arkell et al. 1986). An SCFF cable was selected for the
18-km underground section from Folkestone to the con-
verter station at Sellindge in the United Kingdom. The
transition joint to the MI submarine cable consisted of a
disconnectable back-to-back SF6 termination/splice.
As regards the use of HVDC underground cables not
associated with submarine cable links, there are only a
few examples. The only SCFF cable project ever to be
implemented was the trial 266-KVdc Kingsnorth, Lon-
don Project commissioned in 1971 and retired a few
years later (Last et al. 1970). More recently, the intro-
duction of voltage source converters (VSC) and modi-
fied XLPE cable technologies by two competitors
(Apland et al. 1998) has resulted in a few HVDC under-
ground projects as follows:
• The Gotland Island Project: This is a 80-kVdc,
50-MW project linking Nas and Visby, a distance of
70 km, commissioned in 1999, with the scope of net-
Figure 7-18 Dc cable destined for installation on land being
pulled ashore from the cable-laying vessel (courtesy
Prysmian Cables and Systems).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
work control in a region with an extensive use of
windmill generation.
• Direct Link in New South Wales, Australia: Installed
in 2000, this 84-kVdc, 160-MW project is described
as an entrepreneurial project designed to take advan-
tage of different tariffs.
• Murraylink, Victoria, Australia: With a route length
of 180 km, the Murraylink Project is the world’s long-
est underground cable project. The operating voltage
is 150 kVdc, and the power transfer is 200 MW. The
installation date was 2000.
The stated advantages of the VSC/HVDC XLPE tech-
nologies are as follows:
• Rapid control of both active and reactive power
• Minimal environmental impact
• Connection to weak networks
• Preassembled converter enclosures reduce civil work,
installation, and commissioning
• No ac magnetic field and low dc magnetic field,
because by necessity, the VSC technology requires
two cables operated in a bipolar mode with current
flow in opposite directions, and the cables are usually
installed close together.
The fact that cables, rather than overhead lines, must be
used the entire distance between converters, to avoid
possible damage to converters caused by overhead line
pole-to-pole faults, may in some scenarios prove to be
a disadvantage.
7.3.4 HV Submarine and Dc Cable System
Design
Introduction
Submarine and dc cables have many of their design
aspects in common with underground cables. For exam-
ple, the insulation design of SCFF submarine cables is
virtually identical to that of SCFF underground cables.
Since these common design aspects are dealt with else-
where, this subsection focuses on design features that
are unique either to submarine or to dc cables. These
design aspects are treated under the following four
headings, namely:
• mechanical design of submarine cables
• insulation design of HVDC cables
• special requirements for the accessories—i.e., splices
and terminations
• design issues relating to dc ground return current.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Mechanical Design of Submarine Cables
Historically, submarine cables were generally armored
with one or two layers of helically applied armor wires
in order to
• withstand tensile stresses during laying and recovery
• provide protection against damage from fishing
trawls and other third-party marine activities
• prevent cable abrasion by friction against rock, coral
reefs, etc.
Nowadays, the most common method of providing pro-
tection against mechanical damage in service is by
burial in the seabed, so that in practice, the role of the
armor is primarily that of accommodating the tensile
stresses encountered during laying (and recovery should
repairs become necessary).
In the case of HVDC cables, the armor generally con-
sists of galvanized steel wires, while for HVAC cables,
both galvanized steel and copper wires have been used,
the copper wire (round or flat) armor being used where
necessary to improve the cable circuit power transfer
capability. HVAC cables for voltages higher that 150 kV
are generally single core and are laid in the seabed with
the phases spaced at distances equal or greater than the
water depth to provide a sufficient space for a U-shaped
laying configuration that may be necessary to repair the
mid cable without overlapping the other cables. In these
conditions, the induced circulating currents in the
metallic sheath and armor are practically the same as
the current circulating in the conductor.
The calculation of the current circulating in the metallic
screen and armor of a submarine cable can be carried
out by using the Equation 7-1:
1
Is = I ×
R
1 + ( s )2
Xm 7-1
Where:
Is = Current circulating in the metallic screen
and armor (A).
I = Current circulating in the conductor (A).
Rs = Resistance of the metallic screen (i.e., the
lead sheath) and armor in parallel (Ω/m).
Xm = Reactance of the screen and armor calcu-
lated as in Equation 7-2:
2× S
X m = 2 × ω × 10 −7 × ln( )
DSM [Ω/m] 7-2
Where:
ω = 2·π·f where f is the frequency.
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
S = axial spacing between nearest phases
(mm).
DSM = root mean square diameter of metallic
sheath and armor (mm).
From Equation 7-1, it is possible to see that when the
spacing of the phase cables S is of some tens of meters,
as for the water depth, the current in the metallic screen
and armor becomes equal to the current in the conduc-
tor. For this reason, in order not to increase dramati-
cally the losses in the metallic screen and armor, it is
necessary to reduce the armor resistance to a value simi-
lar or lower than that of the conductor.
For this reason, large copper flat wire armors are often
used in order to reduce the heating caused by the circu-
lating currents (see Figure 7-17). Due to this kind of
construction, the cable phase inductance is that of a
concentric coaxial cable calculated as per Equation 7-3.
DSM
L = 0.2 × ln
2 × RcGMR 7-3
Where:
L = phase inductance for greatly spaced sub-
marine cables in mH/km.
DSM = root mean square diameter of metallic
sheath and armor.
RcGMR= geometric mean radius of the conductor
(commonly = 0.779 Rconductor).
A variation on either copper wire or steel wire armor
HVAC cables is a “hybrid” design using a large copper
return conductor over the lead sheath. Its relatively low
impedance attracts much of the conductor return cur-
rent, resulting in less circulating current and eddy cur-
rent heating in the external steel wire armor. This design
was used for the 345-kVac Long Island Sound crossing
cables (Arnaud 1992) (see Figure 7-19).
Figure 7-19 HVAC 345-kV SCFF Long Island Sound 1991
cable having copper flat wires and steel round wire armor
(courtesy Prysmian Cables and Systems).
7-15
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
Independently of the type of armor employed, corrosion
protection is provided by flooding the armor wires with
bitumen and applying an overall serving layer of
polypropylene string.
In general, a single layer of round wires is used when the
water depth is less than ~200 m. For deeper waters, a
double layer of round or flat wire armor is used, with
the layers applied with opposite helical lays to provide
an antitorsion property and to reduce the mechanical
load on the conductor. In this case, the cable cannot be
coiled on a fixed platform, so rotating turntables must
be used for storage and transport as well as cable laying.
Figure 7-20 shows examples of the use of single-wire
and double-wire armor.
According to experience, the maximum pulling tension
encountered during cable laying and retrieval can be
calculated from the equations given in the CIGRE Elec-
tra 171 (CIGRE 1997). For water depths between 0 and
500 m, the following two equations apply, namely:
T = 1.3 x W x D + H 7-4
H = 0.2 x W x d 7-5
Where:
T = Pulling tension having the same unit of W
(i.e., Newton).
W = Weight of 1 m of cable in water.
D = Maximum laying depth in m.
H = Maximum bottom tension.
d = Laying depth with a minimum of 200 m
(if D ≤ 200 m).
Figure 7-20 Examples of double- and single-wire armored
cables. 450-kVdc Baltic Cable (left) and 100-kVdc Gotland
Island Cable (right) (courtesy ABB HV Cables).
7-16
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
The factor 1.3 in Equation 7-4 accounts for additional
tensile load caused by laying and recovery forces and
dynamic forces during laying and recovery operations.
For water depth higher than 500 m, a more accurate for-
mula should be applied, because the factor 1.3 may not
be suitable in all cases, especially for very heavy cables.
The evaluation of the tension should be carried out
according to the actual laying conditions, the wave
motion, and the cable-laying vessel characteristics.
To prove that the mechanical design of a submarine
cable is suitable for installation in a specified water
depth, a prototype submarine cable at least 30 m in
length, including one factory joint and one repair joint,
should be subjected to a tensile bend test. During this
test, the cable sample should be wound and unwound
three times on a reel with a diameter not greater than the
diameter of the pay-off sheave of the cable-laying vessel,
while under a tensile load calculated using the above for-
mulae. The test should not give rise to breaks or perma-
nent deformations of the cable conductor or armoring.
Another very important mechanical aspect that should
be taken into consideration during the mechanical
design of submarine cable is to avoid the hydrostatic
pressure collapse during or after installation at high
depths. For SCFF cables, the internal oil pressure
should compensate the external pressure, but the differ-
ences in oil- and water-specific gravities should be evalu-
ated and may become critical at elevated water depth.
Heavy oils have been developed for this application. For
mass-impregnated cables, there is no internal pressure,
and the risk of collapse may be very high. Because all
the cable layers are not perfectly tight, the effect of the
external pressure may cause the deformation of the lead
sheath. Although the circular cross section can generally
withstand the higher pressure, once distortion begins
(i.e., lead deformation during thermal loading), the
shape becomes mechanically unstable, and the surface
may pinch or crease. In the past, this risk was avoided
by adopting a slightly oval-shaped design with a poly-
ethylene sheath applied directly over the lead sheath, fol-
lowed by one or two layers of reinforcing tapes and
appropriate servings. Under current loading conditions,
the thermal expansion increases the minor axis of the
lead sheath, the cable tending towards a circular shape.
As the cable cools, the external water pressure causes it
to return to its original oval shape, thus maintaining the
dielectric under pressure at all times. Developments and
experience have demonstrated that special lead alloys
(e.g., 0.4% Sn, 0.2% Sb) have adequate fatigue life to
withstand the resultant flexing of the sheath during the
cable service life.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Modern paper-lapping technology combined with the
adoption of the compact keystone (conci) conductor
provides a round cable design that is able to withstand
external pressures higher than 175 bar. One installation
at 1000-m water depth has been implemented (Giorgi et
al. 2002), and two more installations at 1650-m water
depth will be completed during the period 2008 to 2010
(see Table 7-3). Figure 7-21 shows a high-depth subma-
rine cable, which depending on the particular case, may
have a copper or aluminum conductor.
Insulation Design of HVDC Cables
The insulation design is considerably more complex in
the case of dc cables than for ac cables due to significant
differences in the radial electric stress distribution in the
two cases. In the ac case, the distribution is capacitive,
and it does not vary significantly with temperature. In
the dc case, the radial field is determined by the electri-
cal resistivity of the insulation ρ. The electrical resistiv-
ity is not a constant, but varies with temperature and
electrical stress according to the following relationship:
ρ = ρo exp − (αT + βE) 7-6
Where:
ρo = the electrical resistivity at ambient temper-
ature and low electrical stress.
T = the temperature at radius r.
E = the electrical stress at radius r.
α = temperature coefficient.
β = stress coefficient.
Using Equation 7-6, the electrical stress distribution in
the insulation of dc cables can be calculated under
steady-state conditions (steady dc voltage and tempera-
ture gradient across the insulation), according to the
method described by Arkell and Gregory (Arkell and
Gregory 1984).
Figure 7-21 High-depth submarine HVDC mass-
impregnated round cable design (courtesy Prysmian
Cables and Systems).
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
Figure 7-22 shows the results of the calculation of the
electrical stress distribution in the insulation wall of a
500-kVdc MI cable under the following conditions:
1. In the steady-state, full-load condition (curve A)
2. In the steady-state, no-load condition (curve B)
3. At the instant of voltage application (curve C)
As shown in Figure 7-22, the radial field distribution is
dependent on load. Under a no-load condition, the
maximum electrical stress appears at the conductor
shield, as is the case in ac cables, though generally the dc
stress is lower than the capacitance stress, as is the case
here. On the other hand, when the cable is operating
under a steady full-load condition, the maximum elec-
trical stress is transferred to the insulation shield. This
phenomenon is called “stress inversion.”
A correct insulation design is established when the max-
imum dc electrical stress under no-load and full-load
conditions is less than or equal to the preset design
limit, and when in addition, the transient stress due to
the superposition of the dc stress maxima and an oppo-
site polarity BIL is less than or equal to a preset max-
ima. In the case of HVDC MI cables, the following
typical design parameters apply according to current
industry practice:
• Maximum dc electrical stress: 1181 V/mil (30 kV/mm)
• Maximum transient stress: 3346 V/mil (85 kV/mm)
• Maximum temperature: 50–55°C
In the 500-kVdc cable design used for the calculations
presented in Figure 7-22, the dc stress maxima deter-
mine the insulation thickness. The maximum transient
stresses based on a BIL of 1000 kV are lower than the
85 kV/mm design limit.
Figure 7-22 Electrical stress distribution in a 500-kVdc
MI cable.
7-17
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Identical design procedures apply for SCFF cables insu- Different arrangements of the HVDC cable transmis-
lated with either paper or laminated paper polypropy- sion are possible. Figure 7-23 shows some typical con-
lene (LPP) tapes (Nakanishi et al. 2000) and for figurations.
modified XLPE (Apland et al.1998) insulated cables.
For SCFF paper-tape insulated cables, temperatures up Earth/sea return systems have been used extensively
to a maximum of 85°C are possible, though designs are since the 1950s and continue to be used. A recent exam-
generally limited to a lower temperature by a 40 kV/mm ple of the use of such a system is the 2001 Italy-Greece
dc stress limitation. For SCFF LPP and for modified- 400-kVdc, 500-MW Project. Two sea electrodes are
XLPE insulated cables, design data are proprietary, and used. The anode consists of 39 bars of titanium and is
there are no de facto industry standards. located near Greece in the Corfu Strait, while the bare
copper ring cathode is located in Italy near Cape
The ampacity I of an HVDC cable is obtained from the Otranto (Giorgi et al. 2002).
following equation:
In the last few years, concern about possible electrolytic
Δθ corrosion of subsea steel structures and adverse environ-
I=
R ⋅ (T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 ) 7-7
mental effects on fish and fauna—although as yet
unproven—have meant that, in some cases, earth/sea
Where:
return paths are no longer accepted. For example, in the
Δθ = conductor temperature rise above ambient.
recently completed 400-kVdc, 600-MW Basslink Project
R = conductor dc resistance per unit length.
(Australia) and in the 500-kVdc, 660-MW New Jersey-
T1 = insulation thermal resistance per unit
Long Island Neptune Project, separate metallic return
length.
cables provide the return current path. In both cases, the
T2 = jacket thermal resistance per unit length.
medium voltage return (MVR) cable is XLPE insulated,
T3 = serving thermal resistance per unit length.
with an insulation thickness corresponding to that of a
T4 = surrounding medium thermal resistance
12/20-kVac cable design. The maximum dc voltage
per unit length. This term may also include
under full-load conditions amounts only to a few kV.
mutual heating of adjacent cables or
The HVDC and the MVR cables are laid in a bundle
heat sources.
together with a fiber optic cable. The close proximity of
the HVDC and MVR cables substantially eliminates
Note: the units are the same as the equations presented
any magnetic field external to the cable system.
in Chapter 11.
Monopolar transmission is more cost effective than
The voltage and current ratings of an HVDC cable are
bipolar at power transmission levels up to approxi-
interrelated, since both are functions of temperature, in
mately 600–800 MW (Giorgi et al. 2002), although a
contrast to the HVAC case, where the voltage and cur-
single monopole has no redundancy in case of cable fail-
rent ratings can be considered independently.
ure. Northern Ireland Electricity decided to adopt an
Catering for the dc Ground Return Current
HVDC transmission can either be bipolar or monopo-
lar. In the bipolar case, the two poles operate at equal
and opposite polarities, and the current circulates
around the bipolar circuit. Therefore, there is no need
for provision of a return current path. In monopolar
transmission systems, on the other hand, a return cur-
rent path is required. This can be provided in at least
three different ways:
• Earth/sea return via an anode cathode electrode
system
• Separate metallic return cable
• Metallic return conductor integrated into the HVDC
cable

Figure 7-23 Typical configurations of HVDC submarine

cable connections.

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
integrated metallic conductor solution for their 250-kV,
500-MW Moyle submarine cable link between Northern
Ireland and Scotland (Balog and Evenset 2002). This
link consists of two separate 250-kVdc, 250-MW mono-
poles, each of which consists of a 250-kVdc IRC (inte-
grated return conductor) cable.
Figure 7-24 shows the construction of an HVDC-IRC
submarine cable. The IRC consists of two layers of flat
copper strip applied with counter helical lays, which
together with the steel wire armor provide a torsion-free
design. The Moyle HVDC-IRC Submarine Cable
Project is the only project to date to make use of an IRC.
Cable Accessories – Splices and Terminations
Terminations
HVDC terminations are similar to those used for con-
ventional underground HVAC cable applications. In
fact, a 275-kVac cable termination was used in the
266-kV, 644-MW HVDC cable installed in London in
1970 (Last et al. 1970). The porcelain insulator was of
the “anti-fog” type used in normal industrial environ-
ments. Such terminations have a relatively long “creep-
age” distance, achieved by using special sheds with
ribbed undersides. Cable terminations installed in
extreme conditions of heavy industrial pollution or near
the coast, where salt fog is a problem, require even longer
creepage paths. Such environments are more hazardous
in the case of HVDC terminations, because of electro-
static attraction effects. HVDC terminations tend, there-
fore, to be much longer than their HVAC counterparts.
Figure 7-24 Construction of an HVDC-IRC submarine
cable (courtesy Nexans Norway AS).
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
The creepage distance in the case of HVDC termina-
tions for coastal areas is usually calculated on the basis
of 40–45 mm/kV, though 50 and even 58 mm/kV have
been used. Taking the lowest of the above figures, the
creepage path for a 400-kVdc termination would be
approximately 16 m, and the overall length in the region
of 3.2 m.
Other important parameters are the impulse electric
strength of the insulation internal to the porcelain. For
example, the stress cone or condenser insulation around
the cable core and the wall of the porcelain have both to
be dimensioned to meet the specified BIL level. To com-
plete the design, the dc stress field of the accessory at the
service voltage has to be computed to check that preset
limits are complied with.
No particular problems with HVDC terminations have
been reported. Successful experience with 400 and 450
kVdc has been achieved with the Fennoskan (1989) and
Baltic (1994) cable projects, respectively, and 500-kVdc
SCFF cable terminations have been in operation in the
St. Lawrence River project since 1992.
Splices
Underground cable splices for HVAC and HVDC SCFF
cables are practically interchangeable in the case of
equivalent system voltages. For example, 275-kVac stop
joints have been used successfully on a 266-kVdc SCFF
underground cable system (Last et al. 1970). These
splices are rigid splices having diameters several times
that of the cable being spliced.
In general terms, the following three types of splice need
to be considered during the planning phase of a typical
submarine cable project, namely:
• Factory splices
• Transition splices
• Repair and field splices
Factory splices—so called for obvious reasons—are
used to join one or more manufacturing lengths to pro-
duce a continuous shipping or delivery length. In the
case of SCFF or MI submarine cables, typical manufac-
turing lengths are 30–40 km, depending on the cable size
and weight. Shipping lengths of 100–120 km are possi-
ble, depending on the cable plant’s handling and storage
facilities, as well as the loading capacity of the cable-lay-
ing vessel. XLPE cable manufacturing lengths are much
shorter, because the extrusion process has to be inter-
rupted after a specified volume of extrudate has been
processed, for cleaning of the extrusion heads and
replacement of the filter packs (if used). Manufacturing
7-19
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
lengths on the order of 4–5 km of 150-kVac XLPE cable
are feasible.
Flexible splices having an outer diameter approximately
equal to that of the cable are the standard factory splice
used in all types of HVAC and HVDC submarine cables.
These splices have equivalent electrical characteristics to
those of the cable and are capable of withstanding the
pure tensile and tensile bending stresses encountered
during cable laying or recovery for repair should the
cable be damaged in service.
The various phases in the construction of a flexible fac-
tory splice can be summarized as follows:
• The cable conductor is spliced using a flush ferrule
(Miranda and Gazzana-Priaroggia 1976) having the
same diameter as the conductor. Alternative splicing
techniques include brazing and MIG (metal inert
gas) welding. From a mechanical strength point of
view, the splice is weaker than the conductor itself.
Nevertheless, very high tensile strengths can be
achieved and a very high safety margin exists.
• The semiconducting shields and insulating tapes are
applied using taping machines. In the case of XLPE
splices, the taped splice is subjected to a vulcanizing
process to fuse and crosslink the materials.
• An extruded lead tube, which is slightly larger in
diameter than the lead sheath of the cable and which
has previously been placed over one of the cable ends,
is placed in position over the splice and swaged down
over the insulation shield. The ends are butt-soldered
to the cable sheath.
• The polymeric jacket is reconstructed by extrusion
molding.
Because of the reduced splice diameter, the length of a
flexible splice is much longer than that of a rigid splice.
The length of a flexible splice for a 500-kVdc MI cable is
~5 m between the lead wipes.
Transition splices are required to join either different
cable types or cables of the same type but with different
sizes. In the former case, back-to-back GIS terminations
have been used to transition between HVDC MI sub-
marine cables and SCFF underground cables (Last et al.
1970; Carcano et al. 1996). A transition splice between a
1250 mm2 MI submarine cable and a 2000 mm2 MI land
cable was developed for the 400-kVdc Italy-Greece
Project. This splice was similar to the flexible factory
splice described above but employed an asymmetric
compression ferrule (Carcano et al. 1996).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Repair splices for water depths greater than approxi-
mately 50 m are generally of the flexible type. In the case
of shallow water, it is possible to use a rigid splice. Such
a splice can be constructed more quickly, but it is diffi-
cult to lay. Flexible splices are preferred, although con-
siderably more expensive because of longer repair times
and more complex repair vessels. There are many exam-
ples of the use of flexible repair splices; one example is
the repair of the 345-kV SCFF cable in Long Island
Sound, which was carried out in 2004. Flexible repair
splices differ from flexible factory splices only in that the
jacket has to be remade (in some cases using a heat-
shrinkable tube), and the individual armor wires have to
be carefully spliced to withstand laying tensions without
cable elongation.
7.3.5 HVDC and Submarine Cable System Tests
Introduction
The subject of cable system testing is dealt with fully in
Chapter 14, and reference to that chapter should be
made for general information on the various test catego-
ries, test procedures, and techniques that are common to
all types of power cable. In the following, consideration
is given to the specific test requirements applicable to
HVDC and long-length submarine cable systems.
Test Standards and Recommendations
At present, there are no U.S. test standards or recom-
mendations for either HVDC or submarine cables. The
only relevant U.S. document is an IEEE guide to sub-
marine power cables (IEEE Std. 1120 [IEEE 2005]).
This guide provides the prospective user with a useful
list of factors to be considered when planning, design-
ing, permitting, installing, commissioning, and repair-
ing submarine power cables. A short bibliography is
also provided.
Applicable test specifications in this field consist of the
following four documents, all of which have been pub-
lished by CIGRE:
• Recommendations for Mechanical Tests on Subma-
rine Cables (CIGRE 1997).
• Recommendations for Tests of Power Transmission
DC Cables for a Rated Voltage up to 800 kV
(CIGRE 2000b).
• Recommendations for Testing Long AC Submarine
Cables with Extruded Insulation for System Voltage
Above 30 (36) to 150 (170) kV (CIGRE 2000a).
• Recommendations for Testing DC Extruded Cable
Systems for Power Transmission at a Rated Voltage
up to 250 kV (CIGRE 2003).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
A brief review of mechanical testing of submarine cables
( C I G R E 1 9 9 7 ) h a s a l r e a dy b e e n p r e s e n t e d i n
Section 7.3.4; the more significant features of the remain-
ing three test recommendations are discussed below.
Laminar Cable Tests (CIGRE 2000b)
In contrast to the qualification procedures applied to
pressurized SCFF and HPFF HVAC laminar (paper or
LPP tape) dielectric cables (IEC 141-1 1993; AEIC CS2
1990), HVDC qualification or type tests have always
required verification of their life expectancy by carrying
out a series of daily loading cycles at elevated direct
voltage. MI cables are not pressure assisted, and voids in
the insulation may be created during the cooling cycle,
thus leading to the dielectric breakdown if the cable is
not well designed or manufactured. A type test program
(see Chapter 14 for the definition) is then always neces-
sary for the approval of the specific cable design and
manufacturing process. These tests, which are applied to
all types of laminar dielectric cables, were originally
developed for MI cables, since their life was known to be
related to the voltage V by an equation of the form:
Cons tan t
Life =
VN
Where N, an integer, is the so-called life exponent.
The applied voltage was always 2.0 U0, but the number
of daily cycles varied until the issue of the first CIGRE
Recommendations in 1968 (Bjurstrom, 1968). Since
then, the number of daily load cycles has remained at
20. The test corresponds to a life of 40 years using a
value of N equal to 10. Another feature of the load-
cycling tests was the inclusion of a further 10 loading
cycles at 1.5 U0 with polarity reversals every 4 hours.
This was to ensure that the insulation design was able to
withstand the relatively high transient electrical stress
that occurs, particularly under full-load conditions, at
the instant of polarity reversal. Polarity reversal tests are
only relevant to cable systems where reversal of the
direction of power flow is foreseen.
In the latest revision of the CIGRE Recommendations
(CIGRE 2000b), the test voltages during the 20-day
load-cycling test and the 10-day load-cycle test with
polarity reversals have been reduced to 1.8 U 0 and
1.4 U 0 , respectively. This is in recognition of the fact
that no electrical aging has been noted in cables after
many years in service.
An outline of the tests specified in the latest revision of
(CIGRE 2000b) is presented as follows:
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
Routine Tests:
• High Voltage Test at Works: 1.8 U0 for 15 minutes
• Conductor Resistance Test
• Capacitance Test
• Power Factor Test
• Factory Acceptance Test: 1.8 U0 for 15 minutes
Type Tests:
• Load Cycle Test: 20 daily load cycles at 1.8 U0
• Polarity Reversal Test: 10 daily load cycles at 1.4 U0
with reversals every 4 hours
• Superimposed Impulse Test: 10 negative and 10 posi-
tive impulses superimposed opposite polarity U1.8 U0
After Laying Test:
• 1.4 U0 negative polarity for 15 minutes
Testing of Long-Length Ac Submarine Extruded Insulation
Cables (CIGRE 2000a)
These CIGRE recommendations refer to IEC 60840
(IEC 2004b) for all of the Routine, Special (or Sample),
7-8
Type, and After Installation Tests. U.S. users may prefer
to refer to national specifications such as AEIC CS9
(AEIC 2006), although it only applies to underground
applications.
Special provisions in view of testing long-length cables
are necessary in the following cases:
• Routine and Special Tests: Normally the cable lengths
are much longer than those on which it is possible to
perform partial discharge (PD) measurements due to
attenuation of the cable. It is, therefore, normal to
perform PD measurements on samples taken from
the beginning and end of extrusion lengths. The (Spe-
cial) Impulse Test is also to be performed on these
cable samples.
• Factory Acceptance Tests: If the delivery length is too
long for the High Voltage Test specified in IEC
60840, other test methods must be agreed upon by
the customer and the manufacturer.
• Type Tests: The water penetration test specified in
IEC 60840 is unsuitable for submarine cables. This
test is, therefore, replaced by separate longitudinal
tests for the conductor and for the jacket. In the first
of these, a sample is submerged in water for 10 days
at ambient temperature and under a water pressure
corresponding to the maximum laying depth. After
completion of the test, the conductor is examined,
and water penetration must comply with the manu-
facturer’s stated penetration distance. In case of the
water penetration under the jacket, a similar test is
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Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
specified with the exception that, prior to the test, the
sample shall be preconditioned by three daily heat
cycles between ambient temperature and the maxi-
mum conductor temperature plus 5°C.
• After Laying Test: Two alternative ac voltage tests are
specified—namely, 1.7 U0 for one hour or 1.0 U0 for
24 hours. (IEC 60840 specifies 1.7 U0 for 5 minutes or
1.0 U0 for 24 hours.) However, the recommendations
allow other test methods to be agreed between the
manufacturer and customer.
Testing of Dc Extruded Cable Systems (CIGRE 2003)
During the 1990s, new crosslinkable insulation systems
were developed. They did not suffer from the problem
of space-charge distortion of the electric field, which
occurs in conventional XLPE cables. This led to the
introduction of land and submarine cable applications
of the new materials technology. At present, the maxi-
mum voltage in service is 150 kVdc, but within a few
years, it is expected that 250-kVdc systems will be avail-
able. With this in mind, CIGRE developed recommen-
dations for the testing of dc cables (CIGRE 2003) to
provide a common approach to cable qualification.
The philosophy adopted was, wherever possible, to
base the tests on existing recommendations, standards,
and practices and to introduce new tests specific to the
new technology.
In line with IEC 62067 for HVAC extruded cables (Sha-
piro et al. 1997), the CIGRE recommendations intro-
duce a Pre-qualification Test, which is to be carried out
before supplying cable on a general commercial basis.
The duration of the test is 360 days and consists of daily
load cycles and periods of continuous loading and of
zero load at 1.45 U0 . In the case of conventional con-
verter systems, there are periods of daily load cycling at
1.25 U0. For the new VSC technology, which does not
change polarity, for the 360-day test, the loading cycles
with polarity reversals are replaced by an equal number
of daily load cycles at 1.45 U0.
The Type Test regime, in general terms, adheres to the
principles underlying the CIGRE Recommendations for
laminar dielectric cables. These consist of mechanical
preconditioning, a 30-day load cycle test at 1.85 U0 /1.45
U 0 , without/with polarity reversals, and replace load
cycles with polarity reversals with regular load cycles at
1.85 U 0 for VSC systems, which do not have polarity
reversals. Following completion of load cycling, the
cable system is subjected to dc voltage, plus reverse
polarity impulse tests, as is done for laminar dielectric
cables. Two additional tests not specified for laminar
dielectric cables are included—namely, an impulse test
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
at 1.15 x the maximum impulse voltage that the cable
experiences in the dc voltage, plus reverse polarity
impulse test, and a dc voltage test at 1.85 U0 for 15 min-
utes at ambient temperature.
If separate or return conductor cables are foreseen,
these should also be subjected to Type Tests consisting
of the following elements in sequence:
• Mechanical preconditioning as for the HVDC cable.
• A thermomechanical preconditioning consisting of
24 daily load cycles from ambient to the maximum
in-service temperature.
• A no-load ac test at 1.15 x the maximum expected ac
transient voltage (due for example to converter com-
mutation failure) for 30 minutes.
• Impulse test at 1.15 x the maximum impulse voltage
that the cable experiences in the dc voltage, plus
reverse polarity impulse test.
If an integral return conductor is to be used, the return
path function is to be tested together with the HV cable
in an integrated test program.
Three after-installation tests are specified—namely:
• High Voltage Test: 1.45 U0 for 15 minutes for the HV
cable, and a 15-minute test at a dc voltage level to be
agreed upon by the manufacturer and customer in
case of the return conductor.
• Jacket Test according to IEC 60840.
• A TDR (Time Domain Reflectometry) Test for engi-
neering information (if desired).
7.3.6 Reliability in Service
Because of the high cost and long outage times associ-
ated with submarine cable failures, reliability in service
is a major issue. Experience has clearly demonstrated
that both HV SCFF and MI cables are mature and
highly reliable products, and that almost all of the cable
faults experienced in service have been due to external
damage caused by third parties, with most faults being
attributed to fishing trawls and ship anchors. Mechani-
cal protection is now considered to be mandatory for a
submarine cable system installed in a high-risk marine
environment. The preferred protection is cable burial in
the seabed, which is discussed in the following section.
Cable Burial
This high incidence of cable failures due to third-party
marine activities has led to widespread use of cable
burial in the seabed as a means of providing the neces-
sary protection against such activities. The effectiveness
of cable burial in significantly reducing failures due to
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications

third-party marine activities is well proven by experi-
ence, though the absence of up-to-date global failure
statistics makes it difficult to quantify the benefit as far
as power cables are concerned. However, in this context,
published failure data for submarine telecommunication
cables is relevant. Shapiro et al. (Shapiro et al. 1997)
state that failure rates of telecommunication cables fell
from 0.37 failures / year / 100 km (1959–1979) to
0.04 failures / year / 100 km after 1985 due to burial of
existing and new cable systems.
relatively soft seabed sediment—e.g., sand and soft to
medium hard clay.
The working principle for the jet plow (Figure 7-25) is to
fluidize the seabed materials in a narrow path and to a
predetermined depth without displacing the majority of
the material or causing turbidity in the surrounding

Indicative burial depths for protection against anchor-

ing given by Shapiro et al. are as follows:
• Anchor Mass 0.2 tons: 0.50 m (1.6 ft)
• Anchor Mass 0.5 tons: 0.75 m (2.5 ft)
• Anchor Mass 1.0 tons: 1.20 m (4.0 ft)
• Anchor Mass 15.0 tons: 4.00 m (13.1 ft)
• Anchor Mass 30.0 tons: 5.00 m (16.4 ft)

Typical power cable burial depths are 1.0–2.0 m in

sandy soils and deeper in soft soils. Burial is typically
carried out at the shore ends and down to water depths
of ~100–150 m. Table 7-4 provides some examples of
submarine cable projects where cable protection has
been provided by burial in the seabed.

Notwithstanding the foregoing, cable burial require-

ments are very site-specific. Decisions should be based
on risk analysis studies considering local natural and
man-made hazard investigations.
Cable Burial Equipment
The jet plow and the water-jetting machine are now the
preferred types of equipment for power cable burial in Figure 7-25 Photograph and sketches of a jet
plow (courtesy Prysmian Cables and Systems).

Table 7-4 Burial Depths and Burial Equipment Used in Some Important Submarine Cable Projects
Project Details Date Max. Water Depth (m) Burial Depth (m) and Burial Equipment Used
Langkawi Island, Malaysia 1.5
1986 20
132 kVac SCFF Cable Water-jetting ROV
South Padre Island, USA 1.0
1991 1.5
138 kVac XLPE Cable Water- jetting ROV
NYPA Long Island USA 1.5 – 3.5
1991 40
345 kVac SCFF Cable Water-jetting ROV
Skagerrak 3 (N to DK) 0.5 – 1.5
1992 500
350 kVdc MI Cable Water-jetting ROV
Penang Island, Malaysia 1.0 – 2.5
1996 15
275 kVac SCFF Cable Hydroplow
Honshu-Shikoku Islands (J) 2.5
1999 75
500 kVdc SCFF Cable Hydroplow
Moyle - Scotland to N. Ireland 1.0
2001 N/A
250 kVdc MI Cable Water-jetting ROV
Italy - Greece 1.0 (to 150 m water depth)
2002 1000
400 kVdc MI Cable Water-jetting ROV

7-23
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
waters beyond 5 m. The method has been positively
proven to place fiber optic cables and power cables at a
consistent required burial depth in sand and clay bot-
tom conditions. The jet plow is towed by a support ves-
sel with dynamic positioning or on a barge using
mooring anchors. The fluidizing effect provides rela-
tively low and controlled towing forces. The burial depth
achievable is typically around 8 ft (2.4 m).
The water-jetting machine (Figure 7-26) combines the
effect of fluidizing the seabed and hydrodynamic trans-
port of the fluidized material. In the front, low-pressure
water jets are used to fluidize the seabed. The fluidized
material is transported backwards utilizing other jetting
nozzles. The cable or pipeline sinks by its own weight
into the trench before the fluidized material is allowed
to settle and start the back-filling process.
Water-jetting machines have been in operation since
1978 and have been used to install many hundreds of
km of telecommunication and power cables. Different
versions are available for fiber optic cables, power
cables, and pipeline burial. There are various ejector
modules to handle the different seabed sediment types
encountered and high-pressure or rock-cutting systems.
Machines have been developed for deep-water applica-
tions, where it is necessary to have water pumps on
board, with power delivered by an electrical umbilical.
Alternative Method of Protection
Alternative protection methods such as covering the
submarine cables with concrete mattresses or rock
dumping can also be considered, but these are generally
only used in special circumstances where burial is diffi-
Figure 7-26 Water-jetting machine suitable for deep-
water applications, ready for operation (courtesy Nexans
Norway AS).
7-24
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
cult such as inadequate soft sediment, depth, or at pipe-
line or cable-crossing locations.
7.4 SUPERCONDUCTING CABLES
7.4.1 Superconducting Materials and Cable
Systems
Underground distribution and transmission cables uti-
lizing superconducting materials have been a research
and development interest for several decades. Supercon-
ductors are those materials that exhibit no electric dc
resistance when cooled below a material-specific critical
temperature, and have power densities as high as 100x
that of copper. Benefits to power cables can immediately
be recognized as lower losses, high efficiencies, and
greater utilization of rights-of-way due to higher power
density at a given voltage level.
In general, superconductors are divided into two classes:
low-temperature and high-temperature superconductors.
Low-temperature superconductors (LTS) have critical
temperatures below approximately -387°F (-233°C,
40 K). This class of superconductors includes metals
such as mercury (Hg) and metal alloys such as NbTi and
NbSn. High-temperature superconductors (HTS) have
critical temperatures above approximately -387°F
(-233°C, 40 K) and are cuprate ceramics. Examples
include bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide
(BSCCO) and yitrium barium copper oxide (YBCO).
The first HTS materials were discovered in 1986. Some
HTS materials have the distinct advantage of critical tem-
peratures above -320°F (-196°C, 77 K), putting them well
within the temperature range of liquid nitrogen (LN),
which is a low-cost, environmentally friendly coolant
material. In addition to temperature, superconductors
must be operated within critical boundaries of magnetic
field and current density to exhibit zero resistance.
At a given temperature and magnetic field, the maxi-
mum amount of current that a superconducting wire
will carry is called the critical current, Ic. For example,
BSCCO-2223 wires commonly used in cables may have
a critical current of approximately 130 Amps (60 Hz,
alternating current) at -320°F (-196°C, 77 K), with no
external magnetic field applied and only its self-gener-
ated magnetic field. If additional current above the criti-
cal current value is applied to the wire, it will begin to
behave like a normal material, and electrical resistance
will rise.
Since the discovery of HTS materials in 1986, much
development has occurred around the world to manu-
facture long lengths of HTS wires. Availability of these
wires has led to research and development activities for
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
power applications that include cables, transformers,
generators, motors, fault current limiters, and VAR sup-
port devices. HTS cables have been under investigation
in the United States, Europe, and Asia as cable compa-
nies pursue this new technology and create cable designs
that can leverage the technical advantages of conductors
that may carry up to 5.0 kA in continuous operation.
As of the printing of this text, multiple HTS cables are
in service in live utility grid demonstration projects
around the world. These projects use different geometri-
cal designs of conductors operating at various voltage
and current levels to demonstrate the technical and
commercial viability of HTS cables in the utility envi-
ronment. Projects include cables pulled into under-
ground ducts with cable-to-cable joints built in
underground vaults.
History of LTS and HTS Cable Projects
Prior to the discovery of HTS materials in the mid-
1980s, several LTS cable projects were undertaken
around the world to demonstrate the technical feasibil-
ity of underground cables made with LTS wires as
replacement for copper and aluminum. These cables
were cooled with liquid helium down to temperatures of
-452°F (-269°C, 4 K). One notable example of such
projects is the Brookhaven National Lab project in the
1970s (Forsyth 1986). Although these projects were
technical successes, they highlighted the challenges of
reliable cryogenic cooling to such low temperatures and
the economic cost to do so. Cooling for LTS materials
requires approximately 200 W of input power for each
watt of cooling at the operating temperature.
Interest in HTS cables quickly followed the material dis-
coveries. The mid-1990s and early 2000s saw a flurry of
cable projects around the world to design, test, and in
some cases, install in utility grids, cables made with HTS
wires and cooled with LN. These projects ranged in volt-
age level from 10 to 115 kV and included both warm-
and cold-dielectric cable designs (see Table 7-5). As wire
properties improved and cable designs evolved to higher
voltages and more economical and efficient designs,
additional projects were undertaken primarily in
the United States in the early 2000s to demonstrate
HTS cables in utility grid applications. All projects have
been the beneficiary of government-sponsored develop-
ment programs.
Applications for HTS Cables
Commercial applications for HTS cables will utilize the
unique features of superconducting materials to deliver
more power in a smaller space with reduced impact to
the surrounding environment. The higher power density
of HTS cables allows high power throughput in smaller
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
duct banks and may reduce substation footprint
requirements in dense urban areas where space is a pre-
mium. They will offer retrofit alternatives for aging
infrastructure. Thermal and electromagnetic emissions
to the surrounding soil and adjacent equipment are also
virtually eliminated with HTS cables. Environmental
impacts are further reduced versus other cable types due
to the environmentally friendly nature of LN as the
cooling medium.
MV Cables
HTS cables at traditional distribution voltage levels
(10–46 kV) deliver power equivalent to conventional
subtransmission (69 kV) and transmission level
(≥ 115 kV) cables. This change in power delivery capa-
bility at a given voltage level may offer system flexibility
not previously possible. In dense urban areas, these
applications include relocating transformers to outlying
areas, deploying station-to-station bus tie on the low-
voltage side of the transformer, uprating underground
substation get-away cables that are thermally saturated,
and retrofitting existing pipe-type cable ducts.
Real estate availability and cost in dense urban areas
present challenges for siting new substations and/or
expanding existing stations to serve growing load
demand. HTS cable circuits at MV levels operating at
3–5 kA continuous, enable step-down transformers to
be relocated outside the downtown areas. Power that
was traditionally fed into these areas at transmission-
level voltage and then transformed may be fed at the dis-
tribution voltage to a much smaller station equipped
solely with bus, breakers, and switchgear.
The high current capability of a distribution HTS cable
also allows the utility company to use the cable as a sta-
tion-to-station bus tie on the low voltage side of the
transformer. The HTS cable will be capable of carrying
full station load at the MV level. This increases redun-
Table 7-5 HTS Cable Projects
Country Characteristicsa
Japan 66 kV, 100 meters, CD, lab test
Italy 115 kV, 50 meters, 1 phase, WD, lab test
Japan 77 kV, 500 meters, 1 phase, CD, lab test
United States 12 kV, 30 meters, CD, grid test
Denmark 30 kV, 30 meters, WD, grid test
Korea 23 kV, 100 meters, CD, lab test
China 35 kV, 33.5 meters, WD, grid test
United States 35 kV, 350 meters, CD, grid test
United States 13 kV, 200 meters, CD, grid test
a. CD = Cold Dielectric
WD = Warm Dielectric
7-25
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
dancy and allows transformer capacity to be shared
between stations—increasing asset utilization.
HTS cables operate at a constant temperature with a
high-performance thermal insulation system surround-
ing the cable. This insulation system isolates the cable
and its cold-space from adjacent cables and other equip-
ment (i.e., steam pipe, other power cables). In situations
where substation get-aways are thermally saturated,
replacement of one or more circuits with HTS cable will
reduce the thermal loading and may relieve the thermal
stress to all adjacent circuits.
HV/EHV Cables
HTS cables at transmission-level voltages will offer high
power for bulk power delivery and transport through
congested areas. Operating HV cables at currents of
4–5 kA facilitates the reduction in voltage class. Con-
ventional projects considered at 345, 400, and 500 kV
may be accomplished at 138 or 230 kV. This reduction
in voltage level affects rights-of-way, substation space
requirements, transformers, breakers, and all other asso-
ciated auxiliary equipment.
High-capacity, low-resistance HTS transmission circuits
strategically inserted into congested regions may also
relieve bottleneck situations. The inserted HTS cable
will absorb a large part of the system duty, unloading
other highly stressed assets. Reduction in load on aging
cable circuits may have a significant positive impact on
their expected lifetime.
Very Low Impedance—VLI
One aspect of superconducting cables is their very low
impedance (VLI) as compared to their conventional
copper and aluminum cable alternatives. The low
impedance results from thinner dielectric layers and per-
mits longer circuit lengths. Some suggest that an HTS
cable with VLI characteristics, in conjunction with a
phase angle regulator, may allow for the control of
power flow on the ac network much like that which is
possible in dc networks.
Dc Cables
Dc superconducting cables are envisioned as a possible
future long-distance transmission application.
Extremely high power links for transcontinental trans-
mission of electric power may be possible, using dc
cables operating at 50–100 kV and tens of thousands of
amperes. See Chapter 17 for additional discussion.
7-26
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Generation
In generating stations, HTS cable links may be utilized
at the generating voltage to take power directly off the
generators and transport it to step-up transformers
located further distances away. These links may enable
the generation plant to relocate transformers to safer
locations with lower electrical losses.
7.4.2 HTS Cables—Design Basics
Cable Design Options
Multiple options exist for geometrical, structural, and
electrical design of HTS cables. The electrical insulation
materials may be inside or outside the cryostat, and sin-
gle or multiple electrical phases may be placed inside a
single cryostat. All HTS cables start at the innermost
layer with a former. This former may be a stranded cop-
per member or a hollow tube. The function of the
former includes serving as a structural member on top
of which to strand HTS wires, and in some cases it
serves as a flow path for LN. In the case of stranded
copper cores, the copper serves as fault current stabili-
zation to protect the HTS wires in the event of a fault
current on the cable. See the discussion of Thermal
Management Issues and Fault Current Protection below
for further detail regarding the need for copper to pro-
tect the HTS wires.
On top of the former, one or more layers of HTS wires
are helically wound to make up the phase conductor of
the cable. It is these HTS wires that replace the copper
or aluminum conductor in a conventional cable.
Options for the placement of the dielectric materials dic-
tate if this cable core becomes a warm-dielectric or cold-
dielectric HTS cable.
Warm Dielectric
The HTS core may be placed directly inside the cryostat.
Conventional dielectric layers are then extruded on the
outside of the cryostat to operate at ambient (warm)
temperatures. Dielectric materials for this application in
previous projects have included EPR and polyethylene.
A conventional concentric wire screen may be applied to
the outside of the dielectrics. Warm-dielectric cables
present certain disadvantages, including EMF emissions
due to conventional screening methods, and lack of
access to the surface of the cryostat for maintenance
and/or repair. Should problems develop with the vac-
uum space of the cryostat to reduce the efficiency of the
thermal insulation, the dielectric may be frozen by the
cold operating temperature of the LN, leading to crack-
ing and electrical breakdown.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications

This cable design has been successfully demonstrated in Single Phase per Cryostat
two separate projects, each with multiyear operations in These cables place a single conductor core with dielectric
a utility substation (see Figure 7-27) (Tonnesen et al. and superconducting screen layer inside a cryostat (see
2004; Xin et al. 2005). Figure 7-28). Three such cable and cryostats must be
placed in separate ducts to comprise a three-phase circuit.
Cold Dielectric
In cold-dielectric cable designs, the stranded HTS core This cable design has been successfully demonstrated
is wrapped with layers of dielectric materials, which may (Stovall et al. 2001), with the cables providing power to
be made of paper or polymer tapes. These tapes operate an industrial complex for more than 6 years.
with the LN coolant saturating the material, filling butt-
gaps, and serving as part of the dielectric system. The Triad—Three Phases, Three Cores in One Cryostat
LN in these cables serves much the same purpose as The triad arrangement twists three superconducting
impregnating fluids in conventional paper cables. The cable cores to create a triplexed, three-phase structure
fully insulated conductor may have a second layer of (see Figure 7-29). A common cryostat covers the three
HTS wires helically wrapped to serve as the concentric phases. This common cryostat is then pulled inside a
screen. The superconducting screen in these cables may
operate at 100% of the load current, resulting in a fully
shielded cable design with no EMF outside the cable
structure. This lack of EMF eliminates eddy current
heating in surrounding equipment or steel duct. The
shielding protects adjacent HTS phase conductors from
induced magnetic fields that may saturate the HTS wire
to limit their current-carrying capabilities. This allows
shielded cold-dielectric HTS cables to operate at higher
load densities than warm-dielectric cables or non-HTS-
shielded cold-dielectric cables.
Figure 7-28 Single phase per cryostat, cold dielectric
Cold-dielectric cable designs afford the opportunity to cable. Stranded copper core. LIPA, Long Island, NY
(courtesy AMSC).
optimize the three-phase structure to reduce material
usage and physical spacing. Options for cold-dielectric
cables include single-phase per cryostat, three phases
twisted together inside a single cryostat, and three concen-
tric phases on a single core all inside a common cryostat.

Figure 7-27 Warm-dielectric cable installed at Figure 7-29 Triad—Three phase per cryostat.
AMK substation in Copenhagen, Denmark, 2000 Cold-dielectric cable with stranded copper cores.
(courtesy nkt cables). Albany, NY National Grid. In service July 2006
(courtesy Sumitomo Electric).

7-27
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
single duct. Advantages of the triad arrangement
include reduction in overall size and compaction to a
single underground duct. The single cryostat reduces
costs and lowers the total cold surface area and, there-
fore, decreases cryogenic cooling requirements and
ongoing operational costs of the cooling system.
This cable design has been successfully demonstrated in
Japan in a laboratory environment (Honjo et al. 2003),
in the United States in a utility grid demonstration
(Weber et al. 2006), and in Korea in a laboratory envi-
ronment (Cho et al. 2006).
Triax—Three Phases, One Core in One Cryostat
Placing the three phase conductors and screen concen-
tric on a common core reduces the HTS wire require-
ments by a factor of 2. The concentric arrangement of
the phases self-cancels electromagnetic fields generated
by the phase conductors. This eliminates the need for
superconducting screens for each phase. This leads to a
single copper screen common for all three phases con-
centric on the outside of the cable structure. This
arrangement, like individual cores for each phase with
HTS screens, has no EMF emissions. The single cable
core simplifies the manufacturing, cable installation,
and accessory installation steps. As with the triad
arrangement, the Triax uses a single cryostat and
achieves similar reductions in cryostat costs and cryo-
genic cooling requirements and operating costs (see Fig-
ure 7-30).
This cable design has been successfully demonstrated in
the United States in a utility grid demonstration project
(Demko et al. 2006).
Figure 7-30 Triax—three phases on single core.
Cold-dielectric, hollow former. AEP Bixby station,
Ohio. In service August 2006 (courtesy Southwire).
7-28
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Thermal Management Issues
Superconducting cables must be maintained at an oper-
ating temperature below the critical temperature of the
given material. Cold-dielectric cable designs have the
added restriction of maintaining an operating condition
whereby the temperature of the LN impregnated into
the laminar dielectric remains below the saturation
curve at any given pressure. Bubble formation in the LN
creates localized weaknesses in the dielectric properties
of the impregnated laminate-liquid system and may lead
to breakdown (Sauers et al. 2004).
The requirement to maintain the LN below the satura-
tion curve holds true for normal operations as well as
during and immediately following a short-circuit fault
event carried through the cable. If proper thermal man-
agement designs are not implemented, the energy dissi-
pated into the nitrogen during a fault may vaporize
some liquid, resulting in bubble formation. These bub-
bles could lead to electrical failure if the cable experi-
ences a breaker reclosure prior to temperature recovery.
A secondary risk created by vaporization of the LN is
the resulting pressure increase in the liquid system. If
not properly contained, the increasing pressure could
open emergency venting valves, burst disks, or cata-
strophically rupture components.
The simplified energy balance of the cable system
(Demko et al. 2003) is represented by Equation 7-9,
where ρ is the cable density, CHTS is the heat capacity, z
is the coordinate direction along the cable axis, k is the
thermal conductivity, AHTS is the cable cross-sectional
area, THTS is the average temperature in the cable, and
Q′conv,i is the convection heat-transfer to liquid nitrogen.
∂THTS
ρC HTS
∂τ
∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞
= ⎜ kAHTS HTS ⎟ + P' AC −∑ Q'conv ,i
∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠ i 7-9
Total thermal input due to heat leak through the cry-
ostat, terminations, splices, and ac losses of the system
must be balanced against the refrigeration capacity of
the cooling system.
Fault Current Protection
If the available fault current is high enough to exceed
the superconducting capabilities of the conductor
design, copper stabilization methods must be employed
to protect the HTS wires from damage as well as main-
tain an acceptable LN temperature below the saturation
curve. The specific superconducting capability of a given
cable is a result of the detailed design and rating of the
cable. Each HTS wire carries a finite amount of current
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
in the superconducting state (see discussion of critical
current in Section 7.4.1). The ultimate capability of the
cable is the summation of the capability of the individ-
ual wires making up the phase, minus defects and dam-
age due to manufacturing and/or installation.
Multiple methods exist to incorporate copper stabiliza-
tion into the conductor. One common approach is to
use a stranded copper core as the former of the cable.
The copper core provides a path for excessive fault
current without damaging the HTS wires in the cable.
The copper cross section required will depend on the
exact fault-current tolerance requirements of the spe-
cific case. Additional copper wires or tapes may need to
be added to the outer neutral layers of HTS wires in
cold-dielectric cables.
Energy deposited into the system during a given fault-
current, I, event may be calculated using Equation 7-10
based on the cable resistance, R.
t =τ
t =τ
E = R∫ I 2 dt = ∫ VIdt (MW)
t =0
t =0
Where
τ = Maximum duration of fault current (s).
I = Maximum magnitude of fault current
(kA).
V = System voltage (kV).
R = Resistance (Ohms).
E = Energy (mega-Watts).
System Thermal Impact
Hydraulics of Pumping LN
The fluid mechanics of pumping liquid nitrogen long
distances must be considered and may affect cable and
cryostat design. Adequate cross-sectional area must be
allocated as a flow path for the liquid. Pressure drops
must be controlled to ensure proper thermal capacity
and heat removal at the end of a cable run, away from
the cooling skid. These hydraulic issues affect the ther-
mal design of the cable and its ability to ride through
faults with minimal recovery times.
Separate Return Line vs. Bidirectional flow vs. 2x1 Flow
One variable to consider when designing the fluid flows
through the system is the layout for “go” and “return”
paths for the liquid to flow out through the system and
then return to the cooling skid. Cable designs with one
cryostat such as the Triad or Triax may require a sepa-
rate return pipe or cryostat. If the cable core is hollow,
one option to eliminate the extra return line is bidirec-
tional flow. LN may travel one direction through the
annulus around the conductor core and back in the
reverse direction through the hollow former.
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
Designs that use three separate cryostats for the three
p h a s e s m ay f l ow i n o n e di re c t i o n t h ro u g h t wo
phases with a combined return flow through the third
cryostat. This layout results in nonsymmetrical temper-
atures and flow rates through the three phases. This
must be taken into consideration when designing ther-
mal management.
7.4.3 Construction
Superconducting Materials
HTS Wires
HTS wires are available in several formats and chemical
makeup. In general, the types of wire with application
for power cables are referred to as first- and second-
generation wire: 1G and 2G.
1G Wires
These wires are manufactured with a powder-in-tube
method by which the superconducting powder is packed
into silver-alloy tubes. These tubes are drawn and
mechanically worked to reach a final flat tape shape.
7-10 The ceramic superconducting material is bismuth stron-
tium calcium copper oxide (BSCCO-2223). These tapes
are commercially available from multiple vendors in
lengths in excess of 3280 ft (1000 m). Standard wire
dimensions are approximately 157 mils (4 mm) wide by
7.8 mils (0.2 mm) thick.
2G Wires
These wires are made by placing multiple thin-film lay-
ers of buffer materials and superconducting materials
on metal alloy films or foils. 2G wires are also called
coated conductors. The ceramic superconducting mate-
rial is yitrium barium copper oxide (YBCO). The final
tape thickness is much thinner than the 1G counterpart
and therefore promises to yield a much higher engineer-
ing current density (Je). At the time of publication,
2G wires are being fabricated in lengths up to 328–656 ft
(100–200 m), with critical current values approximately
50–75% of that available from 1G wires. 2G wires have
the promise of higher critical current density and better
in-field performance at a lower price than 1G. 2G wires
are made in wide strips and slit to the desired width.
Three Boundary Conditions (Temperature, Magnetic Field,
Current Density)
Three boundary conditions limit the ability of these
HTS materials to actually become superconducting.
HTS wires have critical temperatures, magnetic field sat-
uration, and current density levels. Each of these prop-
erties must be maintained below its critical level for the
HTS wires to transport current through a power cable
with near-zero resistance.
7-29
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
Wire Properties for Cable Applications
Typical minimum values for critical tensile stress and
strain are 14,500 psi (100 MPa) and 0.3%, respectively.
These requirements are set at liquid nitrogen tempera-
ture (-321°F, -196°C, 77 K) at one atmosphere pressure.
Minimum bending diameter varies depending on the
requirements of a specific manufacturer or cable design,
but may be as low as 2 in. (50.8 mm) for 1G and 1 in.
(25.4 mm) for 2G.
HTS cables typically operate such that the HTS wire is
immersed in pressurized LN. To prevent penetration of
LN into the wires, the wire must be liquid impervious
and hermetically sealed. Penetration of subcooled and
pressurized nitrogen has the potential to balloon the
wire and cause catastrophic damage when the nitrogen
expands during a rapid warmup. HTS wires must be cer-
tified as hermetically sealed through pressure tests for
extended time durations at a pressure above the maxi-
mum operating pressure of the system.
Mechanical tolerances and hermeticity may be achieved
by various methods. Some wire manufacturers achieve
these limits through the design of the HTS wire and pro-
cessing steps. Other manufacturers laminate the bare
HTS wires with metal strips such as stainless steel, cop-
per, or brass to achieve these limits.
Critical current of a given wire is measured as the dc
current at which the wire develops 2.54 μV/in. (1 μV/cm)
at -321°F (-196°C, 77 K) and 1 atm pressure. This repre-
sents the common definition of the transition point
from the superconducting state to the normal state for a
wire. It is at this point that the critical current density of
a given wire is exceeded. Additional current applied to
the wire results in normal behavior and resistive heating
of the wire. If splices are permitted in delivered continu-
ous lengths of wire, the splice resistance at -321°F
(-196°C, 77 K) and 1 atm is typically on the order of
100–200 nano-ohms.
Dielectric Options
Warm-dielectric cables utilize conventional dielectric
and semiconducting materials extruded on the outside
of the cryostat. EPR and polyethylene are suitable for
this application.
Cold-dielectric cables must employ a lapped dielectric
that is suitable in pressurized LN and capable of many
thermal cycles from ambient conditions to -321°F
(-196°C, 77 K) and back to ambient. Common kraft
paper of familiar application in conventional pipe-type
7-30
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
and fluid-filled cables may be used. Laminated paper
polypropylene (LPP) is also an option. Some manufac-
turers have developed synthetic lapped dielectric materi-
als specifically tailored for use in LN.
Cryostats
The cryostat provides the thermal insulation. It consists
of two metal corrugated tubes inside one another. Stain-
less steel has been the most common material for this
application, but aluminum tubes have also been utilized
in Korea. Between the two tubes is wrapped metallized
mylar, commonly known as “superinsulation.” Spacers
are placed between the tubes to maintain the proper
spacing. A high-level vacuum is then pulled in the gap-
space to create a high-quality thermal barrier to prevent
heat penetration into the cold space inside the cryostat.
Performance of 0.0254–0.0381 W/in. (1.0–1.5 W/m) is
common in cryostats of the size range of interest to
allow placement of the HTS cable inside.
These vacuum-insulated, flexible pipes are common for
transport of cryogens in the industrial gas, aerospace,
and other industries. For cable applications, the stainless
steel or aluminum tubes may be formed around the con-
ductor if desired.
Former Options
The central member of the HTS cable is called a former.
The former may have multiple functions depending on
the exact design of a given manufacturer. In its most
basic roll, the former serves as a structural member on
which the HTS wires are wrapped and provides strength
for pulling and mechanical stresses.
Some manufacturers use stranded copper as the former.
In this case, the former also is used as the fault current
path to protect the HTS wires from damage. In other
cases a hollow, corrugated metal tube has been utilized.
Here the former may also serve as a flow-path for the
LN coolant.
Cryogenic Systems
The cryogenic cooling plant serves the main function of
cooling the cable to its nominal operating temperature
and pressure and removing heat from the system. The
system must include a circulation pump and heat
exchanger. Typical HTS cable operating conditions
range from -337 to -324°F (68–75 K) and 5–15 atm. The
method of cooling, or heat removal, may be an open
cycle, where boiling nitrogen is vented to atmosphere, or
a closed cycle, where mechanical refrigerators are used
to provide cooling. Each method has pros and cons that
should be considered.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications

Cryogenic cooling plants must be located in a substa- expansion. Each method or cycle has unique advantages
tion at one or both terminations of the cable. Single- and disadvantages. Although the details of each are out-
point cooling (liquid flows out and back to the same side the scope of this document, each cycle uses a
cooling plant) is practical for circuit lengths up to method of expansion and/or compression of gases to
approximately 1 mile (1.6 km). Longer distances may produce cooling. Detailed discussions of cryogenic cool-
require additional cooling or pumping stations. These ing and engineering may be found in many references
additional stations may be distributed along the circuit, including (Flynn 1997).
or concentrated at the far termination. Limits on dis-
Accessories
tance between cooling/pumping plants are driven pri-
marily by the hydraulics of pumping liquids over long Splices, Cable Joints
distances and allowable system changes in temperature Superconducting cable joints are used to join multiple
for a given design. A larger cross-sectional area available lengths of cable together such that circuit lengths in
inside the cryostat for liquid flows will allow for longer excess of what is possible to put on one reel may be
distances between cooling/pumping stations. implemented (see Figure 7-31). The cables are joined
together to allow all layers of the cable structure to be
Open-cycle Cooling
connected at the normal operating temperature and
This method uses the boiling of LN under a partial
pressure for the superconducting materials. Supercon-
vacuum to reduce the temperature of the liquid. The
ducting tapes may be soldered together with a minimum
LN flow stream that goes to the cable is run through a
1 in. (25.4 mm) overlap joint. The resulting HTS-tape-
heat exchanger in the subcooled LN bath, thereby
to-HTS-tape joint has resistance on the order of several
removing heat.
nano-ohms. Dielectric tapes in cold-dielectric cables are
wrapped to control electrical stresses.
Open-cycle cooling has the advantage of not using
mechanical compression refrigerators operating at cryo-
Across the HTS cable joint, the cryostats must also be
genic temperatures. The cooling is provided by simple
joined. Multiple sections of vacuum-jacketed stainless
boiling of LN at a partial vacuum, which is achieved by
steel pipe can be connected, and a new vacuum insu-
common industrial vacuum pumps. This feature makes
lated section created to provide thermal insulation.
open-cycle cooling relatively simple and highly reliable.
The disadvantage of open-cycle cooling is the high Terminations
usage rate of LN. The liquid boiled under vacuum is HTS cable terminations must incorporate a material
vented to atmosphere and must be replenished regularly. transition from HTS to copper to allow the power to be
brought out to ambient conditions, where connections
Closed-cycle Cooling
to conventional station equipment are made (see
Closed-cycle cooling techniques employ a mechanical
refrigerator to recool, or recondense nitrogen. The act
of expansion during a compression-cycle absorbs heat
and provides cooling. The cooling may be used to recon-
dense evaporated nitrogen to a colder temperature, or
applied to a heat exchanger to directly cool the LN flow
to the cable.

Closed-cycle cooling has the advantage of not venting

large quantities of nitrogen to the atmosphere. However,
the electric power consumption of the mechanical
refrigerators may be higher than that of open-cycle
methods. Maintenance and reliability are also concerns
for machines with moving parts operating at cryogenic
temperatures.

Several methods exist for achieving closed cooling such Figure 7-31 HTS cable joint built in underground vault
as Stirling, Gifford-McMahon, Pulse Tube, and turbo (courtesy Sumitomo).

7-31
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
Figure 7-32). In addition to material transitions, the ter-
mination must provide for the thermal transition from
the normal operating temperature of approximately
-321°F (-196 °C, 77 K) to ambient.
Dielectric stresses must be controlled along these mate-
rial and thermal transitions. This presents challenges of
finding suitable dielectric materials that can operate in a
liquid nitrogen environment and undergo extreme ther-
mal transitions and in some designs thermal gradients
along the given part. Thermal contraction of materials
must be closely matched with other components such
that differential expansion and contraction of compo-
n e n t s d o n o t c a u s e m e c h a n i c a l d a m ag e d u ri n g
cooldown or warmup of the system. Materials com-
monly available as catalog items to be used for cryogenic
dielectric applications include glass-fiber-reinforced
polymer composites such as G-10 and Ultem® (James et
al. 2006).
7.4.4 Installation
Cable Pulling and Mechanical Issues
Installation of superconducting cables into under-
ground duct banks is achieved using much the same
techniques employed for conventional cables. Pulling
equipment, such as winches and tuggers, are used to pull
the cable and/or cryostat into ducts (see Figure 7-33).
Care must be taken not to exceed the maximum pulling
tensions for these cables because superconducting wires
and cryostat thermal envelopes cannot sustain the same
level of longitudinal stresses as conventional cables.
However, since the weight of HTS cables is substantially
reduced, pulling tensions should be lower for compara-
ble pulls.
Figure 7-32 Cable termination, AEP Bixby station, Ohio
(courtesy Southwire).
7-32
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
HTS cables should be designed such that adequate
structural support is included in the cable components
to withstand the mechanical stresses during installation.
Cables with stranded copper cores as formers may
depend on this copper member as the means to pull the
cable. Conductors with hollow formers must utilize the
hollow tube or other factors. Cables that have the cry-
ostat formed over the conductor and delivered to the
job site as a single unit have the option to transfer more
of the pulling stresses to the cryostat and reduce pulling
tensions on the HTS cable itself. Conventional wire or
nylon mesh cable-pulling grips may be used to secure
the pulling rope to the cable or cryostat.
In addition to pulling tensions, the HTS conductor must
be designed to withstand the sidewall bearing pressures
created through the wall of the cable. Cold-dielectric
cables must be designed and manufactured such that
these compressive stresses on the radial thickness of the
lapped dielectric tapes do not adversely affect their per-
formance. Maximum compressive stresses must also be
considered on the HTS wires, and care should be taken
to ensure these forces do not exceed the tolerance of the
superconducting materials. The absolute value of com-
pressive stress limits on the HTS wires vary depending
on the material (BSCCO vs. YBCO) and manufacturer
of the wire.
Thermal Independence from Surrounding
Environment
Installation of superconducting cables has the advan-
tage of independence from the thermal characteristics of
the surrounding environment. Unlike conventional
cables that rely on the thermal resistivity of the soil to
dissipate heat generated due to resistive electric losses in
the cable, HTS cables have a self-contained thermal
environment created by the cryostat. HTS cable installa-
tions do not require special thermal backfill or other
Figure 7-33 Pulling of HTS cable into cryostat during
installation (courtesy Southwire).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
measures to ensure proper heat dissipation. Because
HTS cables do not require heat to be dissipated through
the soil, depth of burial or directional boring is also
independent of the cable rating and adds a degree of
freedom for installation parameters. HTS cables may be
placed deep in the ground if required to go under such
obstacles as freeways, roads, train tracks, or buildings.
HTS cables are also not adversely affected by paralleled
or intersected steam lines, water lines, or other electrical
circuits. Ampacity ratings of HTS cable do not need to
be derated due to these factors. Extreme exterior heat
loads such as steam lines may add an incremental ther-
mal load for the cooling system that must be accounted
for in thermal budgets, but these factors do not detract
from the cable performance.
7.4.5 Standards
No HTS Cable-specific Standards
At the present time, no standards exist that specifically
address superconducting cables. The IEEE, IEC, AEIC,
and other organizations have not written such stan-
dards, although working groups are investigating these
issues. As HTS cable technology evolves, and more
projects are installed in utility grids around the world,
common testing parameters and requirements will need
to be set up to ensure performance and safety.
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
Some parts of existing XLPE or paper cable standards
apply to testing and requirements of HTS cables such as
impulse tests for specific voltage levels. Discrepancies
between XLPE and paper cable standards with regards
to ac withstand tests, partial discharge, and other
requirements make determining the proper test require-
ments vague and unclear for the HTS cable manufac-
turer. Parts of these standards simply do not apply, such
as thermal cycling of cables. In addition, new parame-
ters unique to superconducting cables need to be
addressed, such as the critical current, thermal stability
at operating temperature and pressure, and pressure
containment and relief of the cryostat and termination
enclosures.
All U.S.-based in-grid demonstration projects ongoing
at the time of publication have made every effort to test
cable and accessories to applicable portions of IEEE,
IEC, AEIC, and ICEA standards for ac withstand, BIL,
partial discharge, and other requirements.
At this time, close communication and cooperation are
required between the manufacturer and end user to
ensure a level of comfort with qualification, plant, and
installation tests.
7-33
Chapter 7: Cable Construction: Special Applications
REFERENCES
AEIC. 1990. CS2-90. Specification for Impregnated
Paper and Laminated Polypropylene Insulated Cable
High-Pressure Pipe-Type.
AEIC. 1993. CS-7. Specifications for Crosslinked Poly-
ethylene Insulated Power Cables Rated 69–138 kV.
Third Edition.
Apland, G., et al. 1998. “DC Transmission based on
Voltage Source Converters.” Report No. 14-302.
CIGRE 1998 Plenary Session. Paris.
Arkell, C. A., and B. Gregory. 1984. “Design of SCFF
Cables for UHVDC Transmission.” CIGRE Paper
21-07. Paris.
Arkell C. A, E. H. Ball, K. J. H. Hacke, N. W. Water-
house, and J. B. Yates. 1986. “Design and Installation of
the UK Part of the 270 kVDC Cable Connection
Between England and France Including Reliability
Aspects.” CIGRE Paper 21-02. Paris. and
Arnaud, U., A. Bolza, F. Magnani, and E. Occhini.
1992. “Long Island Sound Submarine Cable Crossing.”
CIGRE Paper 21-306. Paris.
Balog, G. E., and G. Evenset. 2002. “Integrated Return
Conductor Cable.” CIGRE Paper 21-301. Paris.
Bell, N., et al. 1992. “± 450 kV DC Underwater Cross-
ing of the St-Lawrence River of a 1500 km Overhead
Line with Five Terminals.” Report No. 21-301. CIGRE
1992 Plenary Session. Paris.
Bex, S. et Al. 2006. “Basslink HVdc Design Provisions
Supporting ac System Performance.” CIGRE paper
B4-301. Paris.
Bjurstrom, B. 1968. “Progress Report of Study Commit-
tee No. 2 (HV Cables) – Appendix II – Recommenda-
tions for Tests on DcC cables for a Rated Voltage up to
300 kV.” CIGRE Paper 21-01. Paris.
Carcano, C. et al. 1996. “Qualification Program for the
400 kVdc Deep Water Interconnection Between Italy
and Greece.” CIGRE Paper 21-304. Paris.
Cho, J., et al. 2006. “Design and Experimental Results
of a 3 Phase 30 m HTS Power Cable.” IEEE Transac-
tions on Applied Superconductivity. Vol. 16. No. 2.
pp. 1602–1605.
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CIGRE. 1977 Electra No. 171. “Recommendations For
Mechanical Tests on Submarine Cables.”
CIGRE. 2000a. Electra No. 189. “Recommendations
for Testing Long AC Submarine Cables with Extruded
Insulation for System Voltage Above 30 (36) to
150 (170) kV.”
CIGRE. 2000b. Electra No. 189. “Recommendations
for Tests of Power Transmission DC Cables for a Rated
Voltage up to 800 kV.”
CIGRE. 2003. Technical Brochure No. 219. “Recom-
mendations for Testing DC Extruded Cable Systems for
Power Transmission at a Rated Voltage up to 250 kV.”
Demko, J. A., et al. 2003. “Cryostat Vacuum Thermal
Considerations for HTS Power Transmission Cable Sys-
tems.” IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity.
Vol. 13. pp. 1930–1933.
Demko, J. A., et al. 2006. “Triaxial HTS Cable for the
AEP Bixby Project.” IEEE Applied Superconductivity
Conference. Seattle. 2LA06.
EPA. n.d. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. SF6
Emission Reduction Partnership for Electric Power Sys-
tems. Memorandum of Understanding.
www.epa.gov/electricpower-sf6/.
Eriksson, K., G. Hjalmarsson, and K. Lampe. 1993.
“Baltic Submarine HVDC Link is the World’s Long-
est.” HVDC Transmission Magazine. pp. 47–55.
Flynn, T. M. 1997. Cryogenic Engineering. New York,
New York: Marcel Dekker.
Forsyth, E. B. and R. A. Thomas. 1986. “Performance
Summary of the Brookhaven Superconducting Power
Transmission System.” Cryogenics. Vol. 26.
pp. 599–614.
Giorgi A. et. al. 2002 “The Italy-Greece HVDC Link”
CIGRE Paper 14-116. Paris.
Hjalmarsson, G. et al. 1992. “After-service Analysis of
the 32 year old HVDC Cable Gotland 1.” CIGRE
Paper 21-302. Paris.
Honjo, S., et al. 2003. “Electric Properties of a 66 kV 3-
Core Superconducting Power Cable System.” IEEE
Transactions of Applied Superconductivity. Vol. 13.
pp. 1952–1955.
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IEC. 1993. Publication 141-1. “Tests on Oil-filled
Cables and their Accessories.”
IEC. 2004a. Publication 60480. “Guidelines for the
Checking and Treatment of Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6)
Taken from Electrical Equipment and Specification for
its Re-use.”
IEC. 2004b. Publication 60840. “Power Cables with
Extruded Insulation and Their Accessories for Rated
Voltages Above 30 kV up to 150 kV.”
IEC. 2006a. International Electrotechnical Commis-
sion. IEC Standard 62271-100. High-voltage Switch-
gear and Controlgear.
IEC. 2006b. Publication 62067. “Power Cables with
Extruded Insulation and Their Accessories for Rated
Voltages above 150 kV (Um = 170 kV) up to 500 kV
(Um = 550 kV)—Test Methods and Requirements”.
IEEE. 2005. Std. 1120™. “IEEE Guide for the Planning,
Design, Installation, and Repair of Submarine Power
Cable Systems.” IEEE PES – ICC Committee. March.
James, D. R., et al. 2006. “Breakdown and Partial Dis-
charge Measurements of Some Commonly Used Dielec-
tric Materials in Liquid Nitrogen for HTS
Applications.” IEEE Applied Superconductivity Con-
ference. Seattle. 3LF06.
Jue, J. 1992. “Report on a Test of a 260 kV HVDC Sub-
marine Cable.” Paper Presented at the IEEE-ICC.
Last, F. H. et al. 1970. “The Underground HVDC Link
for the Transmission of Bulk Power from the Thames
Estuary to the Center of London.” Paper 71 TP
181-PWR. IEEE Winter Power Meeting. New York.
Minemura, S. et al. 1980. “250 kV Direct Current Sub-
marine Cable for Hokkaido–Honshu Link.” CIGRE
Paper 21-03. Paris.
Miranda, F. J., and P. Gazzana-Priaroggia. 1976.
“SCFF Cables–A Review of Progress.” Proc. IEE.
Vol. 123. pp. 229–238.
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Nakanishi, Y. et al. 2000. “Installation of 500 kV DC
Submarine Cable in Japan.” CIGRE Paper 21-304.
Paris.
Normark, B. 2002. “Cross Sound Goes Underground.”
PEI Magazine. pp. 22–25. December.
Ruter, F., J-L Parpal, and S. G. Swingler. 2000. “A
Review of HVDC Extruded Cable Systems.” CIGRE
Panel Session. Paper 2-03. Paris. August.
Satoru, M. et al. 1999. “Development of XLPE Cable
Under DC Voltage.” Paper B7.3. JiCable Conference.
France.
Sauers, I., et al. 2004. “High Voltage Breakdown, Par-
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Cold Dielectric Model Cables.” Advances in Cryogenic
Engineering. Vol. 50. pp. 889–895.
Shapiro, S. et al. 1997. “Threats to Submarine Cables.”
pp. 742–749. Sub Optic Conference. San Francisco.
Stovall, J. P, et al. 2001. “Installation and Operation of
the Southwire 30-meter High-Temperature Supercon-
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Superconductivity. Vol. 11. pp. 2467–2472.
Strandem, A. and J. E. Larsen. 1992. “Installation of
Skagerrak 3—A 350 kVdc Link Between Norway and
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Tonnesen, O., et al. 2004. “Operation Experiences with
a 30 kV/100 MVA High Temperature Superconducting
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 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

CHAPTER 8 Cable Systems

Accessories
Authors: Pierre Argaut, Silec Cable
Milan Uzelac, G&W Electric Co.
Ernesto Zaccone, Prysmian Cables and Systems
Reviewer: Steven P. Walldorf, USi (Underground Systems Inc.)

High-voltage and extra-high-voltage power cable systems form part of the backbone of
transmission systems, and therefore, reliability considerations are of the highest priority.

Accessories (joints and terminations) are very important components of the cable system.
Their behavior affects the full reliability of the whole system.

High-voltage transmission cable systems operate at elevated electric stresses. Further,

the thermal performance of joints and terminations and installation factors can limit
the ampacity rating of the overall cable system. As a result, the appropriate design,
qualification, and the right selection of the most suitable accessories are of
fundamental importance.

This chapter provides details on the types of accessories used for the most common cable
types in use today. It provides guidance on the right selection of accessories as a function
of their application and describes the qualification and testing according to the relevant
national and international standards.

Pierre Argaut has been working with Silec Cable since 1988 and is cur-
rently Vice President in charge of R&D. He received a degree in Electri-
cal Engineering in 1971 from the University of Grenoble (France).
Most of Mr. Argaut's career has been in the HV-EHV area, first in the
EHV switchgear and GIS Industry from 1971 to 1980, and then in the
cable industry from 1988 to the present. From 1980 to 1988, he worked
as Operation Manager of SEPL (South European PipeLine), the largest
crude oil pipeline in western Europe. Mr. Argaut is currently a Member
of the Strategic Advisory Group and Convener of the Tutorial Advisory Group of
CIGRE Study Committee B1 (Insulated Cables), and is involved in several Discussion
Groups within ICC.

Milan Uzelac graduated from the Electro-technical University of Bel-

grade, Serbia, in 1968 with a major in Electrical Power Engineering. He
was employed with Minel-Elektrooprema, Belgrade, as a design engi-
neer, senior design engineer, and the head of R&D Department. His
achievements include development of a line of vacuum circuit breakers
from 12 to 36 kV and air-break disconnecting switches from 72.5 up to
420 kV. Milan relocated to the United States in 1989 and continued his
career with the G&W Electric Company of Chicago as an R&D engi-
neer, product engineer, and chief R&D engineer. His responsibility has been the develop-
ment and design of accessories for high-voltage and extra-high-voltage cables, both with
extruded and impregnated paper insulation. His expertise includes analysis of electrical
field and thermal studies with evaluation of ampacity ratings of cable accessories. Mr.

8-1
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
Uzelac is involved in IEEE and CIGRE working groups
for developing industry standards for high-voltage cable
accessories. He currently chairs the IEEE Working
Group on revising the IEEE 1300 Standard for cable
connections in gas-insulated switchgear.
Ernesto Zaccone is currently with the
R & I ( Re s e a rc h a n d I n n ovat i o n )
department of Prysmian Cables and
System (formerly Pirelli Cables) based
in Milan, Italy. He obtained a degree
in Electrotechnical Engineering in
1969. During the same year, he joined
the power cable industry, where he
was engaged in a number of different activities such as
8-2
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
projects in high-voltage testing laboratories and high-
voltage cable system design. In particular, he was
involved in the study, design, and realization of some
major EHV (Extra High Voltage) extruded cable
projects. He was also the author of several studies on
the application and impact of EHV cables when
integrated in transmission systems. Currently he is
involved in a number of innovative underground cable
projects and in international standardization activities.
Mr. Zaccone is the Chairman of the CEI CT 20 Italian
standardization body for power cables. He is the Co-
convenor of the IEC TC20 WG 16, which is responsible
for the international standardization of high-voltage
cables and their accessories, and is an active member of
CIGRE and IEEE.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
8.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides theoretical design and practical
information on cable system accessories—namely joints
(also called splices) and terminations (also called pot-
heads or sealing ends). Also included is information on
other accessories: sheath-bonding systems, metallic
screen/sheath (also called shield) sectionalizing, link
boxes, sheath voltage limiters (also called surge divert-
ers), and bonding leads.
Section 8.2 covers joints; Section 8.3 reviews termina-
tions; and Section 8.4 discusses other accessories.
Chapter 8 discusses differences in joints and termina-
t i o n s fo r t h e va ri o u s c abl e t y p e s, a n d p rovid e s
information to help the design engineers choose the
optimal joint or termination design. It also includes test
requirements for prequalification of the accessories
according to the most relevant national and interna-
tional standards.
Related information is covered in other chapters. Chap-
ter 7 discusses submarine cable accessories in more
detail. Chapter 12 provides additional information on
metallic screen/sheath bonding on cable systems.
The following general points can be made at the outset:
• The performance of a cable circuit is dependent on
several factors, including:
- Performance and reliability of the cable
- Performance and reliability of any single acces-
sory
- Skill and experience of the persons assembling
the accessories onto the cable
- Suitability of the installation design to take into
account mechanical, thermomechanical, ther-
mal, and electrical constraints of the particular
cable system.
• Cables and accessory materials are often manufac-
tured under controlled process conditions. Cables are
factory-tested before shipping, while only prefabri-
cated accessories can be factory-tested in the same
way. However, factory testing of accessories does not
in itself guarantee that an installation will be
successful. There are many installations of both
extruded and taped cable systems without factory-
tested accessories that have been successfully in
service for many years.
• Compatibility of cable and accessory design in the
particular service application should be validated by
appropriate electrical tests as specified in U.S. and
international standards such as IEEE 48, IEEE 404,
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
IEC 60840, and IEC 62067 for extruded-dielectric
cable systems.
• Depending on the application, the user may purchase
cable, accessories, installation design, and field instal-
lation separately or as a complete cable system. In
either case, compatibility of all the components must
be ensured—whether by the “system provider,” the
user, or a third-party integrator.
• For extruded-dielectric cable systems above 170 kV,
IEC 62067 details the testing that has to be per-
formed to demonstrate the compatibility of cable and
accessories, and stipulates the range of approval of
type testing and prequalification testing. CIGRE
(CIGRE 2006) prepared the recommendations for
additional testing to take into account the evolutions
of an already prequalified cable system, and espe-
cially the changes in the accessories.
8.2 JOINTS
8.2.1 Theory and General Description
Function
The basic function of a joint is to join cable sections.
Joints are required when the length of the circuit
exceeds the allowable continuous cable lengths, which
may be limited by manufacturing, shipping, or installa-
tion considerations. To fulfill its purpose, a joint must
provide a robust conductor connection surrounded by a
dielectric system that meets the same performance
requirements as the cables and within a suitable ground-
ing enclosure or covering. Joints are installed in man-
holes (vaults) or tunnels, or they are directly buried in
trenches. They often perform one or more of the follow-
ing additional tasks:
• Isolate and insulate metallic screen (sheath/shield)
sections (Miranda 1976). See discussion on screen
interruption joints in Sections 8.2.2 and 8.4.1.
• Provide a hydraulic barrier to sectionalize hydraulic
systems (see pipe-type cable stop joints in Section
8.2.3; self-contained cable stop/feed joints in Section
8.2.4; and transition joints between oil- or gas-filled
cables and extruded cables in Section 8.2.2).
• Mechanically support or restrict the cable as required
to support the weight of vertical lengths of cable or to
limit the expansion and control the bending of cable
when appropriate.
Design Approach
The ideal joint for any cable type would result in no
mechanical, thermal, or electrical discontinuity. Such a
joint would represent a reconstituted cable, which would
have the same dimensions, thermal properties, and elec-
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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

trical properties as the cable. Such joints are technically cally use hand-taped joints or prefabricated (epoxy)
possible, and in fact are sometimes constructed to fac- joints for special applications.
tory-join submarine cable lengths or to make repairs of
Joints for Extruded-dielectric Cables
submarine cables when no increase in diameter can be
Taped joints adopt elastomeric semiconducting and
tolerated for mechanical reasons. However, they require
insulating self-amalgamating tapes to rebuild the con-
a long cable length for pencilling and replacing the insu-
ductor screen, insulation, and insulation screen. The
lation; they take longer than conventional splices to
construction of these joints is conceptually similar to
construct; and they require the highest level of skill to
the hand-taped joints used for laminar-insulated cables
install (Miranda et al. 1976; Takaoka et al. 1987).
and is limited to the HV range due to the poorer dielec-
tric strength than cable insulation—and hence large
For practical reasons, limitations on length and cost
diameter—and the risk of leaving voids between tapes.
usually dictate joints of larger diameter than the cables
that they join. Increasing the radial dimensions simpli-
Field-molded joints are typically used for high-voltage
fies the design and construction of suitable connectors
extruded cables. In the most common type (see Figure
and lowers the operating stresses in the dielectric, when
8-1), the joint is built by taping over the connector and
properly done. However, the increase in the radial
cable chamfer with unvulcanized tapes. The tape may be
dimensions of the joint and its individual parts intro-
applied by hand or by machine. Molding is accom-
duces longitudinal components of the dielectric stress.
plished after taping by placing a metal mold over the
Extruded or molded dielectrics can well tolerate such
taped buildup and heating the entire mass for several
longitudinal stress, but laminar or multilayer dielectrics
hours. The pressure generated by the thermal expansion
are weak when subjected to a stress acting along their
consolidates the taped material into a void-free mass,
interfaces. As a result, these stresses must be taken into
which is similar to cable dielectric (Hahm et al. 1988).
consideration during the design.
Other external means (hydraulic or pneumatic) can be
applied outside the joint to prevent the formation of
A larger-diameter joint can also cause a localized ther-
voids during the vulcanization process.
mal restriction on the cable system, so the thermal per-
formance of the joints must also be carefully considered
One other method places the insulation compound over
during the design of the cable system.
the connector and cable chamfer by extruding the com-
pound into a suitable mold. This technique is used in
For a given cable type, the joint design and choice of
Japan to joint 500-kV XLPE cables (Kubota et al. 1994;
materials may be influenced by the installation condi-
Takeda et al. 1995; Okada et al. 1999). After extrusion,
tions (buried, manhole, or tunnel) and the thermal char-
the joint is heated, and the insulation is pressurized with
acteristics of that installation environment.
nitrogen gas to crosslink the joint material.
Technologies
Extruded-dielectric cables may use taped, field-molded, Other types of joints, called prefabricated joints, adopt
heat-shrink sleeve, prefabricated/premolded or prefabri- premolded and/or thermoset resin components that are
cated/composite joints. Laminar-insulated cables typi- preformed and tested in the factory.

Figure 8-1 Field-molded joint for extruded-dielectric cables.

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Prefabricated/premolded joints include one sleeve (see
Figure 8-2) (Parmigiani et al. 1987; Leufkens et al. 1992;
Chatterjee et al. 1995; Peschke et al. 1996) or more elas-
tomeric sleeves (Nelson et al. 1978). The pressure
between the sleeve and the cable, and between different
sleeve interfaces, is maintained by interference fit and by
the elastic memory of the sleeve.
In another design, called a prefabricated composite
joint, two factory-premolded elastomeric stress cones
are inserted into a central insulator of cast thermoset
resin (see Figure 8-3). The pressure of the stress cone
against the central insulator and the cable core is
ensured by a compression device, which is usually
made of metallic springs (Nakanishi et al. 1995; Okada
et al. 1999).
Conductors are joined by various designs of connectors
including compression, soldering, welding, and combi-
nations of these techniques (see following section enti-
tled “Connectors”).
Figure 8-2 One-piece premolded joint for extruded-dielectric cables, 69-500 kV.
Figure 8-3 Section view of a prefabricated composite joint (courtesy of Prysmian Cables and Systems).
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
The joints are generally protected by a metallic shell
sealed to the cable sheaths by different methods (see
following section entitled “Sheath Closures”). The joint
shell is isolated from the environment by different
systems described in the following section entitled
“Anticorrosion Protection”. However, if the extruded
cable does not have a metallic sheath, but only a wire
shield, heat shrink tube protection is generally used for
the joint.
Joints for Laminar-insulated Cables
Hand-taped joints were the first to be utilized and are
the predominant type for laminar-dielectric cables
(Short 1949). Their quality is highly dependent on the
skill of the splicer. Impregnated kraft paper or lami-
nated paper polypropylene (LPP) insulation is applied
over the shielded connector and stepped (pencilled)
cable insulation. Insulation buildup at the edge of the
cable shielding is applied in the form of the stress cone
for proper shaping of the electrical field. The outer sur-
face of the joint insulation is covered with semiconduc-
tive and metallic screen (shielding) that is eventually
connected to the ground. Some applications require
8-5
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
interruption of the screen (shield break), as shown in
Figure 8-4.
For single-conductor self-contained fluid-filled (SCFF)
cables, each single-conductor joint is contained in a sin-
gle metallic housing, which may incorporate a sheath
insulator (Watanabe et al. 1986). For pipe-type cable,
the three single-conductor insulated joints are contained
in a single, welded steel casing (see Section 8.2.3, “Pipe-
type Joints”).
Quartz-filled epoxy castings are utilized in prefabricated
or partly prefabricated joint designs (Gazzana-
Priaroggia et al. 1956). The prefabricated component
may incorporate an embedded electrode with a diameter
greater than the cable insulation to shield the end of the
insulation and the connector area. In addition, precast
epoxy components can serve as a pressure barrier, which
can hydraulically isolate adjacent cable sections in pipe-
type and SCFF cable systems and in transition joints.
They are also used to provide a channel for feeding
dielectric fluid to the conductor of SCFF cables. Precast
epoxy joints are also used to obtain a positive grip on
the connector and offer the means to anchor a cable by
its conductor, which is used to control axial motion and
to hang cables when large vertical drops are encoun-
tered. Although these prefabricated joints may be larger
than taped joints, the epoxy components have low
thermal resistivity, and the temperature rise of the
conductor and connector in the joint relative to that in
the cable is minimized.
Design Challenges
The use of joint materials with characteristics that are
different than the factory insulation in terms of dielec-
tric constant and dielectric strength results in design
challenges. In fact, longitudinal components of the elec-
trical stresses acting along the interfaces of the lami-
nated insulation (for taped joints) or of joint
components (for prefabricated joints) must be taken
into account. The overall dimensions of the joint should
Figure 8-4 Hand-taped joint for laminated cables (courtesy of G&W Electric Company).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
be defined in order to maintain the radial and longitudi-
nal stresses within safe values.
Part of the joint designer’s responsibility is the control
of cable movement and support of the cable adjacent to
the joint. This involves controlling thermally-induced
mechanical forces, which tend to concentrate stress
within or adjacent to the joints.
Minimizing hotspots in the joint is a function of joint
materials and construction as well as the installation
method. The flow rate also plays an important role in
fluid-circulating cable systems. Thermal performance is
generally improved by reducing dimensions to their
minimum consistent with dielectric requirements, or by
selecting thermally superior materials.
It is evident that these challenges are interrelated. The
use of higher-strength insulating material results in
smaller joints, which operate at lower temperatures.
Electrical Design
The joint design procedure normally starts after estab-
lishing the allowable stresses in the joint insulation
materials and at interfaces based on breakdown tests on
models or full-size accessories.
The first approach utilizes the aid of a computer pro-
gram to calculate the equipotential line distribution (see
Figure 8-5) and the actual stresses in the critical region
of the prefabricated joint—i.e., over the embedded elec-
trodes and the interfaces between different materials. If
these stresses are higher than the allowable stresses, the
joint design is revised by changing some dimensions and
materials, and the process is repeated until the correct
stresses are obtained.
Analytical methods are applied for simple geometries
like for taped joints where the critical electrical stresses
occur at the connector (radially, and axially along its
taper), at the base of the stress cone (radially), or along
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories

Figure 8-5 Equipotential line distribution in a premolded joint.

the interface between cable and joint insulation (axi- the ground or with close clamping). In fact, the unbal-
ally). Analytical formulas for computing these stresses anced thrust transmitted to the joint by the rigidly
can be found in References (Short 1949; Wakabayaski et installed cable can damage the joint unless special pre-
al. 1970). In addition, numerical techniques for solving cautions, like cable offsets, are taken to reduce the thrust
for the stresses in nonuniform electrical fields can be to the joints (CIGRE 2001b).
found in Reference (Vitkovitch 1966).
When cables are installed into pipes, the tendency for
The connector diameter and the dielectric strength of cable movement to concentrate at or near joints has
the joint material determine the diameter of taped
joints. A stress cone is then designed, taking the axial
dielectric strength of the joint insulation into account. A
shape described by a “log-log” taper (Short 1949) is
normally adopted in order to maintain constant the
axial stress along the outer stress cone profile. This
shape is applied to the design of flat paper or paper-
polypropylene laminate-insulated joints. If crepe paper
or self-amalgamating tapes are to be used, their
overlapping construction should not create axial
surfaces, except at the interface with the cable core.

The design of the insulation taper or pencil depends on Figure 8-6 Joint showing “log-log” outer taper and “log”
the relative dielectric constants of cable and joint insula- insulation taper.
tion. For taped cables, a low-dielectric strength tangen-
tial to the interface between cable and joint along the
surface of the pencil is assumed (Wakabayaski et al.
1970). By using a “log” taper design, it is possible to
make this stress constant over the length of the pencil.
Although not directly related to the axial stress in the
cable or joint material along the pencil, the use of a
“log” pencil shape has become standard practice in
North America (see Figure 8-6).

For extruded-dielectric cable molded joints, the dielec-

tric strength of the insulation is theoretically isotropic,
and shorter stress cones and pencils are possible.
Mechanical/Hydraulic Design
During their operation, joints are subjected to thermo-
mechanical forces caused by the current circulating in
the conductor. These forces also depend on the installa-
tion conditions of the cable on both sides of the joint.
The worst condition occurs when the joint is at the tran- Figure 8-7 Installation of 220-kV XLPE cable joints in a
sition between a flexible cable system (cable installed manhole (courtesy of Silec Cable).
with snaking) and a rigid cable system (cable buried in

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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
been a major problem for all types of cable systems, but
particularly for extra-high-voltage, pipe-type cable sys-
tems installed in the 1960s and 1970s (Mcllveen et al.
1978). This problem has been solved by using a rigidized
design or supplementary mechanical reinforcement
and/or providing offsets for accommodating expansion
in the adjacent cable (Minemura et al.1990).
Where pipe-type cable joints are installed in cable sec-
tions with appreciable differences in elevation, special
“anchor” and “skid” joints have been utilized. Section
8.2.3 provides further discussion of these joints.
If differences in elevation result in hydraulic pressures
exceeding the limitations of sheaths, pipes, or terminals,
a full-stop joint, which provides a pressure barrier, can
be used. Full-stop joints are also used for routine sec-
tionalization of SCFF cables when multiple pressurizing
and reservoir sections are required. In this case, precast
epoxy splices are used to both anchor the conductor
and provide hydraulic sectionalization for pipe-type
cable systems.
Thermal Design
Joints generally have diameters greater than the cables
that they join and therefore have a thermal resistance
greater than the cable. This is normally offset by a lower
thermal resistance from the joint to ambient tempera-
ture, particularly for joints installed in manholes. When
cable and joints are directly buried, the overheating of
the joints is avoided by increasing the spacing with
respect to the cable.
An important exception is for pipe-type cables when
circulation or oscillation of the dielectric fluid is
employed. The movement of fluid, although designed to
average out hotspots along the cable, has the effect of
producing a hotspot at the joint (EPRI 1984). This is
Figure 8-8 Typical heating curve of a 132-kV extruded cable and premolded joint.
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
because the circulating fluid tends to maintain an axially
uniform temperature at the surface of the joint shield that
is the same as that in the adjacent upstream cable. Since
the joint thermal resistance is greater than that of the
cable, an increase occurs in the conductor temperature
within the joint relative to the adjacent cable. Designs to
minimize over-temperature for hand-taped cable joints
are discussed in References (EPRI 1988; Allam et al.
1986). Various joint designs for pipe-type cable are
compared thermally in Reference (Engelhardt 1972).
Two-dimensional resistance network analogs have been
employed to study splice conductor and connector tem-
peratures (Engelhardt 1972; Weedy et al. 1967).
Auxiliary cooling of joints has been employed for self-
contained cable (Weedy et al. 1967), and such tech-
niques could be applied to pipe-type or extruded cable
systems when the situation warrants the added complex-
ity (ELECTRA 1983, 1990b).
Prefabricated joints, which employ cast epoxy compo-
nents, or premolded joints, which incorporate a heat
sink device at the connector, tend to have a thermal
resistance comparable to that of the cable and provide
the closest match to a cable’s thermal performance. This
characteristic has been used to advantage in the layout
of some heavily forced-cooled, pipe-type systems.
Although the joints of a heavily loaded transmission
cable can limit the normal loading capability of the cir-
cuit, it should be noted that the short-term emergency
overload capacity of joints may be closer to that of the
overall cable system. This is due to the larger thermal
mass of the joint, which gives them a longer time con-
stant (see Figure 8-8) (ELECTRA 2004). Hence, their
temperature rise when exposed to a step increase in
loading is slower than other parts of the system. How-
ever, hand-taped joints on laminated cables exhibit
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
higher dielectric losses due to the inevitable moisture
picked up during the taping operations. This causes a
more sharply rising dielectric loss with increasing tem-
perature, and can lead to thermal runaway in the joint at
a lower temperature than the cable itself can tolerate
(McIlveen et al. 1978). Operation of joints on extra-
high-voltage cable systems above emergency tempera-
tures must be avoided.
Connectors
The connector joins the conductors of the two cables
electrically and mechanically. Thus the connector must
exhibit good electrical conductivity to avoid a higher
temperature than the cable's conductor in any operating
condition and present sufficiently high mechanical pull-
out strength to withstand mechanical stresses during
operation. The following types of connectors are used
both for extruded and laminated cables.
Compression Connectors
A compression connector includes a tube (ferrule) of the
same material as the cable conductor into which the
conductors to be joined are inserted (see Figure 8-9).
The tube is then compressed by a hydraulic press tool.
The compression (crimp) connector is the type most
commonly used (up to approximately 5000 kcmil
[~2500 mm2] cross sections), because it is easy to install
and does not require heat. The cross section of the
connector is equal to or slightly less than the cross
section of the conductor that it is joining. When the
connector is exposed to the electric field, like in taped
joints, it is necessary to provide suitable chamfers at
both ends in order to minimize the longitudinal
Figure 8-9 Hydraulic press tool on a compression
connector.
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
component of the electrical stress introduced by its
protrusion with respect to the conductor.
The compression of the connector tube can be carried
out by indentation with mono or multi ram presses or
with hexagonal dies used with a hydraulic press. A duct
pin is used with the hollow-core conductors used in
SCFF cables to ensure the continuity of the oil flow. For
compact copper conductors, a round compression can
be used with a copper tube presenting suitable humps.
As a variation of this process, a flush compression con-
nector can be obtained by stepping the conductor and
the bore of the connecting tube. This design is normally
adopted in submarine cable joints.
Aluminum compression connectors are used for alumi-
num conductors (up to approximately 1250 kcmil
[~630 mm2]), while welding is preferable for larger cross
sections. In fact, with aluminum connectors, a creep
phenomenon can take place as an effect of loading
cycles, leading to a reduction of the contact pressure
between connector and conductor, with corresponding
increase of the electrical resistance, and ultimately
resulting in thermal failure.
When a copper conductor has to be joined to an alumi-
num conductor, a special bimetallic connector is used.
These connectors are half copper and half aluminum.
The two connector halves are joined in the factory by
friction welding or high-speed inertial welding.
Mechanical Bolted Connectors
In mechanical bolted connectors, the compression of
the conductors inside the ferrule is made by tightening
threaded bolts. The bolts are then finished flush with the
surface of the connector (see Figure 8-10).
Mechanical connectors, extensively used in MV accesso-
ries, can also be used in HV joints, but only for relatively
small conductor cross sections (up to about 1250 kcmil
[~630 mm2]), due to their limited short-circuit current
Figure 8-10 Mechanical bolted connector.
8-9
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
capability. These connectors have a larger diameter than
compressed connectors.
Soldered or Brazed Connectors
To make a soldered or brazed connector, a metal tube
with a top cut is placed around the two conductors, and
it is filled with a melted lead alloy (melting temperature
about 190°C) or a high-temperature melting alloy.
Soldered connectors are used with small conductor
cross sections (below approximately 1250 kcmil
[~630 mm2 ]) and with paper-insulated cables having a
short-circuit current temperature below 160°C), because
the solder can become soft during the cable system
operation. Brazed connectors do not present this prob-
lem but are more difficult to install.
Welded Connectors
For welded connectors, the two conductors are fused
together by the application of molten metal. The Metal
Inert Gas (MIG) or Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding
process is adopted in this case.
The welding process is adopted for large aluminum con-
ductors and for enameled wire copper conductors. In
fact, the burning of the enamel ensures a good contact
among strands. This technology requires a highly skilled
operator and is time consuming. Due to the high tem-
perature developed during the process, special cooling
clamps are required on both sides of the weld in order
not to damage the cable insulation. In the case of fluid-
filled cables, vacuum is applied to the clamps in order to
remove the oil from the strands and simultaneously cool
the area. In case of an extruded-dielectric cable, the
clamps may be cooled with circulation of air or water.
The conductors to be joined are cut in a wedge shape,
and then buttered with weld metal, and the two “V”
grooves are filled until the conductor diameter is
reached. As a result, this connection is flush with the
conductor. The weld provides an electrical connection
that is equivalent to the conductor and that is not sub-
ject to instability due to decrease of contact pressure
from load cycling. However, the tensile strength of the
welded connector is significantly (50 to 60%) lower than
the ultimate tensile strength of the conductor due to the
annealing of the conductor near the weld. If necessary,
mainly for submarine cables, the tensile strength can be
improved by round-compressing the conductor and the
weld (hardening process).
Exothermic Welding
Exothermic welding (also known as Thermite, Ther-
moweld, or Cadweld®) is mostly applicable to extruded
cable accessories. It is formed by igniting into a tailor-
made crucible, placed around the butted squared con-
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
ductors, a mixture of combustible material and pow-
dered metal that melts and fuses around the two cable
conductors in an exothermic reaction. This weld is not
flush and requires additional shaping in the field. Care
must be exercised in cleaning the conductors, especially
conductors with filled and/or insulated strands; other-
wise, there is a risk of obtaining a porous weld.
Plug-in Connectors
Plug-in connectors consist of two metal connectors that
terminate the conductor and that are mated through the
interposition of elastic or spring-loaded contacts able to
carry the current. Locking pins can be used to anchor
the two parts together.
Plug-in connectors are used in SCFF cable stop joints
and for extruded cable plug-in type premolded joints
and back-to-back joints.
Metallic Sheath Closures
The connection between the cable sheath and the joint
shell must fulfill the following functions:
• contain the fluid pressure for HPFF, SCFF, HPGF,
and fluid-filled polymeric accessories. For dry
extruded cable accessories, the seal must be tight so
that water is not sucked into the accessory during a
cable-cooling cycle.
• conduct the capacitive and short-circuit current of
the cable system
• withstand the sheath thermomechanical loads in ser-
vice.
Three main methods, or combinations of them, are
used—plumbing, welding, and mechanical clamping.
Plumbing
Plumbing is the most common method used for con-
necting the joint shell to the lead, copper, or aluminum
sheath of cables. The cable sheath is tinned to remove
the oxide layer. In case of an aluminum sheath, this pro-
cess involves a vigorous brushing, and heating and rub-
bing of a thin stick of lead metal alloy on the surface.
Then a lead-based alloy in stick form is softened to a
plastic state using a gas torch and is put into position on
the sheath and joint shell end until a “wipe” is obtained.
If the plumb is made outside the joint shell, it is called
“external plumb,” and it is submitted to a hoop stress
due to the internal pressure. If the joint is operated at a
pressure above 40 psi (275 kPa), the wipe must be rein-
forced using epoxy-resin-impregnated glass-fiber tape,
to avoid creep phenomena at elevated temperatures. The
same reinforcement is also adopted with thick alumi-
num sheaths to support the high longitudinal forces that
this type of sheaths can transfer to the plumb.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
If the plumb is located inside the joint, it is called an
“internal plumb.” It works under compression forces
and can successfully support pressures up to 400 psi
(2760 kPa) and more.
For extruded cables, the “external plumb” is generally
adopted. In the case of XLPE aluminum-sheathed
cables, when the sheath is very tight on the cable core, it
is very important to control the heat applied during tin-
ning and plumbing to prevent damage to the cable core.
When the extruded cable has only a copper wire shield or
a copper wire shield associated with a thin metallic
sheath, which is not contributing to the short-circuit cur-
rent, the copper wires are generally plumbed to a copper
tube fitted on the cable core, and then the joint shell is
plumbed to this tube to simulate a conventional sheath.
Welding
Welding is used with thick-wall aluminum-sheathed
SCFF and HPGF cables to avoid the creep phenomena
that can take place with nonreinforced plumbed clo-
sures. TIG or MIG welding techniques are generally
adopted. The weld is generally performed on the crest of
the corrugation, for corrugated sheaths, or by belling
out the end of the sheath, for smooth cable sheaths. This
technique is also applicable to aluminum-sheathed
extruded cables.
Mechanical Clamping
With the new type of thin laminated aluminum or cop-
per sheaths used today with extruded cables, especially if
associated with a bonded plastic jacket, when the thick-
ness is on the order of 0.039 in. (1 mm) or less, plumbing
is no longer applicable. In fact, it is difficult to remove
the jacket and to do the plumb without damaging the
sheath. In addition, the annealed sheath could hardly
support the thermomechanical loads transferred by the
jacket during loading cycles. For these reasons, a
mechanical clamping device is generally used. It consists
of a supporting ring, which is fitted underneath the thin
sheath and jacket of the cable, and external sectors that
are pressing the jacket in order to ensure a good electri-
cal contact of the sheath with the supporting ring. The
supporting ring is normally part of the joint shell to
ensure the electrical continuity of the cable sheath.
Because three longitudinal cuts are made in the cable
sheath to be able to fit the supporting ring, special pro-
visions must be taken to seal the clamping area.
Anticorrosion Protection
The anticorrosive protection is the outer covering of the
joint, which may have multiple functions depending upon
the particular application in the cable systems, including:
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
• Protecting the joint metal work from corrosion
• Preventing water from entering in the joint
• Electrically insulating from earth the insulation
screen, shield wires, and metallic joint shell depend-
ing on the joint type.
The most commonly used design of joint shell protec-
tion, especially for sectionalized and stop joints having
bonding leads and feeding pipes, is a glass fiber box
filled with hydrophobic compound (bitumen, polyure-
thane resin, etc.). In this design, the box is only a con-
tainer for pouring the resin, and the watertightness is
achieved by the compound. In some cases a molded box
is used, which, in combination with heat-shrink tubes, is
also watertight. So a double barrier is ensured.
When the joint shell has a regular profile, as in straight
joints, heat-shrink tubes or adhesive tapes can
be adopted.
Another possibility is to cover the joint shell in the fac-
tory with a coating of insulating material (PVC dipping)
and to isolate the junctions on-site with the cable jacket
and between the two halves using heat-shrink tubes
or tapes.
According to IEC and IEEE specifications, a water-
immersion test, including loading cycles in water and a
final impulse test, are required to check the correct
design of the anticorrosion protection of the joint.
8.2.2 Joints for Extruded-Dielectric Cables
General
An important difference between pipe-type or SCFF
cables and extruded-dielectric cables is that the
extruded-dielectric cables do not require insulating
fluid. This class of cables and accessories must be essen-
tially void-free as manufactured, and must be operated
without the benefits of ionization suppression or dielec-
tric strength enhancement by means of pressurized
dielectric liquid or gas. Accordingly, few accessories are
required for pressurizing, accommodating the thermal
expansion and contraction of insulating fluid, or moni-
toring and alarming the pressure and volumes. Thus the
accessory system is essentially reduced to terminations
and joints, and in the case of specially bonded systems,
the associated bonding and sheath voltage limiters
(surge diverters).
It is essential to select the design of accessory to be
exactly compatible with the particular extruded cable
type and the particular service application. Compatibil-
ity should be validated by electrical-type approval tests
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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
and be supported by either prequalification tests or ser-
vice experience of the specific systems (cable and acces-
sories). The performance of the accessory is dependent
on the quality, skill, and training of the jointing person-
nel and on the use of the specialized tools required for a
particular accessory.
For satisfactory service performance, it is most impor-
tant that the correct size of accessory is selected to suit
the particular cable. The outer diameter of the cable
insulation and its tolerance and shape are particularly
important in the selection of an accessory employing a
premolded component, such as an elastomeric stress
cone or an elastomeric joint molding. Such components
are designed to fit a specific range of diameters of pre-
pared cable insulation (that is, with the insulation screen
removed and the insulation smoothed and shaped). The
components must not be used outside this range. The
minimum cable diameter is determined by the need to
achieve sufficient pressure to eliminate voids at the
interface with the cable insulation. The maximum cable
diameter is determined by such considerations as: (a)
preventing damage by over-stretching during assembly,
and (b) limiting the maximum pressure at the interface
such that the compression set of the cable insulation and
molded insulation is minimized.
The diameter and tolerance of the conductor and of its
compaction (the ratio of the effective cross-sectional
area of the metal to the total area occupied) are needed
in selecting a connector that will exhibit stable conduc-
tivity and high mechanical strength.
The diameters and tolerances of the cable metallic
sheath and over-sheath are needed to ensure that acces-
sory metallic flanges and other components can be
passed back over the cable during assembly.
As a minimum requirement, the following dimensional
and constructional details should be obtained by the
user from the manufacturer to ensure compatibility of
the accessory with the cable. Diameters, maximum and
minimum tolerances, eccentricity dimensions, construc-
tion, and material need to be obtained for each of the
following cable components:
• conductor and special features (e.g., water blocking),
if any
• conductor screen
• insulation (ovality and eccentricity dimensions are
required)
• maximum allowable interface pressure
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
• insulation screen
• screen wires, if any
• longitudinal water blocking, if any
• metallic sheath, if any—for example, whether an
extruded sheath, a welded sheath, or a laminated foil
barrier. Also whether cylindrical or corrugated
• over-sheath (i.e., jacket)
• armor, if any
• special features (e.g., presence of optical fiber or pilot
wires).
Environmental Control during Splicing and
Terminating
In general, for voltage ratings through 138 kV, only min-
imal environmental control of the splicing and terminat-
ing areas is necessary. The exposed cable in the work
area must be protected from free water, especially water
that might be entrained in the cable conductor, at inter-
faces between the cable and splice insulation, or
between the cable and the termination stress control
device. Dehumidification of the area is generally not
required, except to provide a reasonably comfortable
environment for personnel to limit contamination by
heavy perspiration.
It is necessary to control the cleanliness of the working
area during certain critical operations—for example,
when the cable insulation shield has been removed, and
the insulation has been finally smoothed and cleaned for
splicing or terminating, and before the restoration of the
shielding is completed. Particulates contaminating the
insulation or interfaces can result in unacceptable con-
centrations of electrical stresses. Particulate control
practices range from using dry (sometimes deionized)
air or nitrogen-pressurized glove boxes, to less elaborate
“good-housekeeping” practices, such as plastic
coverups, cleanup procedures using vacuum sweepers,
and occasionally moistening floors to keep dust levels
down. Whatever the practice, scrupulous inspection for
contamination of any sort must be enforced.
Many of the steps in the splicing process, irrespective of
the method employed, are common to all types, so that
apparent differences in time between the various proce-
dures for restoring shields and insulation may not yield
significant savings in overall splicing time. These com-
mon steps include the usual need for heat-annealing and
straightening the cable ends for splicing, stripping the
tightly bonded extruded insulation shield, painstakingly
cleaning and smoothing the stripped ends, training and
racking the completed splice, etc.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Types of Joints
The following five basic classes of joints are in use today
for extruded cables, each with a number of design and
material permutations:
• Heat-shrink sleeve joints
• Field-taped joints
• Field-molded joints
• Prefabricated joints (premolded and composite)
• Back-to-back joints
Heat-Shrink Sleeve Joints
Heat-shrinkable elements are polyolefin components
heated in a factory process above their crystalline melt-
ing point, then expanded and cooled. These compo-
nents are supplied expanded. When heated again above
the crystalline melting point, typically 120°C, the com-
ponent contracts (“shrinks”). The shrink ratio is typi-
cally 3 to 1.
Heat-shrink sleeves can be used for external protection,
but also, when appropriate fillers are incorporated, as
stress control elements. Multilayer heat-shrink sleeves
Figure 8-11 Heat-shrink sleeve joint (courtesy CIGRE).
Figure 8-12 Field-taped joint (courtesy CIGRE).
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
can also be produced to combine different functions,
including stress control, insulation, etc.
A heat-shrink sleeve joint consists of several sleeves
that are positioned over the prepared cables to be
joined and that are “heat-shrunk” once the conductors
have been connected.
A typical construction of a heat-shrink sleeve is shown
in Figure 8-11.
Field-taped Joints
These joints (schematically shown in Figure 8-12) use
hand-applied tapes. Tapes can be adhesive, but better
performance has been obtained with self-amalgamating
ethylene-propylene rubber (EPR) or polysobutene rub-
ber tapes. They have been generally used to 69 kV, but
they were proven satisfactory in the Waltz Mill test pro-
gram at 138 kV on a number of the tested systems. They
have been in generally successful commercial operation
on several U.S. installations at 115 kV and 138 kV, but
with relatively low insulation screen stress. In fact, the
radial stress at the beginning of the stress cone, which
corresponds to the cable screen stress, cannot be miti-
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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
gated. Field-taped joints have the advantage of being
made from readily available and economical materials
and represent the simplest approach with only minimal
special tooling and training requirements. The principal
disadvantage is that they have inherently larger diame-
ters, and are longer and more laborious to tape, owing
to their basically laminar design and the need to employ
modest radial and longitudinal design stresses.
Field-molded Joints
In field-molded joints, the field-applied insulation is
melted and bonded to the pencilled extruded cable ends
in various forms of molds (see Figure 8-13). This
technique is available for both PE and XLPE cables as
well as for EPR cables. In the case of crosslinked
extruded-dielectric cables (i.e., XLPE and EPR cables),
the insulation must be heat-and-pressure cured.
Connector and insulation semiconducting screens are
generally applied separately.
Insulation can be applied on the prepared cable in dif-
ferent ways:
• Taping. The insulation is applied in the form of layers
of tapes, then softened and melted by heat. In
“crosslinked tape-molded joints,” the insulation is
crosslinked at an elevated temperature, which acti-
vates a chemical crosslinking agent present in the
tape material.
• Mold-Injection. The insulation is heated and melted
in a cylinder or a pot in a factory or field process and
then injected into a heated mold by application of
fluid pressure. In “crosslinked injection-molded
joints,” the insulation is crosslinked at an elevated
temperature, which activates a chemical agent present
in the factory-prepared material.
Figure 8-13 Field-molded joint (courtesy CIGRE).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
• Mold-Extrusion. The insulation is heated and melted
in an extruder and then injected into a heated mold.
In “crosslinked extrusion-molded joints,” the insula-
tion is crosslinked at an elevated temperature, which
activates a chemical agent present in the extruded
material.
• Block-Molding. The insulation is applied in the form
of two half moldings, which are fitted to the pencilled
cable ends. Then a mold is installed and heated to
melt and bond to the cable. In “crosslinked block-
molded joints,” the insulation is crosslinked at an
elevated temperature, which activates a chemical
agent present in the premolded material (Tsuchiya et
al. 1999).
Using proper technique, mold design, and process tem-
perature and pressure control, it is possible to achieve
nearly perfect fusion of field-applied material, and good
bonding to the extruded conductor shield and insula-
tion of the cable. The result is a void-free joint, having
high and essentially isotropic (longitudinal: radial)
dielectric strength. This permits the use of high radial
and longitudinal design electrical stresses with signifi-
cant reduction in splice length and diameter. When a
“flush-type” connector is used, the splice can be built to
essentially the same dimensions as the cable and can be
used as a duct or repair joint, or a flexible submarine
cable joint. However, the manufacture of this joint is
complicated and long. In addition its electrical perfor-
mance is very sensitive to assembly mistakes and to the
influence of the field environment. Highly skilled joint-
ers are required to assemble, operate, and disassemble
the complex equipment required at each jointing loca-
tion, usually in a manhole.
Field-molded joints, which have been used in the past
from 115 kV up to 500 kV, are today seldom used to join
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories

land cables, because prefabricated joints that are factory
molded and routine tested are preferred. The extrusion-
molded (also known as field vulcanized) design is still
used in Japan for joining 500-kV extruded cables; how-
ever, the jointing time is very long—on the order of
more than one week per joint (Kubota et al. 1994).
Prefabricated Joints
Prefabricated joints are usually made with premolded-
rubber-insulated components, which, for some designs,
are used in conjunction with cast epoxy components.
(In CIGRE terminology, both premolded joints and
composite prefabricated joints are referred to as prefab-
ricated joints.) When used in conjunction with cast
epoxy components, they are referred to as composite
joints. Premolded joints could be of one-piece, two-
piece, or three-piece type (CIGRE 1994, No. 89). This
class of joint is available through the 500-kV rating.
Both one-piece and multipart designs of premolded
joints have been developed and tested. Prefabricated
joints combine the two advantages that they are manu-
factured in a factory in strictly controlled conditions
and that they are routine-tested before delivery like the
associated cables. Another advantage is that the
assembly of the joint over the cable core is facilitated by
using special assembly tools. The principal disadvan-
tages compared to field-molded joints are their high
first cost and their larger size.
• Application of a mechanical force using springs, as
shown in Figure 8-15.
• Use of the elasticity of the premolded body expanded
on the cable insulation (see Figures 8-16, 8-17, and
8-18).
The same principle is applicable and used for the pre-
molded stress cones of cable terminations.
The three main families of this type of joint are compos-
ite prefabricated joints, one-piece premolded joints, and
three-piece premolded joints.
• Composite prefabricated joint.
Two premolded stress-cones made of elastomeric
material are positioned on the prepared cable ends
and then inserted into a cast epoxy insulator. The
pressure at the cable core interface, as well as at the
stress-cone to central epoxy insulator interface, are
obtained by means of compression devices such as
springs (Tanaka et al. 1992).
• One-piece premolded joint.
In this joint, the stress control is ensured by semicon-
ductive elements: connector screen, stress control

In prefabricated joints, the allowable stress at the inter-

faces is correlated to their smoothness and relative pres-
sure (CIGRE 2002). According to the Paschen curve
(Kreuger 1989), the smaller the cavity (i.e., the rough-
ness of surfaces), the higher the breakdown stress. The
sensitivity of the interfaces to irregularities depends on
the interface pressure and on the physical characteristic
of the materials that are interfacing. A high interfacial
pressure minimizes the size of microcavities. Figure 8-14
shows the effect of the pressure on the electrical strength
of the interface between a silicone rubber (SIR) sleeve
and an XLPE cable (Kunze et al. 2000; Tanaka et
al. 2000).
Figure 8-14 Electrical interface strength vs. interface
Two different methods are commonly used to achieve pressure and smoothness.
the required interface pressure:

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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

profile screens, and insulation screens, which are
factory-molded and form, together with the insula-
tion, a single premolded sleeve (Parmigiani et
al.1987; Chatterjee et al. 1995; Peshke et al. 1996;
Nakamura et al. 2003). In order to follow the cable
insulation diameter variation with temperature and
maintain a positive pressure, the sleeve is based on an
interference fit over the cable insulation. For this
purpose, the sleeve can be slipped over the prepared
cable using different methods (“slip-on joint”) or pre-
expanded in the field or in the factory over a carrier
tube and parked on one of the two cable ends (“cold
shrinkable joint”). After the connector and the
connector screen have been applied, the sleeve is
positioned at the center of the joint. The elastic
memory of the sleeve ensures the required pressure at
the interface with the prepared cable. The physical
characteristics of the rubber, especially a low-stress

Figure 8-15 Prefabricated composite joint (courtesy CIGRE).

Figure 8-16 One-piece premolded joint (courtesy CIGRE).

Figure 8-17 Plug-in-type one-piece premolded joint (courtesy CIGRE).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
relaxation, are essential in order to maintain the
pressure for the whole cable system life. In order to
prevent the shrink-back of the cable insulation during
load cycling, some designs incorporate a longitudinal
locking arrangement that fits into a groove machined
in the cable insulation. See Figure 8-16.
A variation on this design is the one-piece plug-in
joint, shown in Figure 8-17 (Leufkens et al. 1992). In
this case, the two cable ends are prepared separately,
eventually in the factory, and are provided with a
plug-in connector. Then, with a special pulling tool,
the cable ends are pushed inside the rubber sleeve,
expanding the rubber sleeve at the same time. A
metallic insert embedded in the central semiconduct-
ing electrode is used to lock the cable ends through
special spring-loaded pins. The advantage of this
design, compared to the conventional one-piece pre-
molded joint, is that it can have a different diameter
bore on each side, so it is able to join two cables with
different dimensions.
• Three-piece premolded joint.
In the three-piece premolded joint, each cable has its
own adaptor molding, making the transition between
different cross-section cables easier (Nelson et
al. 1978).
Back-to-back Joints
It is common to put in series two lengths of LV or MV
cable by just connecting outdoor terminations. The
same principle is sometimes used at high voltages using
metal-enclosed GIS terminations or oil-immersed ter-
minations to constitute what is called a “back-to-back
joint.” Just as metal-enclosed terminations can be single
phase or three phase, the “back-to-back” joints may
also be single or three phase.
Metal-enclosed terminations generally consist of an
insulator that houses the prepared cable ends, and cen-
Figure 8-18 Three-piece premolded joint (courtesy CIGRE).
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
tralizes and anchors the conductor. This insulator can
be fluid-filled, with the same or different insulating fluid
as the enclosure. In some designs, the terminations are
directly immersed in the enclosure. In some construc-
tions, the terminations are without insulating fluid.
Different kinds of back-to-back joints are available. The
main ones are:
• Back-to-back joint with two insulators (Figure 8-19).
In this family, the insulators can be used to segregate
the SF6 gas or the insulating liquid from each one of
the cables that are joined. The enclosure fluid can be
any of the insulating fluids from each of the cable ter-
minations or even another one.
• Back-to-back joint with one insulator (Figure 8-20).
In this family, one termination is directly immersed,
and the single insulator anchors both conductors and
centralizes corona shields within the main insulation
fluid. The directly immersed cable must be protected
against water ingress or fluid leak.
• Back-to-back joint without insulator.
In some cases, both terminations are directly im-
mersed. In these cases, both immersed cables must be
protected against water ingress or fluid leak. Provi-
sions need to be taken to handle any thermomechan-
ical cable movement.
Screen Interruption Joints
Most designs are available with shield interruptions for
use as insulating joints in specially bonded systems.
Details vary widely, but the design must provide for
interrupting the metal shield/sheath continuity, as well
as interrupting the bonded (polymeric) insulation shield
while maintaining its essential electrostatic shielding
integrity. The former requirement is typically met by
inserting an insulating flange or molded insert of suit-
able polymer/epoxy in the joint casing. Fulfilling the lat-
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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

ter requirement usually requires creating a gap in the
restored insulation shield of the splice, and shielding the
gap with overlapped layers of semiconducting tapes
and/or paint separated by a thin layer of insulating
material. Some designs incorporate a layer of metal-
oxide-loaded polymeric material having a steep current
vs. voltage characteristic as a surge suppressor at this
critical discontinuity. Likewise, the insulator in the
splice housing must be protected against transient over-
voltages by means of sheath voltage limiters (also
known as surge diverters) usually incorporated in the
bonding or link boxes, between sheaths and ground (see
Section 8.4.1).
Wye (Y) Branch Joints
There are applications where three cables have to be
connected. All the techniques employed for straight
joints may be considered: heat-shrink sleeves, taped,
field-molded, premolded/prefabricated, or back-to-
back. Nevertheless, the most common construction type
of Y-branch joints is the composite prefabricated type
(see Figure 8-21). Three stress cones are inserted into a
central epoxy insulator, which comprises an HV elec-
trode in which the three conductors are plugged.
Transition Joints
There has been considerable interest in joint designs for
connecting extruded-dielectric cables to pressurized,
impregnated-paper cables (Gregory 1991 et al.; Chu
1992 et al.; Gahungu et al. 1993; De Ridder et al. 2002).
Generally this interest stems from providing for possible
future replacement of sections of older paper cables with
extruded-dielectric cables as leakage problems, reliabil-
ity concerns, and maintenance costs due to corrosion
become factors.
The two different cables must be completely segregated.
The easiest way to make a transition joint is to use a
fluid-immersed termination on each cable connected
back to back in the same enclosure, as illustrated in Fig-
ures 8-19 and 8-20. However, this solution is bulky and
may be expensive.
A more compact design is achieved by adopting a solid
barrier, generally precast in epoxy resin, which is

Figure 8-19 Back-to-back joint with two insulators (courtesy CIGRE).

Figure 8-20 Back-to-back joint with one insulator (courtesy CIGRE).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories

designed to withstand the pressure in the fluid-filled
cable. Connection of conductors from both sides can be
made by means of insulated metallic parts embedded in
the epoxy insulator. On each side of the transition joint,
all available techniques of terminations can be used
(Figures 8-22 and 8-23). When necessary, annular chan-
nel can be provided in the laminated cable termination
to permit oil or gas to be fed to the central conductor
duct (Figure 8-24).

Figure 8-21 Prefabricated composite Y-branch joint (courtesy CIGRE).

Figure 8-22 Polymeric extruded cable to oil or gas-filled paper cable transition joint three-core
type (courtesy CIGRE).

Figure 8-23 Polymeric extruded cable to oil or gas-filled paper cable transition joint single
core–non fed type (courtesy CIGRE).

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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
The IEEE 404 standard (IEEE 2000) recommends the
test methods and requirements for transition joints (see
Section 8.2.5). A new CIGRE working group has also
been launched to prepare international recommenda-
tions for these tests.
8.2.3 Pipe-Type Joints
General Description
Pipe-type joints are used on laminar-dielectric cables
both with kraft paper insulation and laminated paper
polypropylene (LPP) insulation. High-pressure fluid-
filled (HPFF) pipe-type joints are in commercial service
up through 345 kV, although they have been success-
fully tested to 550 kV and 765 kV with LPP cables.
Ty p i c a l l y a p i p e - t y p e j o i n t c o n s i s t s o f t h r e e
single-conductor cable joints in a common carbon steel
housing. Cables are individually spliced, forming three
single-phase joints that are mechanically reinforced to
prevent damage due to bending or cable movement. A
more detailed description and design of each
component are provided later in the text. Figure 8-25
Figure 8-24 Polymeric extruded cable to oil or gas-filled paper cable transition joint single core-fed type.
Figure 8-25 Typical normal HPFF joint in housing (courtesy of USi).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
depicts the most common components. Three single-
phase joints are bound together with Nylon tape and
supported with “spider” assemblies. Reducers at each
end of the joint are used as interface between the pipes
of the cable line and the joint housing.
Each single-phase joint (Figure 8-26) includes a connec-
tor, hand-taped insulation, and semiconductive and
metallic shielding.
Connectors can be pressed, welded, or soldered to cable
conductors. Two cable conductors can also be welded
to each other, avoiding the use of a connector. Since
connectors represent high-voltage electrodes, they must
be of proper shape and with a smooth surface, which is
obtained by different methods, including application of
lead tape, semiconductive tape, etc.
The insulation of each cable needs to be stripped back
by “penciling” the insulation in steps at the connector
before taping. The hand-taped materials are applied in
three stages. The first fills the areas to each side of the
connector until the connector outside diameter (OD) is
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
reached. The second continues the buildup to the origi-
nal cable OD, known as the “factory diameter.” Finally
a “jacket” is applied over the factory diameter to the
final OD of the joint insulation. The jacket is extended
longitudinally to the vicinity of the semiconductive
screens of both cables. The ends of the jacket must be
carefully graded down to the cable insulation in the
form of stress cones. Since all tapes are applied by hand,
the quality of the joint is highly dependent on the skill
of the splicer.
The last step in the construction of the single-phase
joint is to apply a semiconductive and metallic screen
over the jacket OD and stress cones to mate with the
cable shields.
As described in the section on the electric design of
joints (Section 8.2.1.), the diameter of a joint depends
on the outer diameter of the connector screen (high-
voltage electrode) and the dielectric strength of the insu-
lation between the conductor screen and outer jacket
screen (ground electrode). The total length of the joint
depends on the length of the stress cones and pencilling.
Typical longitudinal dimensions of 345-kV joints are
Figure 8-26 Components of the taped joint (courtesy of G&W Electric Company).
Figure 8-27 Typical longitudinal dimensions of single-phase 345-kV joint.
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
shown in Figure 8-27. The diameter of the joint varies
with the cable size, connector type, and the dielectric
properties of hand-applied insulating tape.
High-voltage pipe-type joints are typically purchased in
kit for m, where the kit includes all components
including connectors, housings, and spiders etc. The kit
also includes all required consumables such as
impregnated insulating and semiconductive tapes,
shielding braids, cotton tapes and installation instruc-
tions. Cable suppliers and experienced joint suppliers
can provide knowledgeable guidance on design and con-
struction of the joints.
The construction of a typical normal pipe-type joint
involves the following basic steps:
• Installing pipe reducers
• Sliding housings into their temporary position over
cable line pipes
• Determining cable cut locations, and making final
cable cuts
• Installing the connector
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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
• Applying the connector screen
• Stepping the cable insulation
• Applying impregnated insulating tape to build the
jacket
• Applying semiconductive tapes and copper mesh
over each leg
• Binding joints and installing spiders (cable supports)
• Positioning cable housings
• Welding the housings
• Pressure and leak testing of the housings
Design Requirements for Pipe-type Joints
Joints for pipe-type cables are not “off-the-shelf ” items,
but rather custom-designed specifically for the cables to
be joined. The designs of both the electrical insulation
of the joint and the mechanical components must be
coordinated with the cables and pipes to be joined and
the design of the manholes.
Manhole size is needed to select a design of the housing
to accommodate space restrictions. Figure 8-28 shows
an example of a pipe-type joint in a manhole.
The mechanical, rather than the electrical, aspects dif-
ferentiate pipe-type design requirements from the other
high-voltage cable systems, because pipe-type high-
pressure systems must consider the mechanical rein-
forcement of the three individual cables and the design
of reducers and housings for the fluid pressures in the
cable system. The housings of pipe-type joints are
designed to withstand the high pressures of the
insulating fluid. Typically fluid pressures are:
• between 200 and 400 psi (1380 and 2760 kPa) on nor-
mal self-cooled circuits and circuits with slow or
moderate circulation rates.
Figure 8-28 Typical 345-kV pipe-type LPP cable joint assembly in manhole (courtesy of USi).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
• between 400 and 600 psi** (2760 and 4140 kPa) on
typical cable systems with high-speed circulation.
• up to 950 psi** (6550 kPa) on circuits with high-speed
circulation, where extremely long circulation loops or
severe elevation differences are involved.
**These higher pressures are normally on the smaller-
diameter return pipe on circulated systems. The
potheads and the cable pipes do not typically see
extreme pressures.
System electrical data and cable information are relevant
for the electrical design of the joint (connector, insula-
tion stepping at connector, stress cone at cable shields.
Pipe and manhole data is needed to design the fittings
(reducers) that are used to connect the pipe-type joint
housings to the incoming line pipes (Figure 8-25) and to
select the outer diameter of the housings.
Table 8-1 summarizes the information required for the
design of pipe-type joint.
Development of a pipe-type joint design involves evalu-
ation of dielectric materials, dimensions of the joint,
time and cost to install, expertise of available jointers,
etc. Although various design trade-offs can be consid-
ered, a pipe-type joint should first be designed based on
overall system requirements.
There are a number of design trade-offs for the joints.
For example, conservatively designed electrical stress
levels provide some protection against problems with
workmanship and poor environmental conditions dur-
ing splicing. However, they result in longer inner and
outer joint tapers and a larger joint outer diameter.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories

This, in turn, means a larger joint, longer time to splice, thermal performance and allows use of smaller-diame-
and a higher thermal resistance at the joint. ter pipe.
Components of the Pipe-Type Joint—Materials and
Another design trade-off occurs in selecting joint hous-
Design Practices
ings. Two-part housing is the simplest, lowest-cost
A number of different materials and design issues are
option and involves the least amount of field welding,
important in designing, manufacturing, and installing
but it requires the most manhole space on either side of
pipe-type joints. This section reviews the materials and
the reducers. Use of a multipart joint housing, on the
designs of components that are generally used and
other hand, such as a three-part or a five-part, saves
discusses some of the considerations that should be
manhole space, but involves more costly housings and
evaluated.
more field welding.
Connectors
For example, crepe paper, the most widely used joint The use of compression-type connectors is most com-
insulation in the past for pipe-type cables, does not have mon for pipe-type cables. Other types of connectors that
the best dielectric characteristics available, but it is the are also utilized, depending on application, are
easiest and most foolproof to install. Selecting the insu- described in Section 8.2.1. Copper connectors for instal-
lation material requires considering dielectric properties, lation with a 4-ram press are typically 6.5-7.5 in. (16.5-
type of cable to be spliced, thermal properties of the 19 cm) long, providing space for two or three sets of
dielectric, ultimate joint dimensions, and installation indents per cable. Once one set of indents is pressed, the
requirements. LPP is presently the most popular joint tool is rotated 45°, and the next set of indents pressed
insulation and is used from 138-kV and above. LPP approximately 0.75 in. (2 cm) from the first set and so
allows smaller-diameter joints, which provides better on. Increasing the connector length, so that additional
sets of indents can be made, increases the pullout
Table 8-1 Information Relevant for Design of Pipe-Type strength of the connector. Connectors installed with hex
Joints and round dies show somewhat higher pullout strengths
System Electrical Data Pipe Data than those installed with a 4-ram press, but generally
Cable system nominal voltage Pipe material these differences are not significant.
Cable system maximum voltage Size (OD and wall thickness)
Basic impulse level (system BIL)
Load requirements (Normal and
Four types of copper crimp connectors are in common
Emergency, Long Term, and use. They differ in design of taper angles at their ends
Short Term) and in the time and skill required for installation:
Cable Data Manhole Data
• Conventional indent-type 4-ram press connector
Cable design type Manhole inside dimensions
Conductor material (particularly length) • 4-ram connector with preformed tapered ends
Conductor construction and size Joint Type
Conductor shield material and • Compression connector for installation with hex,
thickness Normal; Stop; Semi-Stop;
Anchor; Skid; Trifurcating; rounding, and finishing dies
Insulation type and thickness
Insulation screen material and Wye, H, Back-to-Back; etc. • Field-machined (FM) connector.
thickness Termination Data
Type and material of skid wires Pressure rating, nominal,
Pressurizing medium (liquid or gas) The conventional 4-ram press-type connector is gener-
maximum continuous, and
Maximum operating and transient test ally manufactured with tapered ends with angles
pressures between 8 and 12°. Lead tape is hand-applied to the
Number of cables to be joined (two Environmental
or more) Route profile ends of the connector during installation to reduce the
Other subsurface structures effective taper angle to 4-7°.
nearby, particularly heat-
generating sources
Water crossing or other envi- The 4-ram press connector with factory-formed tapered
ronmentally sensitive cross- ends is similar to the standard 4-ram press connector,
ings except that instead of using hand-applied lead tape to
Earth thermal characteristics
form the final tapers, the connector is made with ends
fabricated to the final taper angle. This minimizes the
amount of lead foil-tape that is hand-applied and conse-
quently minimizes the variation in taper angle due to the
splicer’s installation technique.

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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
The connector installation with hex, rounding, and fin-
ishing dies provides somewhat higher pullout strength
compared to the 4-ram press-installed connectors.
Obtaining a round, smooth, straight connector after
pressing depends to a high degree on the splicer’s skill
and experience. Lead tape at the ends must also be
hand-applied to obtain proper shape.
The field-machined (FM) connector is also applied with
compression dies, but it is then machined in the field
with a router on a fixed guide to provide a finished con-
nector with an effective angle of only 1 or 2°. This con-
nector requires time-consuming field machining and a
high degree of installer experience. It is popular at
345 kV, however, because it provides one of the lowest
profile connectors.
Conventional preformed and field-machined connectors
are shown in Figure 8-29.
Figure 8-29 Types of copper connectors for pipe-type
cables.
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
The current-cycling tests with compression aluminum
connectors with large aluminum conductors have shown
an increase of electrical resistance between cable con-
ductor and connector after several cycles. This causes
increased losses and hence unstable thermal behavior.
As a result, the preferred method of joining aluminum
conductors is welding. Additional crimping after weld-
ing enhances pullout strength. That is one of the reasons
why commercial installations of underground cable with
large aluminum conductors only began after methods
for field-welding the conductors were developed
and proven.
Large aluminum conductors are joined by an elaborate
process, with a number of critical steps involving careful
removal of oil from the strands, attachment of a small
vacuum pump for removal of creeping oil from the
strands, a pressing connector, setting-up cooling fans,
cutting a wedge in the strands at the center of the sleeve,
buttering the exposed strand ends with weld metal, then
completing the weld and smoothing the surface (Gold-
lust et al. 1967). The weld provides an electrical connec-
tion that is not affected by load cycling. Compression of
the connector improves the tensile strength of the joint,
since the strength of the welded joint alone is limited
due to annealing of the conductors. MIG welding is
used to limit the heat input to the conductors and insu-
lating tapes of the cables. The tensile strength of the
welded connectors is approximately 50-60% of the ulti-
mate tensile strength of the conductor, while the electri-
cal conductance of the joint equals that of the
conductor. The welded connectors are well proven, with
successful installations dating from the late 1960s.
Finally, connectors must be installed so that sharp
changes in the contours of the connector are avoided
and that no sharp or jagged edges exist, because high
electrical stresses at the asperities could cause the joint
to fail. The indents formed during pressing of the con-
nector are filled with either lead or epoxy compound. If
lead is used, it is peened into the indent. In the final
steps, the connector must be polished to remove any
asperities. Fine, nonconducting abrasive cloth, such as
aloxite, is used for this procedure (see Figure 8-30).
Insulation
Three types of oil-impregnated dielectric tape are used
to insulate high-voltage joints: crepe paper, flat paper,
and laminated paper polypropylene (LPP).
In the past, the most widely used insulation for pipe-
type joints was low-density, deionized-water-washed cel-
lulose paper, which is slit into tapes, dried, and vacuum-
impregnated with oil. Crepe tape was generally used at
230 kV and below, while flat-paper (kraft paper that is
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories

not creped) tape was used above 230 kV. Crepe paper
was popular because it is easier to apply than the flat
paper. Although crepe-paper joints have been success-
fully tested at 345 kV and are installed on commercially
operating cables, flat-paper tapes have been more com-
monly used at this voltage. This is because crepe paper
results in a larger joint diameter, a uniform outer jacket
buildup is more difficult to obtain, and its dissipation
factor is slightly higher than flat paper. Typical specifi-
cations for both the dry and impregnated paper tapes
are shown in Table 8-2.
LPP is the most widely used dielectric material today for
pipe-type cables and joints. This is a flat tape made from
a sandwich of paper-polypropylene-paper. It is attrac-
tive because it has lower losses and capacitance and
higher breakdown strength than conventional cellulose-
paper insulation. LPP insulation allows the use of
smaller joint diameters, which reduces splicing time,
decreases joint lengths, and often allows use of smaller
pipe diameters. All of these benefits allow a more cost
attractive design.

Figure 8-30 Conventional 4-ram press connector (courtesy Dominion-Virginia Power).

Table 8-2 Typical Characteristics of Dry and Impregnated Paper Tapes

Tape Property Crepe Paper Flat Paper
0.003 in. 0.005 in.
(0.076 mm) (0.127 mm) 0.005 in.
Before Creping Before Creping (0.127 mm) Flat
Tape Dry
Finished thickness, nominal range, mils 10-13 15-19 4.5-5.5
Elongation, % min. 50 50 2.5
Tensile strength, machine direction
lb/in., min. 12 20 60
lb/in., nominal - 20 25
Apparent density, g/cc, nominal 0.28 0.34 0.72-0.80
Water extract conductivity,
30 30 5.0 Max.
micro-mhos, max.
Moisture, % max. 7 7 6
Ash, % max. 1 1 0.4
Tape Impregnated
Dissipation Factor at 80°C,
% max. 0.25 0.30 0.20
% nom. 0.18 0.22 0.15
Dielectric breakdown, kV min. 6.0 8.0 8.0
Dielectric breakdown under 30%
elongation, kV, min. overall 4.0 4.5 N/A
Tensile strength, lb/in, width, min. 6 10 60
Elongation, %, min. 40 40 2.5

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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
Typical characteristics of LPP are shown in Table 8-3.
Unlike the cable itself, which is machine-taped, the joint
is hand-taped, and installation requires the use of
trained, qualified splicers.
Insulating tapes are factory-impregnated with dielectric
fluid similar to that used to fill the cable pipe. Unlike the
fluid used to impregnate the cable, which must be rela-
tively viscous at room temperature so that it does not
drain or migrate out, the fluid used to impregnate the
splice tapes (the oil in the can with the tapes) has a rela-
tively low viscosity. Splice tape impregnants include
100% polybutene, a mixture of polybutene and alkyl-
b e n z e n e, o r n ap h t h e n i c m i n e ra l o i l . T h e p o ly -
butene/alkylbenzene mixture is by far the most popular
tape impregnant. It is more readily available than naph-
thenic mineral oil and has better oxidation stability and
gassing characteristics than both the mineral oil and the
straight polybutene.
The tape is dried in heated retorts under vacuum, and
then it is impregnated with a suitable dielectric fluid.
The impregnated tapes, in fluid-filled cans, are sealed
under vacuum. Frequent testing of the tape and impreg-
nant during processing is essential to ensure that the
final product is free of moisture and contaminants, and
meets the specifications. Tapes are provided in different
thicknesses and widths based on the location in the joint
where the tape is to be used. Good design practice calls
for thinner tapes in areas of the joint that are subject to
higher stresses, such as near the conductor or at the
start of the outer taper. Thicker tapes are used on the
lower stress regions, because they allow the joint to be
built up faster, reducing splicing time and exposure of
the insulation to the atmosphere. Tape width is selected
Table 8-3 Typical Characteristics of LPP Tape Insulation
Tape Property
Tape Dry
Finished thickness, nominal range, mils
Tensile modulus, kg/cm2x103
E1—MD
E2—CMD
Compressive modulus, kg/cm2
Coefficient of friction—CMD (Dry)
Polypropylene ratio, %
(Film/Laminate thickness)
Tape Impregnated
Dissipation factor at 80°C, % nom.
SIC (relative dielectric constant)
Dielectric breakdown, volts/mil
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
to ease installation. Narrower tapes should be provided
to tape around the connector and to fill in the inner
jacket between the stepped cable insulation, because
there is limited space to place the tapes. Wider tapes can
be used on the outer jacket, because there is a long,
unobstructed length to be taped, and the wide tape
speeds splice completion.
Semiconductive Shield Tapes
Similar to the conductor and insulation screen of the
cable, semiconductive tapes are applied over exposed
cable conductor and connector and over the taped insu-
lation of the joint to form electrostatic screens (shields).
The carbon-black (semiconductive) tape is usually butt-
lapped over the connector and terminated to make a
smooth transition between the connector shield and the
cable conductor shield. The carbon-black tape of the
joint is half-lapped over the joint insulation and
smoothly tied to the cable semiconductive insulation
screen. It is essential that the tapes are smoothly
applied, with no asperities or jagged edges, which would
create high stress points within the joint.
Semiconductive tapes are filled with carbon-black and
have volume resistivity between 105 and 108 Wcm. For
easier application, a crepe tape is used. Semiconductive
tapes are impregnated with dielectric fluid similar to
that used with the insulating paper tapes.
Metal Shield Tapes
A metallic shield tape is applied over the carbon-black
insulation shield of the taped joint. This metallic shield
tape conforms well to the varying profile of the joint.
Metallic shields provide a conductive path for capacitive
charging current during normal operation, preventing
overheating of the semiconductive tape. It also provides
a path for short-circuit current in case of a line-to-
0.004 in. 0.006 in.
(0.101 mm) (0.152 mm)
Thick Thick
3.92-4.08 5.93-6.07
77 64
43 36
55 56
0.42 0.37
49 52
0.073 0.069
2.8 2.8
3200 2880
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
ground fault in the system. The metallic shield is solidly
grounded to the pipe and steel sleeves through jumper
cables that are tied to the reducer. The metallic shield is
a tinned, all-copper mesh tape.
Spiders (Cable Supports)
After the three cable phases are joined, the individual
joints are tied together using cable supports (“spiders”)
and cotton or nylon tape. Figure 8-31 shows a cross sec-
tion of a spider with the cable phases tied to it.
Using spiders and tying the cables together serves two
purposes. First, thick-walled, pipe-type cables have been
Figure 8-31 Three 1/C joints secured to aluminum spider.
Figure 8-32 Typical spider locations for 345-kV LPP insulated joint (courtesy of USi).
Figure 8-33 Field installation of 230-kV normal joint with five spiders (courtesy of Dominion-Virginia Power).
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
shown to be prone to damage by thermomechanical
bending (TMB). The cable expands, contracts, flexes,
and moves due to changing thermal conditions during
load cycling. The cable is constrained in the line pipe,
limiting the degree to which it can bend, but this is not
necessarily so within the joint casing. By tying the cable
phases together and tying them to spiders, TMB dam-
age is avoided. Second, spiders hold the joint off the
bottom of the steel sleeve, eliminating the possibility of
damaging the joint insulation from the high tempera-
ture of the steel housing during welding operations. Fig-
ure 8-32 shows typical locations of spiders for a
345-kV joint.
Spiders are made of cast aluminum. One leg of the
three-legged spider is removable (on steel pins), so that
the spiders can be easily inserted among the three
phases after the splicing has been completed. Spiders
come in assorted sizes and widths. They are sized to fit
the sleeve in which they are to be installed, with a close
enough fit to allow them to slide back and forth within
the joint casing but not to twist out of their straight
installation position (see Figure 8-33). The design of
spiders gets more elaborate in case of Wye or “H” joints.
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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Housings and Reducers
HPFF joints are installed in a steel housing that is
designed to withstand operating and transient pressures
of the system medium (liquid or gas) with certain design
margin. Figure 8-25 shows a normal joint within its
housing. There are two reducers in a typical joint, one
on each end, where the line pipes meet the joint. The
joint itself is enclosed in steel sleeves between the
two reducers.
The reducer is made from hot-rolled (HR) steel such as
ANSI 1020 or 1015 or ASTM A-36.
vidual casing sections are lighter and easier to handle.
Typical multipart nested housings and related manhole
length requirements are shown in Figure 8-34.
The design of the joint sleeves, with one sleeve swaged to
mate with the next, permits nesting of the sleeves during
splicing, and accommodates welding requirements.
With one sleeve end overlapping the next section or the
reducer, the casings are joined with a filet weld, circum-
ferentially around the casing. The filet weld does not
require highly skilled welders and also ensures that
welding slag does not enter and damage the joint.

Reducers are multifunctional: First, the reducer is
welded to the end of the line pipe and capped with a test
plate (a gas-tight plate with a small valve in the center)
used to cap the line during construction of the system.
When capped, the line pipe can be pressure- and leak-
tested, and it will allow the pipe to be evacuated and
filled with dry air or nitrogen to keep the pipe dry and
clean for the cable.
Second, the reducer is used for securing cable skid-wires
to ensure that the joint and cable shields are all solidly
grounded to the pipe enclosure. Proper grounding is
essential for preventing damaging voltage drop to
develop between the pipe and cable shielding during
normal and transient voltage conditions.
The sleeves must be clean when they are installed.
Surface rust, for example, would contaminate the pipe-
filling fluid. Thus, sleeves should be supplied with
suitable coatings inside and out. Typically, the inside of
the casings is coated with an epoxy paint, which
prevents rusting of the interior before installation and
does not react with or dissolve in the dielectric pipe-
filling fluid. The exterior is often field-coated after the
sleeves are welded in place. To prevent rusting prior to
installation, Phenolated Alkyd Primer is generally
applied to the exterior of the casings. The ends of the
casings to be welded should not be coated with paints,

Finally, reducers are used as an interface between the

cable pipe line and housing sleeves of the joint. The ends
of steel sleeves are welded to the reducers after the splic-
ing has been completed. The slot on the outer edge of
the reducer acts as a heat sink, so the cables in the line
pipe are not damaged by heat due to welding.

The sleeves that make up the body of the joint casing are
made of carbon-steel pipe, which is generally specified
to be ASTM A-53 or A-106, Grade B. The ends of the
sleeves are sized to allow welding to the next sleeve
section or the reducer. The wall thickness of the casings
is based on the maximum expected pressure in the cable
system. As the casing diameter increases, thicker-walled
steel sleeves must be used due to the increasing hoop
stress. Casings between 12 and 18 in. (30.5 and 45.7 cm)
OD are typically 0.375 in. (9.5 mm) thick. Larger-
diameter casings, such as 24-28 in. (61-71 cm) OD
sleeves used on wye joints, are 0.5 in. (12.7 mm) thick.

The sleeves are designed to slide to either side of the

joint during splicing. Since manhole size is often lim-
ited, multiple nesting sleeves are often provided. Multi-
part casings, such as three- or five-part sleeves, require
more field-welding than a single- or two-part casing, but
they can be installed in a smaller manhole, and the indi- Figure 8-34 Typical multipart nested housings.

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
because they often will give off noxious odors or
hazardous gases when subjected to welding
temperatures. Thus, it is common practice to apply only
deoxaluminate primer on any areas of the sleeve to
be welded.
Joint casings often have valves attached via weldolet fit-
tings. A 2 in. (5.1 cm) valve is placed on top of the cas-
ing for evacuation, fluid filling, or gas-in-oil testing. A 1
or 2 in. (2.54 or 5.1 cm) valve is placed on the bottom
for draining fluid.
Cast-Epoxy Insulation Components
Using cast-epoxy components for electrical insulation
of impregnated-paper cable has been considered as an
alternative to a totally hand-taped joint. This concept
was first presented in a patent disclosure in the mid-
1950s for self-contained fluid-filled joints and has been
extended to pipe-type applications. These joints utilize
an epoxy-resin casting to replace a major portion of
what, on a conventional splice, would be hand-applied
paper tape. The design most widely known is called the
“Voltalit®,” which is shown in Figure 8-35.
A Voltalit® casting is used on each of the three cables
within the joint. The Voltalit® has a hollow center bore,
through which the cables can be inserted. It includes a
stress control electrode (corona shield) imbedded in the
center of the casting. There is a groove in the corona
shield to receive spring-loaded stoppers that are built in
a specially designed connector. Stoppers are used to
provide positive contact between the connector and the
corona shield and to properly position the insulator
onto the cable. The Voltalit®-style joint eliminates the
need for polishing the connector, applying semiconduct-
ing shielding tapes to the connector, and stepping down
the cable insulation. The casting does not totally elimi-
nate the need for hand taping, since the outer stress con-
trol cone build-up from the cable insulation to the top of
the casting is still necessary.
The epoxy resin generally used for these castings is
loaded with quartz or silica flour and has a thermal
Figure 8-35 “Voltalit®” cast-epoxy joint insulation.
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
resistivity of only 20-30% of that of impregnated paper.
The cast-epoxy joints should, therefore, operate with a
lower conductor temperature. Epoxy castings have also
been used in splices requiring a full fluid stop. Installa-
tion of epoxy castings into a steel plate in the joint cas-
ing permits complete segregation of the fluid from one
section of the cable system to the next. Unlike the taped
semi-stop joints discussed below, which permit some
fluid to weep through the taped structure of the joint, an
epoxy casting permits a complete fluid seal.
While the concept of using the Voltalit in normal joints
appeared attractive, experience has shown that the eco-
nomics have not been attractive. The only significant use
of Voltalit® joints is in full stop joints, where there is no
comparable alternative when high differential pressures
are involved. The use of the casting does not eliminate
the need for experienced splicers. Great care must be
used when installing the casting. If the cable is not per-
fectly straight, the outer insulation of the cable can be
damaged when the casting is installed.
Finally, since LPP insulation provides a smaller OD and
a cost similar to paper-tape insulation, the thermal ben-
efits of cast epoxy have become less important. The pri-
mary use of cast-epoxy components in joints has only
been for application in full stop joints.
Types of Pipe-Type Joints
Many different joint types are utilized in pipe-type cable
systems based on their role in the system apart from the
basic function to join cables.
If the joint has to stop the flow of insulating fluid in the
cable system at the point of joint installation this joint is
called a stop joint.
Likewise, semistop joints partially limit the flow of the
oil.
Based on the number of cables jointed, the joints are
classified as normal (for two cables), wye (for three
cables), and “H” (for four cables).
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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
A joint is called trifurcating when the pipe line with
three single-phase cables is at one end of the joint and
three pipe lines each for the single-phase cable are at the
other end of the joint.
In the case of a very steep incline of the pipe, an anchor
joint is used to carry most of the weight of the armored
cable, while a skid joint is employed to limit thermal
movement of the cable.
If the joint is used to connect two cables with different
size conductors, the joint is called reducing.
Some joints can be used to perform several functions. In
that case the name of the joint type is compounded—
e.g., wye, trifurcating and reducing joint.
Some of these joints are described below.
Normal Joint
An example of a normal joint is shown in Figure 8-25.
Normal joints are designed for different insulation
tapes. For example, a normal joint can be designed for
paper cable with kraft-paper joint insulation, paper
cable with LPP joint insulation, or LPP-insulated cable
with LPP insulation of the joint.
Figure 8-36 Design of 138-kV wye joint (courtesy of USi).
Figure 8-37 Design of a 138-kV H-type joint (courtesy of G&W Electric Company).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
LPP-taped insulation has higher radial and longitudinal
breakdown strength than conventional kraft paper,
allowing LPP-insulated joints to be smaller than compa-
rable paper-insulated joints of the same voltage. An
LPP-insulated joint on an LPP-insulated cable offers the
maximum benefit in terms of reduced joint size, because
both joint length and outer diameter are reduced in
comparison with a paper-insulated system. An LPP-
insulated joint on a paper-insulated cable offers a bene-
fit in reducing the joint outer diameter. Although the
outer diameter can be reduced, the joint length cannot
be reduced, because the inner stepping involves the
paper insulation of the cable and is limited by the longi-
tudinal breakdown strength of the paper, not the LPP.
Wye and "H” Joints
“Wye” joints are used to connect sets of three single-
conductor cables to permit a tap of a cable circuit. The
splice gets its name because it looks like the letter “Y,”
with two cables on one side and one cable on the other.
Likewise, an “H” joint connects four cables, two at each
end of the joint. The design of a 138-kV wye joint is
shown in Figure 8-36 and an “H” joint in Figure 8-37.
(Note that only one phase of the three is shown on both
of these drawings for clarity.)
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Wye and “H” joints are large and time-consuming to
splice, involve unwieldy and heavy steel housings, and
require good splicing skills. The joints require a greater
buildup of insulation than a normal joint. For example,
each phase in a 138 kV, 2000 kcmil (1014 mm2) normal
joint has an outer insulating jacket diameter of approxi-
mately 4 in. (10.2 cm), whereas the outer diameter of the
connector in a wye joint is 5.75 in. (14.6 cm) or 40%
greater. Insulating the wye and “H” joints are also more
difficult than a straight joint, particularly around the
crotch of the connector. To allow a tight insulation
buildup in this area, in addition to normal tape wrap-
ping, paper triangles must be applied.
Despite the disadvantages noted above, the wye and
“H” joints can provide substantial cost savings and pro-
vide a wide variety of installation alternatives when a
tap of a circuit is required. For example, if the wye joint
were not available, a tap of a pipe-type circuit would
require installing another circuit from the closest sub-
station. The wye joint eliminates the need for termina-
tions, station bus-work, substation monitoring and
alarms, substation real estate, and the additional pipe-
type cable that a tap from the station would involve.
Depending on the distance of the tap from the closest
substation, the potential cost savings of a wye joint can
be significant.
Wye and "H" splices have been successfully used on
pipe-type cables at 69 and 138 kV for many years. The
connector of the wye and “H” joint is manufactured
from cast copper and has compression-type connector
ends. The connector is typically pressed on with a 4-ram
press. The housings are bulky, with diameters of 24-
30 in. (61-76 cm) and weights of approximately 475 lbs
(216 kg) for each sleeve section.
Trifurcating Joints and Spreaderheads
Trifurcating joints or spreaderhead assemblies are used
at the ends of each cable circuit to allow the three cable
Figure 8-38 Example of trifurcating manifold joint design.
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
phases in the line pipe to be separated and brought up,
through the riser pipes, to the three cable terminations.
The trifurcating joint is the same as a normal joint with
regard to the design and method of splicing the cables.
Unlike a normal joint, which has a standard reducer on
each end attached to the line pipe, a trifurcating joint
has a standard reducer on the side to the main feeder
run and a trifurcating manifold on the other side. The
trifurcating manifold allows the individual stainless-
steel riser pipes to be attached. A trifurcating manifold
design is shown in Figure 8-38.
A spreaderhead assembly or trifurcating assembly is
used in place of the trifurcating joint at the end of the
circuit when the cables must be separated and brought
up to the terminations when a joint is not required. The
spreaderhead assembly accomplishes the same function
as the trifurcating manifold, except that it does not have
a splice casing attached to it. The riser pipes are welded
to it on one end, and the line pipe is welded to it on the
other end. The spreaderhead has a large window cut
into the body so that the three cables from the individual
riser tubes can be gathered together. This service open-
ing is covered after installing the cable with either a
welded window (steel plate) or a dresser coupling.
Spreaderhead and trifurcator assemblies are basically
the same, only that a spreaderhead is installed above
ground, typically directly under the pothead support
structure, while the trifurcator is installed below ground
in a manhole. Figure 8-39 shows the spreaderhead
installed in a substation.
The body of the spreaderhead or trifurcator assembly is
made of carbon steel. Wherever a single phase passes
through metal, such as where the cables enter the riser
pipe, that plate must be nonmagnetic stainless steel to
avoid overheating by magnetic losses. The stainless-steel
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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

components, including the reducer and couplings, are tubes are installed in each of the three holes. The cable
typically specified as Type 304, nonmagnetic, since outer diameter is built up with hand-applied tapes in
stainless steels are not all nonmagnetic. the area of the tubes, and then each cable is inserted
into one of the tubes. By compressing the tubes with
Semistop and Stop Joints
stainless-steel binding clamps, a relatively good fluid
Pipe-type cables are generally not limited by hydrostatic
seal is provided across the plate area. Semistops
head pressure; they can be installed over long distances
generally allow some amount of fluid to pass through
involving elevation changes. This creates a potential
the tape structure of the cable and between the barrier
problem. If the cable pipe is accidentally broken, with
tube and the cable—hence the name “semistop.”
no internal obstructions to segregate sections, fluid loss
could be catastrophic. For example, a 5-mile-long
The semistop function is usually only desirable during
(8 km) 345-kV feeder in a 10-in. (25.4 cm) diameter pipe
an emergency situation, such as a pipe break or during
would hold approximately 72,000 gallons (272,520 l ) of
maintenance, when the feeder pipe is opened and fluid
free fluid. If the cable was installed in a location with a
loss is being prevented by application of a fluid freeze.
gradual, consistently increasing elevation change from
Under these circumstances, limiting hydraulic head
one end to the other and there was a breach of the pipe
pressure is essential. The situation is made more
at the low end of the circuit, it would be possible to lose
complex because, during normal conditions, a semistop
all of the fluid in the system. Semistop joints can signifi-
is not desirable and, in fact, could cause operational
cantly limit the amount of fluid flow from one side of
problems. During normal operation, for example, the
the semistop to the other.
fluid in the system expands and contracts in response
to temperature changes due to the electrical load
The splicing of the three phases is no different from
variation on the circuit. The fluid must be able to flow
that of a normal joint. The difference lies in the
from the pressurization plant into and out of the
semistop plate within the casing. In a typical design,
circuit with no constraints. If fluid feed is constrained
there is a nonmagnetic stainless-steel plate installed on
due to semistop fixtures, starvation could occur, and an
one side of the joint casing, usually bolted to an inter-
electrical breakdown of the cable is possible. Another
mediate reducer. Fluid flow between the reducer face
example of a problem is forced circulation or cooling.
and the semistop plate is prevented by means of an O-
Many circuits depend on forced circulation or cooling
ring or flat gasket seal. There are three holes in the
to obtain required ampacity. Obviously, forced
plate to allow each cable phase to be installed, and

Figure 8-39 Spreaderhead installed in a substation (courtesy of USi).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
circulation cannot be provided if semistops are
installed. These problems are solved by installing
bypass piping around the semistop.
Bypass piping is provided to allow pressurization of all
sections of the circuit and to allow slow- or high-speed
fluid circulation during normal conditions. During an
emergency, the bypass piping is valved closed. The valv-
ing of the bypasses can incorporate manual valves,
motor-operated valves, or hydraulic fuses. Bypass pip-
ing installed around a 345-kV semistop joint is shown in
Figure 8-40.
Semistops can be designed to withstand differential
pressures of 30-200 psi (260-1380 kPa), depending on
the design of the semistop tube and the materials used.
Higher differential pressure ratings would require the
use of a full-stop joint. This is possible by using joints
that incorporate epoxy insulating bushings that are cast
into a stop plate, such as a Voltalit®-type joint. A com-
bination Full Stop Anchor joint with diffusion cham-
bers and bypass piping installed is shown in Figure 8-41.
Figure 8-40 Semi-stop joint with diffusion chambers and bypass piping installed (courtesy of USi).
Figure 8-41 Full Stop Anchor joint for 345-kV LPP insulated cable shown with bypass piping installed (courtesy of USi).
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
Anchor and Skid Joints
Anchor and skid joints are used with armored cable
when cable is installed on a very steep incline or in long
vertical risers. The anchor joint is installed on the top
and supports most of the weight of the cable. The skid
joint is installed at the bottom of the incline or riser and
permits the cable to expand and contract with load
changes. Cable installations at hydroelectric sites and
tunnels are typical application areas for these joints.
As in the case of the semistop joint, the anchor and skid
joints use conventional splicing techniques. The casing
design is modified to accommodate the mechanical
components. An anchor joint is shown in Figure 8-42.
As in the case of the semistop joint, a nonmagnetic
stainless-steel plate is installed in an intermediate cas-
ing. The plate has three holes drilled through it, and
three stainless steel tubes extend from the holes on the
side toward the joint. The cables are each passed
through one of the tubes on the plate before splicing
begins. The armor wire is brought back to the stainless
steel tube, wrapped over it, and bound down to the tube.
It is this armor wire that supports the cable, not the con-
ductor/connector. The anchor plate is solidly bolted to
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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Figure 8-42 Anchor joint detail (courtesy of USi).

Figure 8-43 Skid joint detail (courtesy of USi)

an intermediate reducer. The skid joint at the bottom of • Single-conductor, hollow-core cable with a metallic
the riser is similar to the anchor, but the plate holding sheath
the cables is allowed to move somewhat. This accommo- • Compressed or welded connector with central duct
dates expansion and contraction of the cable, but pro-
pin, which is a means of attaching the conductors
tects the lower cable sections in case of failure of the
and controlling the fluid flow in the hollow core
anchor at the top. A skid joint design is shown in Figure
8-43. Additional holes are provided in the anchor and • Electrical insulation and electrical shielding
skid plates to permit free fluid flow past the assembly, • Metallic casing, which operates with fluid pressurized
eliminating the need for external by-pass piping. between 15 and 100 psi
(105-690 kPa)
The fluid velocity in rapid circulation systems requires • Corrosion protective covering.
that either a baffle plate or diffusion chamber be utilized
where fluid-inlet piping attaches to cable or riser pipes.
The decision to use a simple baffle plate or more com-
plex diffusion chamber depends on the flow rate of the
fluid. Diffusion chambers prevent the rapidly circulat-
ing fluid from impinging directly on the cable and even-
tually damaging the top papers or shaking it apart. A
diffusion chamber for installation on a stainless-steel
riser is shown in Figure 8-44.

The high flow rates for forced-cooled circuits can cause

high differential pressures around the cable system.
Casing designs should be reviewed to ensure that sleeves
are adequate to withstand the higher operating
pressures. See Chapter 9 for additional discussion of
forced cooling.

8.2.4 Self-Contained Fluid-Filled Joints

Normal Joint General Description Figure 8-44 Diffusion chamber for installation in a
A Self-Contained Fluid-Filled joint consists of: stainless-steel riser.

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
The normal joint is used at all locations where no fluid
supply or signal alarm connections are required. The
metallic screen interruption joint is used to limit sheath
losses, and to permit sheath voltage equalization by spe-
cial bonding methods. A self-contained oil-filled joint
containing the screen interruption is shown in Figure
8-45. The insulating gap is omitted or shorted for a non-
insulating joint.
Self-contained normal joints are available up to 1100 kV
and can be installed on either paper (Occhini et al. 1978)
or LPP insulation (Couderc et al. 1996). Self-contained
LPP cables, with LPP joints, have been installed com-
mercially outside of North America (Minemura et al.
1989). Self-contained, three-conductor normal joints
have been used in the past at voltages from 15 to 69 kV
and up to 138 kV outside North America. Conductor
sizes up to 1000 kcmil (507 mm2) have been installed.
Cable Connectors
In jointing SCFF cable, it is essential that the cable be
kept under positive fluid pressure at all times to prevent
the entrance of air and moisture. The conductor of a
fluid-filled cable is a hollow core, which can be either
self-supporting or supported by a steel spiral. See Chap-
ter 3, Conductors.
The copper connectors are sometimes two pieces, each
half having a conductor socket and a valve to shut off
the fluid flow temporarily, with a telescopic fit between
the two halves. A flanged steel core support is inserted
into each end of the cable hollow core to support pres-
sure from the ram indents. The connectors are generally
pressed on to the conductor with a 4-ram press.
The telescopic connection between halves is made by
pressing the outer shell into preindents milled into the
male portion of the connectors. Another common
design uses three pieces. Each cable end has a male piece
Figure 8-45 Self-contained screen interruption joint (courtesy of G&W Electric Co.).
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
pressed on. The two male pieces are then joined together
over a female center piece. This design permits easier
replacing of one cable section without disturbing the
other. Single-piece compressed connectors are generally
used outside North America. Solder connectors are rec-
ommended as alternatives only on conductor sizes
below 750 kcmil (380 mm2).
The 4-ram indents are filled with lead plugs or epoxy
filler to smooth the connector surface. A thin piece of
copper is then applied over the indents to further
smooth the surface.
Electrostatic screens using carbon-black crepe tape are
normally applied over the conductor and connector and
over the taped insulation of the joint. The carbon-black
crepe tape is preimpregnated with the dielectric fluid of
the cable.
The semiconducting tape is normally butt-lapped over
the connector. The carbon-black tape is half-lapped
over the joint insulation and terminated at the cable
insulation shield.
Insulation and Shielding
SCFF joints follow the design principles described in
Section 8.2.1. Figure 8-45 shows a typical SCFF splice
construction. Most SCFF joints are insulated using
half-lapped preimpregnated crepe paper tape to build
the desired contour. Preimpregnated paper tapes and
paper rolls are also used for insulating materials. In
order to correctly apply the paper tapes in the connector
area, the oil pressure at the joint position must be lower
than about 40 psi (275 kPa). If this limit is exceeded, it is
necessary to freeze the cable near the joint.
A tinned, all-copper mesh tape is applied over the
carbon-black tape on the joint. This metal tape is
normally wrapped over the metal cable sheath at both
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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
ends. The tape is soldered to the sheath to provide
good grounding.
On insulated normal joints, the outer carbon-black tape
and the copper mesh braid applied over the insulation
must be terminated in an insulated gap. Refer to “Sec-
tionalizing” in Section 8.4.1 for a more detailed expla-
nation. The gap is constructed using half-lapped layers
of crepe tape or paper roll between and over the shield-
ing materials.
After the shielding is completed, spacer blocks are tied
in place on the shielding using cotton twine. The cotton
twine is factory-impregnated with a dielectric fluid. New
designs use nylon string, which does not require impreg-
nation. These spacer blocks center the joint and prevent
the shielding braid from contacting the casing, which
could cause undesired circulating currents.
Joint Casing
Joint casings are made up of two or three nonmagnetic
metallic sleeves. In the case of an insulated joint, one
sleeve is equipped with an insulator. In many cases, util-
ities standardize on insulated joint casings, then connect
a jumper across the insulator when it is not needed.
The joint sleeve is generally manufactured from a
copper alloy with an opening that will allow it to slide
over the cable sheath on one end and the completed
joint on the other end. The copper sleeve is hot-tinned
to provide a good soldering surface and corrosion resis-
tance. The sleeve is attached to the metallic sheath by a
solder wipe, or by a mechanical means in the case of
some aluminum sheath cables. Reinforced wipes are
required with double-lead sheaths and with reinforced-
lead construction at operating pressures above 40 psi
(275 kPa). A lead wedge is used to center the sheath in
the wiping sleeve before the wipe is made. A threaded
cylindrical ground connection boss is commonly sup-
plied, silver brazed to the casing to provide easy ground-
ing or bonding of the cable system.
In the case of a three-piece casing, a center sleeve is sol-
dered or connected with bolted flanges to each of the
end sleeves.
The insulated sleeve generally consists of an epoxy ring
with embedded inserts for fixation to copper alloy
sleeves. Two “O”-ring gaskets placed in a groove pro-
vided in the copper sleeve’s flange ensure the oil sealing.
Another design utilizes a high-alumina porcelain insula-
tor with nickel iron sleeve at each end. One sleeve is sil-
vered soldered to the housing, and the second to the
wiping sleeve. All the metal parts are hot-tinned.
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Corrosion Protection Covering
The joint casing must be protected from the external
environment to avoid corrosion of the casing and of the
exposed cable sheath. In case of specially bonded sys-
tems, the corrosion protection must also ensure a suit-
able insulation. Different approaches are used,
including self-amalgamating tapes, heat-shrinkable
tubes, plastic coating of the sleeves, and fiberglass or
rotomolded boxes filled with hydrophobic materials.
These solutions are generally combined.
Stop Joint Description
A self-contained fluid-filled stop joint consists of:
• Single-conductor hollow cable with a metallic sheath
• Fluid valve connector, which attaches the conductors
and controls the fluid flow in the hollow core
• Stop insulator, which fully terminates each cable end
• Electrical insulation and electrical shielding
• Metallic casing, which is filled with fluid between 15
and 100 psi (105-690 kPa)
• Corrosion protective covering.
Stop joints are used to divide a cable circuit into inde-
pendent, hydraulically fed sections, with each section
being fed at the stop joint location from gravity (Type
CC) or pressurized (Type AC or DC) reservoirs. Refer
to Chapter 9 for a description of reservoirs. Stop joints
can be also used to reduce the hydrostatic head pressure
on the cable system. Self-contained stop joints are
available up to 750 kV and can be installed on either
paper or LPP insulation. Self-contained LPP stop joints
have been installed outside of North America. Three-
conductor stop joints have been used for voltages
b e t we e n 1 5 a n d 1 3 8 k V. C o n d u c t o r si z es u p t o
1000 kcmil (507 mm2) are in use. A typical stop joint for
SCFF cable is shown in Figure 8-46.
Design and Materials
This section reviews the design and materials issues of
the major components that are important in applying
and evaluating self-contained stop joints.
Cable Connectors
In a normal joint, the hollow-core connector permits
only axial flow of the dielectric fluid through the joint.
In a stop joint, the copper connectors have several dif-
ferent openings that allow fluid flow inside the stop
insulator end. The valve inside the connector shuts off
the hollow core and permits the evacuation of each end
through the vents provided. After filling, the valve is
opened and fluid can flow from the cable core. A
flanged steel core support is inserted into the hollow
core to support pressure from a hydraulic compression
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories

tool, then a thin copper shield is generally applied over must be connected to a pressurized reservoir or to the
the connector in order to obtain a smooth surface. cable with higher fluid pressure.
Insulation and Shielding Corrosion Protection Covering
Insulation and shielding materials and application are The function of this protection is the same as described
identical to those for SCFF normal joints. earlier for normal joints. However, due to the irregular
profile of the joint casing, the solution with a fiberglass
Stop-Insulator
box filled with a hydrophobic resin is generally adopted.
The stop insulator may be either cylindrical or conical
in shape. The more recent insulators are made of cast- Arc-Proof Covering
molded epoxy. The conical stop insulator is assembled Arc proofing is normally applied to protect the cables
to the end casing using a retained gasket, split clamp, and joints against arcs and fires in the manholes and
and bolts. The connector stem is gasketed to the stop vaults. Arc proofing is applied over the corrosion pro-
insulator. The connector gasket is compressed using a tection covering. One half-lapped layer of arc-proofing
large nut threaded on the connector stem. After the stop tape is applied from duct mouth to duct mouth.
insulator is assembled, a solder wipe is made between
the casing and the metallic sheath. Internal Pressure Characteristics
Internal pressure characteristics of self-contained joints
Center-Section Materials are critical to system operation because the joints are
The center section of the stop joint is assembled after usually at the low elevations of the cable system. The
both stop ends have been completed and filled with operating pressures in these cases may limit cable
dielectric liquid. A copper stress-cone shield is slipped system operations.
over each stop insulator and attached to each casing
end. A split-clamp connector is used to connect the The internal pressure characteristics are determined by
two connector stems together, and a copper shield is the thickness of the copper sleeve assembly. Table 8-4
placed over this sleeve. Half-lapped layers of crepe
paper tape are applied over the connector area and the
stop tube ends. Table 8-4 Typical Operating Pressures for Self-Contained
Joints
The clearance between the connector and the casing is Standard Medium High
psi (kPa) psi (kPa) psi (kPa)
filled with a set of concentric, split insulating tubes held
Nominal operating pres-
together with a pair of insulating rings. Insulating spac- sure
15 (105) 40 (275) 100 (690)
ers are used between the insulators. These tubes provide Max. continuous operat-
the radial electrical strength required due to the large ing pressure (over 10 22 (150) 55 (380) 138 (950)
volume of liquid in the casing. hours)
Max. transient pressure
Joint Casing 24 (165) 60 (415) 150 (1035)
(up to 10 hours)
Joint casings are made up of three sleeves. In most cases, Max. peak transient 32 (220) 80 (550) 200 (1380)
the stop joint is also equipped with an insulator. Details Max. field (proof) test 28 (195) 70 (485) 175 (1205)
are the same as described earlier for a normal joint. The Factory test (1 hour) 40 (275) 100 (690) 250 (1725)
center casing is vacuum-filled with dielectric fluid and

Figure 8-46 Self-contained fluid-filled stop joint (courtesy of Prysmian Cable & Systems).

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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

shows the internal pressure characteristics for standard,
medium, and high-pressure SCFF joints.
8.2.5 Industry Specifications and Standards
Transmission cables joints are covered by a number of
standards both national and international. The most
commonly used transmission joint standards and their
major requirements and characteristics are described
below.
National Standards
The national standard that is used in North America
and some other countries is the IEEE Standard 404-
2000 “IEEE Standard for Extruded and Laminated
Dielectric Shielded Cable Joints Rated 2500 V to
500000 V.” The subsequent revision of this standard,
currently in process, will likely have more extensive
requirements for these joints. This standard is based on
functional and design test requirements and covers both
normal joints and transition joints.
The following tests are required by IEEE Standard 404-
2000:
• Production tests, performed by the manufacturer on
100% of premolded and cold shrinkable (prefabri-
cated) joints produced. Production (routine) tests
involve partial discharge and ac withstand or impulse
withstand voltage tests.
• Design tests on the joints rated 69 kV and above are
carried out on a total of four samples (two samples in
air and two in water) of joints in order to qualify each
individual type and to demonstrate the compliance of
the joints with the standard. The tests in water are
not required if the joint design incorporates a solid-
metal housing that is welded or soldered to a solid
cable sheath or pipe. Tables 8-5 and 8-6 show the
requested test values.
When transition joints are being tested, all electrical
test values are based on the cable with the lower test
requirements.

Table 8-5 Voltage Ratings and Test Levels for Extruded-dielectric Cable Joints Rated 69-500 kV
Voltage Voltage BIL and full AC withstand voltage and DC Minimum
rating rating wave time withstand partial
phase-to- phase-to- (kV crest) Column A Column B voltage discharge
phase, ground, 15 min 6h 15 min voltage
U U0 @3 U0 @2.5 U0 (kV) level,
(kV rms) (kV rms) (kV rms) (kV rms) 1.5 U0
(kV rms)
69 39.8 350 120 100 240 60
115 66.4 550 200 166 300 100
138 79.7 650 240 200 315 120
161 93.0 750 280 232 375 140
230 132.8 1050 400 332 525 200
345 199.2 1300 600 500 650 300
500 288.7 1550 870 725 775 435

Table 8-6 Voltage Ratings and Test Levels for Laminated Dielectric Cable Joints Rated 69-500 kV
Voltage rating Voltage rating BIL and full AC withstand test DC withstand
phase-to-phase, phase-to- wave (kV voltage
U ground, crest) 15 min
(kV rms) U0 Time Voltage (kV)
(kV rms) (h) (kV rms)

69 39.8 350 24 100 175

115 66.4 450 24 170 225
120 69.3 550 24 170 275
138 79.7 650 24 200 325
161 93.0 750 24 230 375
230 132.8 1050 24 330 525
345 199.2 1300 24 500 650
500 288.7 1550 24 720 775

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories

The standard specifies a design test sequence for each
joint type (extruded-dielectric cable joint, laminated-
dielectric cable joint, and transition joint). The 30-day
cyclic aging test at double line-to-ground voltage and
conductor temperature of the cable within 5°C of its
rated emergency operating temperature for a period of
at least six hours in each cycle, is mandatory for
extruded-dielectric cable joints and transition joints. It
is not required for laminated cable joints.
More details on the test requirements are given in the
Chapter 14.
International Standards
Based on experience and CIGRE studies, IEC interna-
tional standards have been made available for HV
transmission cables. The IEC standards are arranged
so that the test for cable accessories is included in the
same standard as the cable. There is a subdivision of
standards between extruded, oil-filled, internal pres-
sure gas-filled, external pressure gas-filled, and high-
pressure pipe–type.
IEC Standards for Extruded Cable Accessories
Two standards cover transmission extruded cable acces-
sories for rated voltages above 30 kV up to 500 kV.
The first standard is IEC 60840-2004 – “Power Cables
with Extruded Insulation and Their Accessories for
Rated Voltages Above 30 kV (Um = 36 kV) up to 150 kV
(Um = 170 kV) - Test Methods and Requirements.”
This standard covers the test requirements for cables
and accessories, based on the complete cable system
approach or the individual approach. The test require-
ments are the same as those of the cable but with some
peculiarities concerning the routine and sample test.
The test procedures and sequences are the following:
• Routine test on prefabricated accessories. These tests
are to be carried out by the manufacturer on the
main insulation of each accessory.
- Partial-discharge test
- Voltage test
The test requirements are shown in Table 8-7.
• Sample tests on accessories. These tests are to be car-
ried out by the manufacturer on those accessories
that cannot be routine-tested (i.e., taped or field-
molded). The accessory shall be fully assembled in its
final configuration. The number of accessories to be
tested is one per contract if the number of accessories
is above 50.
- Partial-discharge test
- Voltage test
The test requirement are shown in Table 8-7.
• Type test. These tests are to be carried out in order
to qualify each individual type of accessory and to
demonstrate satisfactory performance characteris-
tics to meet the intended application and compliance
with the standard. The following tests can be carried
out on the complete cable system or on the
individual accessory:
- Partial-discharge test at ambient temperature.
In the case of testing the cable system, the cable
is to be subjected to a bending test before the
installation of accessories.
- Tan delta measurement at high temperature
(only for test as a cable system)
- Heating cycle voltage test
- Partial-discharge test at ambient and at high
temperature
- Lightning impulse voltage test, followed by a
power frequency voltage
- Test of outer protection for buried joints
- Examination of the accessories (or of the cable
system) after the completion of the above test
The tests requirements are shown in Table 8-7.

Table 8-7 IEC 60840 Voltage Ratings and Test Voltages

Rated voltage Highest volt- Routine volt- Partial dis- Tan δ measure- Heating Lightning AC Voltage test after
phase-to- age for equip- age test for charge test ment cycle volt- impulse volt- installation for 1hour
phase ment 30 minutes 1.5 Uo Uo age test age test kV
U Um 2.5 Uo kV kV 2Uo kV
kV kV kV kV
60 to 69 72.5 90 54 36 72 325 72
110 to 115 123 160 96 64 128 550 128
132 to 138 145 190 114 76 152 650 132
150 to 161 170 218 131 87 174 750 150

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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Prior to the electrical-type tests of the accessories, the
insulation thickness and the cable dimensions are to be
measured to evaluate the electrical gradient at inter-
faces. This is one of the factors necessary for evaluation
of the validity of the range of type test approval.
The second standard for extruded transmission cables is
IEC 62067-2006 – “Power Cables with Extruded Insula-
tion and Their Accessories for Rated Voltages above
150 kV (Um = 170 kV) up to 500 kV (Um = 550 kV) -
Test Methods and Requirements.”
The requirements of this standard are very similar to
those of the previous IEC 60840 with some
major differences:
• The type test procedure is carried out on a cable sys-
tem basis only, the procedure and test sequence are
the same as that of IEC 60840, but in addition, a
switching impulse test is required for cable systems
having Um 300 kV.
• An additional long-term prequalification test is
requested in order to demonstrate satisfactory long-
term performance of the complete cable system (cable
and accessories).
Table 8-8 indicates the requested test values. Particular
attention is to be paid to the prequalification test proce-
dures where the test circuit arrangement is to be repre-
sentative of the installation design condition in order to
take into account the thermomechanical forces acting
on cable accessories.
The prequalification test is to be carried once unless
there is a substantial change in the cable system with
respect to material, manufacturing process, and design
and design levels. The test is to be considered valid for
all those cable systems having the same or lower voltage
ratings as long as the calculated electrical stresses at the
insulation screen are equal to or lower than that of the
tested cable system. More details are available
in Chapter 14.
IEC Standards for Laminated Dielectric Cable Accessories
A number of IEC standards are applicable to all types
of laminated dielectric cables. These standards have
been issued for many years and now are included in the
maintenance list of IEC. The standards are listed below:
• IEC 60141-1 – 1998. Tests on oil-filled and gas-
pressure cables and their accessories - Part 1: Oil-
filled, paper or polypropylene paper laminate
insulated, metal-sheathed cables and accessories for
alternating voltages up to and including 500 kV.
• IEC 60141-2 – 1967. Tests on oil-filled and gas-
pressure cables and their accessories. Part 2: Internal
gas-pressure cables and accessories for alternating
voltages up to 275 kV.
• IEC 60141-3 – 1967. Tests on oil-filled and gas-
pressure cables and their accessories. Part 3: External
gas-pressure (gas compression) cables and accessories
for alternating voltages up to 275 kV.
• IEC 40141-4 – 1980. Tests on oil-filled and gas-
pressure cables and their accessories. Part 4: Oil-
impregnated paper-insulated high pressure oil-filled
pipe-type cables and accessories for alternating
voltages up to and including 400 kV.

Table 8-8 IEC 62067 Voltage Ratings and Test Voltages

Rated Highest Routine Partial dis- Heating cycle Lightning Voltage test Switching AC Voltage test
voltage voltage for voltage test charge test voltage test impulse after light- impulse after installa-
phase-to- equipment kV/minutes 1.5 Uo 2Uo voltage test ning impulse voltage test tion for 1hour
phase Um kV kV kV kV voltage test kV kV
U kV 2Uo
kV kV
220 to 230 245 318/30 190 254 1050 254 - 180
275 to 287 300 400/30 240 320 1050 320 850 210
330 to 345 362 420/60 285 380 1175 380 950 250
380 to 420 420 440/60 330 440 1425 440 1050 260
500 550 580/60 435 580 1550 580 1175 320

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
8.3 TERMINATIONS
8.3.1 Theory and General Description
Function
The basic function of a cable termination is to transition
from an underground cable to another electrical compo-
nent while withstanding both mechanical and electrical
stresses.
There are three types of terminations:
• Outdoor/indoor termination, which connects the
cable to an aerial bus bar or to an overhead line
• Metal-enclosed GIS termination, which connects the
cable to a bus bar insulated with pressurized gas (usu-
ally SF6 or N2-SG6 mixture).
• Oil-immersed transformer termination, which
connects the cable to metal-clad bus bar isolated with
oil.
To fulfill its purpose, each type of termination must
provide:
• High-current connection from the cable conductor to
an external electrical component (e.g., bus bar)
• Insulation between the cable conductor and ground
with the same performance as the cable
• Provision to support the cable and the ability to with-
stand cable thermomechanical loads and external
forces such as wind, ice, and weight of the bus if ter-
mination is used to support rigid bus connection
• Protection to the cable insulation and sheath against
the ingress of water and the ingress of pressurized
dielectric fluid or gas from adjacent metal-clad bus
bar housing
• High-current connection to permit the flow of short-
circuit current from the cable metallic sheath or
shield wires to the system earth.
The termination may also perform the additional task
of insulating the metallic sheath or shield wires from
earth potential—in case of special sheath-bonding con-
nections, or in case it is necessary to check the integrity
of cable oversheath.
Design Approach
The termination has to accomplish the transition
between the high cylindrical electric field in the cable
(up to 381 V/mil [15 kV/mm] at operating voltage) and
the relatively low operating stress of the metal-enclosed
apparatus (up 76.2 V/mil [3 kV/mm] at operating volt-
age) or the much lower operating stress of the bus bar in
air (about 25.4 V/mil [1 kV/mm]).
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
The termination design must take into account that the
maximum electrical stress occurs at the end of the cable
screen termination rather than at the cable conductor.
The sharp edge effect of the screen termination intro-
duces a considerable field enhancement, especially along
the surface of the insulation. A stress-control device
must be used in the termination to gradually decrease
the magnitude of the longitudinal and radial stresses.
This control device for its intrinsic construction has a
larger diameter than the cable.
Three methods are commonly used to maintain the
stresses below the permitted limits for the dielectric
concerned:
• Geometrical-capacitive stress control, accomplished
through a molded elastomeric stress cone or thermo-
set resin stress cone, incorporating a suitably shaped
electrode;
• Capacitive grading control, using either a cylindrical
capacitor cone incorporating a series of cylindrical
conductive foils, or individual toroidal capacitor
“doughnuts” connected in series; and
• Resistive or high-permittivity stress control accom-
plished through a layer of elastomeric material pre-
loaded with a nonlinear resistance or high-
permittivity filler. This solution is an extrapolation of
the stress control used on MV extruded-dielectric
cable terminations and is applicable only up to 60 kV
due to the relatively low strength and high losses of
the nonlinear material.
Technologies
Different stress relief devices as well as different insula-
tors that may be porcelain, composite, or epoxy, are
available.
Outdoor/indoor Terminations
A typical stress relief cone for high-voltage extruded
cable and an insulator for an outdoor termination is
shown in Figure 8-56. The semiconducting stress-con-
trol electrode is incorporated in a high-strength dielec-
tric material, and the stress cone is interference-fitted
over the cable, so that the electrode becomes the termi-
nation of the cable screen. This design is more com-
monly used and has been installed on cable systems up
to 500 kV (Rosevear et al. 1995; Beker et al. 1998; Van
Der Wijk et al. 1998; Attwood et al.1998).
Another design called prefabricated composite and
insulator outdoor termination incorporates spring load-
ing or other forms of mechanical force to compress the
stress cone against the cable and a conically shaped
epoxy casting inside the insulator (see Figure 8-58)
(Takeda et al. 1995; Choi et al. 1998).
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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

In the case of a laminated cable, the electrode of the connector is required to transmit current from the con-
stress cone is incorporated into an epoxy resin casting ductor to the high-voltage electrode.
or is obtained by application of semiconductive and
metallic screens over properly shaped paper buildup Another design, which is today preferred for extruded
(paper roll) at the edge of the cable shielding (see Sec- cables up to 500 kV, is the prefabricated composite dry
tion 8.3.3). metal-enclosed GIS termination shown in Figures 8-47
and 8-62. The interface dimensions of GIS terminations
For these types of outdoor/indoor terminations, the with the switchgear have been standardized (IEC 60859
outer housing is a porcelain insulator or a composite for extruded and SCFF cable terminations, and IEEE
insulator filled with an insulating liquid or gas. The 1300 for both extruded cable and laminated cable termi-
composite insulator has a rigid cylindrical or conical nations) in order to facilitate interchangeability and
core of thermoset resin reinforced with glass fiber onto define the area of responsibility in case of problems. A
which elastomeric sheds have been fitted or molded. The shorter length is standardized for dry GIS terminations
sheds are usually formed from silicone rubber with anti- compared to stress cone and insulator wet types.
tracking characteristics. The insulator profile and creep-
age length generally depend on the pollution level Oil-immersed transformer terminations have the same
specified for the installation site (see Section 8.3.5). construction as GIS terminations, except for a larger
top corona shield in order to reduce the stress in the
The capacitor cone and insulator outdoor termination transformer oil.
shown in Figure 8-59 has been adopted for 400-kV
Design Challenges
XLPE cable systems and for laminated cable up to
Although the cable insulation is only subjected to a
500 kV. For extruded cables, due to the large core-
radial stress, both radial and longitudinal stresses are
diameter variation versus temperature, it is necessary to
present in the termination.
adopt crepe-paper bedding between the bore of the pre-
fabricated condenser cone and the cable to minimize the
In order to correctly design the termination, it is
longitudinal oil channel, which is a critical interface.
necessary to calculate these stresses and compare them
with the ones allowed by the different materials and
In the prefabricated elastomeric sheds outdoor termina-
components used in the termination. Most critical are
tion, shown in Figure 8-53, the antitracking elastomeric
the stresses acting along the interfaces. The electrical
housing and the stress cone are generally molded in one
strength of the interfaces is relatively low, and depends
piece, which is interference-fitted over the cable core. In
on different factors including the quality of the
this way, a completely “dry” design is obtained, but the
interfaces, the pressure between the interfacing
termination may not be self-standing, so in this case it
materials, and the lubrication of the interface (CIGRE
must be suspended to the overhead line conductor or to
2002). The overall dimensions of the termination are
a supporting insulator, such as a surge arrester (Le Peu-
established by keeping the radial and longitudinal
rian et al. 1992; De Ridder et al. 1999).
stresses within safe values.
Self-supporting dry terminations are being developed.
One design is an extrapolation of a dry GIS termination
(Amerpohl et al. 2002), and another design replaces the
oil filling with a gel (Dejean et al. 2003).
Metal-enclosed GIS/ Oil-immersed Transformer Terminations
Figure 8-61 shows schematically a stress cone and insu-
lator metal-enclosed GIS termination, which is concep-
tually similar to the stress cone and insulator outdoor
termination described above. In this case, the insulator
is usually formed of cast thermoset resin, and offers a
relatively short creepage due to the high strength of the
pressurized SF6 gas surrounding the termination. In
some designs, especially for laminated dielectric cables,
the insulator is provided with an embedded solid high- Figure 8-47 Dry-type termination for SF6 gas-insulated
voltage electrode in order to prevent any ingress of the system connection (courtesy of Prysmian Cables &
pressurized SF6 gas into the cable. In this case, a plug-in Systems).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
It is necessary to control the thermomechanical forces
transferred to the termination by the cable during its
operation, and to check that the insulator is able to with-
stand the pressure of the fluid inside or outside the ter-
mination and the mechanical stresses transferred to the
termination by the surrounding environment (e.g., wind
or ice loading on bus bars, earthquake, vibrations).
The designer must also check that the termination, due to
its much larger diameter than the cable, is not a thermal
bottleneck for the current rating of the cable system.
Electrical Design
As for joints, a computer program is used to calculate
the equipotential line distribution (see Figure 8-48) and
the actual stresses in the critical regions of the termina-
tion—i.e., over embedded electrodes, at the interfaces
between different components and materials and in the
fluids inside and outside the insulator. If these stresses
are greater than the allowable ones, the designer must
review the termination drawing, and the electric field
calculation must be repeated a number of times until the
stresses are within the allowable range.
Analytical methods are used to define the dimension
and position of the metal foil of the condenser cones
used as stress control in some types of terminations.
A “log log” profile is generally used at the termination
taper of the stress cone in laminated cable termina-
tions in order to keep constant the axial component of
the stress.
Mechanical/Hydraulic Design
The cable conductor thrust in terminations is generally
transferred to the supporting structure via the insulator
(conductor-locked designs).
In the case of outdoor/indoor terminations, which
present a long and unrestrained cable end, in order to
Figure 8-48 Equipotential line distribution in an outdoor termination.
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
reduce this conductor thrust and prevent a possible flex-
ion of the cable inside the insulator, a suitable offset is
provided for the cable entering the termination.
Different approaches are adopted concerning the cleat-
ing of the cable in air below the termination. Generally
for oil-filled cables, a rigid cleating to a bend-controlling
beam is used in order to avoid the risk of fracture of the
metallic sheath due to fatigue and the leaking of the
pressurized dielectric fluid. In comparison, for extruded
cables, the bend is generally suspended and free to move,
so a limited thrust is transferred to the termination.
Laminated cable terminations must be able to withstand
the pressure of the dielectric fluid from the cable insula-
tion and allow feeding dielectric fluid back into the
cable system.
When the extruded cable termination is filled with a
dielectric liquid, it is necessary to allow for fluid expan-
sion due to temperature variation. The expansion vol-
ume may be accommodated using an air-filled space
usually at the top end of the insulator (only for verti-
cally installed terminations), by an external header
tank, by an external pressurized feed tank, or by an
internal flexible accumulator (generally placed at the
bottom of the termination).
To avoid uncontrolled loads being transferred to the ter-
mination from the GIS or transformer bus bar, flexible
connections must be utilized.
In areas of high seismic risk, it is necessary to verify the
design of the outdoor termination insulator and of its
supporting structure.
Thermal Design
Although terminations have a larger diameter than the
cable, their ampacity rating is generally greater than that
of the cable that they connect. In fact, terminations do
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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

not have mutual heating effects and the heat is transferred
mainly longitudinally through the conductor to the air
(for outdoor terminations) or to the dielectric fluid (for
GIS/transformer terminations) outside them and to the
bus bar connection on top of the termination. In addi-
tion, for fluid-filled designs, the dielectric fluid inside the
insulator also contributes to the heat dissipation.
Special installation conditions—for instance, outdoor
terminations installed in hot climates or transformer
terminations in hot oil—may require specific consider-
ation during the design of the cable system.
For fluid-filled terminations, forced cooling of the fluid
or other means, such as cooling pipes, can be adopted to
improve the thermal rating, if necessary.
The basics on ampacity (thermal) analysis of the
pipe-type cable terminations are described below in
Section 8.3.3.
Main Components of the Termination
Connectors
The same type of connectors described in Section 8.2.1
for joints are used to join the cable conductor to the
stalk of the termination. In outdoor terminations, the
part of the stalk exposed to the environment is generally
copper to resist corrosion. If the cable has an aluminum
conductor, a bimetallic rod of aluminum to copper is
usually adopted.
Top Metalwork
The top metalwork of a termination has two functions:
• Seal the top of the insulator and the conductor stalk,
and
• Anchor the cable conductor through the conductor
stalk.
The lower metalwork includes at least an end bell (wip-
ing sleeve or entrance housing) and a base plate (mount-
ing plate).
Mounting plates are normally nonmagnetic (aluminum
or stainless steel), but also galvanized steel can be used
if the plate has a radial slot or the current is below 1000
A and the opening in the plate is relatively large.
Mounting plates are generally insulated from the sup-
porting structure to allow flexibility in connecting cable
metallic sheaths to ground. For this purpose, in outdoor
terminations, four stand-off (pedestal) insulators are
generally used (see Figure 8-49), while an epoxy ring is
adopted for SF6 and oil-immersed terminations.
As far as the seal between the metallic sheath of the
cable and the termination end bell is concerned, the
same solutions described in Section 8.2.1 for joints (see
Sheath Closure section) are adopted.
Installation
Termination designs must be coordinated with the type
of cable to be used. Table 8-9 indicates the type of infor-
mation required to order an HV termination.
System electrical information and cable data are
required to select the correct termination. The same
information is essential for any high-voltage termina-
tion. Additional information varies with the type of sys-
tem to be used.
The construction of a typical high-voltage termination
involves the following steps: (1) install the mounting
plate and any cable supports to the mounting structure;
(2) determine the cable cut-off length; (3) install the con-
nector; (4) remove the cable shielding tapes, jackets etc.;
(5) install the stress cone assembly; (6) lower the outer

A nonmagnetic material (stainless steel, aluminum, or

brass) is generally used. If the metalwork presents sharp
edges, a corona shield is used to avoid radio interference
effects.
Lower Metalwork
The lower metalwork of a self-standing termination has
the following characteristics:
• Seal the bottom of the insulator to the cable metallic
sheath,
• Anchor the termination to the supporting structure,
and
• Ensure the grounding of the cable sheath, and collect Figure 8-49 Outdoor termination showing the mounting
the insulator leakage current. plate with the supporting insulators (courtesy of Prysmian
Cables & Systems).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories

housing over the stress cone assembly; (7) complete As indicated in Section 8.3.1, there are three families of
installation of all termination seals; (8) pressure-test the terminations:
integrity of the termination (pressurized systems only); • Outdoor terminations to connect the cable to the
(9) fill the unit with dielectric fluid if required; and (10)
overhead network,
assemble the aerial lug to the cable connector.
• Metal-enclosed terminations to connect the cable to
8.3.2 Terminations for Extruded-dielectric Cable a gas-insulated substation (GIS), and
An extruded-dielectric termination consists of a single- • Oil-immersed transformer terminations to connect
conductor, extruded-dielectric cable, a stress-relief the cable to a transformer.
device, and an insulated enclosure.
Outdoor Terminations
As the outdoor termination interfaces with air-insulated
Table 8-9 Information Required to Specify a High-Voltage switchgear or equipment, it is subjected to full climatic
Termination conditions.
System Electrical Data
Terminations above 138 kV are generally filled with
Nominal system voltage, kV
unpressurized liquid dielectric.From 69 to 138 kV, both
Maximum system voltage, kV
fluid-filled and dry terminations are available. Outdoor
Lightning impulse (BIL), kV
porcelain insulator assemblies are available from 69 to
Minimum insulator creepage distance. in. (cm) for an installation in
a heavily contaminated area
500 kV (see Figure 8-50).
Switching impulse (BSL), kV for system voltages of 345 kV and
above
Cable Design Data
Type of cable (pipe-type, extruded-dielectric, self-contained, etc.)
Conductor size, material and construction
Shielding material and thickness
Insulation type and thickness
Jacket material and thickness
Additional Information
Factory pressure test requirement for pressurized systems, psi
(kPa)
Maximum allowable continuous working pressure
Maximum transient pressure and allowable time of application
Type of aerial connection
Mounting-plate insulation requirements
Riser pipe size (pipe-type only), in. (cm)
Pressure alarm systems
Type of cable support system (wire armor clamps, kellems grips,
cable clamps, etc.)

Note: Some types of extruded-dielectric terminations require actual

measured diameter over the insulation for correct sizing of the
stress cone. Conductor size and nominal insulation thickness are
all that are required for HPFF and SCFF cables.
Figure 8-50 420-kV XLPE cable outdoor terminations with
porcelain insulator.

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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
Nonceramic (also called composite) insulators are avail-
able for outdoor terminations up to 500 kV (see
Figure 8-51).
Composite insulators are much lighter than porcelain
insulators. They can be easily installed on poles or tow-
ers, requiring no fenced area. Transition towers or poles
at 230 kV are nowadays very common (see Figure 8-52).
Figure 8-51 420-kV XLPE cable outdoor terminations with
composite insulator (courtesy Silec Cable).
Figure 8-52 Overhead/underground transition of a
230-kV cable line, with porcelain insulators mounted on
the end pole (courtesy of Silec Cable).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Terminations are generally prepared at ground level and
then installed with a crane on the pole/tower.
Different kinds of outdoor terminations can be found
depending on the stress relief device and the antitrack-
ing covering. The main ones are:
• Dry-type terminations:
- Prefabricated elastomeric sheds and stress-cone
outdoor termination
- Heat-shrink sleeve outdoor termination
- Elastomeric sleeve outdoor termination
• Fluid-filled-type terminations:
- Stress-cone and insulator outdoor termination
- Deflector and insulator outdoor termination
- Prefabricated composite and insulator outdoor
termination
- Capacitor-cone and insulator outdoor termina-
tion
- Prefabricated composite and capacitor-cone
outdoor termination
Dry-type Terminations
In these terminations, protection against adverse cli-
matic conditions is provided by polymeric sheds. Differ-
ent stress-control devices are adopted depending on the
kind of termination.
Dry terminations are available up to 138 kV. Generally
not self-supporting, they require an external support,
which can be a surge arrester or a station insulator.
A l t e r n a t i v e l y, t h e y c a n b e s u s p e n d e d t o t h e
overhead conductor.
• Prefabricated elastomeric sheds and stress-cone out-
door termination.
In prefabricated elastomeric sheds and stress-cone
outdoor terminations, the stress-control device is a
premolded stress cone that is slipped with interfer-
ence on the prepared cable. Individual premolded
sheds are then slipped on the cable before sealing of
the upper part and connection with the conductor
stalk (see Figure 8-53). In some constructions, the
stress cone and the shed form one single premolded
component.
• Heat-shrink sleeve outdoor termination.
In the heat-shrink sleeve outdoor terminations, the
stress control is achieved by means of a resistive or
high-permittivity sleeve, or tape or mastic. Then a
sleeve is heat-shrunk along the prepared cable, and
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
sheds are heat-shrunk onto this sleeve (see Figure
8-54).
• Elastomeric sleeve outdoor termination.
In this termination, which is very similar to the previ-
ous one, the longitudinal sleeve is a premolded elas-
tomeric sleeve, which is expanded on a support and
cold-shrunk onto the cable, and the sheds are
Figure 8-53 Prefabricated elastomeric sheds and stress-
cone outdoor termination (courtesy CIGRE).
Figure 8-54 Heat-shrink terminations (courtesy CIGRE).
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
stretched onto the sleeve before sealing and installa-
tion of the conductor stalk (see Figure 8-55).
Fluid-filled-type Terminations
In outdoor fluid-filled terminations, an insulator is
subjected to adverse climatic conditions and houses the
stress-control device and the prepared cable. This
insulator can be made from ceramic or thermoset resin,
or may be a composite insulator composed of a rigid
hollow-core insulator covered by premolded polymeric
sheds, which have been extruded, fitted, or molded on
the rigid insulator.
The following fluid-filled outdoor terminations differ by
the stress-control device.
• Stress cone and insulator outdoor termination.
For a stress cone and insulator outdoor termination,
the electrical field is controlled by a stress cone that is
fitted on the cable (see Figure 8-56).
It can be obtained by field molding, using one of the
techniques that have been described for field-molded
joints, by field-taping, or by a factory premolded
part. The insulator is filled using oil or gas. It is
important for the fluid to be compatible with the
stress-cone and cable material.
• Deflector and insulator outdoor termination.
For this termination, the electrical field is controlled
by a metallic or semiconducting elastomeric stress-
control profile deflector fitted on the prepared cable
and immersed in the fluid that is filling the insulator
Figure 8-55 Elastomeric sleeve outdoor termination
(courtesy CIGRE)
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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
(see Figure 8-57). In some cases, some high-
permittivity material is applied at the semiconduc-
tive end of the cable as an adaptor. This very simple
design is appropriate only for relatively low-
insulation screen stresses.
• Prefabricated composite and insulator outdoor termi-
nation.
For this termination, one premolded stress-cone
made of elastomeric material is positioned on the
prepared cable end and then inserted into a cast
epoxy insulator (see Figure 8-58). The pressures at
the cable core interface, as well as at the stress-cone-
to-central-epoxy-insulator interface, are obtained by
means of compression devices such as springs.
• Capacitor cone and insulator outdoor termination.
In some traditional designs of capacitor cone and
insulator outdoor terminations, the stress control is
achieved by means of capacitors (see Figure 8-59).
These capacitors can be either prepared coils of
capacitors dimensioned to achieve a linear voltage
distribution, or they can be made on-site by wrap-
Figure 8-56 Stress cone and insulator outdoor terminations (courtesy CIGRE).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
ping insulating and conductive tapes on the prepared
cable.
• Prefabricated composite and capacitor cone outdoor
termination.
For a prefabricated composite and capacitor cone
outdoor termination, the electrical stress is controlled
by a combination of the two techniques described
above (see Figure 8-60). This kind of termination is
adopted in Japan for 500-kV rated systems.
Metal-enclosed GIS Terminations
The stress-control techniques are very similar for metal-
enclosed GIS terminations as to those used in outdoor
terminations, even if the stress distributions in both
types of terminations are not exactly the same. The
main types are:
• Stress cone and insulator termination
• Deflector and insulator termination
• Prefabricated composite dry-type termination
• Capacitor cone and insulator termination
• Directly immersed termination.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Stress Cone and Insulator GIS Termination
In this termination, the electrical field is controlled by a
stress cone that is fitted on the cable (see Figure 8-61).
The stress cone can be obtained by field-molding, using
one of the techniques described for field-molded joints,
by field-taping, or by a factory-premolded part. The
insulator is filled with oil or gas. When SF6 gas is used, it
can be provided by external piping or by the GIS
through a hole on the insulator. In this case, the
p r e s s u r e m o n i t o r i n g i s p rov i d e d b y t h e G I S
compartment pressure-monitoring device. The insulator
anchors the cable and prevents any longitudinal
movement. It also keeps the cable in the central axis of
the enclosure. Cast epoxy resin or porcelain is usually
used. IEC 60859/PART 1 and IEEE 1300 specify the
interface between the GIS and the cable termination
with regards to dimensions, limit of supply (who is
responsible for the supply of the GIS part and of the
cable system part), and testing requirements.
Figure 8-57 Deflector and insulator outdoor termination (courtesy CIGRE).
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
Deflector and Insulator GIS Termination
As for outdoor terminations, the electrical field is con-
trolled by a metallic or semiconducting elastomeric
stress control profile deflector fitted on the prepared
cable and immersed in the fluid that is filling the insula-
tor. In some cases, some high-permittivity material is
applied at the semicon end of the cable adaptor. This
very simple design is appropriate within certain limits of
the electrical field over insulation.
Prefabricated Composite Dry-type GIS Termination
For this design, one premolded stress-cone made of
elastomeric material is positioned on the prepared
cable end and then inserted into a cast epoxy insulator
(see Figure 8-62). The pressures at the cable core inter-
face, as well as at the stress-cone-to-central-epoxy-insu-
lator interface, are obtained by means of compression
devices such as springs. In some constructions, a plug-
in technique is used to connect the cable to the GIS. In
this case, the cable can be installed and connected to
the GIS without the presence of the GIS manufac-
turer. IEC 60859/PART II specifies the interface
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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
between the GIS and the dry-type termination with
regards to dimensions that are not the same as in Part
I, limit of supply and testing requirements.
Capacitor Cone and Insulator GIS Termination
The stress cone of the “stress cone and insulator GIS
termination” is replaced in this construction by a capac-
itor voltage-grading device, either prepared in the fac-
tory and made of several different coils of polymeric
films fitted onto the cable or prepared on-site with tapes
of polymeric films (see Figure 8-63).
Figure 8-58 Prefabricated composite and insulator outdoor termination (courtesy CIGRE).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Directly-immersed GIS Termination
In this design, the stress-control device and the prepared
cable are directly immersed in the SF6 of the GIS with-
out using the axial insulator, as in all the constructions
previously described (see Figure 8-64).
In this case, the mechanical function of the insulator has
to be ensured by one of the insulators of the GIS. The
cable must be sealed to prevent any leak of the SF6.
This construction offers the possibility to reduce the
diameter of the GIS enclosure.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
There is no international standard covering this con-
struction. Agreement between the accessory manufac-
turer and GIS manufacturer must be reached.
Oil-immersed Transformer Terminations
Very similar to GIS terminations, oil-immersed trans-
former terminations connect a cable to a transformer.
Depending on the stress-control device, the following
types can be found:
• Stress cone and insulator oil-immersed termination
• Deflector and insulator oil-immersed termination
• Prefabricated composite dry oil-immersed termina-
tion
• Capacitor cone and insulator oil-immersed termina-
tion
• Directly-immersed oil-immersed termination
Figure 8-59 Capacitor cone and insulator outdoor termination (courtesy CIGRE).
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
Their description is the same as that of the GIS. In con-
structions using an insulator, the insulator can be porce-
lain or thermoset resin. The insulating fluid inside the
termination is generally different from that of the trans-
former, except in the directly-immersed type.
For safety reasons, an SF6 compartment can be used to
separate the cable termination from the transformer. In
these cases, a bushing is installed on the transformer
and connected to the SF6 housing of the intermediate
enclosure. The cable terminations are one of the types
described in the GIS terminations section.
8.3.3 Pipe-type Cable Terminations
A pipe-type termination is a single-phase device that
normally operates with liquid or gas pressure between
200 and 410 psi (1380-2830 kPa) depending upon
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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

whether it is a standard or high-strength termination.
For HPFF pipe-type cable systems that are to utilize
high-speed circulation over extended distances, operat-
ing pressures as high as 650 psi are possible under spe-
cific contingencies.
The three single-phase terminations are spaced apart to
provide the necessary electrical clearances as dictated by
the external dielectric (air, SF6, or liquid dielectric). The
separation of the steel pipe containing the three cables
to the three single steel pipes, each containing one cable,
is done below the terminations in a spreaderhead as
shown in Figure 8-39, or a trifurcating joint.
Similar to terminations for extruded cables, the main
task of the pipe-type cable termination is to shape the
electrical field at the edge of the cable insulation screen.
The difference is in the use of material for the stress
cone that needs to be compatible with laminar insula-
tion of pipe-type cable and in the mechanical structure
of the termination components that need to withstand
rather high operating and emergency pressures of the
fluid (or gas) of the pipe-type cable system. Although
similar, there are some differences in design of termina-
tions for high-pressure fluid-filled (HPFF) and high-
pressure gas-filled (HPGF) terminations. These differ-
ences are highlighted later in the text.
Stress Cone for Pipe-type Cable Terminations
As previously stated in Section 8.2.1, the stress cone for
laminar cable is made of paper insulation applied over
cable insulation in close proximity to the edge of the
cable insulation screen. A typical design of the stress
cone formed in double logarithmic (L-L) shape is shown
in Figure 8-65.
A roll of paper that is perforated and impregnated at the
factory is slipped over prepared cable with the bottom
edge of the paper roll in the vicinity of the cable
insulation screen and tightened onto the cable. Once the

Figure 8-60 Prefabricated composite and capacitor stress cone outdoor termination
(courtesy CIGRE).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
paper roll is tight on the cable, excessive paper is torn
from the paper roll along perforations exposing the
stress cone slope. The path of the perforation is carefully
designed and cut with computer-guided perforators at
the factory in a such way that the slope is a double-
logarithmic shape. A copper band that is positioned
near the end of the L-L slope at the outer diameter of
the paper roll ensures that the edge of the ground
electrode is smooth. Semiconductive tape is applied
from the bottom edge of the copper band along the L-L
slope and the exposed cable insulation overlapping the
cable semiconductive tapes. Metallic braid, which is
applied over the semiconductive tape and soldered to
both the copper band and the cable metallic tapes,
provides a conductive path for capacitive current,
preventing the semiconductive tapes from overheating.
Figure 8-61 Stress cone and insulator metal-enclosed GIS termination (courtesy CIGRE).
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
Paper Roll Design
It is important that the direction of the lay of the paper
roll and the lay of the last paper layer of the cable insu-
lation is the same. Otherwise, tightening of the paper
roll onto the cable will cause unraveling of cable insula-
tion. This is the reason why perforations must be sym-
metrical to the center of the paper roll, so that it could
be flipped (if required) in the field to match the lay of
the cable insulation.
While the overall shape of the paper roll depends on the
termination in which it is used, the shape of the L-L
slope depends on the cable construction. A longer L-L
slope is required for cable with thinner insulation of the
same voltage class and conductor size. It is possible to
design paper rolls that can be used on several cable sizes.
This solution is particularly useful for customers who
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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

carry spare units in their stock. It is important that full paper rolls. Only the paper roll at the edge of the cable
information is available for all cables on which the spare insulation screen requires the L-L slope.
paper roll could be used. Although an identical paper
Manufacturing and Storage of the Paper Rolls
roll can be used for some number of different cable sizes,
Paper rolls are made of electric-grade kraft paper and
it is unlikely that preparation of each cable will be the
dried at elevated temperature under vacuum in specially
same. A detailed cable preparation drawing needs to be
built impregnation retorts. The drying process is rather
provided for preparation of each cable.
long and can take several weeks, depending on the size
of each paper roll and number of rolls in retort. Once
The design of the paper roll with double-logarithmic
the paper rolls are dry, they are impregnated with
stress cone is also applicable for cables with laminated
impregnating fluid, similar to processing paper cables.
paper polypropylene (LPP) insulation. Paper rolls for
For example, impregnation fluid for paper rolls for
both paper and LPP cables are made of the same paper
HPGF cables is higher in viscosity than for paper rolls
and impregnated in the same impregnating fluid. The
for HPFF cables.
only difference is in the L-L slope due to the thinner
insulation wall of LPP cable for the same voltage class
Each impregnated paper roll is placed in an aluminum
and conductor size and somewhat higher dielectric con-
can that is filled with specified insulating fluid. The can
stant (SIC) of LPP cable insulation.
is capped to provide a hermetical seal. The shelf life of
the paper roll is not limited as long as there is no leak of
Some terminations require more paper rolls in series.
the liquid from the can. This is why the cans are stored
For example, 345-kV outdoor terminations require two
in a vertical position with the lid facing down; any oil

Figure 8-62 Prefabricated composite dry-type metal-enclosed GIS termination (courtesy CIGRE).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
leak would be visible. A paper roll from such a can
should not be used.
Outdoor Pipe-type Cable Terminations 69 kV
through 161 kV
Although there are differences between termination
designs based on the voltage class, rated operating pres-
sure, and type of cable system (HPFF or HPGF), there
are a number of components that perform the same
function regardless of the termination design. Figure 8-
66 illustrates such common components and shows the
differences between outdoor terminations for HPFF
and HPGF cables for voltages 69 through 161 kV. Fig-
ure 8-69 shows a typical design of HPFF terminations
for 230 kV and 345 kV voltage class cables for outdoor
application. There are no applications of High-Pressure
Gas-Filled cable systems for voltage classes 230 kV and
above in the United States.
The main difference between HPFF and HPGF termi-
nations is in the design of the paper roll. The goal in
designing any paper roll is to make it as small as possi-
ble, since it is easier to install smaller paper rolls than
large and bulky ones. It is possible to make paper rolls
Figure 8-63 Capacitor stress cone and insulator metal-enclosed GIS termination (courtesy CIGRE).
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
with relatively small outer diameters for HPFF cable
terminations. This is achieved by utilizing an inner
stress-control porcelain that is placed at the edge of the
copper band of the paper-roll stress cone. The bottom
section of the insulator features a conductive glaze,
which is connected to the ground, thus further alleviat-
ing electrical stress at the copper band.
High Pressure Gas-Filled terminations require a paper
roll with a large outer diameter. This is required to
reduce the electrical stress at the end of the paper-roll
stress cone to such a level as to prevent ionization of
the gas.
Another difference between HPFF and HPGF termina-
tions is in the requirement for filters and check valves in
the semistop housing of the HPFF units. This is
described later in the text.
Stand-Off Insulators
Stand-off insulators are mounted between the support
structure and the termination mounting plate. Insula-
tors support the weight of the termination and provide
insulation between the structure that is connected to the
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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

station ground and the riser pipe that is normally epoxy suitable for outdoor application (e.g., cycloa-
grounded via the cathodic corrosion-protection system. lyphatic epoxy).
Insulators are typically rated at 5 kV. They are also
Mounting Plates
exposed to mechanical stresses due to the cantilever
A mounting plate is used to attach the pipe stub assem-
force at the termination coming from the connection
bly to the support (mounting) structure and to provide
between the termination aerial lug and station bus. Insu-
support for the stand-off insulators. Mounting plate
lators are made either from porcelain or from filled
materials include aluminum, type 304 nonmagnetic

Figure 8-64 Directly-immersed metal-enclosed GIS termination (courtesy CIGRE).

Figure 8-65 Typical double-logarithmic stress cone (courtesy of G&W Electric Company).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
stainless steel, and galvanized steel. If made of magnetic
steel, the design of the plate must incorporate a gap to
prevent circulating currents and heating of the plate due
to the magnetic field generated by load current in the
cable conductor.
It is important that both the structure and mounting
plate are properly leveled. If this is not the case, exten-
sive mechanical stress could result in damaging the
stand-off insulators.
Pipe-Stub Subassembly
A pipe-stub subassembly consists of a pipe or tube
welded to the base plate of the termination. This subas-
sembly is the first termination component that is
attached to the cable system. While the base plate is
attached to the top surface of the mounting plate by
bolts, the pipe stub subassembly is welded to the riser
pipe using a coupling over the joint area.
Similar to the reducer plate of pipe-type joints, the base
plate of the termination can be capped, allowing
Figure 8-66 HPFF and HPGF outdoor terminations for 69 to 161 kV voltages
(courtesy of G&W Electric Company).
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
pressure and vacuum testing of the cable pipeline even
before the cable is pulled. Once the cable is pulled, a
convenient “night-cap” can be slipped over the cable
stub and attached to the base plate, providing a
vacuum-tight seal.
The material for the pipe stub subassembly is typically
specified as ASTM Type 304 nonmagnetic stainless
steel. Other nonmagnetic materials such as copper and
aluminum have been used for special applications.
Semistop Assembly
A semistop assembly centers the cable and, in the case
of HPFF cable terminations, controls the movement of
fluid between the termination and pipe. A packing of
rubber gasket in the collar of the semistop housing
provides a relatively good seal between the collar and
varnished Dacron glass (VDG) tape, which is applied
over the cable. Although some oil can weep along paper
and VDG tape, the seal stops free movement of fluid
(hence, semistop).
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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
Thermal expansion and contraction of fluid require oil
to move back and forth between termination and pipe.
Since the oil in the pipe could be contaminated, and the
termination requires clean oil for its operation, filter
units with built-in “incoming” check valves are installed
into the flange of the semistop housing, forcing the oil
from the pipe to go through the filter before entering the
termination. There are also “outgoing” check valves in
the semistop housing flange that allow oil to move from
the termination into the pipe. To prevent sudden loss of
oil from the termination in case of a sudden drop of oil
pressure in the pipe, “outgoing” check valves are set to
open at 20 psi differential pressure between termination
and pipe.
A gas-filled termination uses the semistop for centering
only. Through-holes in the semistop housing flange allow
communication of gas between termination and pipe.
Termination Body
The termination body, also known as the spool, is used
to provide room for the paper roll stress cone. It is
designed to accommodate the longest possible stress
cone for a particular voltage class and range of cable
sizes. The bodies are made of nonmagnetic stainless
steel and designed to withstand specified routine pres-
sure tests, which are based on the nominal internal sys-
tem pressure. The bodies for extra-high pressure that
require a 1000-psi routine factory test for 1 hour incor-
porate gussets to increase mechanical strength. Typi-
cally, there is a 0.75-in. (2-cm) valve at the body that is
used when the termination is filled with dielectric fluid
from an external source, not from the pipe.
Insulators
The insulator housing is made of high-strength glazed
porcelain to withstand high internal pressures during
normal and emergency operations as well as factory
routine tests. Both the inside and outside surfaces of the
insulators are glazed to provide a higher mechanical
strength of the unit.
Connectors
As described previously, connectors are provided in cop-
per, bimetallic (copper-aluminum for aluminum cables),
and aluminum. Copper connectors are pressed on to the
cable conductor using a 4-ram press for conductors
larger than 750 kcmil (380 mm2). Smaller conductors
are pressed with a single-ram press. For large aluminum
conductors above 1000 kcmil (507 mm2), a combination
of MIG welding and 4-ram pressing is used. This con-
nection method is similar to that used on pipe-type
joints with aluminum conductors. Aluminum connec-
tors for cable sizes below 1000 kcmil are pressed using a
4-ram press. Bimetallic connectors are recommended for
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
use on outdoor terminations with aluminum conduc-
tors. This method provides for a copper connector out-
side the termination.
The connector stalk (stud) is threaded and secured with
a threaded hood at the termination top plate, ensuring
that the cable will not slip due to its own weight and the
weight of the paper roll. A combination of longitudinal
and radial holes allows applying the vacuum on the ter-
mination from the connector top, which could be bene-
ficial in some procedures for filling the termination with
dielectric fluid. Since the top connector section (stud) is
not sensitive to the cable size, many users select two-
piece connectors, as shown in Figure 8-67. The studs
can be stocked as spare items and combined with a
cable-size-sensitive bottom section of the connector (fer-
rule) as needed. These two connector sections can be
either brazed or crimped to each other in the field.
Vent Valves
Small vent valves are typically installed on the top plate
of HPFF terminations or at the top of a hollow connec-
tor. The vent valve is used during filling and for venting
gases after a prolonged period at pressures lower than
50 psi (345 kPa), because there is a possibility of gas
coming out of solution from the dielectric fluid at low
pressure. It is also used for sampling the oil for dissolved
gas analysis (DGA), which is used as one of the diag-
nostic tools for evaluating the condition of the termina-
tions in service.
Diffusion Chamber
The introduction of dielectric fluid at high velocity into
the system, either during initial filling or if force cooling
is used, can eventually be damaging for top papers of
Figure 8-67 Typical connector for HPFF cable
terminations (courtesy of G&W Electric Company).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories

cable insulation. Diffusion chambers prevent fluid from
impinging directly on the cable, thus eliminating the
risk. They are mainly used in high-speed circulation
and force-cooled systems. An example of a diffusion
chamber is shown in Figure 8-69 with a capacitor-
graded termination.
Termination Installation
Outdoor terminations can be installed either on the sta-
tion structure or on transition poles. Figure 8-68 is an
example of a pipe-type cable termination installed on a
transition pole.
Outdoor Pipe-type Cable Terminations, 230 and
345 kV
Terminations for 230 kV and above are distinguished
from lower-voltage class terminations by voltage grad-
ing along the porcelain insulator, utilizing individual
“doughnut” capacitors connected in series. This method
provides a very uniform voltage grading of the external
insulator surface, which makes insulators less suscepti-
ble to pollution and enables designing the terminations
with shorter insulators than if the termination was with-
out capacitors. Figure 8-69 shows a cross section of a
230 kV outdoor termination.
Equipment Terminations for Pipe-type Cables
Equipment-type terminations are also single-phase
units, and they are installed either in a gas-insulated
substation (GIS termination) or in a transformer (oil-
immersed termination). Due to the fact that the termi-
nation is immersed either in SF6 gas or in oil, the
required external creepage distance of the insulator is
considerably less than for outdoor termination, result-
ing in a relatively short overall length.
Similar to outdoor terminations, the paper roll is uti-
lized to provide stress relief at the cable-shielding edge.
Internal filters and check valves facilitate oil communi-
cation between the termination and the pipe. The hol-
low connector features a valve for vacuum application,
venting, and oil sampling (see Figure 8-70).
The cable metallic shield and cable pipe must be
insulated from any other grounded component to allow
separate grounding and cathodic protection of the pipe.

The bottom capacitor is connected to the test bushing

i n t h e t e r m i n a t i o n b o d y. C a p a c i t a n c e o f t h e
termination is measured at the factory and should be
checked prior to and after installation on the cable to
verify that the capacitors and all connections are sound
and have not been damaged during either transport or
installation. The capacitance of the ter mination
installed on the cable is somewhat higher due to stray
c ap a c i t a n c e s b e t we e n t h e cabl e c o nd u c t o r a nd
“doughnut” capacitors.

Figure 8-68 Pipe-type termination on pole (courtesy of Figure 8-69 230 kV capacitor graded pipe-type
G&W Electric Co.). termination (courtesy of G&W Electric Co.).

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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
Since the cable metallic shield and pipe are connected
to the subassembly of the base plate and pipe stub, and
the base plate rests on the mounting plate, both the
base plate and mounting plate need to be isolated from
a ny o t he r gro un de d c om po ne nt . T he s t an d- o ff
insulators and pipe stub insulator serve this function.
The stand-off insulators separate the mounting plate
from the grounded support structure, and the porcelain
pipe-stub insulator insulates the base plate from the
termination body, which in turn, is connected to the
grounded GIS enclosure.
GIS switching transients may cause short-duration over-
voltages between the GIS enclosure and components
Figure 8-70 345 kV GIS pipe-type termination (courtesy of G&W Electric Company).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
that are at the potential of the cable grounding shield.
These are very fast transients with rise times in the
nanosecond range and peak values that can reach in
excess of 50 kV. Surge voltage limiters installed across
pipe stub insulators might be required if such overvolt-
ages are developing. The GIS manufacturer and end
user should participate in specifying surge voltage
limiters, but they should be supplied by the cable
termination manufacturer.
The valve at the termination top is used for attachment
of a vacuum pump during oil filling. It is also used in
emergencies to bleed gasses from the termination devel-
oped in the dielectric fluid—e.g., after the system pres-
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
sure has been reduced below 50 psi for a prolonged
period of time. The valve can also be used for oil sam-
pling for dissolved gas analysis and other dielectric tests.
The provision of a maintenance port in the GIS housing
in the vicinity of the termination valve can significantly
reduce the work involved in oil sampling.
Dimensional requirements of the interface between
gas-insulated switchgear and pipe-type terminations
are specified in IEEE 1300 Standard. Nevertheless, a
close working relationship between the end users,
installers, and manufacturers of GIS gear and the cable
accessory is required.
All termination components between the mounting
plate (point “B”) and the end flange of the GIS gear bus
(point “A”) are rigid and require strict alignment at the
site. It is mandatory to “dry fit” these components prior
to welding the pipe-stub subassembly to the riser pipe,
as shown in Figure 8-71. First, the stand-off insulators,
Figure 8-71 “Dry-Fit” of rigid GIS and termination components (courtesy of G&W Electric Company).
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
mounting plate, and pipe-stub should be loosely
installed on the termination support structure. Then the
GIS housing with the preinstalled interface plate must
be installed to the GIS bus flange and the support hard-
ware on the structure for the GIS housing adjusted. The
next step is to install the termination body with a prein-
stalled pipe-stub insulator onto the interface plate.
Finally, the support hardware on the termination struc-
ture needs to be adjusted so that the bottom flange of
the pipe stub insulator can be attached to the base plate
without force. Only after all hardware on all connec-
tions is tightened to the required torque and all inter-
face flanges are marked with alignment marks can the
pipe stub be welded to the riser pipe.
Internal Pressure Characteristics
The internal pressure characteristics of pipe-type termi-
nations are very important to the system operation since
the terminations are usually at the source of the dielec-
tric fluid supply and at high and low elevations of a
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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
cable system. The termination operating pressures in
these cases may limit the cable system operations.
IEEE Standard 48 specifies the internal operating pres-
sure at which terminations can operate continuously.
Standard internal pressures are 200 psi (1380 kPa) and
300 psi (2070 kPa). A factory withstand pressure test of
2.5 times internal pressure is specified as a routine test.
For higher internal pressures, the standard refers to an
agreement between the customer and manufacturer.
Extra-high strength terminations are available and are
safe to implement. Routine factory tests for extra-high
strength terminations include a 1-hour pressure test at
1000 psi (6900 kPa). It is essential that the pothead pres-
sure rating, riser pipe sizes, the installation of diffusion
chambers on risers, and conductor sizes for the risers
consider not only the short-term ampacity require-
ments, but also future load growth, emergency operat-
ing scenarios, and the resulting possibility that the
utility might need circulation or forced cooling.
The allowable pressure for pipe-type cable terminations
is determined by the strength of the porcelain insulator.
Table 8-10 shows the internal pressure characteristics
for standard- and high-strength terminations.
Maintaining proper pressure in the terminations is criti-
cal to cable system operation. A minimum operating
pressure of 125 psi (860 kPa) at the termination is speci-
fied by most utilities to avoid the chance of termination
failure. Some utilities install pressure switches at the base
of the pothead to initiate urgent alarms or trip the circuit
if pressure drops below a critical value. It is generally
accepted that the minimum pressure that would ensure
continuous suppression of ionization in HPFF systems is
75 psi. A trip point could be as high as 125 psi, leaving a
Table 8-10 Typical Operating Pressures for Pipe-Type
Terminations
Standard High Strength
psi (kPa) psi (kPa)
Nominal operating pressure 200 (1380) 300 (2070)
Max. continuous operating
pressure (over 10 hours)
275 (1895) 410 (2825)
Max. transient pressure
(up to 10 hours)
300 (2070) 450 (3100)
Max. peak transient 400 (2680) 600 (4140)
Max. field (proof) test 350 (2410) 525 (3620)
Factory test (1 hour) 500 (3450) 750 (5170)
Minimum operat- Fluid-filled 125 (860) 125 (860)
ing pressure Gas-filled 150 (1035) 150 (1035)
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
50 psi margin of safety. Utilities also provide backup
power supplies to the pressurizing pumps or provide
other backup pressurization systems to ensure proper
pressures during major power outages. It may be possible
to provide methods to reduce the chances of pothead fail-
ure if all pressure is lost by automatically injecting SF6 if
the pressure drops below 25 psi (175 kPa) (Engelhardt et
al. 1990).
Ampacity of Pipe-type Cable Terminations
The maximum continuous and emergency current load-
ings in the termination are limited by maximum allow-
able temperatures of the cable insulation at the
conductor. Conductor temperature limitations have been
established at 85°C for normal operation and (most com-
monly) to 100°C and 105°C, respectively, for 300-hour
and 100-hour emergencies.
The ampacity rating of pipe-type terminations for typi-
cal self-cooled systems is usually higher than the cable
in-earth for equal conductor sizes, so the terminations
are typically not ampacity limiting. However, termina-
tions are often ampacity limiting with forced-cooled sys-
t e m s, r e q u i r i n g l a rg e r c o n d u c t o r s i z e s i n t h e
terminations and/or supplemental cooling.
The pipe-type terminations are designed to terminate
not only one specific cable but rather to accept a range
of cables. Cables can vary in conductor size and mate-
rial, in insulation type (paper or LPP), and in the thick-
ness of the insulation wall. The external factors that
influence ampacity are ambient temperature, solar radi-
ation, air density, and wind. All these factors need to be
evaluated when establishing the ampacity rating of a
particular termination.
EPRI sponsored three projects for ampacity evaluation
of the terminations. Two projects (EPRI 1975, 1982)
deal with evaluation of termination ampacity in normal
operation, while the third one (EPRI 1986) deals with
the emergency rating of the termination.
Based on a number of experiments on real terminations
in controlled laboratory conditions, computer programs
were developed to calculate termination ampacity
initially in steady-state conditions and then for
emergencies (i.e., an increase of current load above
maximum continuous load). Both matrix and network
models were evaluated, and it was found that a simpler,
network model offers sufficient accuracy. This is
because the vertical heat flow in the termination is
dominated by the heat flow in the cable conductor.
Vertical heat flow caused by oil convection in the
annular space around the cable and paper roll in the
termination can be disregarded and yet still achieve the
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
desired accuracy. The advantages of the network
approach arein the ease of model creation and fast
computation compared to other methods.
A simplified network model for a pipe-type 138 kV out-
door termination is shown in Figure 8-72. The heat con-
ductance in each branch is determined from the geometry
of the termination. The model represents a series of con-
centric shells with varying thermal resistances and capac-
itances, simulating an actual design structure.
The computer method is based on fundamental equa-
tions for the heat balance. For example, heat balance for
node N4 may be expressed by following two equations:
dT
T 4 • S 4 − T 3 • B 6 − TA • B7 − T 5 • B8 = W 4 − H 4 •
dX
S 4 = B 6 + B 7 + B8
Where, T3, T4, and T5 are temperatures at nodes N3,
N4, and N5; TA is temperature at node NA (next to
B7); H4 is heat capacitance connected with the nodal
volume at node N4; and W4 is external heat input at
Figure 8-72 Network model for thermal analysis of a 138-kV outdoor termination
(courtesy of G&W Electric Company).
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
node N4 (in this case, heat generated by current in con-
ductor); B6, B7, and B8 are heat conductances; and
dT/dX is change of temperature in time in node 4.
The output of the computer program is the list of emer-
gency currents for specified emergency periods, selected
pre-emergency loads, conductor starting temperatures
and ambient temperatures.
8.3.4 Self-Contained Fluid-Filled Terminations
A self-contained fluid-filled (SCFF) termination con-
sists of a single-conductor, hollow-core cable with a
metallic sheath, a lower metalwork, a stress-relief cone,
an insulating enclosure that supports the fluid pressure,
a cable connector, and an aerial connector. An example
of an outdoor self-contained termination is shown in
Figure 8-73.
8-1
Se lf - con ta i ned te r mi nat ion s c an be o f t he o ut -
8-2 door/indoor, metal-enclosed GIS, and oil-immersed
transformer type, as described at Section 8.3.1. The
stress-control methods adopted are either geometrical-
capacitive or capacitor-graded up to 500 kV and can be
installed on either paper or LPP cable insulations.
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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
Outdoor /Indoor Terminations General Description
This section reviews the materials and design issues of
the major components that are most important for
SCFF outdoor/indoor terminations.
Lower Metalwork
The lower metalwork includes a wiping sleeve (end bell)
and a mounting flange (base plate).
A wiping sleeve is manufactured from copper alloy,
with an opening to allow it to slide over the cable
sheath. The sleeve is hot-tinned to provide a good
soldering surface. The wiping sleeve is attached to the
metallic sheath by a solder wipe, or by a mechanical
means in the case of some aluminum-sheath cables.
Reinforced wipes are required with double-lead sheaths
or with armored cables operating at pressures above
40 psi (275 kPa). A lead wedge is used to center the
sheath in the wiping sleeve before the wipe is made. A
cable ground boss is commonly supplied, silver-brazed
to the wiping sleeve, to provide easy grounding or
bonding of the cable system.
Figure 8-73 SCFF 420-kV outdoor termination.
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
A mounting flange is used to mount the termination on
a supporting structure and to support the cable sheath.
The mounting flange is generally made of galvanized
mild steel, but with high conductor currents (above
approximately 1000 A) and a small opening in the
mounting plate, stainless steel (or slotted galvanized
mild steel) must be used. Stand-off insulators are used
between the structure and the mounting flange to allow
flexibility in connecting cable metallic sheath to the
ground. Cable systems that are cross-bonded require
mounting insulators.
Stress Cone
The geometrical stress cone consists of an impregnated
kraft-paper roll, carbon-black crepe tape, tinned
copper-shielding braid, and crepe tape cover. Some
termination designs have an additional stress-control
element, which is assembled over the stress cone. The
paper roll is made of electrical-grade kraft paper, which
has been dried and impregnated with a dielectric fluid in
a manner similar to the cable insulation. Some termina-
tions up to 69 kV do not have the additional stress-
control element, which is assembled over the stress cone.
Paper rolls are custom-designed, utilizing a double log
slope to fit a specific cable size. 345 kV and higher
voltage terminations use two or more paper rolls in
series with a crepe tape fill-in between the rolls.
The capacitor-graded design utilizes a factory-made or
site-manufactured preimpregnated paper roll includ-
ing suitably positioned metallic foils (condenser cone)
able to uniformly distribute the stress along the insula-
tor surface.
Insulator Housing Assembly
The insulator housing assembly consists of a porcelain
insulator with sheds of suitable creepage and with a non-
magnetic upper metalwork, generally of stainless steel.
The insulating enclosure is designed to operate at fluid
pressure of 15-100 psi (105-690 kPa). A corona shield is
normally adopted in order to screen the sharp edges of
the upper metalwork and avoid corona effects. Capacitor-
graded terminations using doughnut capacitors are
factory-assembled. The termination is sealed and pres-
surized with a dielectric gas before shipment. A test
bushing is provided on the body for measuring the capac-
itance and power factor before and after installation. All
test data should be retained for future reference in the
event of problems.
Cable Connector
The cable connector, through its stem, provides a gasket
seal and mechanical attachment to the termination
upper metalwork. Copper connectors are generally
pressed on with a 4-ram press. The connector is
equipped with a fluid valve, which allows the fluid flow
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories

to be reduced during construction and the evacuation of bonded systems is generally obtained through the use of
the termination. The termination is evacuated to 500 a sectionalizing ring attached to the end bell.
micrometers or less and then filled with a degassed
Stress Cone
dielectric fluid. After the termination has been impreg-
The construction of the stress cone is the same as
nated, the fluid valve is opened and removed from the
described earlier for outdoor terminations.
connector stem.
Insulator Housing Assembly
Aerial Connector
The insulator housing assembly consists of an epoxy
The aerial connector attaches the cable connector to the
resin insulator whose dimensions generally comply with
electrical system. If the termination connector is to be
IEC 60859 specifications (IEC 1999). In some designs,
connected to a flat or round bus, a flexible connection is
the top of the insulator incorporates a solid high-voltage
recommended. Cantilever forces should be kept to a
aluminum electrode to prevent any ingress of the pres-
minimum on any HV termination.
surized fluid, especially SF6, into the cable.
Internal Pressure Characteristics
Cable Connector
Internal pressure characteristics of SCFF terminations
In the case of open-top insulators, the connector stem
are very important to the system operation because the
provides a gasket seal and mechanical attachment of the
terminations are usually at the high and low elevations
cable to the insulator. If the insulator is blind, a plug-in
of the cable system. The operating pressures in these
connector is required in order to transmit the current
cases may limit cable system operations.
from the conductor to the high-voltage electrode. The
locking of the conductor is accomplished through
The internal pressure characteristics are determined by
spring-loaded pins.
the thickness of the copper body wiping-sleeve assem-
bly. Table 8-11 shows the internal pressure ratings for
SCFF terminations.
SF6/ Oil-Immersed Terminations General
Description
This section reviews the materials and design issues of
the major components that are most important for
SCFF SF6 and oil-immersed terminations. Figure 8-74
shows a typical SCFF SF6- immersed termination.
Lower Metalwork
Details are the same as described earlier for outdoor ter-
minations. The insulation of the cable from the equip-
ment and the mounting structure for single-point

Table 8-11 Typical Operating Pressures for Self-Contained

Terminations
High
Standard Medium Strength psi
psi (kPa) psi (kPa) (kPa)
Nominal operating pressure 15 (105) 40 (275) 100 (690)
Max. continuous operating
22 (150) 55 (380) 138 (950)
pressure (over 10 hours)
Max. transient pressure
24 (165) 60 (415) 150 (1035)
(up to 10 hours)
Max. peak transient 32 (220) 80 (550) 200 (1380)
Max. field (proof) test 28 (195) 70 (485) 175 (1205)
Factory test (1 hour) 40 (275) 100 (690) 250 (1725)

Figure 8-74 SCFF SF6-immersed 420-kV termination.

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Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
Bus Bar Connector
A bus bar connector is used to connect the cable con-
nector or the top of the electrode (in blind top designs)
to the apparatus bus bar. For SF6-immersed termina-
tions, the dimensions and characteristics of this connec-
tion are standardized by IEC 60859 specifications. For
transformer terminations, the connection is flexible and
screened by a suitable corona shield.
8.3.5 Industry Specifications and Standards
IEEE Standard 48-1996, “Standard Test Procedures
and Requirements for Alternating-Current Cable
Terminations, 2.5 kV through 765 kV” covers all
outdoor, apparatus, and indoor terminations used on ac
cables having a laminated or extruded insulation.
Compressed-gas-insulated terminations are not covered
in this standard.
This standard specifies the design and production tests
for laminated-dielectric cable terminations assembled
and ready for service for insulation classes up to 765 kV,
a n d fo r ex t r ud e d - di e l e c t ri c c abl e t e r m i n at i o n s
assembled and ready for service for insulation classes up
to 230 kV.
The test sequences for design tests for both extruded
cable and laminated cable terminations are specified. A
minimum of four samples are required for dielectric
design tests, two of which have to undergo a 30-day
cyclic aging test at double line-to-ground voltage with
cable conductor temperature within 5°C of the cable
maximum rated emergency operating temperature for a
period of six hours in each cycle. The partial discharge
design tests are required only for terminations for
extruded cables, and the ionization design tests are
required only for laminated cable terminations.
Routine (production) tests require dielectric tests on the
termination insulator, and pressure and leak tests on
components and factory-assembled seals.
IEEE Standard 1300-1996 (reaffirmed in 2002), “IEEE
Guide for Cable Connections for Gas Insulated Substa-
tions” provides the basis for coordination of design,
material supply, installation, and test procedures for the
connection of the termination into gas-insulated substa-
tion (GIS).
IEC international standards are applicable to the trans-
mission cable terminations up to the voltage of 500 kV.
The electrical test requirements are the same as those
indicated for the joints in Section 8.2.5. Specific IEC
8-66
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
standards relevant to terminations and to the composite
insulators are also available and are listed below:
• IEC 60859 “Cable connections for gas-insulated
switchgear for rated voltages of 72.5 kV and above.”
• IEC 60815 “Guide for the selection and dimension-
ing of high voltage insulators for polluted conditions
– Part 1: Definitions, information and general princi-
ples.”
• IEC 61462 “Composite Insulators—Hollow insula-
tors for use in outdoor and indoor electrical equip-
ment—Definitions, test methods, acceptance criteria,
and design recommendations.”
• IEC 62217 “Polymeric insulators for indoor and out-
door use with a nominal voltage greater than
1000V—General definitions, test methods, and
acceptance criteria.”
For terminations installed in polluted environments, it is
necessary to evaluate the long-term behavior of the
polymeric housing, which despite porcelain insulators,
is subjected to aging. For this reason, IEC 62217 has
introduced an accelerated aging cycle of up to 5000
hours duration where, in addition to the voltage, differ-
ent environmental stresses are applied to the full-size
termination or to a representative test insulator—i.e.,
UV radiation, salt fog, steam fog, rain, drying periods.
More test details are described in Chapter 14.
8.4 OTHER ACCESSORIES
High-voltage cable systems are complex, and a number
of ancillary accessories may be needed in order to allow
the system to operate in a proper manner and guarantee
the requested performances.
8.4.1 Sheath Bonding, Sectionalizing, Link
Boxes, and Sheath Voltage Limiters
Sheath interrupts, link boxes, and sheath voltage limit-
ers are important components for the bonding of
extruded-dielectric and SCFF cable systems. Sheath
bonding alternatives and basic bonding design princi-
ples are discussed in detail in Chapter 10.
Sectionalizing—Metallic Screen/Shield/Sheath
Interruptions
Many troubles will be encountered with the specially
bonded metallic sheath arrangement if there is a lack of
attention to surge protection for the shield interruptions
required for any special shield/sheath bonding system.
Any termination of the shield represents a dielectric dis-
continuity and point of intense electrical stress if not
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
adequately relieved in the design. In addition, it is a
location at which an incoming transient overvoltage will
be reflected and multiplied in magnitude, possibly
doubling or more depending on design.
The shield interruption must prevent current flow in
both the metallic shield/sheath as well as in the semi-
conductive insulation shield (which cannot carry more
than charging current levels without significant
heating) and simultaneously provide for electrostatic
shielding of the underlying cable insulation. For the
insulation shield interruption, a thin layer of suitable
insulating material is applied over one side of the
interrupted area, then the shield of the other side is
extended over the insulating layer to overlap it,
providing electrostatic shielding by capacitive coupling.
In prefabricated accessories, the interruption is
no r ma l ly i nc or po rate d in t h e f a c t or y -m a de
components or placed in a low electric stress position.
Some designs of interruptions for extruded cables
incorporate a pad of metal-oxide-loaded, high-
dielectric-constant polymeric material immediately over
the insulation at the interruption to serve as a primary
surge suppressor backed up by the sheath voltage
limiters connected externally.
For sheathed cables, the metallic shield is usually inter-
rupted by inserting a cast-epoxy insulating flange in the
splice sleeve. For wire-shielded unsheathed cables, it is
customary to terminate the wires at the splice ends and
to extend the metal shielding with copper mesh and
overlap it along with the overlapped insulation shield. In
special cases, similar interruptions have been incorpo-
rated in the shields of extruded-dielectric cables at loca-
tions in the cable run itself, but this solution is
applicable only to low-insulation screen stress cables.
Figure 8-4 shows a splice with a shield interrupt.
In all cases, it is essential that the dielectric strengths,
and the ac, impulse, and switching surge levels of the
interruptions pass the required tests and be coordinated
with the calculated magnitudes of standing ac and tran-
sient overvoltages for the circuit in the system fault con-
ditions.
Cable Jacket (Outer Sheath)
The reliability of specially bonded systems is totally
dependent on the integrity of the insulating jacket, which
must permanently withstand standing and transient volt-
ages without breakdown or significant current leakage.
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
A routine factory test is recommended in order to ascer-
tain the integrity of the cable jacket (IEC 60229, ICEA S-
108-720). Many polymers with varying density grades
are used as jacketing materials. Irrespective of the mate-
rial chosen, it is mandatory that maintenance testing be
conducted at regular intervals to ensure integrity over
the life of the cable circuit. This is usually done with a dc
test potential of a few kV to perhaps 15 kV depending on
jacket material, thickness, manner of installation, and
sometimes service age of the circuit. To facilitate inter-
preting leakage-current results over time, it is recom-
mended practice, especially for cables installed in ducts
with high insulating rating, to apply a conducting surface
to the outside of the jacket to serve as a ground electrode
for conducting dc tests between the metallic sheath or
shield and ground. Deposited, tightly adhering graphite
coatings are commonly used; some manufacturers
extrude a thin layer of semiconducting jacket material
directly over the insulating jacket.
Link Boxes
There are as many styles and designs of link boxes as
there are hybrid cable configurations for special bond-
ing. The principal function of each is to provide reason-
ably easy access to the sheath-bonding connections for
inspection and removal of grounds to permit testing the
cable’s insulating jacket for integrity. For this reason, the
link boxes are generally located in manholes or pillars.
A t l o c at i o n s wh e r e ov e r vo l t ag e p ro t e c t i o n o f
shield/sheath interruptions is provided, the link box
contains the sheath voltage limiters physically and elec-
trically close to the points to be protected. Figure 8-75
shows a link box of the diving-bell-lid–type, containing
sheath voltage limiters. Completely sealed link boxes
with a bolted lid are today usually adopted.
The link box design must comply with the following
requirements:
• The links inside the box must be able to carry the
maximum foreseen short-circuit current and to sup-
port the relevant electrodynamic forces.
• The clearances between the different links must with-
stand an impulse voltage equal to two times the resid-
ual voltage of the sheath voltage limiter at 10 kA 8/20
µs current plus a 25% safety factor (ELECTRA
1990a).
• It is essential for the link box to be watertight; for this
reason, it must pass a type test consisting of water
8-67
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
immersion followed by a voltage withstand test
(ELECTRA 1981).
Disconnecting link boxes—usually without sheath volt-
age limiters, except for rare terminal configurations—
are frequently used at terminal base plates and normally
grounded splice locations to facilitate jacket testing.
Connections between components and the link box are
often made with coaxial cables to minimize inductive
reactance between the device and ground to optimize
the protective level.
Sheath Voltage Limiters (SVLs)
Sheath voltage limiters (also called surge diverters) are
usually classified according to their performance with
respect to:
• voltage at power frequency that can be withstood for
a conventional duration, generally 2 seconds (voltage
induced on the cable metallic sheath during short cir-
cuits)
• residual voltage appearing at its ends when a tran-
sient current 8/20 µs having amplitude 10 kA flows
through it (current flowing along the cable metallic
sheath as a consequence of transient overvoltages).
Figure 8-75 Link box with sheath voltage limiters
8-68
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
In principle, three different types of SVLs can be
adopted: spark gaps, nonlinear resistors in series with
spark gaps, and nonlinear resistors alone.
Simple metal spark gaps used in earlier practice proved
unreliable because, following an operation (flashover),
their electrodes were found to have fused together, thus
obviating the special bonding method being employed.
Another disadvantage is that they present delays in
their response when very steeply rising transient over-
voltages occur.
Nonlinear resistors in series with a spark gap can pre-
vent the damage due to the power frequency current
(limited by the resistor), but their response to steeply ris-
ing waves is inevitably slower than that of the nonlinear
resistor alone.
Nonlinear resistors, also called metal oxide varistors
(MOVs), offer immediate response to steeply rising
overvoltages, and, if correctly used within their service
limits, are subject to no deterioration under working
conditions. For this reason, they have effectively sup-
planted gapped arresters of all types. However, they
must be protected from moisture, and their energy dissi-
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories

pation capacity (in case of switching surges) must be performed at 5 kVdc; in fact, the current that they
carefully chosen. absorb in this condition is negligible.
Bonding Leads
Among metal oxide varistors, the zinc-oxide-type is
The bonding lead is the insulated conductor forming the
preferable compared to the silicone carbide type due to
connection between the metallic screen of the HV cable
its better nonlinear voltage versus current characteristic
termination or the joint and the relevant link box. The
(see Figure 8-76), smaller dimensions, and lower sensi-
bonding lead should be capable of sustaining the short-
tivity to the application of repeated transient overvolt-
circuit current of the system.
ages (Par migiani 1986). To minimize the risk of
moisture absorption, the metal oxide blocks are usually
Bonding leads interposed between the cable accessory
encapsulated in an epoxy resin casting or placed in a
(joint or termination) and the SVL inevitably reduce
suitable container. Intermediate-class, medium-voltage
somewhat the protective effect of the SVLs. To keep this
arresters, generally in the range of 3-10 kV, are used as
effect to a minimum, they should be as short as possible
SVLs (see Figure 8-77).
and of concentric type. If nonconcentric bonding leads
are used for the SVL connection, they should be laid
Reference (Ball et al. 1965; CIGRE 2005) and others
bunched together. In those conditions where the link
listed in ANSI Standard 575 give insight into selecting
boxes are very close to the joints, bundling the leads
the appropriate rating for the overvoltages associated
may not be practical, but is not needed due to the low
with individual cases.
inductance (CIGRE 2005).
Zinc oxide varistors with a discharge voltage above
The bonding lead must have the insulation level coordi-
5 kVac need not be removed from the link box during
nated with that of the sectionalizing of the joint.
the periodic integrity test of the cable jacket, generally

Figure 8-76 Voltage-current characteristic of SiC and ZnO nonlinear resistors.

Figure 8-77 SVL metal oxide surge diverters (courtesy of ABB).

8-69
Chapter 8: Cable Systems Accessories
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IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems.
vol. 89, no.6, July/August 1970.
Watanabe, Y. et al. 1986. “Development of New 500 kV
Laminated Paper Insulated Self-Contained Oil-Filled
Cable and its Accessories.” IEEE Transactions, Paper 86
SM 390-9.
Weedy, B. M., and J. P. Perkins. 1967. “Steady State
Thermal Analysis of a 400 kV Cable
Through-Joint.” Proceedings of the IEEE. Vol. 114.
Willems, H. et al. 1995. “A New Generation of HV and
EHV Extruded Cable System” Jicable 1995 Paper A.1.6.
Yagisawa, K. et al. 1990. “Development of Extrusion
‘Type Molded Joint for 275 kV and 500 kV XLPE
Cables.” Hitachi Cable Review. No.9. August.
Acknowledgments:
• CIGRE for the provided large technical documenta-
tion
• Bruno Parmigiani for the important technical contri-
bution
8-73
 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

CHAPTER 9 Hydraulic Design and

Equipment
Author: Dave Purnhagen, Underground Systems Inc. (USi)
Reviewer: Jay A. Williams, Power Delivery Consultants, Inc. (PDC)

Hydraulic or gas management systems are essential for the operation of many types of
underground high-voltage cables including high-pressure fluid-filled pipe-type, self-
contained fluid-filled, and high-pressure gas-filled pipe-type cables. The hydraulic or gas
system functions as a means to provide pressure, thus enhancing the dielectric properties
of the cables, and also as a heat transfer medium. This chapter discusses hydraulic system
theory, equipment, and application. It provides the engineer with the basic formulae to
design the hydraulic system and assess its performance. The various types of equipment
for pressurizing and cooling cable systems are also treated. Finally, a section is devoted to
system design guidelines, including such issues as reliability and environmental impact.

Dave Purnhagen has over 35 years of experience designing forced-

cooling and hydraulic equipment for underground fluid-filled cable
systems and the complex data acquisition and control systems
associated with forced-cooled cable systems. He has engineered many of
the cooling systems, including refrigerated systems, presently utilized on
electric utility pipe-type cables. He designed the Electric Power
Research Institute forced-cooling facility at Waltz Mill and as principal
investigator conducted a four-year experimental program to determine
design parameters for forced-cooled cable systems. The results were published in 1984 in
the Designer’s Handbook for Forced-Cooled High-Pressure Oil-Filled Pipe-Type Cable
Systems, which is considered the industry standard for forced-cooled calculations and
guidance for cooling system design. Mr. Purnhagen went on to develop the concept of
forced-cooled dynamic feeder rating systems and ultra-high-sensitivity leak detection
systems for high–pressure, pipe-type fluid-filled and self-contained fluid-filled cables. As
guest scientist at Brookhaven National Lab, he worked with the tracer technology
scientific staff to develop equipment and strategies for implementing perfluorocarbon
tracers for cable leak location.

Mr. Purnhagen has been active in professional organizations and has chaired
IEEE/PES/ICC Task Groups on Forced Cooling and has served as Convener of CIGRE
working group 21-08 on forced-cooled cables. He is well published with over 30 industry
publications related to underground pipe-type cable systems and has delivered many
industry presentations and seminars.

9-1
Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The pressures of dielectric fluid-filled cable systems vary
principally due to loading induced thermal cycles and to
seasonal environmental temperatures. The need for
hydraulic accessories and equipment arises from the
requirement to control these pressures such that the
pressure-bearing capability of components is not
exceeded and that the dielectric integrity of the insula-
tion system is not compromised at low pressures. In
addition, hydraulic systems can be utilized to improve
heat transfer from the cable systems by circulation and
forced cooling. Forced-cooling equipment places addi-
tional burdens on the pressure regulation equipment.
The hydraulic system may also be required to identify
and possibly control fluid losses in case of a breech of
the containment system.
Chapter 9 reviews hydraulic design and equipment.
Section 9.2 outlines engineering design principles.
Section 9.3 identifies the calculations for expulsion,
demand, and pressure drop due to flow. Section 9.4
describes pressurization equipment, and Section 9.5
covers forced-cooling equipment. Section 9.6 reviews
considerations for system design. Section 9.7 presents a
worked example.
The term “hydraulic” is loosely applied to cover both
liquid dielectric fluids (oil) as well as gas (nitrogen).
Accessory equipment and calculating procedures for
High Pressure Fluid Filled (HPFF) pipe-type, High
Pressure Gas Filled (HPGF) pipe-type, and Self Con-
tained Fluid Filled (SCFF) cable systems are covered.
In Chapter 9, The International System of Units (SI) is
used, with English units in parentheses. SI units are con-
sistent with information in Chapter 11 and other refer-
ences needed to complete the calculations, and English
units are the most common for general discussion. Pres-
sure refers to gauge pressure, whether it is in SI units
(Pascals) or English units (lbf/in 2 = psi), unless it is
specified as absolute pressure.
Section 11.4, “Forced Cooling” in Chapter 11 is
required to obtain dielectric fluid properties, and the
worked example of Chapter 11 should be utilized to
supply the temperatures for the worked example in this
chapter. The principal additional references with which
the reader should become familiarized are: Oil Flow and
Pressure Calculations for Pipe-Type Cable Systems
(AIEE 1955), Oil Flow and Pressure Calculations for
Self-Contained Oil-Filled Cable Systems (Buller et al.
1956), and Designer’s Handbook for Forced Cooled
High-Pressure Oil-Filled Pipe-Type Cable Systems
(Purnhagen 1984).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
9.2 ENGINEERING DESIGN PRINCIPLES
9.2.1 Cable System Pressure Limits
The low-pressure limit is determined by the dielectric
properties of the pressurized cable insulation system and
depends on the design of the cable. It has been shown
that ac breakdown strengths of oil-impregnated paper
can improve by 30-40% between pressures of 0.34 and
1.03 MPa (50 to 150 psi) (Lanfranconi et al. 1974), but
only 10-15% additional improvement is realized by rais-
ing the pressure another 0.69 MPa (100 psi). The high-
pressure limit is established by the pressure limitations
of pressure-bearing components in the system such as a
termination or cable sheath. Transient conditions can be
taken into consideration for the high-pressure limits if
the limit is based on a mechanical stress.
HPFF Cable System
HPFF cables take advantage of the nominal improve-
ment in ac breakdown strength above 1.03 MPa
(150 psi) by operating in the upper 1–1.7 MPa (200-
250 psi) range, because the steel encasement permits this
without penalty. Furthermore, HPFF cables are
exposed to gas during installation and operation, and
operating at elevated pressures ensures that all gas
remains in solution, inhibiting ionization. It is generally
accepted that the minimum pressure that would ensure
continuous suppression of ionization in HPFF systems
is 0.52 MPa (75 psi), but most utilities limit the mini-
mum operating pressure to 0.69–0.83 MPa (100–
120 psi). Normal operating pressure levels in the 1.4–1.7
MPa (200-250 psi) range provide a healthy margin of
safety for system transients, pressure losses due to leaks,
and other hydraulic disturbances. Recently, normal
operation somewhat below these nominal pressures has
been explored to optimize forced-cooled operation. In
these cases, pressures are closely monitored and con-
trolled by Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)-based
systems, which provide alarming, control, and safety
shutdown capability. The high-pressure limitation in
static HPFF cable systems is usually the termination.
Chapter 8, Section 8.3.3, provides a table of termination
high-pressure limits for various normal and transient
conditions. In a forced-cooled system, the high-pres-
sure limit may be piping or a component near the dis-
charge of the pump, not necessarily the termination.
SCFF Cable System
SCFF cables operate under the principle that all gas is
eliminated from the cable insulation system during
installation and operation. Operating pressures are
thereby established by the dielectric requirements of
each voltage class system and the pressure-bearing capa-
bility of the cable sheath. The pressure transient during
cable loading or unloading and the axial distribution of
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment

pressures under these conditions are other important The thermal expansion for a given volume can be
considerations when establishing the nominal operating expressed by:
pressure. SCFF cables are usually classified as “low
pressure,” when nominal operating pressures may be in ∆Vtn = β n ·Vn ·(T2 n - T1n ) m3 9-1
the 14-414 kPa (2-60 psi) range, or “high pressure,” Where:
which utilize pressures that exceed 414 kPa (60 psi) and n = an integer referencing a cable component.
may be as high as 1379 kPa (200 psi). Pressure is main- ∆Vtn = change in volume due to temperature
tained on “low-pressure” SCFF cables by accumulator- change, m3.
style reservoirs, as described in Section 9.4.3, and on βn = coefficient of volumetric thermal expan-
“high-pressure” SCFF cables by an active pumping sion, 1/°C.
plant. In both cases, gas contact with the dielectric fluid T2n = temperature at condition 2, °C.
is eliminated. T1n = temperature at condition 1, °C.
HPGF Cable System
The pressure-related volumetric change of a component
HPGF cables are similar to HPFF cables, except that
can be expressed by:
nitrogen with nominal pressures in the 1.4 – 1.7 MPa
(200-250 psi) range is utilized to transmit pressure to
the insulation. The insulation is impregnated with a (
∆Vp n = α n ·Vn · P2 n - P1n ) m3 9-2
very viscous fluid, and is somewhat thicker than corre- Where:
sponding voltage class HPFF cables. The maximum n = an integer referencing a cable component.
operating voltages of HPGF cables are limited to ∆Vpn = change in volume due to pressure change,
138 kV. The advantage is that the pressurized gas dis- m3.
tributed along the length of the system absorbs the αn = compressibility factor, 1/Pa.
pressure changes due to loading and seasonal tempera- P2n = Pressure at condition 2, Pa.
ture changes without complex peripheral equipment. P1n = Pressure at condition 1, Pa.
Additionally, these cables can be installed in areas with
significant elevation differences along the route, Table 9-1 lists suggested values for the thermal expan-
because they are not limited due to extreme pressure sion coefficients and compressibility for common cable
differences that could limit a fluid-filled cable system. materials.
The minimum pressure preventing ionization in HPGF
cables is not well documented. Typical operating
Table 9-1 Volumetric Thermal Expansion Coefficients and
practice is to alarm low pressures at approximately
Compressibility Modulus for Common Cable Materials
1.24 Mpa (180 psi) and disconnect at 1.03 Mpa (150
psi). As with HPFF cables, the high-pressure limit is Volumetric Coef- Volumetric
ficient of Thermal Compressibil-
usually restricted by the terminations. Material
Expansion, β ity Modulus, α
(1/ °C) (1/Pa)
9.2.2 Basic Hydraulic Equations Copper .000039
The primary need for pressure regulation is a result of Aluminum .000052
Lead .000066 Negligible
thermal expansion and contraction of cable compo-
nents, primarily the dielectric fluid in fluid-pressurized Steel .000027
systems. The increase in pressure also alters the geome- Impregnated Paper .00028 8.28 x 10-10
try of the cable system by expanding the containment Dielectric Fluid – Mineral .00075
(i.e., pipe or sheath) and compressing internal compo- Dielectric Fluid – Poly-
.00079
butene
nents. The increase in pressure also drives the free fluid 6.91 x 10-10
Dielectric Fluid – Alkylben-
along the cable’s axis in the fluid containment section of zene
.00081
the cable. The basic equations describing these hydraulic
phenomena are given in this section.

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Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

The cable component volume, Vn (m3), is computed by: The reader is directed to Section 11.4 for a thorough
treatment of pressure drop in cable systems. The static
⎡ ⎛ D ⎞2 ⎛D ⎞ ⎤
2
hydraulic head due to an elevation change is:
Vn = Fn ·π ·⎢ N n ⎜ n ⎟ − N n −1 ⎜ n −1 ⎟ ⎥·L m3 9-3
⎣⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦⎥ ∆Pelev = γ·g c ·∆ h Pa 9-6
Where: Where:
Fn = material fill of each cable component, γ = density of fluid, kg/m3.
dimensionless. gc = gravitational conversion constant, m/s2.
Dn = outer diameter of cable component, m. ∆h = elevation difference, m.
Dn-1 = inner diameter of cable component, m.
N = number of cable components, dimension- In general, a thermal expansion increases pressure in a
less small axial section of cable, creating a pressure differen-
L = length of cable section, m. tial, driving the fluid along the axis of the cable toward a
point of egress. By dividing the cable into small axial
The Fn term is the fill of the specific material within the increments, a hydrodynamic solution can be obtained
cylinder defined by D n and D n-1 . The fill (F n ) for the through system partial differential equations, combin-
metallic portion of compact segmental conductors is ing the phenomena described by Equations 9-1 through
approximately 0.84, and the impregnated paper in the 9-5. The static hydraulic head, Equation 9-6, is then
insulation cylinder is approximately 0.50. The remaining superimposed for a total solution. These equations are
oil fill for the conductor and insulation is 0.16 and 0.50, usually solved numerically and only justified if
respectively. The fill for the copper portion of a SCFF extremely accurate modeling of system volumetric flows
keystone conductor can approach unity. is required. This approach is used in high-sensitivity
leak-detection systems (Engelhardt and Purnhagen
The containment component (i.e., pipe or sheath) is 1991) and sometimes for long-length SCFF cable sys-
computed by: tems. For most applications, simplifying assumptions
2 such as ignoring the compressibility terms for reservoir
⎛D ⎞
Vcont = π ⎜ m ⎟ ·L m3 9-4
sizing or the axial pressure distribution due to thermal
⎝ 2 ⎠ expansion in HPFF cables can be made so that the
Where: equations can be used independently.
Dm = inner diameter of cable containment com-
ponent, m. 9.2.3 Thermal and Hydraulic Driving Forces
The primary thermal and hydraulic driving forces that
The frictional pressure gradient along the length of the affect cable system hydraulics are: (1) cable loading, (2)
cable due to flow can be expressed by: ambient thermal cycles, (3) elevation changes, and (4)
forced cooling. A solution to Equation 9-1 requires
∆P γ·V 2 coupling to the thermal equations needed to compute
= K f f· , Pa/m 9-5 the temperatures of cable components at the condi-
∆x 2·D h tions of interest—i.e., T1n and T2n. These equations are
Where: described in Chapter 11. Knowledge of the ambient
Kf = correction factor, dimensionless. earth temperature is also required to determine the
f = friction factor, dimensionless. overall operating temperature range for reservoir siz-
γ = density of fluid, kg/m3. ing. Finally, forced cooling can create additional
V = velocity, m/s. demands on the hydraulic system by rapidly impress-
∆x = length, m. ing reduced temperatures upon the cable system and at
Dh = hydraulic diameter, m. the same time redistributing pressures due to flow fric-
tional losses.

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
9.3 HYDRAULIC CALCULATIONS
9.3.1 Expulsion Calculation
The term “expulsion” is used to designate the fluid that
is expelled from the cable system due to thermal expan-
sion and must be accepted by the reservoir. Although
the term denotes positive flow from the cable, the equa-
tions are equally valid for contraction, or negative flow.
For the purpose of sizing reservoirs, the compressibility
term in Equation 9-2 is usually ignored, and only the
effect of thermal expansion effects is considered. The
general equation for expulsion (Vxp) is:
m
V xp = ∑ ∆Vt n − ∆Vt cont
n =1
Where:
∆Vtcont = the change in containment volume
Therefore the expulsion for HPFF cable becomes:
VHPFFxp = 3·(∆Vt cond + ∆Vt ins ) + ∆Vt oil - ∆Vt pipe
Where:
∆Vtcond = ∆Vtcond metal + ∆Vtcond oil
∆Vtins = ∆Vtins paper + ∆Vtins oil
The expulsion for a single-conductor SCFF cable
becomes:
VSCFFxp = ∆Vt oilduct + ∆Vt cond + ∆Vt insul − ∆Vt sheath
For reinforced or ar mored sheaths, the ar mor is
mechanically coupled to the sheath, preventing it from
expanding freely. Although it is possible to explicitly
calculate this effect, it is suggested that the expansion
coefficient for the sheath be modified by a 0.80 multipli-
cation factor to account for the armor.
Similarly, expulsion equations for any cable type, such
as for three-conductor oil-filled cables can be generated
by summing the internal components volumetric
changes, ∆Vtn terms, then subtracting the containment
volumetric change, ∆Vtcont.
HPGF cable systems rely on pressure variations within
the pipe to accommodate expansion and contraction of
Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment
components. The pressure change of a HPGF cable
system can be computed by coupling the volumetric
equation to the Boyle’s Law equation (Equations 9-10
and 9-11):
( )
Vk HPGF = Vk pipe − 3· Vk cond + Vk ins m3 9-10
V1HPGF
P2 HPGF = P1HPGF · Pa 9-11
V2 HPGF
Where:
k = an integer denoting a condition—i.e., 1 =
initial condition, 2 = final condition.
m3 9-7
P = absolute pressure, Pa.
9.3.2 Demand Calculations
The term “demand” denotes the rate of change of fluid
volume or “flow rate” required to maintain a desired
pressure in a cable system. The peak demand is a result
of cable unloading, usually from its highest emergency
m3 9-8 operating temperature. The demand calculation dictates
the capacity of the pressure delivery system from
reservoir to cable. The demand calculation is accom-
plished by computing the rate of temperature change at
small time increments ∆t, over the entire transient
period using the transient thermal equations of Chapter
11 or equation 9-12. Generally, for HPFF cables, the
axial pressure gradient due to thermal expansion flows
m3 9-9 can be ignored and the computed temperature changes
can be directly applied to the expulsion equation,
Equation 9-7. The computation is conducted for
successive time increments until the maximum or peak
value for demand is obtained. The demand equation in
general terms is then:
⎛ m ⎞
⎜ ∑ ∆Vt n − ∆Vt cont ⎟
QDemand = ⎝ n =1 ⎠ m3/s 9-12
dt
It should also be noted that, in actual practice, with
multiple cables and/or fluid-return pipes in close prox-
imity, the thermal interaction between these systems
must be taken into account when evaluating fluid
demand. For example, with many parallel cable installa-
9-5
Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

tions, the loss of one cable circuit results in a rapid also be considered. This is computed by Equation 9-13,
increase in load in the companion circuit. as follows:
HPFF Cable System Qfc = Qcp · βoil · (Tin-Tout) m3/s 9-13
The required capacity of the pump is determined by Where:
computing the maximum demand due to current Qcp = Cooling plant flow, m3/s.
unloading, as well as the demand that can be caused by βoil = Thermal expansion coefficient of oil, 1/°C.
forced-cooling equipment. Cooling of the dielectric Tin = Inlet temperature to cooling plant, °C.
fluid, as well as the pressure redistribution due to the Tout = Outlet temperature of cooling plant, °C.
pump during startup conditions, can create the demand
caused by forced-cooling equipment. Another factor affecting demand in forced-cooled
cable systems is the transient redistribution of
The per-unit-length demand due to cable unloading pressures during the startup transient of the pump. By
(ahpff), has been computed numerically using Equation applying Equation 9-2 to the oil volume and dividing
9-12 for several common HPFF cable constructions and by the time to redistribute pressures, the following
is presented in Figure 9-1. The starting condition is expression for demand due to pressure redistribution
100°C, 300-hr emergency followed by an abrupt (Qpr) can be generated:
disconnection of load. Although the curves of Figure 9-
1 are illustrative of typical demand curves, it should be Qpr = ∆Vpoil/∆tpr m3/s 9-14
noted that there might be load scenarios that cause Where:
greater demands. ∆tpr = the time to redistribute pressures from P1
to P2.
If the cable system is forced cooled, the additional
demand caused by the cool-down transient (Qc) from a If the cable system is of uniform geometry, then average
self-cooled condition to a forced-cooled condition must system pressures can be taken for P1n and P2 n. If, for
instance, an un-cabled pipe is used in the forced-cooling
loop, then the average pressure of that volume must be
separated from the cabled pipe. If the pressure redistri-

Figure 9-1 Per-unit-length demand vs. time for several HPFF cable constructions
following a sudden disconnection of emergency load.

9-6
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
bution demand is negative, because average pressures
are decreasing during the pump startup transient, then
the Qpr term can be ignored in Equation 9-14.
The required pump capacity (Qhpff) is then:
Qhpff = ahpff ·L·Ka Qfc + Qpr m3/s 9-15
+
Where:
L = length of cable, m.
ahpff = per-unit-length demand due to cable
unloading, m2/s
Ka = 1.666x10-8, conversion factor (converts
cm3/min)
Qpr = demand due to pressure redistribution,
m3/s)
Qfc = demand due to a forced-cooled cool-down
transient, m3/s
The pump size should be selected on the basis of
Equation 9-15 with a reasonable safety factor applied
such as 1.2-1.5. Over-sizing the pump may be counter-
productive, causing rapid pump cycling of the pump
during normal operation and overfeeding a leak in case
of a leak. The designer should also consider the
likelihood of coincident events, such as a sudden discon-
nection of load while the cooling plant is rapidly cooling
the system, or provide the control means to prevent the
simultaneous occurrence of such events.
SCFF Cable System
The fluid demand in SCFF cables is principally a result
of the thermal transient due to current unloading.
Figure 9-2 Per-unit-length demand vs. time for several types of SCFF cable construction
following a sudden disconnection of emergency load.
Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment
Unlike HPFF cable systems the axial pressure gradient
due to thermal flows in SCFF cables cannot be ignored
(see Section 9.3.3). In addition, the pressure sources
(reservoirs) may have complex volumetric – pressure
relationships and need to be coupled to the system
model. Calculating temperatures at successive time
increments using the appropriate transient methodolo-
gies in Chapter 11 and coupling these temperatures to
the demand, Equation 9-12 can determine SCFF fluid
demands. The per-unit-length demand due to cable
unloading (ascff), has been computed numerically for
several common SCFF cable constructions and is pre-
sented in Figure 9-2. The starting condition is 100°C,
300-hr emergency, followed by an abrupt disconnection
of load. Although the curves of Figure 9-2 are illustra-
tive of typical demand curves, it should be noted that
there might be load scenarios that cause greater
demands.
The one-dimensional demand (point location) is then:
Qscff = ascff · L · Ka m3/s 9-16
The demand (Qscff) must then be coordinated with the
pressure profile of the cable system, axial pressure drop
due to thermal flows and characteristics of the reser-
voirs. This is generally accomplished by computing axial
pressure distribution curves using a model such as that
described in Section 9.3.3 at each successive time inter-
val, and under a number of loading scenarios. Reservoir
design and size are then adjusted such that the maxi-
mum and minimum pressure limits are not exceeded.
9-7
Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment
HPGF Cable System
The demand requirements for HPGF systems are not
an issue, because the contraction due to cable loading
is accommodated by the compressibility of the nitro-
gen medium, which is distributed along the length of
the system.
9.3.3 Pressure Drop Due to Flow
HPFF Cables
Pressure losses due to thermal expansion flows can usu-
ally be ignored in HPFF cables. However, certain older
systems with small-diameter pipes (< 152 mm, 6 in.) and
very viscous fluids such as high-viscosity polybutene
and high-viscosity mineral oil (HVP, HVM) can exhibit
significant pressure drops due to thermal expan-
sion/contraction (AIEE 1955). Forced-cooled systems
and even moderate or slow circulation systems can cre-
ate significant pressure losses along the length of the
cable. The frictional pressure drop along the length of
the cable due to flow can be expressed by:
∆P = K f f
(γ ·V ·∆x) 2
Pa
2·Dh
Where:
Kf = correction factor, dimensionless.
f = friction factor, dimensionless.
γ = density of fluid, kg/m3.
V = velocity m/s.
∆x = length, m.
Dh = hydraulic diameter, m.
(D )
2 2
pipeID − 3.03·Dshield
Dh = 9-18
D pipeID + 3.03·Dshield
Section 11.4 provides the necessary details, including
fluid properties and friction factors, for completing the
computation. The correction factor includes the addi-
tional hydraulic impedances due to cable snaking, fit-
tings, bends, joints, and diffusion chambers. Although
these can be computed discretely, Kf of 1.2 is typical for
most systems.
SCFF System
The axial pressure gradients in SCFF oil ducts due to
thermally driven flows are significant, and the transient
due to a step function unloading often dictates the over-
all hydraulic design. During unloading, the pressures in
the center of the cable system can become dangerously
low if the pressures at the feeding ends cannot sustain
the flow demand. Upon cable loading, the pressures in
the center of the system can become dangerously high if
the reservoir system cannot easily accept the expulsion.
The determination of the axial pressure distribution can
9-8
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
be accomplished numerically by dividing the system into
small axial segments ∆x, as indicated in Figure 9-3.
The flow expulsions for each segment can be computed
using Equation 9-7 at each successive time step and
summed as the flow propagates along the cable duct
axis. The pressure gradient across each segment can
then be computed using Equation 9-15, where the
hydraulic diameter in this case would be the inner diam-
eter of the oil duct. If the oil duct contains a spiral sup-
port tape, the inner diameter of the support tape can be
used for a conservative result. So, for each time step, an
axial pressure gradient is then computed. This result
must be coupled to the pressure volume (PV) response
of the reservoir system, which is treated in Section 9.4.
HPGF Cable System
Thermally induced axial flows in HPGF systems are
insignificant, if not nonexistent, because the pressure
medium is evenly distributed along the length of the
cable. However, the pressure drops due to gas flow dur-
ing filling operations and other maintenance procedures
9-17
can be of interest. Equation 9-15 can be used to calcu-
late those pressure drops, provided that the appropriate
gas fluid properties are used at the pressure of interest.
Table 9-2 provides the properties of nitrogen at atmo-
spheric pressure and at 1.38 MPa (200 psi).
9.4 PRESSURIZATION EQUIPMENT
9.4.1 Introduction
Pressurizing plants, commonly called pumping plants,
are employed as the pressure source for HPFF cable.
They may also be used or required on SCFF cables,
although reservoirs are generally used to furnish the
pressure source for those cables. Pumping plants are
used on SCFF cables when the lengths are long, when
pressure can be applied at the end points only, and/or if
Figure 9-3 Hydraulic model of SCFF cable system.
Table 9-2 Properties of Nitrogen at Different Pressures
Density Viscosity
Pressure
(kg/m3) (m2/s)
0.1 MPa 1.15
1.6x10-5
140 MPa 22.1
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
the cable is of the high-pressure type. Underwater
SCFF cables and SCFF cables with severe elevation
change may require pumping plants rather than reser-
voirs. HPGF cables do not require pumping plants or
reservoirs. Extruded-dielectric cables require no fluid
pressurization, except for small reservoirs to accommo-
date fluid expansion and contraction in some termina-
tion designs.
9.4.2 Pressurization Plants (HPFF /SCFF Cable
Systems)
Overview
In HPFF cable systems, pressurization plants, consist-
ing of steel reservoirs (tanks), and a mechanical pump-
ing system are utilized due to the high volume of
dielectric fluids within the cable and/or cable pipe, large
expansion volumes, and high pressures. This permits the
storage of bulk amounts of fluid by relieving the high-
pressure expulsion fluid into a volume at pressures
somewhat above atmospheric. Upon demand, the
pumping system draws the low-pressure fluid from the
reservoir and raises its pressure, thereby supplying the
cable system at the higher required operating pressures.
This cycle is repeated indefinitely as the cable load
cycles and system conditions change.
Operational Description
A typical sequence of operations for a pressurizing plant
is shown in Figure 9-4 and is described below. All pres-
Figure 9-4 Sequence of operations of pressurized plant.
Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment
sures are gauge (i.e., increments above atmospheric pres-
sure), unless otherwise indicated.
Midnight until 9 am: The loading is low, the circuit is
cooling, and the fluid is contracting. The pressure drops
to 1276 kPa (185 psig); the pump turns on and brings
the pressure to about 1689 kPa (245 psig), where it is
held by opening the normal relief valve for the five min-
utes that the pump is set to run. At the end of five min-
utes, the pressure slowly decays until the pump starts
again and the cycle repeats.
9 am to 6 pm: The loading increases, the circuit heats up,
and the fluid expands and flows back to the reservoir
tank through a cable relief valve, which clamps the pres-
sure to about 1758 kPa (255 psig).
6 pm to Midnight: The loading decreases, the circuit
starts cooling, and the fluid begins contracting. The
daily cycle is repeated.
Figure 9-4 shows fluid pressure variation for pump-
operating conditions upon demand. If two circuits are
installed in parallel, a slow flow of 38-57 l/min (10-
15 gal/min) can be established between them to smooth
hot spots. In this case, the pressure is held constant at
about 1379 kPa (200 psig) by a relief valve. The plant
illustrated is designed to maintain a pressure range of
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Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

1276-1724 kPa (185-250 psig) for normal operation of In general, at least two pumps and two pressure-control
the cables. ladders are recommended, with one per cable pipe
preferred. This configuration gives the redundancy
Pumping Plant Hydraulic Design necessary for reliable unattended operation of the pres-
The pumping plant has the following hydraulic sub- surizing plants.
systems, as shown schematically in Figure 9-5a and pic-
torially in Figure 9-5b. The tank and nitrogen system, shown schematically in
Figure 9-6a and pictorially in Figure 9-6b, serves to sup-
• Tank and nitrogen system
• Fluid pressure section (pumps).
• Pressure control system (ladders).
• Outlets

Figure 9-6a Schematic of tank and nitrogen blanket

system.

Figure 9-5a Schematic of a fluid pressure and pressure

control system portion of a pressurizing plant.

Figure 9-5b Typical fluid pressure and pressure control

system portion of the pressurization plant (Courtesy of Figure 9-6b Typical tank and nitrogen blanket system
Prysmian Cables & Systems). (Courtesy of Prysmian Cables & Systems).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
ply or accept the active fluid of the cable system. In
addition, it can provide reserve fluid to permit contin-
ued flow of fluid toward a hydraulic leak. The tank is
protected from contaminants, including moisture, by a
blanket of nitrogen over the fluid. Nitrogen pressure
varies with volume as fluid enters and leaves the tank.
Typical pressure-versus-volume curves are shown in
Figure 9-7. Under normal operation, no nitrogen is lost
or added.
Alternately, the tank can be operated under vacuum.
This is necessary when pumping plants supply SCFF
cable systems, or it may also be an option for HPFF
cable systems when low gas contents are desirable.
The pressure–volume characteristic is not an issue in
this case. Special pumps, a low-elevation pumping
sump, or some other means must be devised to maintain
satisfactory positive pump suction pressures.
For nitrogen-based systems, the storage tank is fur-
nished with a rupture disk and ASME-rated relief valve
to relieve over-pressures. Typical nitrogen operating
pressure ranges from 14 kPa (2 psi) to 103 kPa (15 psi)
gauge. A nitrogen cylinder and pressure regulator sys-
tem replaces any lost nitrogen. High and low nitrogen
pressure alarms indicate any abnormal pressure condi-
tion. The storage tank may be equipped with partitions
to retain fluid for use in a good cable when a pump is
using fluid from the tank to supply a leaking cable.
Fluid levels can be monitored with both visual and elec-
Figure 9-7 Typical nitrogen pressure curves.
Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment
tronic instrumentation, providing fluid level alarms as
well as accurate level readings locally and remotely.
See Section 9.4.5 for details regarding determination of
the appropriate tank volume.
The fluid pressure system consists of a positive displace-
ment pump typically sized from 19 to 57 l/min (5-
15 gal/min). Additionally, the hydraulic controls consist
of a safety relief valve to protect the pump in case of a
blockage at the pump outlet, the normal pump relief
valve that sets the upper limit of pressure that the pump
can deliver to the cable system, and a pressure switch
and timer mounted in the pressure control section that
starts the pump on a falling pressure and keeps the
pump running for a set time. A check valve prevents
fluid from the system from flowing back through the
pressurizing pump into the tank. These components are
shown in Figure 9-5A, B. The pressure control system
sets the upper limits of pressure during periods of
increasing cable load. The cable relief valve provides the
path for the relief of excessive pressure built up in the
cable system due to the thermal expansion of the fluid.
Other valves can be provided in the fluid pressure sec-
tion:
• Reduced pressure relief valve—used in maintenance
work to provide a lower system pressure—for exam-
ple, to make a freeze of the fluid in the cable pipe. A
pressure of 414 kPa (60 psi) is common.
• Oscillation relief valve—used to provide a lower pres-
sure return path when the unit is equipped for oscilla-
tion.
• Migration control valve—used to keep the fluid level
in the tanks balanced manually when plants are used
at both ends of a line.
• Manual bypass valve—used for plant testing and set-
ting of relief valves.
The outlet section provides for the delivery of the fluid
to the cable system, as shown in Figure 9-5. Strainers
are furnished to trap contaminants from the cable sys-
tem from entering the pressurizing plant. Without the
strainer, any incoming particulates could lodge on relief
valve or check valve seats, causing the valve to weep and
often providing symptoms similar to a small leak.
A manifold to connect pressure sections to cable pipes
is made in this section. Sensors are connected after the
last valve in this system to measure pressure and
provide high-and low-pressure alarms for the cable.
Manual or automatic flow-limiting devices may be
mounted around the last valve in this system to control
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Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment
the amount of fluid that can be fed to a leaking cable
pipe. Insulating flanges are usually supplied at the
outlet of the plant, to isolate it from the cathodic
protection voltage.
The pressurizing plant should be connected to the cable
system with a minimum of 5.1-cm (2-in.) diameter pipe.
At shallow depths of burial, in very cold country or
when high viscosity fluids are used, the pipe size should
be increased to 7.6 cm (3 in) diameter. Lengths up to
90+ meters (300+ ft) are acceptable.
Instrumentation and Controls
Current pressurization plant control schemes are usu-
ally based on operation with Programmable Logic Con-
trollers (PLC) and sometimes electro-mechanical relays.
Essentially a rugged industrial computer system, the
PLC offers control logic programming flexibility,
enhanced data acquisition capability, and live “touch
screen” control panels. The virtual control panels are
divided into several categories:
• Annunciator/Alarm Screens
• Operation and Control Screens
• Data Display and Charting Screens
• Diagnostic Screens
The annunciator screen furnishes information on the
condition of the cable system and indicates present or
incipient trouble. A remote alarm is commonly pro-
vided. Some of the commonly displayed alarm points
are listed below:
• High nitrogen pressure in the tank
• Low nitrogen pressure in the tank
• High tank fluid level
• Low tank fluid level
• High pressure for each cable pipe
• Low pressure for each cable pipe
• Frequent operation of each pump
The selection of alarm settings should be based on the
criticality and time to respond to an alarm. Some of the
additional alarms that can be furnished are listed below:
• Rupture disk failure on tank
• Low tank nitrogen cylinder pressure
• Pressure pump failure
• Continuous pump operation
• Strainer clogged
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
• Flow limiting in effect
• Plant access
• Activation of fire suppression
Figure 9-8 shows a typical control panel. The operation
and control screens can display a virtual switch and light
panel mimicking an electromechanical control panel
with HAND/OFF/AUTO switches, indicator lights, and
START–STOP buttons. An example of a virtual electro-
mechanical control panel is shown in Figure 9-9.
A particularly useful screen for plant operation and
control is the “live” flow diagram, which is shown in
Figure 9-10. The status of pumps, pressures, tempera-
tures, and flows can be displayed in real time, and valve
positions and flow paths can be also displayed if the
valves are equipped with limit switches. This is particu-
larly useful for a remote user when rapid response to a
cable system condition is necessary.
The PLC also provides the capability of remote moni-
toring and control. The virtual panels are available
remotely via commercial or public networks, and are
given security codes, so that a remote user can view sys-
tem status, acknowledge alarms, and perform any func-
tion that the virtual control panel provides. The PLC
also provides for sophisticated control schemes, such as
integration with forced-cooling equipment operation to
prevent unwanted pressure excursions.
An automatic backup manual control system is also
usually provided to start the pressure pump in the event
that the PLC-based control system has failed. The reli-
Figure 9-8 Control panel showing PLC touch-screen
(courtesy of USi).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment

ability of present PLC-based pressurization plants is Leak Detection

very high and self-diagnostics capabilities can avert fail- Various levels of sophistication can be integrated into
ures at inopportune times. pressurizing plants for detecting the presence of a fluid

Figure 9-9 Virtual electromechanical control screen (courtesy of USi).

Figure 9-10 Control panel showing touch-screen with live process flow diagram (courtesy of
MAC Products, Inc.).

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Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

leak on the cable line. These systems are, in increasing • Gas-driven auxiliary pumps—to provide pressuriza-
order of sensitivity: tion in case of plant electrical service outage. Com-
• Alarm indicating low dielectric fluid level in the tank pressed air or nitrogen drives the piston-type pump.
• Active monitoring of fluid level in storage tank • A dc standby pump in case of loss of ac supply

• Frequent or continuous operation of pressurizing • Dual ac power supply

pump • Emergency generators
• Cumulative flow meter • Instrumentation—provides offsite readouts
• On-line leak detection system with high-accuracy • Remote control—required when the pumping plant
flow meters in combination with Dynamic Mass Bal- cannot be reached readily
ance Computation. (See Chapter 15, Section 15.7, • Exterior painting and finishing for appearance
“Leak Management Techniques for Fluid-Filled
Feeders.”) Standby Emergency Plants
Some utilities have portable, emergency pressurizing
At a minimum, the low-dielectric-fluid-level alarm and equipment that, along with a dielectric fluid tank truck,
pressurizing-pump-frequent-operation alarm systems
are typically provided for all pressurizing systems.
Enclosures
Pumping plants can be located indoors or outdoors.
The outdoor plant typically contains the tank, piping,
and controls in an insulated enclosure, mounted on a
steel base. The enclosure provides the environmental
control for lighting, heating, cooling, and dehumidifica-
tion. The indoor plant is mounted in a building fur-
nished by the utility. It may have either the tank and
pressure section as two parts, or the tank and pressure
section mounted on a common base. The indoor plant
may be used when a building must be furnished for
other equipment, or when ambient temperature is very
high or low. For both outdoor and indoor plants, the
entire pumping plant, including tanks, pressure delivery
section, and instrumentation and controls, is usually Figure 9-11 Skid including pumps, relief ladders, and
pressure-monitoring instrumentation (courtesy of MAC
mounted on a single skid and transported by truck. Products).

Some exceptions to a single integrated unit on a skid are

if a high-capacity vertical tank is used or if the tank(s) is
installed remotely due to space restrictions. Figure 9-11
is a photograph of an indoor skid, and Figure 9-12 is a
photograph of an outdoor plant.
Plant Auxiliaries
The following items can be added to a pumping plant to
meet particular operating
or maintenance conditions:
• Moat or sump—to contain fluid from a leaking
pump or valve, or a leak from the tank
• Level switch—to sound an alarm when fluid is
present in the containment
• Fire detection/protection
• Air conditioning Figure 9-12 Outdoor pressurizing plant (courtesy of USi).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
can be used to replace a disabled plant for a short time.
This unit can also be used to train operators. Figure 9-
13 shows a portable pumping plant.
Modifications for SCFF Service
Pumping plants designed for SCFF cables require a
‘gas free’ design and improved cleanliness and tightness.
The nitrogen blanket over the tank in a pipe-type cable
plant is replaced by a vacuum system which maintains
vacuum over the dielectric fluid in the tank. The return-
ing fluid from the cable can enter the tank via spray
nozzles, drip trays, etc., to further enhance the degasifi-
cation process. Stainless-steel piping may be required
for certain types of fluids, and special seals and pumps
are usually required. Care must be taken so that ade-
quate pump suction pressures are maintained under all
tank fluid levels, flow rates, and temperatures. Test
requirements for SCFF systems are usually more strin-
gent than for HPFF pressurizing systems. Sophisti-
cated flow-limiting systems are often installed to limit
fluid loss while maintaining the integrity of a leaking
cable.
9.4.3 Reservoir Systems (SCFF Cables)
Overview
The low volumetric requirements and moderate pres-
sures of low-pressure SCFF cable systems allow the use
of passive “bladder” type reservoirs as pressurization
sources. Reservoirs have no moving parts in the dielec-
tric fluid side and do not permit dissolved or free gas to
enter the fluid. They have limited fluid capacity and may
Figure 9-13 Portable pumping plant (courtesy of USi).
Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment
be spaced along the cable to keep the pressure rise or
drop within the rating of the reservoir and the cable
sheath. If this cannot be achieved, the fluid duct size of
the cable may have to be increased. Reservoirs have a
limited capacity to feed fluid to a leaking cable. They
are used on cable with a pressure range of 14-414 kPa
(2-60 psi). Typical reservoir sizes are 38-151 l (10-
40 gal), and they are typically spaced at 610-1219 m
(2000-4000 ft) intervals.
Reservoir Types
The three types of reservoirs, which are illustrated in
Figure 9-14, are commonly referred to as follows:
• Gravity feed type (CC) reservoir
• Balanced pressure type (DC) reservoir
• Bladder type (AC) pressure reservoir
Gravity Feed (CC) Reservoirs
These consist of a number of cells connected in parallel
by a manifold enclosed in a tank that is open to the
atmosphere and partially filled with idle dielectric fluid.
The cells are filled with degasified dielectric fluid, and
the cell manifold is connected through tubing to the
cable joint or a termination. As dielectric fluid is forced
into the reservoir, the idle dielectric fluid surrounding
the cells rises and indicates the quantity of working
dielectric fluid by means of a glass sight gauge mounted
on the tank. The Type CC reservoir discharges its rated
quantity of fluid with a very small change in pressure.
This characteristic makes it especially applicable at
points in the profile where fluid capacity is required, but
where pressure, in addition to normal head pressure, is
undesirable. This type of reservoir is very efficient.
Through static head, it exerts an almost constant pres-
sure on the cable because its working range is over the
flat part of the curve. The Type CC reservoir is generally
used at terminal ends where it feeds directly into the ter-
mination, because it must be mounted at a suitable ele-
vation to maintain positive pressure on the cable even
during transient conditions and yet not exceed the max-
imum allowable pressure on the cable. It can be used in
manholes and connected to a cable joint, provided the
cable profile drops away from the reservoir elevation.
Balanced Pressure (DC) Reservoirs
These are similar in construction to the gravity type just
described, except that the tank enclosing the cells is
filled with gas (CO2 or N2) and closed to the atmo-
sphere. Gas pressure can be impressed upon the outside
of the cells and thence upon the fluid, having the effect
of raising the reservoir to an elevation comparable to
the CC reservoir. The type DC reservoir generally is
used where the fluid demand of an intermediate section
of single-conductor cable requires a pressure-volume
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Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

relationship that cannot be satisfied by the other types
of reservoirs or to control pressures when there are sig-
nificant elevation changes. The reservoirs and any neces-
sary supplementary gas tanks may be located in the
stop-joint manholes at both ends of an intermediate
fluid section or can be located in auxiliary manholes
and fed to the middle of the section.
Bladder Type (AC) Reservoirs
These consist of a number of gas-filled sealed cells
enclosed in a tank containing degasified dielectric fluid.
The tank is closed to the atmosphere, but is connected
through tubing to the cable at some convenient point,
such as at a joint or termination. When fluid is forced
into the reservoir, the gas in the cells is compressed, and
the pressure rises in accordance with the characteristic
curve of this type reservoir. The gas in the cells, usually
CO2, is typically adjusted to a pressure of 6.9 kPa (1 psi)
when all usable fluid is out of the tank and to 103 kPa
(15 psi) when the tank is full. The capacity of the AC
reservoir is determined by the size of the tank and the
number of cells that it contains. This type reservoir is
used most frequently for supplying intermediate dielec-
tric fluid sections of three-conductor fluid-filled cable
lines having a relatively flat profile, since with three-con-
ductor cable, the fluid channels are readily available at
every joint, and feeder-type joints are not required. It
can be used also on single-conductor lines with flat pro-
files, where the feeder joint required at the point of fluid
feed to the cable does not appreciably increase the size
of the manhole over that required for a normal joint.
The AC reservoir offers the advantages that individual
units can be spread uniformly over an fluid section,
reducing pressure drop to a minimum; it can be located
in available space in normal manholes, and is conve-
niently monitored by pressure-type relays. Bladder-type
reservoirs are typically found on cable shipping reels.

Figure 9-14 Types of reservoirs.

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Although bladder-type (AC) reservoirs are relatively
inefficient, because the full pressure range cannot be uti-
lized, they are economical.
The pressure-volume characteristics of the aforemen-
tioned reservoir types are shown in Figure 9-15.
9.4.4 Gas Cabinets (HPGF cables)
HPGF cables do not require a pumping plant. For this
type of cable system, a gas cabinet is usually provided to
hold nitrogen supply cylinders, spare nitrogen bottles
for rapid change-out, pressure gauges, and pressure
alarms and contacts to trip the cable upon low pressure.
Older systems provide cable pressure alarms, but with
newer systems, provision for low-gas-cylinder-pressure
alarms should be considered. This can prevent the situa-
tion where a low-cable-pressure alarm is initiated, and
then it is discovered that none of the available supply
cylinders has sufficient gas.
9.4.5 Computing Reservoir Volume
Pressurization Plant Tanks
It is recommended that the tank size requirement be
determined via an explicit calculation, because the
needs and requirements for individual systems vary
greatly. Knowledge of the steel tank pressure capability
is required. A typical design and test pressure for a steel
tank is 414 kPa (60 psig), and a rupture disk of this
magnitude is affixed to the tank as required by code.
Figure 9-15 Pressure-volume characteristics of
reservoirs.
Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment
Under normal load cycling conditions, the typical oper-
ating pressure range for the nitrogen blanket is 13.8 kPa
(2 psig) to 103 kPa (15 psig). An alarm is usually pro-
vided for pressures in excess 103 kPa (15 psig). The solu-
bility of nitrogen (% by volume) in typical dielectric
fluids is between 10 and 12% at the lower pressure and
between 17 and 22% at the higher pressure. The dis-
solved gas, which diffuses into the fluid in the tank and
then into the cable system over a long period of time, is
an average of the upper and lower solubility. Dissolved
gas analyses have substantiated this with typical N2 gas
contents reported in the 10-14% range. Higher operat-
ing pressures and higher dissolved gas contents run the
risk of out-gassing and ionization at higher pressures
than ordinarily expected. On the other hand, in the
interest of conserving tank volume, the nitrogen pres-
sure ranges in excess of 103 kPa (15 psig) but below
207 kPa (30 psig) could be considered for short time
excursions due to emergency loading.
The tank volume may be divided into three volumes: (1)
reserve fluid volume, (2) active fluid volume, and (3)
nitrogen gas space.
The reserve fluid (Vres) consists of:
• The “dead fluid,” which is the static fluid below the
top of the suction pipe that cannot flow to the pump.
• Emergency fluid required to feed a leak. The required
emergency fluid volume should be based on the leak
rate time, which is the estimated time to find and
repair the leak. The leak rate could be assumed to be
the maximum output of the pump or the flow rate of
a flow-limiting device.
The active fluid (Vactive) consists of:
• The maximum expulsion, as computed in Equation
9-7.
• Oscillation fluid required for oscillation—if oscilla-
tion between tanks at either end of a circuit is used to
smooth temperatures.
The maximum nitrogen pressure can then be computed
for a given tank size Vtank by Equation 9-19.
Pmax :=
(Pmin+ Patm) ⋅(Vtank − Vres) − P
Vtank − ( Vres + Vactive) atm Pa 9-19
One strategy is to determine the tank size necessary to
limit the maximum pressure to 103 kPa (15 psig) under
“normal” loading conditions, and then determine the
pressure at emergency loading conditions to ensure that
it remains below 207 kPa (30 psig).
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Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment
Reservoirs
To determine the size of the reservoir—or more appro-
priately, the quantity and placement of reservoirs—the
designer must first determine the pressure-volume
requirements of the cable system resulting from analy-
ses, as described in Section 9.3. This will involve expul-
sion calculations, as well as axial pressure distributions
due to flow demands, and total pressures due to the ele-
vation changes. The specific pressure-volume character-
istic of the reservoir, which must be obtained from the
manufacturer, must then be coupled to the cable so that
the cable pressures remain in range under all loading
and unloading conditions. If pressure limits are
exceeded, then additional reservoirs can be added.
9.5 FORCED-COOLING EQUIPMENT
9.5.1 Introduction
The temperatures achieved by the various cable system
components are determined by the magnitude and dura-
tion of the losses, the thermal impedances of the cable
components and the surrounding paths to relevant heat
sinks, and the temperature of the heat sinks involved.
In self-cooled cables, all of the cable losses must flow
through the surrounding backfill and soil. The sur-
rounding soil thermal resistance could be typically one-
half of the total thermal resistance of the cable-soil or
more. The tendency for moisture to migrate away from
the cable/soil interface may further limit the current
capacity of the cable system.
Forced cooling, which involves the mechanical propul-
sion of the dielectric fluid along the axis of the cable sys-
tem, removes heat in parallel with heat flow to the
surrounding soil, thereby improving the current-carry-
ing capability of the cable system. HPFF cable systems
are amenable to forced-cooling, because the fluid vol-
ume inside the pipe presents an ideal circulation path
and is in close contact with the cable. Forced-cooled
extruded-dielectric and SCFF systems most often use
closely spaced buried parallel pipes with a circulated
coolant that removes heat through conduction through
the backfill soil. There are no known forced-cooled
extruded-dielectric or SCFF cables in North America.
This section covers forced-cooling equipment for HPFF
systems only. Equations for determining cooling equip-
ment heat load and power requirements can be found in
Chapter 11 Ampacity, Section 11.4.7.
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
9.5.2 System Components
Pumps
The primary component in any forced-cooled system
is the pump. The three major classifications of pumps
are rotary, piston, and centrifugal. Both rotary and pis-
ton pumps are “positive” displacement pumps, with
the characteristic of a steady-flow output with large
variations in differential pressure. This offers the
advantage of positively developing the flow desired to
achieve the cable rating independent of the pressure
losses in the cable system. On the other hand, pres-
sure transients due to full-bore startups and shut-
downs need to be controlled.
Centrifugal pumps are very sensitive to differential pres-
sure with flow output rapidly degrading as differential
pressures increase beyond optimum pressure-flow
design point. This disadvantage requires that the
designer have a high degree of confidence in the hydrau-
lic design calculations when applying a centrifugal
pump. In many cases, the designer does not have control
over the hydraulic design, and last-minute construction
issues can result in additional hydraulic impedances.
One advantage of centrifugal pumps, on the other hand,
is less abrupt pressure disturbances during the startup
and shutdown periods. Piston pumps have not been
used for forced-cooling applications due to the high
maintenance and pulsations characteristic of this type
of pump.
Rotary Pumps
Rotary pumps fall into several subcategories: screw,
gear, and vane. The balanced screw type has been found
to be best suited for forced-cooling service on HPFF
cables, since its maintenance requirements are low. The
screw pump consists of two intermeshing helical rotors
contained in a housing. Dielectric fluid enters one end
of the rotors, where it is trapped by the pockets formed
by the threads. The dielectric fluid is moved along to the
discharge port, much like a nut on a threaded screw.
Clearance between the rotors is important. One type of
screw pump incorporates a set of bearings and timing
gears to maintain this minimum clearance. A second
type utilizes a hydrodynamic film formed between
rotors to maintain the clearance. The latter of the two is
used almost universally for forced-cooling service due to
its low noise characteristics and reliability. Care must be
taken, however, to operate within specific guidelines for
fluid viscosities, differential pressures, suction pressure,
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
and speed so as to ensure that the hydrodynamic film is
maintained at all times. Figure 9-16 is a photograph of
rotary helical screw pumps with a capacity of approxi-
mately 1136 l/min (300 gpm).
Centrifugal Pumps
Centrifugal pumps, unlike positive displacement pumps,
exhibit a substantial reduction in flow as differential
pressure increases. In the centrifugal pump, pressure is
developed by the action of centrifugal force. Oil enters
the hub of the propeller and is thrown radially to the
periphery of the housing. Due to their simplicity, cen-
trifugal pumps have been used in several forced-cooled
installations. As an advantage, they provide a relatively
“soft”-start characteristic. In addition, favorable tem-
perature-flow characteristics permit the use of centrifu-
gal pumps, in some cases, without specialized flow-
control devices; as temperature increases, both viscosity
and pressure drop decrease, allowing flow to increase.
Centrifugal pumps, however, cannot easily accommo-
date additional pressure differential.
Pump Drives
The major advance in pump technology has been the
advent of variable-speed drive mechanisms. The most
popular is a Variable Frequency Drive (VFD), which is
a system for controlling the rotational speed of an ac
electric motor by controlling the frequency of the elec-
trical power supplied to the motor. VFDs usually
employ controllers, which are easily interfaced to the
process control system, or PLC, which allows control
of startup speed, rate of increase in speed, target speed,
and other variables. This permits low startup speeds,
and limits in-rush currents and pressure transients
occurring in the cable system. Slow predetermined
ramp-ups to final speed also reduce the chances of sys-
Figure 9-16 Positive displacement rotary helical screw
pumps (courtesy of USi).
Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment
tem hydraulic instability. This feature can accommo-
date complex forced-cooled schemes or subsequent
design changes.
Methods to Reject the Heat
Heat removed from the dielectric oil or a coolant must
ultimately be rejected to the environment. A few basic
methods are discussed here.
Air Heat Exchangers
Air-cooling is probably the most direct method of
rejecting heat. Air-cooled heat exchangers can be used
to directly remove heat from the dielectric fluid, or they
can be utilized to condense refrigerant if a refrigeration
system is used for lower dielectric fluid temperature
applications. The achievable temperatures are limited by
the maximum design air ambient temperature. Air heat
exchangers may consist of a series of finned tubes, usu-
ally several hundred, suspended between box-type head-
ers. The flow of air over the finned tubing of the air heat
exchanger can be accomplished in a number of ways.
Natural convection creates motion of the air over the
finned tubing as a result of differences in air density;
however, most air heat exchangers use forced convection
for improved heat transfer coefficients. Fans can be
employed in either a forced-draft or induced-draft
arrangement. In a forced-draft arrangement, fans blow
the air over the finned tubing. Air-inlet noise levels tend
to be higher than exit noise levels for forced-draft heat
exchangers. In induced-draft arrangements, the fans
draw air over the finned tubing, which tends to create a
more equal distribution of airflow over the face area,
thus improving efficiency. The induced-draft design cre-
ates higher air-exit velocities than the forced-draft
design, reducing the possibility of recirculation of hot
air. Air-exit noise levels are generally higher than air-
inlet noise levels on induced-draft heat exchangers. Fig-
ure 9-17 shows induced-draft heat exchangers for direct
dielectric fluid cooling.
Figure 9-17 Induced-draft air-dielectric fluid heat
exchangers (courtesy of USi).
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Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Cooling Towers pended inside a cylindrical vessel (the shell) between

Water can also be used to cool the dielectric fluid or headers (tube sheets). For forced-cooling applications,
condense refrigerants. One method of rejecting heat the coolant is usually in the tubes and dielectric fluid in
from the water is by use of a cooling tower, where water the shell. This exposes the dielectric fluid, which usually
is sprayed through an area of moving ambient air, which has poorer heat transfer characteristics than the cool-
evaporates a portion of the water. The temperatures ant, to a larger surface area and better flow characteris-
achievable by cooling towers are lower than air heat tic due to the placement of baffles. Also, the dielectric
exchangers because they are limited by the maximum fluid, being considerably more viscous than the coolant,
design wet-bulb temperature, which is usually lower creates less pressure drop in the shell as opposed to the
than the design ambient air temperature. Because some tubes. The most common coolant in the tubes is water
of the water is lost by evaporation, makeup water must or a water/antifreeze solution. A shell and tube evapora-
be provided to replenish the supply. The makeup water tor in a mechanical refrigeration system uses a refriger-
required is approximately 1% of the water flow-rate. ant as the coolant. In this case, a change of phase occurs
Cooling towers, like air-heat exchangers, can operate in the tubes as the refrigerant turns from liquid to gas as
using either natural convection or forced convection. heat is absorbed. The primary concern with shell and
Fan arrangements are normally induced-draft to keep tube heat exchanges is a leak occurring at the interface
the fan motors out of the water spray. Compared to air- of the tubing and the tube sheet. This could permit con-
heat exchangers of equivalent capacity, cooling towers tamination of the dielectric fluid by the coolant when
are more compact, less expensive, and less noisy. Their the pressure of the dielectric fluid is low for mainte-
major undesirable aspect is fogging. This phenomenon nance or otherwise. A double-tube-sheet design, illus-
occurs on cool days, when ambient air does not have the trated in Figure 9-18, is, therefore, recommended for
capacity to absorb the moist discharge air. This may be HPFF forced-cooling service.
especially problematic near high-voltage components in
substations. Since a cooling tower is an open system, the The double-tube-sheet design provides separation of the
water supply can become corrosive as water evaporates dielectric fluid from the coolant with an intermediate
and the mineral concentration increases. This requires chamber that allows for visual or automatic monitoring
substantial maintenance or water treatment. of the presence of fluid in the chamber. Although a leak
directly through the tube is very unlikely, double-tube
Direct Water Cooling
designs could also be employed. In addition to monitor-
If a water supply such as a reservoir, well, river, or cool-
ing of the intermediate chamber, pressure decay tests are
ing pond is available, it can be used directly to dissipate
recommended as routine maintenance to detect the
heat. The primary advantage of direct water cooling is
presence of a leak.
that the temperature of the supply is usually cooler than
ambient air, permitting lower dielectric-fluid discharge
temperatures. These supplies are likely to possess corro-
sive chemicals and minerals, which may impair the per-
formance of the heat exchanger. A water treatment
facility upstream of the heat exchanger is recommended
in these cases. A second problem is environmental
impact. Cable overheating requiring forced-cooling is
likely to occur during hot weather when water resources
are usually low. Another environmental consideration is
the addition of heat to the water source, which may
affect plant or animal life.
Heat Exchangers
A secondary coolant loop is often employed to dissi-
pate heat to the atmosphere such as water in a cooling
tower arrangement or an antifreeze coolant to an air-
coolant heat exchanger. In these cases a liquid-liquid
heat exchanger is required to remove heat from the
dielectric fluid.
Shell and Tube
The most common liquid-liquid heat exchanger is the Figure 9-18 Double-tube-sheet shell and tube heat
shell and tube type, where a bundle of tubes is sus- exchanger.

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Compact Heat Exchangers
Compact heat exchangers are characterized by a high
surface area per unit volume, which can result in a
higher efficiency than conventional heat exchangers, in a
significantly smaller volume. The most common type of
compact heat exchangers is referred to as a plate-and-
frame heat exchanger. These consist of a series of
formed plates with corrugated surfaces and integrated
channels, which are bolted together with intermediate
gaskets and suspended within a frame. These have not
been used for HPFF cable forced-cooling applications,
but have been proposed for restricted space applications
or for improving the capacity of existing systems. The
gasket material for HPFF service must be of a type com-
patible with the dielectric fluid.
Mechanical Refrigeration
Mechanical refrigeration can be employed when dielec-
tric fluid temperatures below those that can be achieved
with ambient systems (air, cooling towers, or water sup-
ply) are required. A refrigerant vapor-compression
cycle is usually employed, which absorbs heat at low
temperature and rejects heat at a temperature higher
than ambient. The phases of a vapor compression cycle
consist of: (1) evaporation phase, where the refrigerant
absorbs heat from the low-temperature cooling fluid
and turns from liquid to gas; (2) the compression phase,
where the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant
are elevated via a compressor; (3) the condensation
phase, where heat from the refrigerant is liberated to the
high-temperature fluid or ambient air and turns from
gas to liquid; and (4) the expansion phase, which takes
the high-temperature liquid refrigerant and lowers its
pressure in an expansion device, permitting the evapo-
ration of the refrigerant at low temperature.
The essential components of a mechanical refrigeration
system are the evaporator, compressor, condenser and
expansion valve. The compressor is the prime moving
part of a mechanical refrigeration system. Compressors,
like pumps, can be positive displacement (rotary,
piston) or centrifugal designs. Forced-cooling applica-
tions, to date, have used positive displacement compres-
sors, with the rotary screw design being the most
p o p u l a r. T h e ap p l i c at i o n u s u a l ly re q u i re s t h e
development of substantial differential pressures for
which rotary screw pumps are well suited. The
maintenance requirements of mechanical refrigeration-
based systems are higher than ambient-based systems.
Careful selection of a mechanical refrigeration system
Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment
should be based not only on efficiency and reliability,
but also on ease of maintenance.
9.5.3 Overall Cooling Plant Design
System Arrangements
Forced-cooled systems must consist of a pump and a
method to reject the heat. Various arrangements of
pumps, heat exchangers, coolants, and mechanical
refrigeration systems are possible. Cooling systems usu-
ally fall into two broad categories: air-cooled systems
and water-cooled systems. An example of an air-cooled
system is shown in Figure 9-19.
Hot dielectric fluid from the cable system enters the pre-
cooler (an air-cooled heat exchanger) that reduces the
dielectric fluid to within 5-10C° above ambient air tem-
perature. The dielectric fluid temperature is further
reduced in the evaporator (a refrigerant-dielectric fluid
shell and tube heat exchanger) to temperatures that are
usually as low as ambient earth. The heat removed by
the refrigerant in the evaporator is rejected to the air in
the condenser, which consists of another air-cooled heat
exchanger. The two cooling stages are followed by the
pump, which circulates the dielectric fluid at the desired
flow rate and raises its pressure. By placing the pump
after the cooling equipment, the pressure rating of the
cooling components can be lowered, and the pump suc-
tion pressures are lowered, exposing the mechanical
rotating seals to lower pressures. A disadvantage is that
the pump heat input raises the dielectric fluid tempera-
ture somewhat. In some cases, placing the pump in front
of the cooling components can be desirable, because the
heat imparted by the pump is easily dissipated by the
heat exchangers. However, higher pump suction pres-
sures and exposure of the cooling components to high
pressures must be dealt with. The most common
arrangement of forced-cooled systems is simply an air-
cooled heat exchanger followed by a pump.
Figure 9-19 Air-cooled refrigeration system.
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Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment
An example of a water-cooled system is shown in Figure
9-20. The water-cooled system is similar to the air-
cooled system, except that heat is removed from the
dielectric fluid or refrigerant by water or a water-based
coolant. An additional pump, the coolant or water
pump, is employed to pump from the cool-water source,
which may be a cooling tower or one of the other
described sources. Coolant pumps are usually of the
centrifugal variety, which is ideally suited for this appli-
cation.
The advantages of a two-stage system are: (1) the pre-
cooling stage requires substantially less energy to
remove heat, and (2) either stage can serve as a backup
in case of failure of one stage. Some recent applications
have eliminated the pre-cooler because design ambient
air temperatures were high and no energy benefit could
be realized. Designing a completely redundant mechani-
cal refrigeration system compensated for the loss of the
second stage as a backup in this case. Figure 9-21 is a
photograph of a water-based coolant mechanical refrig-
eration system with primary and backup mechanical
Figure 9-20 Water-cooled refrigeration system.
Figure 9-21 Mechanical refrigeration cooling plant
(courtesy of USi).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
refrigeration systems in the foreground and the control
unit in the background.
The mechanical refrigeration system cools a propylene
glycol coolant system that is connected with insulated
piping in a cooling loop to the control unit. The control
unit houses the dielectric fluid circulation pumps, the
coolant circulation pumps, and primary and backup
double-tube-sheet shell and tube heat exchangers, as
shown in Figure 9-22.
Environmental Impact
Coolants and Refrigerants
• Secondary coolants are usually water-based with the
addition of antifreeze agent, corrosion inhibitors,
and stabilizers. The preferred antifreeze agent is pro-
pylene glycol, which is environmentally more benign
as compared to ethylene glycol. The appropriate mix-
ture for the regional water supply and application is
usually left to a water treatment expert. The chemical
status of the secondary coolant loop needs to be
determined on a regular basis with additional treat-
ment as required.
• Refrigerants can be classified as chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), and
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). CFCs are considered
the most harmful in depleting the ozone layer and
magnifying the greenhouse effect because they con-
tain chlorine, which is highly reactive with ozone.
They are very stable chemically, and therefore persist
in the atmosphere for long periods of time. R12 falls
into the category of CFCs. Although they contain
Figure 9-22 Primary and backup shell and tube heat
exchangers (courtesy of USi).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
chlorine, HCFCs are less stable in the atmosphere
and, therefore, have considerably less impact. R22
falls in the classification of HCFCs. HFCs contain
no chlorine and are generally considered to have no
impact on the environment. R134a is an HFC. Fed-
eral Clean Air Act Section 606 requires the phase-out
of both R12 and R22. CFCs (R12) were taken out of
production as of January 1, 1996. R22, an HCFC,
can still be used, but is to be phased out for new
equipment by January 1, 2010 and completely phased
out by 2020. Although Section 606 of the Clean Air
Act allows R22 to be obtained and used for the next
10 to 20 years, there are substantial penalties for leak-
age or venting of R22. R134a, R407c, and R410a are
all replacement refrigerants proposed as candidates
for new systems. Although R134a is the preferred
refrigerant, previous systems designed for R22 may
suffer 40-60% losses in capacity. R407c, on the other
hand is a thermodynamic equivalent of R22, and is
considered a ‘drop in’ for R22. It is not a pure refrig-
erant, but a zeotropic “blend” of refrigerants, mean-
ing that it behaves as several refrigerants, not as one.
The major constituent of R407c is R134a. Leakage is
a problem, because the constituents leak at different
rates, thus upsetting the ratio of the blend. R407c is a
viable alternative while manufacturers gear up to pro-
duce R134a-specific equipment. R410a is a 50/50
blend of R-32 and R-125 and is a higher efficiency
R22 replacement than R407c. Although not as
benign as R134a, R410a has very low ozone deple-
tion or global warming potential. R410a is not a
‘drop in’ replacement refrigerant for R22 and
requires re-design of equipment. Forced-cooling
refrigeration equipment installed in the 1970s and
1980s employed R12 and R22 refrigerants. These sys-
tems have been retired. A recent application (year
2000) has used R407C.
Energy Usage
The energy usage of cooling systems can be computed in
detail utilizing the Designer’s Handbook (Purnhagen
1984). For estimating purposes, the coefficient of perfor-
mance (COP), which is the ratio of heat energy
extracted to the energy used, is approximately 4 for two-
stage systems. A pre-cooler alone can have a COP of 5
or 6, and a mechanical-refrigeration-only system may
have a COP of 3. These numbers appear to be low com-
pared to residential air conditioning units, etc. because
they include the energy to pump the dielectric fluid
around the cooling loop.
Land Usage
The land usage of cooling systems can be computed in
detail utilizing the Designer’s Handbook (Purnhagen
1984). Table 9-3 can be used to approximate land usage.
Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment
Noise
Specifying noise levels in the early design stages is the
best procedure to control noise levels. The addition of
attenuation devices in the later stages of design or as an
after-thought is seldom effective. The first step in a good
noise design is to provide for high efficiency in the fun-
damental design of components. High-efficiency fans
deliver a given air flow with less energy input and conse-
quently less noise. The same is true for all other moving
components. The second most important factor is to
“isolate” noise. Moving or vibrating machinery should
be isolated from structures that can act as amplifiers.
The third step is to provide sound-absorbing materials
nearby noisy components. Reflected noise is additive
and can substantially increase the inherent noise level of
a given device. Finally, treatment with attenuation
devices such as walls and air intake/outlet baffles can be
applied, provided they do not restrict airflow. Given the
heat load and land usage, Table 9-3 can be used to
approximate noise levels. A weighted noise level of
55 dBA may be considered a daytime residential noise
level, and 65 dBA a daytime light industrial noise level.
9.6 SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
9.6.1 Pressurization Plants
General
The availability and reliability of pressurization systems
are paramount to preserving HPFF cable systems. To
improve reliability, multiple pump/relief ladders within a
plant and multiple pressurization plants or reservoirs at
separate locations on a cable system should be consid-
ered. If one plant or pump/relief system (ladder) fails,
then a system must be considered to revert to the
backup plant or ladder. A passive system, such as set-
ting the controls of the backup plant or ladder just out-
side the limits of the primary system, is always desirable.
Good system design practice, when multiple cables are
pressurized, should consider hydraulic isolation
between cable circuits. If one of the circuits develops a
leak or the cable fails electrically, a means must be con-
Table 9-3 Land usage per unit heat load based on Noise
Level
Land Usage (m2/kW)
Noise Level of Water Cooled
Air Cooled System
Equipment (dBA) System
65 0.2 0.4
55 0.6 1.2
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Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

sidered to prevent the loss of pressure or contaminated be required on long cables because of pressure drop in
fluid from propagating to the “good” circuit. the pipe.
Radial Cable Systems
The need for multiple plants or other backup options,
With a radial cable system, a single pumping plant at
such as remote auto crossover manifolds, etc. should
the hub is not recommended, because all circuits are
consider the impact of loss of cables. Only if the cable is
not critical to the system operation, where other means
of transferring the load are readily available, or where
loss of the cable does not result in high-energy replace-
ment costs, should a stand-alone plant be acceptable.
Otherwise multiple plants at separate locations should
be considered.

In addition, operator training, on a regular basis, is a

key aspect of ensuring reliable operation of the plant
and the cable system itself. The overall system design—
which includes the placement and number of pumping
plants, the assignment of total tank volume, and a
control scheme— depends on many factors, some of
which are:
• Length of cable
• Importance of keeping the line in service
• Contingency considerations
• Hydraulic considerations
- Elevation profile Figure 9-23 Hydraulic schematic—single-pipe system.
- Circulation or oscillation requirements
- Reduced pressure and flow requirements
• Service response-time considerations
• Cost
Some Basic Guidelines for System Arrangements
Single-Pipe Systems
Figure 9-23 shows a schematic of a single-pipe system.
A single cable pipe between two stations can be pressur-
ized by one pumping plant. Although this arrangement
has the advantage of lowest cost, its disadvantages are:
(1) there is no redundancy, (2) pressure cannot be sup-
plied to the remote side of a freeze, and (3) thermal
smoothing via oscillation is not possible. The preferred
system for a single-pipe is two single-pump pressurizing
plants, one at each end.
Dual Cable Pipe Systems
Figure 9-24 shows a schematic of a dual-pipe system.
Dual cable pipes between the same stations can be
pressurized by one pumping plant, with a flow-limiting
crossover at the far end. The plant can furnish fluid to
both sides of a freeze or leak, and fluid temperature can
be averaged by circulation. Again there is no
redundancy. A better, although more expensive, system
would have a pumping plant at each end, and this may Figure 9-24 Hydraulic schematic—dual-pipe system.

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
jeopardized by a major failure of the primary plant.
Pumping plants located at the remote ends of each cir-
cuit are recommended, or a hybrid design, as shown in
Figure 9-25.
Assignment of Tank Volumes
The total required tank volume could be computed
using the equations in previous sections of this chap-
ter. If one plant is used on the system, then that plant’s
tank volume should be 100% of the volume computed.
If more than one plant is associated with the cable sys-
tem, then strategies to conserve fluid volume can be
considered. If, for instance, two plants are installed, one
at each end of the cable system, then each plant could be
100% of the required fluid volume, which provides 100%
redundancy, or a total tank volume of 200% of the theo-
retical requirement. The sum of the individual plants
tank volumes can be reduced if the contingencies are
carefully analyzed, but should always exceed 100% of
the required volume, because it is virtually impossible to
synchronize the operation of multiple plants so that the
tank levels of each plant are equal. Furthermore, if one
plant is inactive, the second plant not only needs to
accommodate the active fluid, but it may be required to
service a leak. One strategy is to size the individual
Figure 9-25 Hydraulic schematic—radial cable system.
Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment
tanks using 100% of the required reserve but only 50%
of the required expulsion fluid. This results in total tank
volumes of 125-150% of the theoretical requirement for
typical systems.
Thermal Mitigation Techniques
The movement of the dielectric fluid via a slow circula-
tion arrangement or oscillation can be an effective
means to mitigate a short hot-spot 91-305 m (300-
1000 ft). The improvement in rating is usually due to
allowing the highest permissible conductor temperature
because the AEIC (AEIC 1996) specifications apply a
10°C penalty if there is not adequate knowledge of the
thermal environment. Alternately, the equations in Sec-
tion 11.7 of Chapter 11 can be utilized to explicitly com-
pute the temperature rise due to circulation.
Slow Circulation
When a “go” and “return” exist, forming a loop, slow
circulation can be introduced. The pipes could consist
of two cable pipes or a cable pipe and a fluid line, or sev-
eral cable pipes and fluid lines. One technique is to use
one “ladder” as the go and the second ladder as the
return. The pressure pump on the go is set for continu-
ous operation, and its pressure is controlled by the
pump relief valve. The cable relief on the return ladder is
set to operate at a lower pressure than the pump relief,
allowing the fluid to return to the tank, where it is
drawn by the pump, thus forming a continuous loop.
The same concept can be employed using a remote
pumping plant on parallel cables, except that the corre-
sponding cable pumps and remote cable relief valves are
set as a go and a return. This arrangement can result in
preferential fluid migration from one tank to another,
so fluid must be redistributed from time to time.
Another limitation of the “go–return” ladder concept is
that flow rates are restricted to the flow of the pressure
pump. When higher flow rates are desired, or when very
large systems are involved, it is desirable to equip the
pumping plant with a dedicated circulation pump. This
is usually incorporated between ladders and on the
cable side of the control valves. The disadvantage of this
scheme is that only one pumping plant pressure control
point is required, and it must, therefore, be able to
accept the full active fluid volume. Multiple tanks,
therefore, should each be sized to accommodate nearly
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Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment
100% of the fluid requirement. Figure 9-26 illustrates
the common circulation schemes.
Oscillation
Oscillation, sometimes referred to as “shuttling,” can be
used if a loop cannot be formed (as in a single-cable
pipe installation). Two pressurization plants, one at
either end of the circuit, are required. A portion of the
tank volume, which must be incorporated in the
“active” fluid, must be provided for oscillation. Fluid is
then pumped from one tank to another. The process
stops when the fluid level of the active plant falls to a
predetermined set point. The process can be controlled
easily with communication between plants. It is also
possible to control an oscillation without interplant
communication. Oscillation is not as efficient as circula-
tion, because the fluid passes over the hot spot succes-
sively. It is recommended that the oscillation slug be
three to four times the length of the hot spot to cool it
effectively. Oscillation systems are also prone to tank-
tank fluid migration.
Addressing Cable Leaks
An important function of the pressurization system is to
maintain the integrity of the cable system, both the
leaky system and other “good” systems, during the leak
for a period of time until the leak can be repaired. If the
pumping plant is servicing more than one cable system,
then tanks are often equipped with partitions to a height
equivalent to the reserve fluid for each cable. This
prevents the leaky cable from fully draining the fluid
that may be necessary for normal operation of the
“good” cable. A reduced pressure operation capability is
also often employed to reduce cable system pressures
and leak rates, provided that the cable is taken out of
service. This usually involves an additional set of relief
Figure 9-26 Slow circulation schemes.
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
valves, either manually operated or with a motor
actuator that can be brought into service during a leak.
A third strategy for controlling fluid spills for massive
leaks is a flow limiter, which controls the maximum flow
delivered, independent of pressure. These techniques
can be employed individually or in combination with
one another.
9.6.2 Forced-Cooled Systems
Introduction
Many schemes are available for the employment of
forced cooling. The basic elements of a forced-cooled
system are: the cable pipe(s); a supply or return pipe;
turnaround point (crossover); exit and entry points; and
the pump and the heat exchanger. The “cooling loop”
refers to the smallest system composed of these ele-
ments. Subsequently, most calculations refer to the
“cooling loop” as the basic entity.
Basic Configurations
There are many possibilities for integrating the basic ele-
ments into cooling loops. Some examples are provided
in this section. Cable pipes are often used as the supply
and return paths for the fluid. When two or more cir-
cuits are installed in parallel, a simple arrangement is
the two-pipe system of Figure 9-27.
The cooling plant is located near one set of terminals,
with the turnaround point located at the other end of
the circuit. All exit and entry points are shown at the tri-
furcators, which is common when natural cooling of the
riser sections is sufficient for the desired rating. The
major advantage of this arrangement is elimination of
the cost of an additional fluid pipe for a supply or
return. A major disadvantage is a lack of redundancy,
which will result in the loss of forced-cooling in the
event of failure of one cable circuit. Since forced-cooled
system capabilities are most often limited by pressure
drop, it may be necessary to divide the circuit into seg-
ments. A system employing two cooling segments and a
Figure 9-27 Basic cooling loop using two cable pipes.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment

common fluid supply pipe to form four cooling loops is forced-cooled systems. The designer has some control
shown in Figure 9-28. over pressure drop issues with the following items
commonly addressed:
Two levels of redundancy are provided by this arrange- • Lower viscosity dielectric fluid (only effective in lami-
ment. If one cable circuit should fail, the cooling plants
nar flow)
are able to direct their full capacity toward the remain-
ing circuit after the failed circuit has been isolated by • Higher pressure rated terminations (mainly effective
appropriate valves operations. Secondly, if one cooling if termination is exposed to pump outlet pressure)
plant should fail or lose power, the remaining plant can • Larger diameter piping (cost and total fluid volume
be used to force-cool the entire system, but generally at issues)
reduced capacity. The flow path of Figure 9-28 shows • Lower temperatures (reduces flow rate but cost of
cooled fluid delivered to the cable pipe after traveling
additional cooling may be prohibitive)
the length of the section through the supply pipe. This
flow direction can be advantageous, since the high deliv-
The designer must also consider the placement and
ery pressure at the plant outlet is reduced by friction
operation of the pressurization system with respect to
losses en route to the terminals. Flow in the reverse
the forced-cooled equipment. Pressure plants should
direction, however, may be preferable. If pressure drop is
ordinarily be connected to the cable system near the ter-
not substantial, heat transfer from the return pipe to the
minations. The pressurization plants can be set at their
earth can be maximized by employing this flow direc-
normal operating pressures if a fluid supply line is used.
tion, and in some cases, the thermal requirements of the
If a fluid return line is used, or if the cooling loop con-
cooling station can be greatly reduced. When the rating
sists of two cable pipes, then the terminations will be
exceeds the riser/termination rating fluid can exit (or
subjected to high circulation pump outlet pressures. The
enter) chambers mounted on the risers, just under the
pressure plants must be then set to high pressures when
terminations, which improves the ratings of the risers
the circulation is in effect. The designer must consider
and terminations as well. Longer cable circuits may
the condition, however, when the circulation is off. The
require intermediate (between terminals) cooling station
pressures all along the system will be elevated, which
locations to achieve design levels. Environmental impact
can exceed maximum design pressures when there are
and power supply to the intermediate location are prime
substantial elevation differences. A dual-pressure range
considerations. For added reliability, it is sometimes
pumping plant, which is integrated with the cooling
desirable to hydraulically isolate adjacent cables so that
plant, may be required in this case. Multiple loops
an electrical or hydraulic failure on one circuit cannot
require further considerations, including the pressure
affect the performance of the remaining circuit(s). The
ramifications when one cooling system of a multiple
system shown in Figure 9-29 illustrates the employment
loop fails. Pressures tend to drive upwards or down-
of intermediate locations and hydraulically isolated
wards relatively rapidly with this imbalance. A control
cable circuits.
sequence, which involves rapidly shutting down all cool-
System Design Considerations ing units, is usually required.
Forced-cooling equipment must be integrated into the
cable system while remaining within the pressure and Transient thermal and hydraulic conditions can occur
thermal limitations of the cable system. The addi- under normal and emergency operation of forced-
tional pressure required to overcome frictional losses is cooled systems, which may damage the cable system.
the major consideration that the designer faces. In The fluid in a cooling loop does not accelerate instantly
fact, the pressure drop in the cooling loop limits most

Figure 9-29 Multiple-loop system with an intermediate

Figure 9-28 Two-segment, four-loop arrangement with location and complete hydraulic isolation.
common supply pipe.

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Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

when the circulation pump starts. As a result, cavitation
at the pump inlet can momentarily occur, causing low
enough pressures to activate alarms, resulting in an
automatic pump shutdown, or in severe cases, out-
gassing. To prevent this, the system should be designed
to accelerate slowly using either a variable-speed
controller or a flow bypass around the pump with an
automatic valve, which slowly closes over a period of 5-
10 minutes. A pressure transient will also occur due to a
rapid pump shutdown or pump failure. On normal
shutdown, a means to slowly reduce the flow should be
incorporated. In a multiple-loop configuration, startup
and shutdown sequencing is important. All pumps
could be started simultaneously, but this may put a large
demand on the pressurization system due to pressure
redistribution. Another solution is to sequence the
pumps, starting with the cooling plant closest to the
pressurization plant in control, and ramp up the system
to an intermediate pressure and wait for stability. After
achieving stability, the pumps are ramped up to their
final speed in the same sequence. The shutdown
sequence should be the reverse of the startup sequence.
Provision must also be mad e for an unplanned
shutdown due to an emergency trip of a pump. Cooling
should also be introduced slowly, since the initial
cooling thermal transient can be a much greater burden
on the pressurization system than the fluid demand due
to loading.
9.7 WORKED EXAMPLE
The following worked example is based on the high-
pressure fluid-filled Worked Example #4 of Chapter 11,
Ampacity. The Chapter 11 worked example provides the
required temperatures for the normal operating condi-
tions, and the methodologies in Chapter 11 can be used
to compute the emergency temperatures. These temper-
atures are provided in Table 9-4 below. This worked
example then computes the fluid volumetric expulsion
and demand using Equations 9-14 and then computes
tank size using Equation 9-18.
Cable Circuit Description
Circuit length: 49213 ft., 15,000 m
Number of Circuits: 2
Conductor: 2500 kcmil, 1267 mm2
Insulation: Laminated paper polypropylene, 0.600 in.,
0.015 m
Skid Wires: 2 - SS 0.100 in. x 0.200 in. x 3.00 in. lay
Fluid: Low Viscosity Alkylbenzene
Since there is no additional fluid movement due to oscil-
lation, the active fluid can be set equal to the expulsion
fluid.
Vactive = VHPFFxp = 5,051 gal/ckt
Assuming a 10 gal/hr leak that must be supplied for 10
days and 600 gal.dead fluid, then:
Vreserve = 10 gal/hr x 240 hr + 600 gal = 3000 gal/ckt

Table 9-4 Hydraulic Worked Example

Conductor Insulation Fluid Pipe Reference
Base Material Copper Paper LVAB Steel Chap. 11
Dn 1.824 in 3.044in. 8.125in. na Chap. 11
Dm - - - 8.125 in Chap. 11
N 3 3 1 1
Fn 0.84 0.5 1 1
Vn-base material 16,834 gal 17,887 gal 76,737 gal - 9-3
Vn-oil 3,206 gal 17,887 gal - - 9-3
Vm - - - 132,552 gal 9-4
βn–base mat’l (1/°C) 0.000039 0.00028 0.00081 0.000027 Table 9-1
Tmin 10°C 10°C 10°C 10°C Chap. 11
Tmax (Norm) 85°C 78.8 68.9°C 65°C Chap. 11
∆Vtn (Norm) 244 gal 1,341 gal 3,662 gal 197 gal 9-1
VHPFFxp (Norm) 5,051 gal 9-8
Tmax (Emerg) 105°C 94.1° C 85.6° C 82.9° C
∆Vtn (Emerg) 309 gal 1,640 gal 4,699 gal 261 gal 9-1
VHPFFxp (Emerg) 6,387 gal 9-8

9-28
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Using Equation 9-19 and setting the maximum nitrogen
pressure to 15 psi (maximum recommended pressure for
normal operation), then:
Pmax = 15 psig (103.4 kPa)
Patm = 14.7 psi (101.4 kPa)
Pmin = 2.0 psig (13.8 kPa)
Vtank = 14,539 gal (choose a 15,000 gal tank/ckt)
Therefore, two 15,000 gal tanks are required for the two
circuit system. For reliability purposes, the tanks should
be located at remote ends of the system.
The tank, under normal conditions, is apportioned as
follows:
Vres = 3,000 gal
Vactive = 5,051 gal
VN2 = 15,000 - 3,000 - 5,051 = 6,949 gal
The tank volume and pressure must then be checked for
the emergency condition—i.e., 105ºC conductor tem-
perature and expulsion equal to 6,387 gal. Using Equa-
tion 9-19,
PTankEmerg = 21.0 psig
This falls well below the maximum recommended pres-
sure under emergency transients of 30 psig. The addi-
tional 1,336 gal (i.e., V H P F Fx p (Emerg) – V H P FF x p
(Norm)) of emergency expulsion fluid is easily accom-
modated by the available nitrogen volume.
The tank, under emergency conditions, is apportioned
as follows:
Vres = 3,000 gal
Vactive = 6,387 gal
VN2 = 15,000 – 3,000 – 6,387 = 5,613 gal
Chapter 9: Hydraulic Design and Equipment
The demand must then be computed using Equation 9-
15 and selecting the demand parameter ahpff from Fig-
ure 9-1. Given the maximum per-unit-length demand
due to cable unloading from Figure 9-1,
ahpff = 1.42 cm3/min/meter = 0.114 gal/min/kft
Qhpff = ahpff · L = 0.114 gal/min/kft· 49.213 kft
= 5.61 gpm.
Therefore, the pressure pump for each circuit should be
approximately 1.2 x 5.6 gpm or ~ 7 gpm.
REFERENCES
AEIC. 1996. Specification CG1-96. Third Edition. April
1996. Guide for Application of AEIC Maximum Insula-
tion Temperatures at the Conductor for Impregnated-
Paper-Insulated Cables.
AIEE. 1955. Oil Flow and Pressure Calculations for
Pipe-Type Cable Systems. AIEE Committee Report.
Transactions of AIEE. Part 111. Vol. 74.
Buller, F. H. et al. 1956. Oil Flow and Pressure Calcula-
tions for Self-Contained Oil-Filled Cable Systems.
Engelhardt, J. S., and D. W. Purnhagen. 1991. Dynamic
Rating and Underground Monitoring System, Feasibility
Study. Underground Systems, Inc., July. EPRI Report
No. EL-7341.
Lanfranconi, G. M. et al. 1974. “Self-Contained Oil-
Filled Cables for High Power Transmission in the 750 –
1200 kV Range.” IEEE Transaction Paper T 74 202-8.
Purnhagen, D. W. 1984. Designer’s Handbook for Forced
Cooled High-Pressure Oil-Filled Pipe-Type Cable Sys-
tems. July. EPRI report no. EL-3624.
9-29
 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

CHAPTER 10 Grounding and Cathodic

Protection
Authors: Dennis E. Johnson, POWER Engineers, Inc.
Adriano Santini, Consolidated Edison
Reviewer: John S. Rector, Black & Veatch

Designing the cable system grounding is essential to the safe and successful operation of
any cable system.

This chapter is divided into two parts: Grounding of single-core cable systems, and the
cathodic protection of pipe-type cable systems. The section on grounding of single-core
cables addresses basic design principles, various bonding methods, selection of compo-
nents, and basic design calculations. The section on cathodic protection addresses basic
design principles, various cathodic protection systems, and selection and design of a
cathodic protection system.

Related information may be found in other chapters. Chapters 4, 5, and 6 provide details
on the cable design and construction of dielectric, pipe-type, and SCFF cables. Chapter 8
covers cable system accessory design.

Dennis Johnson is a Senior Project Engineer with POWER Engineers,

Inc. (POWER). He received a BSEE degree from Brigham Young Uni-
versity (1985). He joined Arizona Public Service in 1986, where he ini-
tially was responsible for distribution system design. He later worked
for Black & Veatch from 1988 to 2001 as a design and project engineer
on numerous substation, overhead, and underground transmission
projects at voltages ranging from 69 to 345 kV. Mr. Johnson has worked
as a Senior Project Engineer in POWER’s underground transmission
design group since 2001. Mr. Johnson is a Member of the IEEE Power Engineering Soci-
ety and a Voting Member of the IEEE Insulated Conductors Committee (ICC). He is a
member of various ICC subcommittees that are developing guides and standards for
high-voltage underground cable systems. He is a registered professional engineer in the
states of California, Connecticut, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Nevada, New York, Pennsyl-
vania, Texas, Vermont, and Virginia.

Adriano Santini is a Technical Specialist in Corrosion with Consoli-

dated Edison Company of New York. He holds a Bachelor’s Degree in
mechanical engineering from the City College of New York (1971) and
a Master’s Degree in engineering management from the Polytechnic
Institute of New York (1977). Since he joined Con Edison in 1972, Mr.
Santini has been involved in all corrosion control aspects of the com-
pany’s electric and gas facilities. He worked extensively in improving the
cathodic protection status of Con Edison’s pipe-type cable system with
special focus on its interaction with New York City’s grid of dc subways and commuter
railroads. As Manager of Corrosion Control, he was responsible for all corrosion engi-
neering and field testing of Con Edison’s buried and submerged metallic facilities. More
recently, Mr. Santini has been Manager of Gas Transmission Planning, and is presently

10-1
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
working in Transmission Feeders Engineering. Mr. San-
tini is a 35-year member of NACE International and
has served on and chaired several of its technical com-
mittees. He is also an accredited NACE Cathodic Pro-
tection Specialist and is an instructor at West Virginia
10-2
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
University’s Appalachian Underground Corrosion
Short Course. He has authored various technical papers
and made presentations at national conferences on such
subjects as stray current mitigation, pipeline integrity
assessment, and computer applications in corrosion.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
10.1 INTRODUCTION
An important part of designing any electrical system is
to determine the appropriate method of grounding. This
chapter discusses the various types of grounding sys-
tems that are typically implemented on underground
cable systems. This chapter includes two sections:
grounding for single-core cables, and corrosion and
cathodic protection for pipe-type cable systems.
10.2 GROUNDING OF SINGLE-CORE CABLES
This section discusses the basic principles for grounding
single-core transmission cable and the most common
sheath-bonding systems now in use. Section 10.23 pro-
vides detailed calculations and examples for calculating
induced sheath voltages and currents.
10.2.1 Sheath Bonding
Large investment costs generally associated with the
installation of underground transmission circuits nor-
mally mandate operational optimization of lines from
an efficiency and power throughput capacity stand-
point. Single-conductor cables and the use of low-loss,
high-dielectric-strength insulating materials and
improved cable jackets gained popularity in the mid-
1960s. Along with their application at sub-transmission
and transmission voltages, there is significant interest in
single-conductor cables and the problems of the induced
voltages and currents associated with their use. Many of
these problems (for example, failure of sheath insula-
tors, failure of cable jackets, and sheath corrosion) have
been recognized since metallic-sheathed cables were first
used. However, increasing ampacity requirements and
short-circuit capabilities of modern power systems have
accentuated some problems, while improvements in
sheath insulations have virtually eliminated others. This
section discusses basic principles and the selection of
bonding systems.
Basic Principles
All alternating current-carrying conductors create an
external magnetic field that induces a voltage in all
other conductors within its influence field, including the
shields and sheaths of any high-voltage cables. Parallel
neutral or grounding conductors, control and communi-
cation cables, metal pipes, and other metal structures,
such as concrete rebar that are influenced by the mag-
netic field, also may have voltages induced on them.
The magnetic fields and induced voltages follow basic
and well-known electrical engineering principles (i.e.,
the induced voltage is directly proportional to the power
current flowing and to the logarithm of the spacing
between cables; and it increases linearly with the section
length). Note that the induced voltage is the result of
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
transformer action between the cable conductor and
sheath and is not a static-type voltage as is frequently
and erroneously thought. ANSI/IEEE Standard 575
offers the caution that “the voltage on the insulated
sheath of a transmission cable may be considered analo-
gous to the voltage on the conductor of non-shielded
secondary cables” (Ball et al. 1965, ANSI/IEEE Stan-
dard 575-1988).
The geometric configuration of all conductors involved,
including parallel current-carrying circuits of any sort,
affects the magnitude of the induced voltage, which can
be, and usually is, different for each cable except for tre-
foil and transposed geometries. Because of their geome-
try and the magnetic steel pipe enclosing the three-phase
conductors, pipe-type cables are essentially three-phase
cables and are not addressed here and do not require
special bonding.
The more commonly employed configurations of single-
core cables—self-contained fluid-filled (SCFF) and
extruded-dielectric, as well as the many options, hybrids,
and engineering considerations—are described very
thoroughly in ANSI/IEEE Standard 575-1988 and a
comprehensive reference list is presented there
(ANSI/IEEE Standard 575-1988). Some excerpts from
ANSI/IEEE Standard 575 are included here; more com-
plex cases can be analyzed from materials presented in
the reference. The basic theory was originally published
in 1929, first as the Master’s Degree Thesis of K.W.
Miller and later as an AIEE paper (Halperin and Miller
1929) and remains a classic reference on the subject for
those with unorthodox cases and the zeal to analyze
them rigorously.
Sheath-Bonding Alternatives
Any sheath-bonding or grounding method must per-
form the following functions:
• Limit sheath voltages.
• Reduce or eliminate the sheath losses.
• Maintain a continuous ground path to permit fault-
current return and adequate lightning and switching
surge protection.
The following is a brief discussion of four bonding
methods.
Multi-point Bonding
When the cable sheaths of a three-phase circuit are
directly interconnected (bonded) and/or grounded at
multiple points, there will be a current flow in the
sheaths determined by the magnitude of the induced
voltage and the electrical impedance of the sheath cir-
cuit. Because both the induced voltage and sheath
10-3
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
impedance are proportional to section length, the
induced current is not affected by the distance between
bonding points. This induced current creates an I2R loss
in the sheath of each cable resulting in reduction of the
amount of load current that can be carried for the same
total allowable heating. This sheath loss for heavily
loaded cables can approach and, in some cases, exceed
the conductor I2R loss. Without question, solidly
bonded and grounded sheaths represent the simplest
solution to dealing with induced sheath voltages. This is
the most common bonding method used for under-
ground distribution circuits. However, since under-
ground transmission lines are more expensive and
typically require higher circuit ratings, different bonding
methods are needed. Figure 10-1 shows solidly bonded
sheaths.
When a cable circuit is expected to carry a high load,
special bonding is often economically desirable as the
reduction in losses will typically result in a smaller con-
ductor size. Two basic approaches that are commonly
considered for special bonding are single-point bonded
sheaths (open-circuited sheath operation) and cross-
bonded sheaths, plus many hybrid combinations.
Another method, which was used more frequently in the
past, is impedance bonding.
Single-Point Bonding
In a single-point bonded system, the shields of the three
cables are connected and grounded only at one location
for each section length. At all the other points along the
cable, a voltage will appear from sheath to ground, with
the maximum voltage occurring at the farthest point
from the grounded end. The sheaths must, therefore, be
adequately insulated from ground. Since there is no
closed sheath circuit, a device is needed to complete the
circuit and protect the end of the cable from anticipated
transient overvoltages. These surge protective devices
are commonly called surge arresters, surge diverters, or
surge voltage limiters (SVL) and should be considered
at all open-circuited shield locations. The purpose of
these devices is to prevent current flow during normal
Figure 10-1 Solidly bonded sheaths.
10-4
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
operation and shunt the current to ground during a
cable fault. They can be considered mandatory at all
locations other than those where the open circuit is
achieved by insulating the terminal base plates with
standoff insulators designed to withstand occasional
flashovers. Figure 10-2 shows two approaches for single-
point bonding.
Since the cable sheath may be exposed to contact by
personnel, it is common practice to specify a maximum
permissible voltage during full-load operation. It is
understood that this voltage will be greatly exceeded
during system transients and short circuits. In the early
days of single-core cable, the cables were non-jacketed
lead-sheathed cables. Because of potential corrosion
problems, the permissible sheath voltage was limited
from 12 V to 17 V. Today, most cables are designed and
installed with an insulating jacket, so the induced volt-
age no longer poses a corrosion problem. This maxi-
mum sheath voltage varies considerably between
countries from 60 V to 600 V. In North America, the
trend is to limit the maximum allowable standing volt-
age during normal operation to 100-200 V. During
emergency operation, the trend is to limit the standing
voltage to less than 275 V.
When a ground fault occurs on a power system, the
associated zero-sequence current must find a return
path. Since a single-point bonded cable is grounded only
at one end, it cannot carry any of the fault current,
except in the case of a cable fault. Therefore, an external
path must be provided. This is done by using a parallel
ground continuity conductor (sometimes called and
earth continuity conductor). A separate cable, sized to
accommodate the expected fault current, is installed in
parallel with the cable. The spacing of the conductor
should be as close as possible to limit the voltage rise of
the sheath to an acceptable level during a single-phase
fault. The ground continuity conductor is usually insu-
lated so as to avoid any corrosion risk, and is subject to
voltage induction from the power cables in the same way
Figure 10-2 Single-point bonding.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
as any other parallel conductor. To avoid circulating
currents and losses in this conductor, it is preferable,
when the power cables are not transposed, to transpose
the parallel ground continuity conductor.
Figure 10-3 shows methods that can be used for trans-
position of the parallel cable or conductor. When the
power cables are laid in flat formation with wide spac-
ing, the parallel conductor should be between the power
cables at the position shown. If there is insufficient
space between the power cables to adopt this position
precisely, the parallel conductor should still be between
the power cables. If the cables are touching or in trefoil,
the parallel conductor should be laid immediately
alongside the power cables. In all cases, the parallel con-
ductor should be transposed at the center of the section
length or route length to an identical position on the
other side of the formation. In a duct bank design where
the cables are arranged in an “L-shape,” the parallel
conductor should be located in position inside the
“L-shape,” if possible, where the conductor is about the
same distance from all the cables.
Cross-Bonding
Cross-bonding consists of dividing the circuit length into
groups of three minor sections (“triads”), equal in length,
if possible, to have induced voltages of equal magnitude
in each minor section. By cross-connecting the sheaths in
ab, bc, and ca phase order as shown in Figure 10-4, it is
then possible to bond and ground all three sheaths at the
ends of the triad without significant current flow since the
closing voltage will generally approach zero. Since the
sheaths are cross-bonded together, it is normal practice to
use sheath-sectionalizing insulators at joint positions.
This system has the advantage of a solid metallic fault
Figure 10-3 Transposition of parallel conductors to reduce
induced voltages (ANSI/IEEE Std 585 1988).
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
current return path on the sheaths independent of a par-
allel conductor and is preferred for longer circuits.
The voltage induction in parallel cables resulting from
balanced loads can be reduced or eliminated by trans-
position, and this is particularly desirable for specially
bonded cables for the reasons given above. Transposi-
tion has the additional advantage of balancing the
impedances of the three-phase cables. The transposition
of heavy power cables is not generally practical except at
joint positions, however; hence, the complete transposi-
tion cycle of the three phases will occupy three cable
lengths. For cable circuits that consist of only one or two
lengths, it is not usual to transpose the power cables, but
the parallel conductor, if used, may be transposed as
indicated in Figure 10-3.
With cables not transposed, as illustrated in Figure 10-4,
it is impossible to achieve an exact balance of induced sheath
voltages unless the cables are laid in trefoil. When the cable
conductors are transposed at each joint position, the
induced sheath voltages will be neutralized irrespective of
cable formation, provided the three minor sections are
identical in length. Transposition is the preferred method
for providing the best balance of sheath voltages. However,
the practical difficulty of transposing large extra-high-
voltage cables generally means that a majority of those lines
are installed not transposed.
It is not generally possible to divide the route length into
exactly matched minor section lengths, nor is it always
possible to maintain a constant spacing of the cables
throughout the route. In continuous cross-bonded sys-
tems, it also may be desirable to have a total number of
minor sections not exactly divisible by three. In practical
systems, there is, therefore, generally some imbalance,
and it may be necessary to calculate the circulating
sheath currents that are present so as to assess their
Figure 10-4 Cross-bonding.
10-5
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
effect on the cable rating. ANSI/IEEE Std. 575 has indi-
cated that if the imbalance in minor section lengths is
15% or greater, it is considered necessary to account for
derating effects due to the sheath circulation currents
(ANSI/IEEE Standard 575-1988).
Impedance Bonding
Impedance bonding consists of bonding the cable
sheaths together through an impedance. This impedance
may consist of simple reactors or of devices such as sat-
urable reactors and bonding transformers. In all these
methods, a certain amount of sheath current is permit-
ted so as to reduce losses and sheath voltages. This
method is not commonly used today. Figure 10-5 shows
a schematic diagram of impedance bonding using a
bonding transformer.
During normal cable operation, the induced sheath volt-
ages on the three cable sheaths are approximately equal
and 120 degrees out of phase. Consequently, there is
very little current that flows through the cable sheaths to
ground via the sheath bonding transformers. Single-
line-to-ground fault conditions produce a zero-sequence
voltage across the bonding transformer, and the fault
flows to ground through relatively low impedance. The
sheath bonding transformers must be designed so that
they will not saturate as a result of induced sheath volt-
ages produced by normal and short-term emergency
operating currents. The cable sheaths also are connected
to local ground by means of sheath voltage limiters. The
sheath voltage limiters protect the cable sheaths and
sheath interrupts from transient overvoltages.
Although a partial suppression of the induced sheath
voltage is obtained using this method, there are a num-
ber of disadvantages that limit their application.
• Additional manhole space is required.
Figure 10-5 Typical schematic for impedance bonding (ANSI/IEEE Standard 575-1988).
10-6
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
• The impedance devices are relatively expensive since
they must be custom designed.
• In normal operation, third harmonics may be intro-
duced into the sheath, which may cause interference
on nearby telephone lines.
• Stray direct currents may enter through the ground-
ing, which may cause saturation of the iron cores and
impact the operation of the impedance devices.
The primary advantage of impedance bonding is that it
is effective in limiting the induced sheath currents
regardless if the circuit segments are equal or not.
Design of Bonding Methods
In the design and selection of special sheath-bonding
arrangements, consideration must be given to the fol-
lowing aspects:
• Cable sheaths are usually expected to be nominally at
ground potential, but in a specially bonded system
they may have appreciable voltages with respect to
ground. Consideration should be given to any safety
aspects that may arise and to any limiting values of
sheath voltage that are specified.
• Complete elimination of circulating sheath currents
may not always be possible because of practical diffi-
culties in the choice of cable length and spacing. It is
then important to calculate the residual sheath cur-
rents and assess their effect on the cable rating.
• The use of special bonding gives rise to sheath over-
voltages during system transients and faults, and the
magnitudes of those overvoltages must be consid-
ered. A sheath voltage limiter will be needed, and in
all cases consideration must be given to the coordina-
tion of the cable jacket insulation level, bond lead
insulation level, and shield interruption insulation
level in relation to the overvoltages to which the insu-
lation will be subjected.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
• Failure of a part of the sheath insulation or of a
sheath voltage limiter may result in large sheath cur-
rents and losses and, hence, may cause overheating of
the cables. Consideration must, therefore, be given to
the duty imposed on the sheath voltage-limiting
device and to the monitoring and maintenance of the
complete systems in operation.
For single-conductor cable circuits carrying large cur-
rents in excess of 500 A, there is no clear-cut point at
which special bonding should be introduced. The extra
cost of the larger conductor size cables needed for a sol-
idly bonded system must be balanced against the cost of
the additional equipment and the maintenance cost aris-
ing from the greater complexity of a specially bonded
system. However, if high projected loadings are
expected, special bonding is often economically desir-
able as the reduction in losses allows an appreciably
smaller conductor size to be used. As stated in the
ANSI/IEEE Std. 575, special bonding should be consid-
ered (but not necessarily adopted) at loads above about
500 amperes per cable (ANSI/IEEE Standard 575-
1988). If the initial loadings are lower, it may be prefera-
ble to provide the required shield interruptions, but
jumper them. Installing the fairly expensive and high-
maintenance-cost link boxes and surge arrester hard-
ware can be deferred until critical loading is
approached. The reasons for deferring the special bond-
ing are as follows:
• There are personnel safety considerations related to
high standing voltages and transient overvoltages on
the cable sheaths, joint housings, and terminator
bases that are implicit in any of the special bonding
schemes.
• Adopting special bonding techniques to maximize
the rating imposes the necessity of a more stringent
and expensive maintenance schedule. This is impor-
tant since failure of any component of the system
used to interrupt circulating current flow, or damage
to the insulating jacket of the cable, can result in
undetected currents and over-heating.
• The ancillary equipment for properly protecting the
cable jacket and interruptions from overvoltages is
expensive, especially for longer circuits where cross-
bonded sheaths are usually indicated.
• ANSI/IEEE Standard 575, “Parallel Ground Conti-
nuity Conductor,” discusses the need to provide a
parallel conductor to ensure positive return of fault
currents to system neutral and to be sensed by pro-
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
tective relays. In single-point-bonded systems, the
coupling path between fault currents and the sepa-
rate continuity conductor may be devious and always
inferior to the very positive coupling between fault
currents and cable sheaths, which represents the opti-
mal return path.
Selection of Special Bonding
Since a minimum of three minor sections is needed to
form a cross-bonded system, it is not normally applica-
ble to cable circuits comprising only one or two lengths.
For such circuits, single-point bonding is widely used.
For longer lines, multiple single-point bonding may be a
better alternative in lieu of cross-bonding. This is espe-
cially the case when a spare cable is installed in addition
to the phase cables (a fourth cable in the case of a single
circuit or a seventh cable for a double circuit line), or
where the section lengths are very unequal.
Although the cable sheaths of a single-point bonded
system are generally of a cross-sectional area and con-
ductivity that makes them quite capable of carrying
short-circuit currents due to through-faults in the power
system, they are unable to do so because they are
grounded at one point only. A parallel ground continu-
ity conductor is, therefore, required, and this adds
appreciably to the cost of the cable system.
The principal advantage of cross-bonding is that, while
induced sheath currents are inhibited during normal
balanced load operation, the sheaths do form a continu-
ous path from end to end of the cable circuit and are
grounded at both ends. Sheath currents can, therefore,
flow during ground faults, and the necessity for the par-
allel ground continuity conductor is removed. In addi-
tion to the economy achieved by the elimination of the
ground continuity conductor, the cable sheaths function
more effectively as screening conductors during ground
faults than a parallel ground continuity conductor.
Hence, the voltages induced in parallel cables are less
during ground faults in a cross-bonded system than for
a similar single-point bonded system.
Because the preferred method depends on circuit length
and interruption locations (usually at a splice), the
hardware selection and cost cannot be generalized. In
any event, surge voltage limiters are strongly recom-
mended at all shield interruptions. Figure 10-6 shows
the recommended equipment and connection for a
cross-bonded cable system.
10-7
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
Cable Bonding Components
Link boxes, surge voltage limiters, bonding cables are
important components of a bonding system. These
bonding components are discussed in detail in Chapter
8, Section 8.4.1.
Sizing of SVLs
It is well known that relatively high sheath transient
voltages can occur when cable sheaths are single-point
bonded or cross-bonded to minimize induced sheath
currents (Marti et al. 1996; Itoh et al. 1950). These tran-
sient overvoltages are typically caused by
• lightning current impulses entering an underground
cable system from overhead lines,
• fault conditions, and
• switching transients such as from line energization.
SVLs are commonly used to limit the voltage of the
cable sheaths during transient overvoltage conditions;
however, the amount of energy that the SVLs must dissi-
pate increases with lower protective levels and increased
distances between SVLs.
The sheath overvoltages are primarily the result of two
factors. The first is the mutual coupling among the
cable phases that occurs when the magnetic flux created
by one cable links the other cables in the same trench.
The second transient overvoltage phenomenon is
caused by the discontinuity to traveling waves presented
by the sheath interrupts. Traveling waves created by
lightning, switching, and faults reflect at the sheath
interrupts, resulting in superposition of the incident
and reflected waves.
While it is possible to estimate the power frequency
component of fault-current-initiated sheath overvolt-
ages using methods described in the other sections of
this guide, more sophisticated calculation tools are
required to accurately model transient sheath voltages
Figure 10-6 Sheath connections for cross-bonding.
10-8
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
and to determine the amount of energy that SVLs must
dissipate due to high frequency (traveling wave) tran-
sients. Prior to the development of computer simulation
tools for power system electrical transients, such as the
Electromagnetic Transients Program, or EMTP (Dom-
mel 1994), it was common practice to make conservative
assumptions when specifying equipment for sheath
transient overvoltage protection for cross-bonded and
single-point bonded cable systems. However, with the
trend to longer distances between SVLs and increased
standing voltage limits, it is often necessary to perform
EMTP simulations to determine maximum overvoltages
and SVL energy dissipation requirements accurately
(Emin et al. 2001).
The following criteria should be considered when select-
ing an SVL:
• The SVL should be suitable for continuous operation
with an applied voltage equal to the sheath-standing
voltage under either normal or emergency load.
• The SVL should be able to withstand the 60-Hz
overvoltages resulting from system faults. Caution
should be used in selection of nonlinear resistance-
type limiters because of problems associated with
60-Hz overvoltages.
• With nonlinear resistance-type SVLs, a maximum
duration should be specified; this is normally twice
the maximum fault clearing time for the system to
allow for reclosing.
• When calculating 60-Hz voltages appearing across
SVLs, allowance should be made for the SVLs that
are star or delta connected.
• Spark gaps and surge arresters should be able to
withstand impulse currents for the same duration as
specified for the impulse requirements for the main
lightning (surge) arresters on the system.
A nonlinear resistance-type limiter should be able to
absorb, without damage, the energy dissipated due to
switching, including switching associated with a fault
external to the cable circuit. Experience and calculations
indicate that the energy dissipated in the nonlinear resis-
tances due to switching is not an important design crite-
rion for normal cross-bonded circuits. However, for long
single-point bonded circuits or lengths of single-point
bonded cable that terminates long circuits, the switching
surge energy may be important, and calculations should
be made for these cases.
10.2.2 Structure Grounding
Direct-embedded steel structures and structures with
drilled-pier foundations where the foundation’s steel
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
reinforcing bars are electrically bonded to the structure
generally constitute effective and acceptable ground. A
separate ground conductor should be provided for
bonding cable accessories such as arresters, link boxes,
and terminations. This separate ground conductor
should be bonded to the structure ground and the
parallel ground continuity conductor. Some utilities do
not run a separate ground conductor from the shield wire
to the structure ground, thus using the inherent low surge
impedance of the steel structure. Using the steel structure
as the ground for the cable system is not recommended
It is also important to consider the grounding for each
manhole. A ground ring should be provided inside the
manhole and connected to ground rods. If suitable
grounding cannot be achieved with ground rods, ground
wires should be placed in the trench or under the man-
hole to achieve a suitable ground.
10.2.3 Design Calculations
Possible faults in power systems, both internal and
external to a cable circuit, affect the design of cable
systems from several aspects. First, the cable must be
designed so that the cable insulation will not be
damaged by the heat produced by fault current flowing
in the conductor or the cable shield/ sheath. Secondly,
fault current will induce high voltages on a single-
conductor cable sheath that may damage sheath voltage
limiters, shield interrupts, or puncture the cable jacket.
If sheath voltage limiters are used to protect the shield
interrupts and cable jacket, they must be designed to
absorb the energy they dissipate while limiting the
sheath overvoltage.
Special sheath bonding methods have been devised to
reduce or eliminate the losses in a cable system caused
by induced sheath currents. While these special bonding
methods reduce sheath losses, they can result in a signif-
icant sheath-to-ground voltage at various points in the
Figure 10-7 Cable circuit for positive- and zero-sequence impedance calculations.
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
system. These voltages are important both from a safety
standpoint and from the need to calculate the voltages
seen by various components of the system.
Induced Voltages
Of primary interest are voltages induced in the sheaths
of single-conductor cables by positive- and zero-
sequence current. The sheath standing voltage, which is
the term that is commonly used to describe the voltage-
to-ground induced on the sheath by full-load current, is
a function of the positive-sequence current. Calcula-
tions are required for both positive- and zero-sequence
currents to determine fault-induced sheath voltages.
The general procedure for doing this is discussed in the
following paragraphs; however, readers are referred to
several technical papers on this subject for more specific
details (CIGRE ANSI/IEEE Std 575 1988, CIGRE
Working Group 1990, Kuwahara and Doench 1963).
The problem of induced sheath voltages is obviously
minimized by solidly bonding the cable sheath to ground
at each termination and joint. Even though there is an
appreciable voltage created in the cable sheath by the
high sheath currents at locations other than the ground
point, they are usually well below the short-term ac-
withstand voltage of the cable jacket. However, solidly
bonded sheaths are often avoided to minimize the
steady-state energy losses from the induced sheath
currents. This sometimes results in the use of single-
point bonding for short cable lengths such as substation
“getaways” or “dips” at airport runway crossings.
In order to calculate the induced sheath voltage, it is
important to determine the associated impedances.
Chapter 16 discusses the methods for calculating cable
impedances. Figure 10-7 shows a general three-phase
cable circuit, which is the basis for matrix Equation 10-1
to relate the series voltage drop along the cable conduc-
tors to all of the currents flowing in the high-voltage
conductors and the cable sheaths. Equation 10-1 was
10-9
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

taken from Chapter 16, Equation 16-21. This figure As an alternative to the above calculation procedure,
shows the sheaths bonded at both ends. ANSI/IEEE Std. 575 gives the following equations for
calculating the open circuit sheath voltages for cables in
⎡Ea ⎤ ⎡ Zaa Zab Zac Zas1 Zas 2 Zas 3 ⎤ ⎡Ia ⎤ a flat configuration. These equations are for a, b, c rota-
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ tion with phase b as the reference phase.
⎢Eb ⎥ ⎢ Zab Zbb Zbc Zbs1 Zbs 2 Zbs 3 ⎥ ⎢Ib ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎛ 1 S
⎜ − ln
3 4S ⎞
⎟
Es1 = jωIb(6.4 x 10-5) ⎜ 2 dsm + j 2 ln dsm ⎟ V/1000 ft 10-3
⎢Ec ⎥ ⎢ Zac Zbc Zcc Zcs1 Zcs 2 Zcs 3 ⎥ ⎢Ic ⎥ ⎝ ⎠
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ 10-1
⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ Zas1 Zbs1 Zcs1 Zss Zs1s 2 Zs1s 3 ⎥ ⎢Is1 ⎥ Es2 = jωIb(6.4 x 10-5) log e
2S
V/1000 ft 10-4
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ dsm
⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ Zas 2 Zbs 2 Zcs 2 Zs1s 2 Zss Zs 2 s 3⎥ ⎢Is2 ⎥ ⎛ 1 S 3 4S ⎞
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ Es3 = jωIb(6.4 x 10-5) ⎜ − log e
⎜ 2
⎝ dsm
+j
2
ln ⎟
dsm ⎟⎠
V/1000 ft 10-5
⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ Zas 3
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ Zbs 3 Zcs 3 Zs1s 3 Zs 2 s 3 Zss ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Is3 ⎥⎦ Where:
S = axial spacing between adjacent cables, in.
Since the objective of the calculations is to determine dsm = mean sheath diameter, in.
the series voltage drops along the high-voltage ω = angular frequency, radians 2πf.
conductors in terms of positive- or zero-sequence
current, the cables may be assumed to be connected to Figure 10-8 shows the open-circuit sheath voltages for
ground at one end to simplify the equations. Sheath cables in flat and triangular formations.
voltages at the left end of the cables are given by the
following matrix equation.

⎡Es1 ⎤ ⎡ Zas Zbs1 Zcs1 ⎤ ⎡Ia ⎤

⎢Es2 ⎥ = ⎢ Zas 2 Zbs Zcs 2 ⎥ ⎢Ib ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ 10-2

⎢⎣Es3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Zas 3 Zbs 3 Zcs ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Ic ⎥⎦

Where:
ES1, ES2, E S3 are the voltages induced at the open
end of the sheaths when the ground is removed at
the right end of Figure 10-7.

A common procedure is to assume 1 ampere of either

positive-or zero-sequence current. The voltages
calculated by the above equations will give the induced
sheath voltages in volts per thousand feet per ampere of
positive- or zero-sequence fault current. Figure 10-8 Induced sheath voltage as a function of ratio of
separation to cable diameter.

10-10
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection

For zero-sequence currents, the sheath voltages with sheath is single-point grounded. Calculate the voltage at
respect to a neutral conductor laid parallel to the high- the open end of the sheath for 10,000 amperes of posi-
voltage cables (Figure 10-9) are tive- and zero-sequence current. Other parameters
needed for calculating the sequence impedances are:
⎡ 2
2Sag ⎤
E s1 = I o ⎢ R g + jω(6.4 x10 ) loge
-5
⎥ V/1000 ft 10-6
1000 kcmil; 23 µΩ/ft
⎣⎢ d sm GMR g ⎦⎥ Conductor size; resistancea:
Sheath size; resistance: 100 mils, lead; 142 µΩ/ft
Earth electrical resistivity: 100 Ω-m
⎡ Sag Sbg ⎤
E s2 = I o ⎢ R g + jω(6.4 x10-5 ) log e ⎥ V/1000 ft 10-7 Insulation thicknessa: 0.850 in.
⎣⎢ GMR gSab ⎦⎥ Geometric mean radius of conductor: 0.445 in.
Conductor diametera: 1.060 in. (compact round)

a. Values per AElC CS7-87

⎡ SagScg ⎤
E s3 = I o ⎢ R g + jω(6.4 x10 -5 ) log e ⎥ V/1000 ft 10-8
⎢⎣ GMR g Sac ⎥⎦
Where:
Io = zero sequence current
Sag, Sbg, Scg=axial spacings between the centers of
cables a, b, and c and the ground conduc-
tor, in.
dsm = mean sheath or shield diameter, in.
Rg = resistance of the ground conductor, Ω/1000
ft.
GMRg= geometric mean radius of the ground con-
ductor, in.
Example Calculation for Induced Sheath Voltages
Assume a 138-kV XLPE cable installed in a horizontal
configuration with phase spacing of 9 in. between the
centers of the cables. The cable is a 1000-kcmil, compact
round aluminum conductor and a 100-mil thick lead
sheath. Assume the cable is 1000 ft in length and the
The geometric mean distance between the conductors is:
GMDφ = 3 9 x 9 x18 = 11.34 in.
The equivalent depth of the earth return current is:
De = 3346 100 = 33500 in.
The radius from the center of the cable conductor to the
middle of the sheath is:
1.06
rsm = + 0.85 + 0.05 = 1.43 in.
2
The induced sheath voltages could be calculated using
either matrix Equation 10-2 or Equations 10-3 through
10-8. The following calculations use the for mer
approach. The first step is to calculate the mutual
impedances for the circuit. Chapter 16 discusses the
method for calculating the mutual impedances. Using
the following equation from Chapter 16 for mutual
impedance between a conductor and its concentric
sheath with earth return, the expression is

De
Zas1 = 0.01807 + j 0.0529 log 10 Ω/1000 ft 10-9
rsm

The conductor-to-sheath mutual impedance for phase

“a” with earth return is

33500
Zas = 0.01807 + j 0.0529 log 10
1.43
Figure 10-9 Induced sheath voltage with neutral
conductors. = 0.01807 + j 0.2311 = 0.2318∠85.53 Ω/1000 ft

10-11
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
The mutual impedance between sheath “a” and conduc-
tor “b” is
33500
Zbs1 = 0.01807 + j 0.0529 log 10
9 PROTECTION
= 0.01807 + j 0.1889 = 0.1897∠84.53 Ω/ 1000ft
The mutual impedance between sheath “a” and conduc-
tor “c” is
33500
Zas = 0.01807 + j 0.0529 log 10
18
= 0.01807 + j 0.17295 = 0.1739∠84.0 Ω/1000 ft
The next step is to calculate the voltage induced in the a-
phase sheath by balanced three-phase currents in each
of the three phases (positive- sequence current).
Es1 = ZasIa + Zbs1Ib+Zcs1Ic
Es1 = 137 + j 501.9 = 520 V/l000 ft
The voltage induced in the a-phase sheath due to zero-
sequence currents would be
Es1 = ZasIo + Zbs1Io + Zcs1Io
= (0.2318∠85.53) (10,000∠0) + (0.1897∠84.53)
(10,000∠0)
+ (0.1739∠84.04) (10,000∠0)
Es1 = 542 +j 5929 = 5,954∠84.77 V/1000 ft
If an SVL is placed at the open end of the sheath to limit
overvoltages produced by switching surges and light-
ning, it must be able to absorb the heating energy caused
by the induced ac voltage for fault conditions. Thus, the
sheath voltage limiters for the cable in the above exam-
ple would have to be able to withstand approximately
6000 V for the maximum fault-clearing time without
damage. Reference (CIGRE Working Group 1990) dis-
cusses additional design requirements for sheath over-
voltage protectors for cross-bonded cable systems. For
cables with cross-bonding, the induced sheath voltages
for balanced three-phase faults are typically higher than
for single line-to-ground faults. Single line-to-ground
fault voltages for cross-bonded cables are similar to
cables with single-point bonding because the voltages
induced by the zero-sequence currents in each transpo-
sition section are all in phase. The method shown above
can be used to calculate the voltages induced by zero-
sequence currents. Reference (Kuwahara and Doench
1963) derives rather complex equations and approxi-
mate formulas for the voltages induced by positive-
10-12
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
sequence currents for cable circuits with multi-section
cross bonding.
10.3 CORROSION AND CATHODIC
This section reviews the methods and procedures associ-
ated with the prevention of pipe and sheath corrosion
on transmission cables. Primary consideration will be
given to the steel pipe used with pipe-type cable.
10.3.1 Corrosion Theory
It is a common observation that after a steel pipe has
been buried for some time, a material forms on its sur-
face that is unlike the pipe itself or any of the material
that is in contact with its surface. It is important to note
that some of the steel is “missing” as indicated by the
pipe’s pitted surface. Since this new material was not
there before, it is reasonable to assume that it was pro-
duced by a chemical reaction between the steel and its
environment. What actually takes place is that some
parts of the steel give up electrons and react with the
positively charged hydroxyl ions in the soil to form the
aforementioned material, commonly known as “rust.”
The electrons travel to a separate area of the steel, are
discharged into the soil, and join with positively charged
hydrogen ions to form hydrogen gas. The area of the
steel where the rust forms is called the anode and the
area of the steel that discharges electrons into the soil is
called the cathode. Note that the steel at the cathode
plays no part in the reaction other than to transfer elec-
trons from the anode to the soil.
This process is called “corrosion,” and in order for it to
occur, four components must be present, which together
form the “corrosion cell” as shown in Figure 10-10.
• Anode—The part of the metal that corrodes; it gives
up electrons and reacts with ions in the soil.
Figure 10-10 Metal corrodes at anode (courtesy
Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc.).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
• Cathode—It receives electrons from the anode and
discharges them into the soil; it is the part of the
metal that does not corrode.
• Electrolyte—The soil in which both the anode and
cathode are buried. It is the ionic connection between
the two.
• Return path—The metallic connection between the
anode and cathode through which electrons flow.
In addition to these, there must be a potential difference
between the anode and cathode that will cause the flow
of electrons. This difference in potential can develop
because of chemical differences between the anode and
cathode or it can develop because of chemical differ-
ences within the soil. Potentials resulting from such con-
ditions cause “galvanic corrosion.”
A second, perhaps less common but certainly more
aggressive, cause of corrosion occurs when the difference
in potential between the anode and cathode is caused by
electrical interference by outside sources. This is called
“electrolytic corrosion” or “stray current” corrosion.
Galvanic Corrosion
This “self-generated” corrosion activity is the most
common cause of corrosion-related failures of pipelines
and other metal structures. The following are the corro-
sion cell components that are formed when buried steel
pipes corrode:
• Anode—Since the corrosion products are visible on
the pipe, some part of the pipe surface must be the
anode.
• Cathode—This is not so apparent, but since the pipe
is not metallically connected to anything else, the
cathode must be some other part of the same pipe.
• Electrolyte—This is the earth which surrounds the
buried pipe.
• Return path—The metallic connection between the
anode and cathode is the pipe itself.
What about the potential difference that is required
between the anode and cathode to cause current flow
and corrosion to take place, where does it come from?
The answer lies in the fact that metals are not found in
nature in the state in which they are commonly used. In
their natural state and to a varying degree, metals exist
as compounds with other elements such as oxygen, sul-
fur, and carbon. Depending on the stability of these
compounds (ores), more or less energy is required to
separate each metal from them. Those metals that
require the most energy will more readily corrode or
return to their natural state; those metals that require
the least energy are less likely to corrode. Arranging
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
metals in order of their propensity to corrode results in
a list called the Galvanic Series, a portion of which is
shown in Figure 10-11.
Active metals such as magnesium or zinc are at the top
of the list and metals such as gold or platinum are at the
bottom. Connecting metals at the top of the list with
those at the bottom and placing them both in an
electrolyte would create a corrosion cell where the active
metal becomes the anode and the passive metal becomes
the cathode. A corrosion cell made from two metals that
are closer to each other in the Galvanic Series will be
less active than one made from two metals that are
further apart.
This potential difference can exist between different
areas of the same steel pipe because the manufacturing
process does not yield a completely homogeneous
metal. Each area of the pipe may contain more or less
iron, more or less carbon, and so on. In fact, this steel
pipe can be thought of as being made up of many differ-
ent metals all connected to each other and at different
potentials than each other. The result is in not just one
corrosion cell but many such cells all corroding the sur-
face of the same pipe. Although a galvanic cell that
exists on the surface of the same metal is weak, it can
still produce considerable damage, especially if other
factors affect it. Factors that contribute to the activity
of corrosion cells include the following:
• Temperature—Raising the temperature of the metals
or the electrolyte will increase the reactions at the
anode and cathode. As the temperature is increased
to the point of drying the electrolyte, the corrosion
activity will actually decrease.
• Stress—Areas of metals that are under stress are
anodic to areas of the same metal that are not
stressed and, therefore, will corrode faster.
• Oxygen content—A metal that is in contact with soils
with different oxygen content will develop anodic and
Figure 10-11 Position of common metals on the galvanic
series (courtesy Consolidated Edison Company of New
York, Inc.).
10-13
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
cathodic areas. The anodic areas will be the ones in
contact with soils with low oxygen concentration.
• Concrete—Metals that may be partially buried in
concrete and partially in soil will develop anodic and
cathodic areas. The areas of the metal in contact with
the soils will be anodic to the areas in the concrete.
• Cinders—Soils that contain cinders are corrosive to
metals buried in it. Each cinder that comes in contact
with the metal will create a localized corrosion cell
with the cinder as the cathode and the surrounding
metal as the anode.
Electrolytic (Stray Current) Corrosion
Dc currents that travel through the soil can affect the
corrosion “status” of metallic structures in their path.
Although these currents can originate from various
sources, the most common are
• dc railroads and
• cathodic protection rectifiers.
Dynamic Interference
Currents from dc railroads are referred to as dynamic
stray currents because their magnitude changes continu-
ously depending on the movement of the train or trains.
Dc railroads are powered by current from transit sub-
stations that energize the “third” rail located along each
track as shown in Figure 10-12. The train’s motors
receive this current via a “shoe” that is attached to the
train and slides along the third rail. The circuit is com-
pleted as the current flows through the train’s wheels
onto and along the tracks back to the substation.
Figure 10-12 Stray currents from dc railroads “interfere”
with buried pipelines (courtesy Consolidated Edison
Company of New York, Inc.).
10-14
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
The problem occurs because the tracks are supported by
wooden or concrete ties that are not effective isolators;
therefore, the track is essentially grounded. This allows
the ground to become a parallel conductor to the rail
for the dc current to return to the transit substation.
This current “strays” off its intended path, hence the
name “stray current.” The amount of current that leaves
the rails and travels through the ground is a function of
the rail to ground resistance. During the last several
years, rail operators have made great efforts to maxi-
miz e this resistance, resulting in corresponding
decreases in stray current levels. However, considering
the many miles of rails that comprise dc subways and
commuter railroads in large cities, it is unlikely that
stray current can be completely eliminated. To do so
would require a separate, isolated conductor to return
current to the substation.
Just as the ground is a good conductor for these stray
currents, so is any metallic facility that is buried in it.
Pipe-type cables are very susceptible to stray current
interference because the pipe is electrically continuous
from end to end, making its longitudinal resistance very
low. Therefore, if such cables are located within a stray
current area, they also become parallel conductors to
the rail for returning current to its substation source.
The stray current process sets up two corrosion cells as
shown in Figure 10-13.
The first cell is in the area where the current is dis-
charged from the rails into the ground and is picked up
Figure 10-13 Corrosion cells set up by stray currents
(courtesy Consolidated Edison Company of New York,
Inc.).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
by the pipe. Here the corrosion occurs on the bottom
surface of the rails (anode), but its affect is generally not
severe since the surface area is large. The pipe that picks
up the current in this area is the cathode of this corro-
sion cell, and it does not corrode. The second corrosion
cell is set up where the current tries to return to its
source, near transit substations. Here, stray currents are
discharged from the pipe surface back into the ground;
the effect, however, is much worse since the stray cur-
rents are discharged from very small areas on coated
pipes. The corrosion is concentrated in these areas and
can easily result in the penetration of the pipe wall.
Static Interference
Stray currents also can emanate from nonvarying dc
sources. The most common of these are cathodic protec-
tion rectifiers whose function, as will be discussed later,
is to prevent corrosion on other underground facilities.
Unlike dc currents from railroads whose flow into the
ground is unintended, cathodic protection rectifiers
impress dc current into the ground deliberately to pro-
tect these facilities. Just as in the previous case, as they
travel through the ground, these currents can be picked
up and discharged by other metallic structures in the
area. At locations where these structures receive current
from the neighboring cathodic protection system, they
also receive some degree of protection. Corrosion
occurs at the locations where this current is discharged
back into the ground as shown on Figure 10-14.
Although the levels of these currents are typically much
lower than those from railroads, their damaging effect is
continuous since their source is constant. In addition,
Figure 10-14 Interference by cathodic protection rectifiers
(courtesy Consolidated Edison Company of New York,
Inc.).
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
their localized nature makes them more difficult to
notice during routine corrosion surveys.
10.3.2 Corrosion Coordinating Committees
To resolve both dynamic and static interference issues,
committees have been organized in most urban areas to
facilitate interaction and communication among com-
panies that may install and operate or may be affected
by systems such as dc railroads or impressed current
rectifiers. These committees are sometimes referred to as
corrosion coordinating committees or electrolysis com-
mittees. They usually have regularly scheduled meetings
at which individuals discuss and attempt to resolve spe-
cific problems in a mutually satisfactory way. A list of
the various committees in the United States can be
obtained from NACE International, a professional
organization of corrosion engineers headquartered in
Houston, Texas.
10.3.3 Corrosion Prevention
Cathodic protection is the most widely accepted and
most effective method of preventing corrosion on buried
pipes. Ironically, this method uses the concept of the
corrosion cell as the basis for corrosion prevention. As
was discussed before, for corrosion to take place, each of
the four components of the corrosion cell must be
present. One of these is the cathode, the component that
does not corrode. The idea of cathodic protection is sim-
ply to create a corrosion cell whose cathode is the pipe
that is being “protected.” Such a corrosion cell can be
created in two ways:
1. Connect the steel pipe to be protected with another
metal that is higher on the galvanic series. This will
create a potential difference between the two metals
such that current will be discharged from the anodic
metal into the electrolyte and be picked up by the
pipe. Such a system is called a galvanic cathodic pro-
tection system. The typical galvanic cathodic protec-
tion system that is applied to buried steel pipes uses
magnesium as the anode.
2. Connect the pipe to be protected to another metal
and apply the required potential between the two
with an outside source. Such a source is a rectifier
whose positive terminal is connected to the “expend-
able” metal, making it the anode. Its negative termi-
nal is connected to the pipe, making it the cathode
and, therefore, “protecting” it. This method is called
an impressed current system and is used when pro-
tecting larger or longer buried structures where more
current is required.
10-15
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
Theoretically, this is all there is to cathodic protection;
however, its realistic application requires at least two
more steps. The first is to minimize the area of the pipe
that is in contact with the electrolyte (soil). This is done
by coating the pipe with a good quality coating of high
dielectric strength. Since the coating effectively sepa-
rates the structure’s surface from the electrolyte, the
anode – either impressed current or galvanic – can dis-
charge much less current to achieve the same level of
protection. Second, ensure the pipe to be protected is
electrically isolated from any other metal structure to
which it is mechanically connected. The idea is to
increase the resistance of the pipe with respect to ground
to achieve cathodic protection with the least current
applied. This leads to the question of how much current
is enough?
10.3.4 Cathodic Protection Criteria
When a cathodic protection system is energized, the
potential of the pipe with respect to the surrounding soil
is changed. By measuring the pipe-to-soil potential, it
can be ascertained whether the resultant potential meets
the criteria for protection. The method used for measur-
ing pipe-to-soil potential is shown in Figure 10-15.
Metallic contact to the pipe is made through a previ-
ously installed test station, or contact can be made
directly to the pipe at an aboveground location. The
most commonly used reference electrode is a copper-
copper sulfate half cell. It is rugged and stable under
field conditions and is easy to maintain. It consists
essentially of a rod or tube of pure copper immersed in a
saturated solution of copper sulfate. Contact to the soil
is made through a porous plug at the bottom. This ref-
erence electrode is connected to the negative terminal of
Figure 10-15 Measurement of pipe-to-soil potential using
a high resistance voltmeter and Cu-CuSO4 reference cell
(courtesy Consolidated Edison Company of New York,
Inc.).
10-16
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
a voltmeter and is placed in the soil at grade above the
pipe at a number of locations along the pipe. The poten-
tial reading at each location indicates the corrosion or
protective condition of the pipe at that location.
An unprotected, coated steel pipe will have a potential
to a copper-copper sulfate electrode of -0.5 to -0.7 V.
When cathodic protection is applied, the potential
becomes more negative. The most common criterion for
indicating adequate cathodic protection is -0.85 V to a
copper-copper sulfate reference electrode. When taking
potential readings, it is important to ensure that the
electrode makes contact directly with the soil. If these
readings are measured on pipes that are installed under
pavement, an attempt can be made to take these read-
ings by placing the reference cell on the pavement. Such
readings, however, can be erroneous; therefore, they
must be verified periodically by comparison to measure-
ments taken with the cell in contact with the earth under
the pavement through bar-holes made for that purpose.
These readings also can be compared with readings
taken at nearby test stations where direct contact with
soil can be made.
10.3.5 Applying Cathodic Protection to Pipe-type
Cables
As any other buried steel pipe, pipe-type cables are sub-
ject to corrosion attack unless they are cathodically pro-
tected. As previously stated, conventional cathodic
protection requires the application of dc current by
either a galvanic or impressed current anode and by
maximizing the pipe to ground resistance by the use of
dielectric coatings and isolation from other grounded
structures. Unlike other buried pipe, however, pipe-type
cables have characteristics that make the application of
cathodic protection more difficult. All of these charac-
teristics are related to the absolute requirement for pipe-
type cables to be connected to substation ground mats
for ac fault current protection.
Pipe-type cables, for example, must be electrically con-
tinuous from end to end, to allow fault currents to flow
unimpeded. Therefore cathodic protection of pipe-type
cables must be applied along the entire pipe length and
cannot be applied to individual sections that are electri-
cally isolated from each other, as is often done on gas or
other pipelines.
The grounding requirement also means that the pipe-
type cable must be connected to a large copper ground-
ing grid. This creates a very large and aggressive dissim-
ilar-metals corrosion cell with the pipe as the anode and
the copper grid as the cathode.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Finally, connecting the pipe-type cable directly to sta-
tion ground makes the ground mat part of the structure
to be protected. This condition is not only unnecessary,
because of the relative passivity of copper, it is also det-
rimental to cathodic protection of the feeder pipe,
because it lowers its pipe to ground resistance.
Because of these characteristics, the cathodic protection
system employed must include on appropriate ground-
ing method that is able to overcome these limitations.
As described below, various grounding methods have
been developed and improved over the years.
Resistor-Rectifier
In this method, a 0.004-ohm resistor capable of carrying
the anticipated fault current is connected between the
pipe and the substation ground mat. A 100-ampere rec-
tifier is then connected across the resistor with the posi-
tive terminal connected to the station ground. As shown
in Figure 10-16, the current from the rectifier circulates
through two parallel paths.
The first path is the resistor bar and the second is the
ground between the ground mat and the pipe. The
amount of current in each path is inversely proportional
to their resistance. Since the object is to impress a nega-
tive voltage of approximately 0.4 V between the pipe
and ground, virtually all of the rectifier current should
be circulating through the resistor bar. This can only be
accomplished by maximizing the resistance of the
Figure 10-16 The rectifier changes the dc potential of the pipe, and the
“resistor” conducts ac fault current to ground (courtesy Consolidated
Edison Company of New York, Inc.).
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
ground path. This in turn can only be done by maximiz-
ing the pipe-to-ground resistance by coating the pipe
with a coating of high dielectric strength. By maximiz-
ing the ground path resistance, only a small fraction of
the rectifier current is allowed to be discharged to the
ground mat. To review the corrosion cell that is created
by this cathodic protection method, the station ground
mat is the anode and, therefore, corrodes. The earth
around the pipe and the ground mat is the electrolyte,
the pipe is the cathode that does not corrode, and the
rectifier is both the return path as well as the source of
the potential between the anode and cathode.
Although this method has been used for many years, it
has several problems that have made it ineffective. The
first is that it generates the minimum required potential
difference at the substation end of the pipe and it
assumes that the high initial coating resistance prevents
this potential from attenuating. This may be true for
very short feeders, but as the length increases, the pipe-
to-soil potentials of the pipe fall quickly below criteria.
In addition, coating resistance only deteriorates over
time; therefore, the current requirements increase. This
increase can only be met with larger rectifiers with pro-
portional increases to current flow through the resistor
and current discharge to ground, further corroding the
ground mat. Finally, depending on the relative position
of each substation, stray currents can be picked up and
discharged not only by the pipe but by the ground mats
themselves, with additional detrimental effects to the
discharging mat.
10-17
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
Polarization Cell
In the above section, the dc current required to protect a
well-coated pipe is a small fraction of the rectifier’s out-
put. The rest of its current is shunted through the
0.004-ohm resistor, whose only and rare function is to
discharge ac faults to ground. If the resistor could be
replaced with a device that could similarly conduct very
short duration ac faults to ground, yet continuously
provide dc isolation to the pipe, the high-current recti-
fier could be replaced with a small dc current source.
More importantly, this dc current source could be
placed outside the substation and avoid the corrosive
effect of dc current discharge from the substation
ground mat. One such device is the polarization cell.
The polarization cell consists of two electrodes each
connected to multiple stainless steel or nickel plates. The
plates are immersed in an alkaline electrolyte as shown
in Figure 10-17. The typical ac rating for such cells is
55 kA for three cycles.
The electrolyte consists of a 30% solution of potassium
hydroxide or a 15% solution of sodium hydroxide. A
layer of mineral oil is placed on the electrolyte and acts
as a seal to prevent evaporation that would change the
concentration of the electrolyte. It also separates the
electrolyte from the atmosphere, thereby, preventing its
reaction with atmospheric gasses such as carbon diox-
ide. The cell resembles a battery, but, unlike a battery, it
has no charge of its own. When it is connected in place
of the resistor and the rectifier is energized, dc current
flows through it turning it into a corrosion cell. Plates
that discharge current into the electrolyte become
anodic and corrode while plates that pick up current
become cathodic and do not corrode. The excess elec-
Figure 10-17 Components of a polarization cell (courtesy
Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc.).
10-18
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
trons at the cathode react with hydrogen ions in the elec-
trolyte to form hydrogen, which “coats” or “polarizes”
the surface of these plates, impeding further current
flow. When the negative plates become fully polarized,
the current flow through the cell is virtually eliminated.
The polarization cell is, in effect, a chemical insulating
joint. The current output of the rectifier is, therefore,
reduced by the amount that was previously shunted
through the resistor while the current that was previ-
ously discharged from the ground mat remains the
same. This current reduction makes it possible to com-
pletely eliminate the two large rectifiers (one at each end
of the feeder) and replace them with much smaller units
that are installed along the feeder’s route. These “field
rectifiers” discharge protective current into the ground
via “anode groundbeds” that are separate from the sub-
station ground mats, thereby, completely eliminating
their corrosion issues.
Although polarization cells are good substitutes for
resistors-rectifiers as a method of ac grounding and dc
isolation, there are some things to consider when using
them. It is important to remember that the polarization
film that forms on the negative plates is tenuous and can
break down. One of the reasons is the fact that each
pipe-type cable has some ac current that is induced on
the pipe because of the load unbalance on the three
phases. This current flow, although small, flows continu-
ously to ground, passes through the cell, and breaks
down the polarization film. This, in turn, causes an
increase of dc current flow through the cell, which means
more corrosion and deterioration of the positive plates.
This polarization breakdown also can be caused if the
applied current causes the dc pipe-to-ground potential
to reach the voltage blocking capability of the cell,
approximately 1 volt. At this point, any further increase
in current applied does not result in a corresponding
increase in potential, rather it causes a breakdown in the
polarization film and increased flow of corrosive dc cur-
rent through the cell.
This situation can happen in two ways. First, depending
on the location of the current source (rectifier) along the
feeder and on the relative pipe-to-ground resistance of
different areas of the feeder, the pipe to soil potential at
one end is often higher or lower than at the opposite
end. In fact, the potential at one end may be below pro-
tective criteria while at the other end the feeder may be
well above criteria. It is apparent that if a rectifier’s out-
put is raised to correct the problem at one end, the
polarization cell’s blocking voltage at the other end can
be reached, at which point the polarization film will
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection

break down. The second way that this can happen is in ity, which, of course, means that part of normal cell
situations where the substation ground mat is in a stray maintenance includes cleaning and inspection of the
current pickup area. Here, stray currents are added to plates for any sign of deterioration.
the rectifier current and can cause the potential across
Solid-State Isolator
the cell to easily reach the limit and break down the
Although the polarization cells are effective dc isolation
polarization film.
devices for cathodic protection of pipe type cables, their
chemical characteristics make them high-maintenance
Note that in both of these cases, the pipe’s potential
pieces of equipment. The maintenance requirements
remains above criteria; therefore, the problem that is
make their operation costly and their reliability some-
affecting the cell may remain unnoticed unless the cur-
what tenuous. For these reasons, a new device was devel-
rent flow through the cell is monitored periodically and
oped to take its place, remedying some of the problems
is verified to be minimal. If not, corrosion of the cell’s
of polarization cells.
positive plates can reduce their surface area and limit
their ac current-carrying capabilities during a fault.
The device, shown on Figure 10-19, is called an isolator-
surge protector (ISP), and it is a solid state device com-
To take care of the limited blocking voltage issue that
posed of three main components: capacitors, inductors,
can occur with polarization cells (and because the pipe
and thyristors. The ISP, like the polarization cell,
to ground potential at each end of the pipe-type cable
replaces the resistor as the connection between the pipe
cannot be determined in advance), it is necessary to
type cable and ground. The ISP’s capacitors can block
design cell cabinets as shown in Figure 10-18. These
up to 12-V dc, a value that makes it possible for one ISP
cabinets can contain more than one cell that can be con-
to be more than adequate for any situation. If this volt-
nected in series, thereby producing a blocking voltage
age should exceed 12 V, the gate circuit would sense this
that is higher than the pipe-to-ground voltage.
increase and would open one of the two thyristors and
effectively short out the ISP and allow dc current to
Finally, polarization cells need to be maintained to
flow. During this time, cathodic protection levels would
insure that they retain their chemical properties. The
drop until the dc voltage returns to a level below the
electrolyte’s specific gravity must be kept at its proper
nominal 12 V, at which point cathodic isolation would
concentration, and the recommended amount of min-
be restored.
eral oil must be kept floating on the electrolyte. In addi-
tion, the sediment that collects at the bottom of the
container must be periodically removed. It is important
to remember that even under normal operating condi-
tions, the dc current flow through the cell is never zero;
therefore, some corrosion of the positive plates takes
place. The sediment is the result of this corrosion activ-

Figure 10-18 Cabinet installed near pothead structure Figure 10-19 The ISP is mounted on the pothead
designed to accommodate up to three polarization cells structure (courtesy Consolidated Edison Company of
(courtesy Consolidated Edison Company of New York, New York, Inc.).
Inc.).

10-19
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

The flow of ac current, generated by the unbalanced tested and maintained, cathodic protection levels may
load on the three conductors, also has the effect of be compromised.
reducing the voltage that the ISP can block during nor-
mal operations. However, the reduction is rarely enough Voltage-breakdown gaps are used less often than the
to be of concern considering the 12-V starting point. A other grounding methods described. A survey of 26
more important consideration in choosing the right ISP power companies in 1972 concerning corrosion control
is its steady-state current rating with respect to the ac practices (NACE 1972) indicated that only four compa-
unbalance current that is likely to flow through it. If this nies used them on their pipe-type cables.
current exceeds the steady-state current rating of the
ISP, the gate circuit will recognize it as a fault, close the Voltage-breakdown gaps are not standard equipment
thyristors, and short out the ISP. The cathodic protec- for the power industry. Rather, each company usually
tion levels will then fall below criteria and, since the designs and builds its own. For example, in 1977, Com-
unbalance current is continuous, the thyristors may stay monwealth Edison used the equipment shown in Figure
closed for long periods of time. 10-20. This particular gap was designed to break down
at voltages as low as 35 V.
Real ac faults ironically pose fewer problems because of
their short duration. When a fault occurs, it raises the The gap is described (Hymes 1977) as “an aluminum
voltage across the capacitors higher than 12 V. The gate oxide film cutout disc, identical to the type used with
circuit senses this voltage rise and alternately opens each series street lamps.” The disc is backed by copper anvils
of the two thyristors every half cycle, thereby discharg- held against the disc by spring pressure. This enables the
ing the fault current to ground. When the fault clears, installation to conduct the high current generated dur-
the thyristors reset to their open position. ing a fault. This particular voltage gap has two
500-microfarad capacitors connected across the gap to
When lightning strikes in or near substations, the high- prevent the inadvertent breakdown problems that had
voltage surges may pass through the ISP. In such cases, been experienced and that were attributed to switching
the fast voltage rise across the inductor is such that the surges. These capacitors were not entirely successful in
surge protector is placed in operation and diverts most solving that problem, since (Hymes 1977) other means
of the surge current to ground. were being considered.
Field Rectifiers
The ISP is an effective device for this application. It also
As was previously discussed, when the grounding resis-
is a favorite of substation operators since it requires no
tor, which was installed at each substation end of each
onsite maintenance. To ensure that its components are
pipe-type cable, is replaced with one or more polariza-
in good working order, ISPs need to be tested periodi-
tion cells or with an ISP, the associated rectifiers can be
cally and after the feeder experiences a fault. These tests
moved away from the substation and placed (in the
are done using special computer-controlled testing
field) along its route. Doing so eliminates the corrosion
devices developed for this purpose. If any of its compo-
problem that these rectifiers can cause on the substation
nents are found to be damaged, the unit must be sent
ground mats. In addition, installing these rectifiers away
back to the manufacturer for repair.
Voltage-Breakdown Gap
Another cathodic-protection-compatible device that has
been used to “connect” pipe-type cables to ground is
called the Voltage-Breakdown Gap. This device, some-
times referred to as a Spark-Gap, is designed to break
down at a given voltage when a fault occurs and to con-
duct the resulting fault current to ground. It is inserted
in the grounding connection at the station ends of the
pipe-type cable, in effect keeping the pipe and its
cathodic protection system “disconnected” from the
ground mat during normal cable operation. The break-
down in the gap that occurs during a fault causes the
cathodic protection levels to drop because of the direct
connection between the pipe and the ground mat. The Figure 10-20 Example of a voltage-breakdown gap as
gap has no means of resetting itself, so unless they are used by Commonwealth Edison (courtesy Consolidated
Edison Company of New York, Inc.).

10-20
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
from the substation ends of the feeder results in better
current distribution and reduced current density. For
these reasons, fewer rectifiers are typically required for
each application.
Note: Although the cathodic protection system can be
either galvanic or impressed current, generally pipe-type
cables are protected by impressed current systems. The
main reason is that they need to be protected as a whole
because they cannot be sectionalized into small, isolated
pipe sections where galvanic systems would be more
appropriate. If galvanic cathodic protection systems
were to be used on these cables, the magnesium anode
clusters would need to be installed at relatively short
intervals of 200 to 300 ft. This is because their relatively
low driving voltage of approximately 1.5 V makes them
ineffective for much greater distances, especially as the
coating resistance decreases over time. In addition, gal-
vanic anodes also could be a problem for stray currents
where they could actually increase stray current pickup.
In any case, galvanic anodes cannot be used in place of
the rectifier in resistor-rectifier grounding systems
because they would not be able to overcome the gal-
vanic effect of the substation’s copper ground mat and
the stainless steel (SS) riser pipes.
Impressed current systems are comprised of a rectifier
and a number of anodes. Ideally, such a system should
be located midway along the cable’s route or should be
evenly spaced if more than one is required as shown in
Figure 10-21. Realistically, since pipe-type cables are
located within city environments, the location of these
impressed current systems is more likely dictated by
Figure 10-21 Field rectifiers are installed along the cable’s
route, outside substations (courtesy Consolidated Edison
Company of New York, Inc.).
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
available land such as park areas, grassy areas near
highway ramps, and river banks.
An impressed current system is comprised of an ac cur-
rent source as input to a rectifier. The rectifier’s dc out-
put is connected between the pipe (negative) and a
number of anodes (positive) that are buried in the
ground near the rectifier. The rectifier dc current is dis-
charged into the ground by the anodes, travels through
the ground, and is picked up by the pipe surface. Once
again, this is nothing more than a corrosion cell whose
cathode is the pipe to be protected. The rectifier voltage
and current outputs are based on the requirement for
each application. The current output is determined by
the current required to protect the pipe. The current
required is, in turn, based on the total pipe-to-ground
resistance (ohms), which is equal to the unit-coating
resistance (ohms-square foot) divided by the total sur-
face area of the pipe (square feet). The rectifier’s voltage
output is determined by the anode ground-bed resis-
tance, which is a function of the soil resistivity and the
type, number, size, and configuration of the anodes that
are buried in that soil.
Anode materials for impressed-current systems are cho-
sen based on their ability to discharge current at low
rates of consumption. The most often-used materials
are graphite and high-silicon cast iron. Anodes made of
platinized titanium or niobium also are quite common.
The common graphite and high-silicon cast iron anodes
are 5-ft (1.5-m)-long cylindrical rods. The cast iron
anodes are supplied in a variety of diameters from 1.5-3
in. (3.8-7.6 cm), while most graphite anodes are 3 in. in
diameter as shown in Figure 10-22.
Figure 10-22 High-silicon cast iron anodes prepackaged
in coke breeze (courtesy Consolidated Edison Company
of New York, Inc.).
10-21
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
These anodes can be installed either vertically or hori-
zontally. They are installed in groups referred to as
ground beds. Each anode is backfilled with a specially
prepared coke breeze. The purpose of this backfill is to
lower the anode-to-earth resistance and to provide a
uniform environment for the anode, a condition that
makes for uniform anode consumption.
The anodes are manufactured with attached wires. In a
typical ground-bed installation, these wires are con-
nected to a header cable, which, in turn, is connected to
the positive terminal of the rectifier. It is worth noting
that although the anodes are the intended current dis-
charge points, any other metal that is connected to the
positive terminal of the rectifier and is buried will be a
point of discharge, including the header cable itself.
Corrosion of the positive header cable is, in fact, the
most common cause of failure in these impressed cur-
rent systems. This is why, as a general rule, the insula-
tion on the header cable should be the best available,
and extra care should be taken to avoid damaging it
during installation.
Rectifiers used for these applications can be obtained in
a large variety of output voltage and current ratings.
Standard units with current ratings of less than
10 amperes to more than 250 amperes and voltage
ratings of 10 V to more than 100 V are listed in the
catalogs of the manufacturers. Most units are single-
phase, with the bridge connected as shown in Figure
10-23, although larger capacity units are often three-
phase units.
It is good practice to design the system so that the
ground-bed resistance is as low as practical. This will
minimize the output voltage from the rectifier needed to
obtain the required current discharge from the anodes.
Figure 10-23 Schematic of typical cathodic protection
rectifier (courtesy Consolidated Edison Company of New
York, Inc.).
10-22
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Similarly, the coating resistance should be as high as
possible to minimize the current required from the recti-
fier. This will not only keep the operational cost of the
rectifier low, but more importantly will minimize static
interference with other structures. The units have step-
down transformers with tap settings so that the output
voltage can be adjusted.
Most rectifier units are contained in housings that pro-
vide convection cooling. In corrosive atmospheres or in
hazardous locations, rectifier units can be oil-immersed
and provided with explosion-proof fittings. Rectifiers
are available with automatic controls that can keep the
current output constant in reaction to changes to
ground-bed resistance. These controls also can be set to
vary the output of the rectifiers in response to changes
in pipe-to-soil potential on the pipe. Although this fea-
ture can be useful in the short run, changes in pipe-to-
soil potentials should be investigated in depth as to their
cause and not just addressed by adjustments to the out-
put current of the rectifier. The most useful option that
can be purchased with rectifiers is a remote monitoring
system. These systems make it possible to monitor the
output of the rectifier often, if not continuously. These
monitors also can be wired to permanent reference cells
to continuously monitor the actual pipe-to-soil poten-
tial of the pipe and transmit or record the readings for
specific time intervals. Such data can be very useful to
insure that the rectifiers operate properly and that
cathodic protection of the pipes is not interrupted.
Galvanic Protection Systems—Magnesium vs. Zinc
Anodes
Although the cathodic protection system can be either
galvanic or impressed current, generally pipe-type cables
are protected by impressed current systems. The main
reason is that they need to be protected as a whole,
because they cannot be sectionalized into small, isolated
pipe sections where galvanic systems would be more
appropriate. If galvanic cathodic protection systems
were to be used on these cables, the magnesium anode
clusters would need to be installed at relatively short
intervals of 200 to 300 ft. This is because their relatively
low driving voltage of approximately 1.0-1.5 V make
them ineffective for much greater distances, especially
when soil resistivity and current requirements are
considered. In addition, galvanic anodes could also be a
problem in stray current areas, where they could actually
increase stray current pickup. In any case, galvanic
anodes cannot be used in place of the rectifier in resistor-
rectifier grounding systems because they would not be
able to overcome the galvanic effect of the substation’s
copper ground mat and the substation riser pipes.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection

If galvanic anodes are determined to be appropriate for
a particular application, the following guidelines should
be used in determining which galvanic metal to use.
The protective current generated by galvanic anodes
depends upon the inherent voltage that exists between
the anodes and the structure, as well as the resistivity of
the soil in which the anodes are installed. Galvanic
anodes consume themselves in the process of generating
the protective current. This is why the system is often
referred to as a sacrificial anode system. The rate of
consumption depends upon the amount of current gen-
erated as well as the material of the anode. For example,
the theoretical consumption rate of zinc is 23.5 lbs
(10.7 kg) per ampere-year, while that of magnesium is
8.7 lbs (4 kg) per ampere-year. In actual practice, not all
of the metal that is consumed goes to generate cathodic
protection current. Some of the metal is consumed in
self-corrosion. Zinc is approximately 90% efficient, and
magnesium is approximately 50% efficient. Therefore
the actual corrosion rates for these metals are 26 lbs
(11.8 kg) of zinc per ampere-year of protective current
and 17 lbs (7.7 kg) of magnesium per ampere-year.
formly. It lowers the anode-to-earth resistance, thereby
increasing the current. It retains moisture, which main-
tains a lower resistance. It also acts as a depolarizing
agent and prevents the anode from going passive.
10.3.6 Stray Current Mitigation
In cases where pipe-type cable is affected by static stray
currents that emanate from other cathodic protection
systems or other steady-state sources, the solution is to
communicate the problem to all parties involved and try
to rectify the situation to everyone’s satisfaction.
The solution could entail moving the offending rectifier
to a different location. It also could include bonding the
pipe-type cable to the rectifier’s negative terminal, in
effect making it part of the protected structure. If these

Magnesium is more widely used than zinc because of its

higher driving voltage. The solution potential of
magnesium is 1.55 V to a copper-copper sulfate
magnesium reference electrode, while that of zinc is
1.10 V. Therefore, the use of zinc has been limited to
very low-resistivity soils and to seawater applications.
Zinc is rarely effective in soils with resistivities of more
than 1500 ohm-cm unless the pipe is very well-coated
and the current requirement for protection is small. Figure 10-24 Distributed magnesium anodes (courtesy
Magnesium, on the other hand, can be used quite Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc.).
effectively in soils of 5000 ohm-cm, and on well-coated
pipe, can be used in soils of 10,000 ohm-cm or more.

Galvanic anodes are buried directly in the soil at inter-

vals along the pipeline, as shown in Figure 10-24. The
distance away from the pipe is usually 3-5 ft (1-1.5 m).
The anodes are supplied prepackaged in a cloth bag in a
specially prepared backfill mixture and are equipped
with a connecting wire connected directly to the pipe.
The anodes may also be connected to each other with a
header cable, which, in turn, is connected to the pipe, as
shown in Figure 10-25. Very often a shunt is inserted in
the connecting cable so that the current output can be
read. The shunt is housed in a test box, as shown in Fig-
ure 10-26.

The backfill mixture most often used is 70% gypsum,

Figure 10-25 Distributed galvanic anodes with header
25% bentonite, and 5% sodium sulfate. This backfill cable (courtesy Consolidated Edison Company of New
serves a number of purposes. It provides a uniform envi- York, Inc.).
ronment for the anode so that the anode corrodes uni-

10-23
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

steps cannot be agreed on, as a last resort another recti-
fier could be installed on the cable to counter the effect
of the offending rectifier. This should not be necessary if
all parties are cooperative.
Where dynamic stray currents are present, pipe-type
cables are particularly affected because of their length
and electrical continuity. As previously mentioned,
dynamic stray currents result from the operations of dc
transit and commuter railroads traveling to and from as
well as within metropolitan areas. This is the same envi-
ronment where pipe-type cables are found.
Figure 10-29 is a typical graph and shows the when the
pipe-to-negative bus potential moves in the positive
direction, so does the pipe-to-soil potential. From this it
is reasonable to infer that, since the pipe-to-negative bus
potential is the driving force for current flow between
the pipe and the substation, it also is the cause for pipe-
to-soil potential becoming more positive as a result of
current discharge. The degree of correlation between the
two readings can be calculated or can be deduced from
the shape of the X-Y graph. Good correlation results
are in a thin straight line, while a wide line indicates less
correlation. In cities with many subways, commuter

The areas of the cable that pick up or discharge current

are readily visible on its potential profile.

As shown on Figure 10-27, the pickup areas are negative

and occur over large areas, while discharge areas are
positive and are more concentrated. To correct the situ-
ation, it is necessary to first find what is causing the
problem. It is often the case that when the cable is in the
proximity of transit substations, the cause is obvious.
However, best practices dictate that interference testing
be done in cooperation with transit personnel so that
the proper solution can be agreed on.

Interference testing consists of measuring the pipe-to-

soil potential of the pipe simultaneously with the poten-
tial between the pipe and the negative output terminal
(bus) of the transit substation as shown on Figure 10-28. Figure 10-27 Pipe-to-soil potential profile measured along
the cable’s route (courtesy Consolidated Edison Company
of New York, Inc.).
By plotting an X-Y graph of the two measurements, con-
clusions can be made as to the cause of the interference.

Figure 10-28 Interference tests are performed in discharge

Figure 10-26 Galvanic anode cluster installed with areas (courtesy Consolidated Edison Company of New
current measuring shunt (courtesy Consolidated Edison York, Inc.).
Company of New York, Inc.).

10-24
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection

trains, and crisscrossing pipe-type cables, interference metallic path was added, the slope became negative.
tests rarely yield graphs with good correlation. This is From this, the following can be deduced:
because the cable being tested is almost always affected • A metallic connection between the pipe and the nega-
by stray currents from different substations, not just the
tive bus will keep the pipe from discharging stray cur-
one where the interference tests are being performed.
rent into the soil.
Having established that stray currents are being dis- • The resistance of the metallic path must be low
charged from the pipe into the ground so that they can enough that the slope of the X-Y graph of pipe to soil
return to their substation source, the solution is to pre- vs. current flow is negative.
vent this current discharge by providing it with a better
return path to the substation. The most obvious way to
do this is to install a cable connecting the pipe and the
negative bus of the transit substation as shown in Figure
10-30. Substituting this metallic path for the electrolytic
earth path would prevent current discharge into the soil
and, therefore, prevent corrosion of the pipe surface.

The effect of this connection can be demonstrated by

again recording the pipe-to-soil potential simulta-
neously with the current flow on the cable. Figure 10-31
shows the X-Y plot of these readings, and it shows that
the pipe-to-soil potential becomes more negative as cur-
rent in the bond cable increases. By comparing the two
Figure 10-30 Cable connection is made between pipe-
graphs, it is apparent that when the current was
type cable and transit substation (courtesy Consolidated
returned through the electrolytic (more resistive) path, Edison Company of New York, Inc.).
the slope of the X-Y graph was positive, but when a

Figure 10-31 X-Y graph of PS vs. drain current indicates

“overcompensation” (courtesy Consolidated Edison
Figure 10-29 X-Y plot indicates correlation between PS Company of New York, Inc.).
and P-negative bus readings (courtesy Consolidated
Edison Company of New York, Inc.).

10-25
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
The metallic connection between the pipe and the tran-
sit substation’s negative bus is appropriately called a
stray current drain bond, and its optimum resistance is
that which results in an X-Y plot with a vertical slope. A
drain bond of proper resistance will allow stray current
to return to its source without any change in the pipe-
to-soil potential. The value of drain bond resistance is a
function of the pipe-to-ground resistance and pipe-to-
negative bus resistance, two values that are difficult to
measure. Even if they were measured, the results would
be approximate, at best. Therefore, the best way to
determine the resistance of a drain bond is to do so
empirically. Again, in cooperation with transit person-
nel, a temporary drain bond is installed in series with an
adjustable resistor. X-Y plots are generated for various
resistance values until the vertical slope is achieved as
shown in Figure 10-32. A drain having this resistance is
then installed permanently. The installation is com-
pleted with the addition of a diode to the circuit. The
diode allows current to flow only from the pipe to the
substation. It is required to prevent the drain bond itself
from becoming a path for stray current flow onto the
pipe as shown in Figure 10-33.
There are two important points to remember when
installing a stray current drain bond. The first is that it
is the most effective way to mitigate the effects of stray
current interference because it operates automatically.
Its operation is controlled by the stray current activity
itself, which changes drastically at different times during
the day or night. It only functions when stray currents
are present and is completely passive when they are not.
Figure 10-32 A drain bond of proper resistance will keep
the pipe-to-soil potential unchanged at any level of drain
current (courtesy Consolidated Edison Company of New
York, Inc.).
10-26
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
This differs drastically with the only other method that
has been used to counter the effects of stray currents,
the interference rectifier. This is an impressed-current
system (as previously described) whose function is to
change the potential of the pipe in the negative direction
by the amount that the stray currents change it in the
positive direction. The problem is that the rectifier out-
put is constant and must be designed to counter the
maximum interference level even though this only
occurs during a very small portion of the day. The effect
is that most of its current output does not benefit the
pipe and may cause damage to neighboring pipes
through static interference as previously discussed.
The second point is that it is incumbent on the operator
of the pipe-type cable to survey the drain’s performance
often to insure that the levels of current and pipe-to-soil
potential remain relatively constant. Any significant
change usually is the result of decreased pipe-to-ground
resistance, which can be the result of accidental contacts
between the pipe and other buried metallic structures.
These must be located and cleared as soon as possible.
10.3.7 Pipe to Soil Potential Surveys
After the cathodic protection system is energized, it is
necessary to evaluate its effectiveness. This is done by
performing a potential survey over the entire length of
the pipe-type cable. This survey consists of measuring
pipe-to-soil potential at every test station installed along
the route of the cable, typically near joint manholes.
These test stations consist of a small metal box that, in
most cases, is mounted flush with the pavement. In
some cases, where the environment permits, these test
Figure 10-33 A drain bond is comprised of the cable, the
resistor, and the diode (courtesy Consolidated Edison
Company of New York, Inc.).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
stations can be mounted above grade. In either case,
they contain a wire that is connected to the pipe below
and have an open bottom through which the reference
cell can make contact with the earth. Readings taken at
these test stations only reflect the potential of a small
pipe section below the test station; however, they are
representative of the potentials over the entire surface of
the pipe. This is a reasonable assumption if the condi-
tion of the coating and the type of backfill are generally
uniform and if the protective current source (rectifier-
ground bed) is some distance away from the pipe. How-
ever, this may not be the case, and it is the purpose of a
qualified person to determine if a pipe-to-soil profile
along the route of the cable is, in fact, representative of
the cathodic protection status of the entire pipe surface.
Such a person may call for additional readings to be
taken between test stations to get a better picture of the
situation. The additional readings that may be called for
may range from several to many. The ultimate potential
survey is called a close interval survey (CIS) whose
objective is to actually measure the potential of the
entire pipe surface. Such a survey is one of the most use-
ful tools in finding cathodic protection problems on any
pipeline, ranging from stray current interference over
large areas to finding coating damage.
A CIS survey is performed by taking successive pipe-to-
soil potential measurements with the reference electrode
placed on the soil above the pipeline at closely spaced
intervals. The generally accepted interval length is 3 ft to
5ft. These measurements are taken with cathodic protec-
tion applied to the pipe. As the reference electrode
advances along the pipeline, the potential readings are
substantially the same at each successive location if the
coating is intact. If there is a holiday in the coating in
the vicinity of a given reference electrode placement, the
value of the potential reading at that location will be less
negative than the readings along the remainder of the
pipeline. This also is true if the potential is being
affected by stray current discharge, either over a large
area or localized over a short distance. In urban areas
where the pipe-type cable may be buried under pave-
ment, performing such surveys is more difficult and the
result may be confusing. However, if proper steps are
taken during data collection and if the data are properly
interpreted, these surveys can be very useful even in
paved areas.
10.3.8 Coatings
Although ISPs, polarization cells (PCs), rectifiers, and
stray-current bonds are necessary components of a
good cathodic protection system, none of these could
effectively protect a pipe if it were not for a high-quality
dielectric coating being applied to its surface. Referring
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
back to the basic corrosion cell, it is apparent that by
coating the cathode, the pipe is isolated from the electro-
lyte, thereby preventing current flow and stopping the
corrosion process. In fact, if the cathode (the pipe) were
perfectly coated and were to remain so forever, nothing
further would need to be done. There would be no need
for cathodic protection. Unfortunately, this is never the
case. Protective coatings on pipe-type cables are sub-
jected to more severe conditions than coatings on other
pipelines for the following reasons:
• Cables often operate at elevated temperatures. There-
fore, the coatings used on pipe-type cables must be
able to withstand greater heat than is usually the case
for underground pipelines.
• Coatings must possess thermal characteristics that
permit them to dissipate that heat to the surround-
ing soil.
• Coatings are often subjected to the momentarily high
electrical potentials resulting from switching surges
and fault currents. The coating must have sufficient
dielectric strength to resist puncturing.
Four basic types of coatings have been used successfully
on pipe-type cables (NACE 1972). These are asphalt
mastic, coal-tar enamel, polyethylene, and polypropy-
lene. Thin film or fusion-bonded epoxy coatings have
not received acceptance for pipe-type cables because of
their relatively low electrical strength in resisting punc-
ture from switching or circuit failure. The most common
coatings used today are the plastic coatings.
Asphalt mastic and coal tar are hot-applied coatings
that are bonded to a pipe whose surface has been
cleaned (grit or shot-blasted) and primed (NACE 1977).
The asphalt mastic most commonly used for pipe-type
cable is an air-blown asphalt mixed with a sand aggre-
gate and a mineral filler, reinforced with glass fiber
(NACE 1976). This coating, applied to a thickness of
0.5 in. (1.3 cm) is marketed under the trade name
Somastic. However, it is susceptible to brittleness at low
temperatures. Somastic was the most widely used coat-
ing for pipe-type cable through the early 1970s and has
the longest history, dating from a Detroit Edison instal-
lation in 1941 (Sinclair 1956).
Coal-tar enamel also has had a long history of
successful use, particularly in the general pipeline
industry. On most pipelines, coal-tar enamel was usually
applied in accordance with American Water Works
Association Standard C203 (AWWA 1986), which
required a thickness of 0.094 in. (0.24 cm). However,
many operators of pipe-type cables specified greater
thicknesses, varying from 0.125-0.1875 in. (0.31-
10-27
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
0.48 cm) (NACE 1972). Most coal-tar enamel coatings
were reinforced with fiberglass and had an outer wrap of
felt and kraft paper.
As is the case with asphalt mastics, coal-tar enamels
also are susceptible to low-temperature brittleness.
Plastic coatings, both polyethylene and polypropylene,
are referred to generically as extruded polyolefin-resin
coating systems (NACE 1985). There are two basic
methods used for extruding the resin onto the pipe. In
one method, the resin coating is crosshead-extruded on
the pipe in the shape of a continuous sleeve over a hot-
applied mastic adhesive. In the other method, the resin
coating is side-extruded and spirally wrapped and fused
as a seamless coating over a butyl rubber adhesive. Fig-
ure 10-34 shows a sandblasted pipe as it rotates under
two extruding machines. The first wraps a film of butyl
rubber on the pipe surface that is immediately covered
with a film of polyethylene from the second extruding
machine. The coating is then cooled by water nozzles
that extend from the blue header as the coated pipe
moves to the right.
Although 40 mils (1 mm) is indicated as the standard
sheath thickness for pipe sizes of 6-in. (15-cm) diameter
or more, most operators have specified a 60-mil
(1.5-mm) sheath thickness. The high-density polyethyl-
ene coating is available in thicknesses from 50-250 mils
(1.3-6.4 mm).
These coatings do not have the low-temperature limita-
tions of asphalt and coal tar. The polyethylene coating
has a continuous operating range of -40 to 74°C (or as
high as 82°C, depending upon the manufacturer).
Polypropylene is said to have a continuous operating
Figure 10-34 Butyl rubber adhesive is side-extruded over
pipe surface, and polyethylene is extruded over the
adhesive (courtesy Consolidated Edison Company of New
York, Inc.).
10-28
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
range of -21 to 82°C. Plastic coatings are susceptible to
deterioration resulting from ultraviolet radiation when
stored outdoors. The addition of carbon black to the
resin increases the resistance of the coating to the ultra-
violet radiation.
There are two tests that are performed to insure that
pipe coating is in the best possible condition after it is
installed and backfilled. The first test is called a holiday
detector (jeep) test. This test uses an instrument to
apply high-voltage dc across the coating over its entire
surface. For coatings such as extruded polyolefin with a
thickness of 60 mils or more, the voltage applied is 18–
20 kV. This test is intended to find small pinholes that
are missed by visual inspection. If any such “holidays”
are found, they are repaired before the pipe is lowered
into the trench. The pipe sections are welded together,
after which the joints are cleaned and field-coated, typi-
cally with cold-applied tapes or shrink sleeves. The
coated joints, and sometimes the entire pipe, are again
jeeped immediately prior to backfill.
After backfill, a second test is performed to ensure that
the coating was not damaged during backfilling. This
test, called the coating resistance test, is performed by
applying a known amount of current to the pipe section
and measuring the pipe-to-soil potential of the pipe
before and after current application. The change in
potential divided by the current gives the pipe-to-
ground resistance of the pipe section. The surface area
of the buried pipe is calculated and multiplied by the
pipe-to-ground resistance. The result is a unit resistance
value for the coating, which, if not damaged, can easily
reach 2,000,000 ohms-square feet. Although some com-
panies specify such high values of coating resistance,
each company should set its own value of coating resis-
tance that they are willing to accept.
10.3.9 Disbonded Coating
Coatings are essential components of any cathodic pro-
tection system; however, they have one characteristic
that not only can render such systems ineffective but can
actually contribute to the corrosion of the pipe surface.
To be effective, coatings must be well bonded to the pipe
surface when first applied and they must remain well
bonded. When coating is completely missing, such as
might be the case when the coating is damaged during
third-party excavations, the exposed surface of the pipe,
although in contact with the soil, is protected by the
direct pickup of cathodic protection current. However,
in cases of disbondment, the coating is not missing; it is
simply not adhered to the surface of the pipe. Therefore,
water can penetrate under it and support galvanic cor-
rosion of the pipe surface as shown in Figure 10-35.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
This condition is one that cannot be overcome by the
application of cathodic protection because the coating
prevents cathodic protection current from reaching the
pipe surface. Pipe-to-soil potential readings that are
measured annually over these feeders do not reveal these
areas of disbondment because they are not part of the
“circuit” through which the applied cathodic protection
current flows. The wet area under a section of dis-
bonded coating can be thought of as an environment
that is separate from the backfill in which the rest of the
pipe is buried.
There are several projects being undertaken to better
understand this problem and to find a solution for it,
but none have been found to date. Field observations of
corrosion problems have resulted in some understand-
ing of why coatings disbond. The causes can be placed
in three groups:
• Coating application: It has been observed that dis-
bonding problems have occurred at field joints where
two pipe sections are welded together. This is not sur-
prising, since regardless of the type of coating used,
coating application at field locations is not of the
same quality as it is in the controlled environment of
a factory as shown in Figure 10-36.
• Mechanical damage: This generally results from poor
construction practices such as not maintaining
proper clearances between the pipe and adjacent
structures. Often, pieces of micarta, wood planks, or
similar materials have been used as substitutes for
several inches of clean backfill to separate pipe-type
cables from other underground structures such as
concrete ducts, metal conduits, foundation walls, sub-
way tunnels, or even protection plates that are used
when depth-of-cover is shallow. The result is that the
weight of the pipe on these boards or the vibration
from vehicle traffic over these pipes or subway trains
under these pipes cracks the coating, allowing water
to penetrate under it.
Figure 10-35 Missing vs. disbonded coating (courtesy
Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc.).
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
• Third-party excavations: It often happens that third-
party contractors do not adhere to accepted con-
struction practices. They don’t make use of the one-
call system. They expose and work around these
pipes with little regard to the coating, and backfill
these excavations with anything available: rocks,
bricks, chunks of concrete, trash, and other debris.
There are two other factors that may contribute to coat-
ing disbondment. The first is temperature, and the sec-
ond is excessive levels of cathodic protection. Intuitively,
it is understood the elevated temperatures at which pipe-
type cables operate should affect the coating adhesion
over time. Although temperature is a contributing fac-
tor to other primary causes, there is no evidence that the
operational temperature of pipe-type cables by itself
causes coatings to disbond. If it did, the problem would
be much larger and much more widespread.
As for high levels of cathodic protection—referred to in
the previous discussion of corrosion cells—when a
corrosion cell is formed, hydrogen is generated at the
cathode. It is thought, therefore, that since the protected
pipe is the cathode of a corrosion cell, the hydrogen that
is generated at its surface may migrate under the
coating, forcing it to separate from the steel. This
condition cannot be discounted; however, it is most
likely to occur at the edges of a pre-existing coating fault
and generally doesn’t extend too far under the coating
from that point.
10.3.10 Atmospheric Corrosion
The term “atmospheric corrosion” is applied to corro-
sion that occurs on metal structures that are not buried
Figure 10-36 Corrosion under disbonded, field-applied
coal-tar coating (courtesy Consolidated Edison Company
of New York, Inc.).
10-29
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
or submerged. It is galvanic in nature in that it is not
caused by any interference from outside sources; rather,
it is caused by the metal’s reaction with its environment,
which is the moisture that is contained in the “atmo-
sphere” such as humidity and rain. Pipe-type cables can
be susceptible to this type of deterioration in areas
where they are not buried. These include inside man-
holes and tunnels, hanging from bridges over highway
or rivers, and, under certain circumstances, inside cas-
ings. Unlike buried pipes, ambient temperature also is
an issue in these cases because the temperature extremes
between winter and summer cause the pipe and the
coating to expand and contract at different rates, result-
ing in the coating cracking and disbonding. Alternating
humid, wet, and dry conditions in these areas are ideal
for continued corrosion attack of the pipe surface and
often result in failures as show in Figure 10-37.
These failures cannot be prevented by conventional
cathodic protection methods because cathodic protec-
tion, by definition, involves the pickup of dc current by
the protected surface directly from the electrolyte that
surrounds it. Therefore, only structures that are buried
or submerged can be cathodically protected. Since pipes
on bridges and generally in manholes are not buried and
cannot pick up this current, they cannot be protected in
this manner.
For pipes on bridges or in tunnels, the standard method
to prevent atmospheric corrosion is to thoroughly
inspect them and insure that the coating has not deterio-
rated or become disbonded from the pipe surface. If
such conditions are found, the coating must be
removed, the pipe surface inspected, repaired (if neces-
sary), and recoated. This process must be repeated peri-
odically to insure that corrosion does not progress to the
point of failure. The same applies for pipes in manholes;
however, there is another step that can be considered:
Figure 10-37 Atmospheric corrosion of pipe surface in
joint manhole (courtesy Consolidated Edison Company of
New York, Inc.).
10-30
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
backfilling the manhole with moist sand as shown in
Figure 10-38. This would allow cathodic protection cur-
rent to reach the pipe inside the manhole.
This step should only be considered after the pipe coat-
ing has been inspected for any sign of disbondment and
repaired if necessary.
10.3.11 Casings
Although they facilitate pipe installation and provide
them with a certain measure of mechanical protection,
casings can and often do affect the level of cathodic pro-
tection that these pipes receive. When a pipe is installed
inside a casing, it is imperative that the pipe be kept
electrically isolated from the casing by means of appro-
priate skids that are attached to the pipe before it is
inserted into the casing. Immediately after the pipe is
fully inserted, the resistance between the pipe and the
casing must be measured to verify that isolation
between the pipe and casing has been maintained. The
annular space at both ends of the casing must then be
sealed to prevent moisture from entering the casing.
Not withstanding these initial precautions, the following
conditions can occur over time that will affect the corro-
sion status of the pipe.
• The casing remains sealed, keeping the annular space
clean and dry. Under this idyllic condition, corrosion
will not take place since there is no electrolyte in con-
tact with the surface of the pipe.
• The casing seals fail, but the casing becomes only
partially filled such that the water does not come into
contact with the surface of the pipe. This condition
results in a humid environment inside the casing that
will support atmospheric corrosion of the pipe sur-
Figure 10-38 Cathodic protection current can reach pipe
surface inside a backfilled manhole (courtesy
Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc.).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
face. The only defense against this condition is to
ensure that the pipe is well coated when first installed
since, unlike pipes in manholes or on bridges, it can-
not be regularly inspected.
In both of these cases, a metallic contact between the
pipe and the casing will not affect the pipe inside the
casing but will affect the cathodic protection levels of
the buried pipe outside the casing because the bare cas-
ing acts as a large coating fault on the pipe.
• The casing becomes filled with water, thereby fully or
partially submerging the pipe. If the pipe is under
cathodic protection, this situation is actually the
most favorable one. Here the cathodic protection cur-
rent can reach the pipe by traveling through the water
in the annular space and preventing corrosion of its
surface. This also would apply if ampacity consider-
ations require that the casing be filled with grout. The
grout is an electrolytic conductor and would carry
the cathodic protection current from the casing to the
pipe surface. However, care should be taken not to
leave voids in the grout that could create galvanic
cells, as was discussed previously.
• The casing is full of water and in metallic contact
with the pipe. The effect is that the cathodic protec-
tion current that is picked up by the surface of the
casing travels through two separate paths on its way
to the pipe surface: the metallic path created by the
contact and the electrolytic path created by the water.
The amount of current in each of these parallel paths
is inversely proportional to their resistance. As the
resistance of the metallic path decreases, the amount
of protective current that reaches the pipe surface via
the electrolytic path (water) also decreases.
10.3.12 Lead-Sheathed Cable
Although lead is an active metal in the galvanic series, it
becomes passive in many corrosive environments
because of the formation of relatively insoluble lead
compounds (Uhlig 1985). This passivity probably
accounts for the reasonably good corrosion experience
with lead-sheathed cable usage in the electric power
industry. On average, lead placed underground corrodes
less than steel. A series of field tests was conducted by
the U.S. National Bureau of Standards (now the
National Institute of Standards and Technology)
between 1910 and 1950 in almost all types of soil
throughout the United States. These tests showed that
the average corrosion rate of steel in 44 soils was
approximately 9 times the average corrosion rate of lead
in 21 soils (Romanoff 1957).
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
Despite this lower average corrosion rate, lead can
become very reactive in poorly aerated soils as well as in
soils high in organic acids. Like steel pipe, lead-sheathed
cable is vulnerable to dissimilar metal corrosion when
connected to copper grounds. It also is susceptible to
differential oxygen attack, particularly when installed in
conduit ducts that become infiltrated with mud and that
are not properly drained.
Lead is an amphoteric metal (it is capable of reacting
with either an acid or an alkali). Thus, unlike steel, lead
is susceptible to severe corrosion in highly alkaline envi-
ronments (Uhlig 1969). For this reason, lead-sheathed
cables are particularly vulnerable to corrosion from
stray dc currents. At locations where current leaves the
cable, the sheath is made anodic, and the lead can
corrode at a rate of 75 lbs (34 kg) per ampere-year. At
locations where the cable collects current, the sheath is
made cathodic, and the environment is made more
alkaline. An accumulation of highly alkaline products
can generate corrosion of the sheath. Cathodic
corrosion of lead is indicated by the presence of red or
yellow corrosion products.
Because of this vulnerability, almost all electric utilities
with lead-sheathed cables in metropolitan areas at the
time when street railway operation was at its height
(1940s and 1950s) conducted tests and performed sur-
veys to determine the corrosion conditions. A 1954
report summarizing the practices of 22 companies
issued by the National Association of Corrosion Engi-
neers (NACE 1954) indicated that most companies
relied on potential measurements for that determina-
tion. The major concern was to find locations where
anodic conditions existed as indicated by positive cable
potentials. Some companies also were concerned about
locations where the cables were highly cathodic as indi-
cated by highly negative potentials.
Corrosion control practice at that time consisted
mainly of measures to mitigate the adverse effects of
the stray current. In the process, many cables in stray-
current areas benefited by receiving inadvertent
cathodic protection. But with the decline in the
operation of street railway systems, these benefits also
declined, and many miles of bare, lead-sheathed cable
were consequently exposed to galvanic corrosion
conditions. Some companies instituted cathodic
protection programs that have been successful in
preventing this galvanic corrosion. But the use of
cathodic protection for cables by the power industry, in
general, has been limited. General practice has been to
rely on jacketed cable for replacement of corroded cable
and for use in most new installation work. Protective
10-31
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
jacketing for cable is available in either PVC or polyeth-
ylene extruded over the lead sheath. Jacket thicknesses
range from 80-110 mils (2.0-2.8 mm). Some suppliers
call for a reduction in the thickness of the lead sheath
when a jacket is specified. Others cover the jacket with
a thin layer of bituminous compound.
The limited use of cathodic protection is probably
because cathodic protection of bare lead-sheathed cable
is inherently more complicated than is the case for
coated steel pipe. First, more current is required. Sec-
ond, cables are often installed in conduit rather than
directly buried; therefore, proper distribution of that
current is more difficult. Third, the risk of cathodic cor-
rosion exists because of the amphoteric nature of lead.
10-32
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Despite these difficulties, some companies have reported
success with cathodic protection programs as simple as
installing a magnesium anode at each manhole. Other
c o m p a n i e s h ave i n s t a l l e d m o r e s o p h i s t i c at e d ,
impressed-current systems. These latter systems often
use strings of high-silicon, cast-iron anodes installed in
spare ducts of conduit runs. The most common criterion
for determining cathodic protection calls for a cable
potential of -0.70 V measured to a copper-copper sul-
fate reference electrode. Another popular criterion is a
voltage shift of 0.25 V. To avoid the possibility of
cathodic corrosion, the cable potential should not be
more negative than –1.5 V to a copper-copper sulfate
reference electrode (NACE 1990).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
REFERENCES
ANSI/IEEE Standard 575-1988. 1987. The Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers. “IEEE Guide for
the Application of Sheath-Bonding Methods for Single-
Conductor Cables and the Calculation of Induced Volt-
ages and Currents in Cable Sheaths.” New York.
AWWA. 1986. American Water Works Association.
“Coal-Tar Protective Coatings and Linings for Steel
Water Pipelines—Enamel and Tape—Hot-Applied.”
Standard C203-86.
Ball, E. H., E. Occhini, and G. Luonim. 1965. “Sheath
Overvoltages in High Voltage Cables Due to Special
Sheath Bonding Connections.” IEEE Transactions on
Power Apparatus and Systems. Vol. 84.
CIGRE. 1982a. IEC Publication 229. “Tests on Cable
Oversheaths Which have a Special Protective Function
and are Applied by Extrusion.” Geneva.
CIGRE. 1982b. IEC Publication 287. Second Edition.
“Calculation of the Continuous Current Rating of
Cables (100% Load Factor).” Geneva.
CIGRE. 1989. IEC Publication 853-2. First Edition.
“Calculation of the Cyclic and Emergency Current Rat-
ing of Cables, Part 2: Cables Rated above 36 kV.”
Geneva.
CIGRE. 1990. Working Group 07 of CIGRE Study
Committee 21. “Guide to the Protection of Specially
Bonded Systems Against Sheath Overvoltages.” Electra.
No. 128, pp. 48-61.
CIGRE. 2004. CIGRE Technical Brochure No. 250.
Working Group B1.19. “General Guidelines for the
Integration of a New Underground Cable System in the
Network.” August.
CIGRE. 2005. CIGRE Technical Brochure No. 283.
Working Group B1.18. “Special Bonding of High Volt-
age Power Cables.” October.
Dommel, H. W. 1994. “The EMTP Theory Book, Sec-
ond Edition.” The University of British Columbia.
Emin, Z., P. K. Basak, a nd C. Ferguson. 2 001.
“Simulation Studied to Improve Design for Mid-life
275 kV Cable Refurbishment.” Paper submitted to
IEEE. August.
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
Halperin, H. and K. W. Miller. 1929. “Reduction of
Sheath Losses in Single Conductor Cables.” AIEE
Transactions. Vol. 48. April.
Hassler, S. P., et al. 1984a. “M.O.V. Arrester Protection
of Shield Interrupts on 138 kV Extruded Dielectric
Cables.” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems. Vol. 103, pp. 3334-3341. November.
Hassler, S. P., et al. 1984b. “Shield Interrupt Overvolt-
ages on 138 kV Extruded Dielectric Cables.” IEEE
Trans actions on Power Apparatus and Systems. Vol. 103.
pp. 3327-3333. November.
Hymes, R. W. 1977 “Pipe-Type Cable—Construction,
Coating and Operating Experience.” Materials Perfor-
mance. Vol. 16. No. 4. pp. 32-37.
ICEA. 1969. Insulated Cable Engineers Association,
Inc. “Short-Circuit Characteristics of Insulated Cable-
1969.” ICEA Publication P-32-382. Massachusetts.
Itoh, Y., N. Nagaoka, and A. Ametiani. 1950. “Tran-
sient Analysis of a Cross-bonded Cable System Under-
neath a Bridge.” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery.
Vol. 5. No. 2. April.
Kuwahara, K. and C. Doench. 1963. “Evaluation of
Power Frequency Sheath Currents and Voltages in Sin-
gle Conductor Cables for Various Sheath Bonding
Methods.” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems. Vol. PAS 82.
Marti, L., T. E. Granger, and A. Morched. 1996.
“Sheath Over-voltages in HV Underground Cables.”
CIGRE Paper 33-201.
NACE. 1954. National Association of Corrosion Engi-
neers. “Tests and Surveys for Lead-Sheathed Cables in
the Utilities Industry.” Publication 4B254.
NACE. 1972. National Association of Corrosion Engi-
neers. “Survey of Corrosion Control Practices for Pipe-
Type Cables in the Utility Industry.” Publication
10A172.
NACE. 1976. National Association of Corrosion Engi-
neers. “Extruded Asphalt Mastic Type Protective Coat-
ings for Underground Pipelines.” Standard RP0276-76.
NACE. 1977. National Association of Corrosion Engi-
neers. “Application of Organic Coatings to the External
Surfaces of Steel Pipe for Underground Service.” Stan-
dard RP0275-7.
10-33
Chapter 10: Grounding and Cathodic Protection
NACE. 1985. National Association of Corrosion
Engineers. “Extruded Polyolefin Resin Coating Systems
for Underground or Submerged Pipe.” Standard
RP0185-85.
NACE. 1990. National Association of Corrosion Engi-
neers. “Criteria and Test Methods for Cathodic Protec-
t i o n o f L e a d S h e at h C ab l e. ” P ro p o s e d NAC E
Recommended Practice. Houston, Texas.
Romanoff, M. 1957. Underground Corrosion. U.S.
National Bureau of Standards, Circular 579.
10-34
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Sinclair, W. A. 1956. “Corrosion Control Practices for
Pipe-Type Cables on the Detroit Edison System.” Cor-
rosion. Vol. 12. No. 8. pp. 31-34.
Uhlig, H. H., Ed. 1969. Corrosion Handbook. New
York: John Wiley & Sons. Chapter by R. M. Bums.
“Corrosion of Lead and Lead-Alloy Cable Sheathing.”
Uhlig, H. H. 1985. Corrosion and Corrosion Control.
Third Edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons. p. 358.
 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

CHAPTER 11 Ampacity
Authors: Earle C. (Rusty) Bascom, III, Power Delivery Consultants, Inc. (PDC)
Anthony Ernst, Underground Systems Inc.(USi)
Reviewers: David Purnhagen, Underground Systems Inc.(USi)
Brian Gregory, Cable Consulting International Limited
Rachel I. Mosier, Power Delivery Consultants, Inc. (PDC)

Ampacity calculations form the heart of transmission-cable design since the ultimate
purpose of a cable circuit is to transfer the desired amount of power. This chapter
describes the calculation procedures, reviews the principles for transient ampacity calcu-
lations, discusses forced cooling, and briefly covers the procedures for ampacity audits
and uprating.

Earle C. (Rusty) Bascom, III is a senior engineer with Power Delivery

Consultants, Inc. He holds an A.S. (1987) in engineering science from
Hudson Valley Community College, Troy, New York, a B.S. (1989), and
M.E. (1990) in electric power engineering from Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute, Troy, New York, and an M.B.A. (1993) from the State Univer-
sity of New York at Albany. Mr. Bascom began his career in 1990 work-
ing with underground cable systems for Power Technologies Inc. before
joining Power Delivery Consultants, Inc. as a senior engineer in 1999.
There, he performs engineering studies and design involving advanced ampacity, system
specifications, uprating, magnetic fields, forced cooling, and rapid circulation calcula-
tions, and economic evaluations of underground and submarine cable systems. Mr. Bas-
com is a Senior Member of the IEEE, Power Engineering Society and Standards
Association, a Voting Member of the Insulated Conductors Committee, and a registered
professional engineer in New York and Florida. He is the author of more than 30 techni-
cal papers and publications and the holder of one patent.

11-1
Chapter 11: Ampacity
11.1 INTRODUCTION
11.1.1 Ampacity
The ampacity, or current rating, of a cable is one of the
most important concepts for the cable engineer to
understand, since its calculation encompasses many
aspects of the cable construction and installation.
Although the calculation approach is conceptually sim-
ple—the solution of the thermal equivalent of Ohm’s
law—properly selecting and calculating the values for
each component of the equivalent thermal circuit
requires a great deal of thought and careful planning.
Cable ampacity is principally determined based on the
allowable conductor current that does not exceed insu-
lation temperature limits when installed under a partic-
ular set of conditions and energized to a selected
voltage. Other sections of this book discuss the details
of voltage stress and the intricacies of selecting an insu-
lation material. This chapter focuses on the temperature
limit that may be applied to a given insulation type—
effectively determining the conductor temperature and
current— based on the following parameters:
• Peak current and load-cycle shape
• Conductor size, material, and construction
• Dielectric loss in the insulation
• Current-dependent losses in the conductor, metallic
shields (screens), sheath, and pipe (for pipe-type sys-
tems)
• Thermal resistances of insulation, sheaths and cover-
ings, filling medium, conduit or pipe wall (including
pipe coating), and the various earth layers
• Thermal capacitances of these components of the
thermal circuit
• Mutual-heating effects of other cables and other heat
sources
• Ambient earth temperature
Both steady-state and emergency ampacities depend
upon these variables, although emergency ampacities
have a much greater dependency on the thermal capaci-
tances of each component of the thermal circuit.
Many ampacity calculations are based on a 1957 paper
by J. H. Neher and M. H. McGrath (Neher and
McGrath 1957). Later work by CIGRE documented an
ampacity procedure in the International Electrotechni-
cal Commission (IEC) standard (IEC-60287 and IEC-
60853), which provides a step-wise approach to calculat-
ing ampacity based upon cable construction. The two
calculation approaches—Neher-McGrath and IEC—
give similar results, although their treatment of daily
load cycles is different.
11-2
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Section 11.2 describes an approach for calculating
steady-state ampacity that is focused on the use of the
IEC method—generally recognized as providing better
accuracy for ac losses and being easier to follow—but
accounts for cyclic loading by using the “loss factor”
approach from Neher-McGrath. The section defines
equations, gives ranges of applicable data for all param-
eters used in ampacity calculations and provides sensi-
tivity analyses for various installation and design
variables.
Transient ampacity calculations are complex. Section 11.3
reviews the principles for transient calculation procedures
based on the IEC-80853 approach and includes the basic
equations for the most commonly used procedures.
Forced cooling is a specialized topic, mainly applied to
pipe-type cables, that represents a way to increase the
ampacity of both new and existing cable circuits. Sec-
tion 11.4 reviews forced cooling and its application to
pipe-type cables, and gives simplified equations for cal-
culating forced-cooled ampacities.
Section 11.5 briefly reviews procedures for ampacity
audits and uprating, Section 11.6 provides worked
examples, and Section 11.7 lists the extensive nomencla-
ture used throughout this chapter.
It is important to note that other system components or
load-flow conditions could limit the current-carrying
capacity of the transmission circuit to a value lower
than the ampacity of the cable. Other sections of this
book provide system implications for installing cables
with other transmission equipment.
11.2 STEADY-STATE AMPACITY
CALCULATIONS
11.2.1 Calculation Principles
The cable ampacity is the solution to the heat transfer
problem of heat leaving the cable at a rate which allows
the conductor temperature to reach but not exceed the
maximum allowable temperature of the insulation mate-
rial immediately adjacent to the conductor. The heat is
generated from ohmic (I2R) losses in the conductor,
shield/sheath, and other metallic layers (e.g., pipe for
pipe-type cables), along with dielectric losses generated
in the insulation. The “steady-state” ampacity is the rat-
ing of the cable under normal loading, with normal load
shapes, over a long period of time. Ampacities are stated
in terms of peak current, but it must be recognized that
the allowable peak currents are affected by load shape,
as discussed in Section 11.2.2.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Heat generated in the cable is removed by thermal con-
duction to ambient earth and, ultimately, air. Engineers
familiar with Ohm’s law know that electrical current
flowing through a resistance produces a voltage drop (or
rise) according to the following relationship:
ΔVoltage = Current ⋅ R ac
An analogous relationship may be used to describe ther-
mal conduction where heat flowing through a thermal
resistance produces a temperature drop (or rise) accord-
ing to the following:
ΔTemperature = Heat ⋅ R Thermal
This basic concept is extended to model heat emanating
out of a buried cable through the various cable layers,
trench backfill, and native earth. Throughout this chap-
ter, “thermal” variables (thermal resistance, thermal
capacitance, thermal resistivity, etc.) are shown with an
overline (e.g., R Thermal ). This is to distinguish them
from “ac” variables where no overline is used. The con-
vention used for a temperature change is to show these
values with units of “Celsius degrees” (C°), while tem-
peratures are shown in “degrees Celsius” (°C).
Calculating cable ampacity requires determining the
peak current that will give an allowable conductor tem-
perature rise above ambient temperature for the cable
construction, installation, and design operating condi-
tions. The calculation procedure is basically the solution
of the thermal equivalent of Ohm’s law, as shown in Fig-
ure 11-1.
Figure 11-1 Basic thermal circuit.
Chapter 11: Ampacity
In this circuit:
• Heat (watts) corresponds to electrical current
(amperes)
• Thermal resistance (thermal ohm-meters) corre-
sponds to electrical resistance (ohm)
• Temperature drop (C°) corresponds to voltage drop
(volts)
Thermal resistance is the product of a material property,
thermal resistivity, times a geometric term that accounts
for the dimensions and shape of the component. Resis-
tivity is defined in units of C°-m/W (or K-m/W),
although soil thermal properties are often listed in units
of C°-cm/W; values in the latter units are 100 times the
former. For a material with a resistivity of 1C°-m/W, a
heat flow of 1 W/m2 will cause a 1C° temperature rise
when flowing through a thickness of 1 m. Section 11.2
provides a further discussion of thermal resistivity.
Ampacity calculations are done on a unit cable length of
1 m. A “thermal ohm-meter” (TOM) (C°-m/W) is
defined, as shown in Figure 11-2, to be the thermal
resistance that causes a 1C° temperature rise of the con-
ductor, when there is 1 W per meter of heat generated in
the conductor.
In its simplest form, an ampacity calculation requires
calculating losses and the temperature rise due to those
losses flowing through the various thermal resistances.
The procedure is described in detail in Section 11.2.5
and is summarized as follows:
1. Select a cable construction and conductor size that
are anticipated to meet the ampacity requirements
for the expected installation conditions.
2. Refer to industry standards (IEC, AEIC) or manu-
facturer’s limits for the maximum allowable conduc-
Figure 11-2 Definition of thermal ohm-meter.
11-3
Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

tor temperature for the cable insulation material. To verify that rated current can be calculated by Equa-
Determine the temperature rise over ambient earth tion 11-1, consider the following dimensional analysis:
temperature that will give this value.
⎛ Ohm ⎞⎛ C° − m ⎞
3. Calculate dielectric loss. ( )
R ac ⋅ Σ Qi R thermali = ⎜ ⎟⎜
⎝ m ⎠⎝ Watt ⎠
⎟
4. Calculate the electrical resistances of each current-
⎛ volt / ampere ⎞ ⎛ C° − m ⎞
carrying component of the system for the expected =⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
operating temperature of that component. ⎝ m ⎠ ⎝ volt − amperes ⎠
5. Calculate the thermal resistance of each component ⎛ C° ⎞
=⎜ 2 ⎟
of the system, including the earth. ⎝ amperes ⎠ 11-2
6. Calculate the temperature rise due to dielectric loss
flowing through the thermal resistances, and subtract and,
that number from the total available temperature rise.
ΔT
7. Solve the Ohm’s law equivalent of the circuit of Fig- I=
ure 11-1, to determine the ampacity that achieves the
allowable temperature rise.
(
R ac ⋅ Σ Qi R Thermal i )
8. If calculated ampacity is too high or too low, make C°
adjustments in conductor size and/or installation = = amperes
parameters, and repeat these steps as necessary to
C° / amperes 2
11-3
achieve the desired ampacity.
So dimensionally, the ampacity solution is consistent
The solution of the thermal circuit shown in Figure 11-1 with the units of the various elements in the equivalent
is summarized for ohmic (I 2 R) losses in the ampacity thermal circuit.
procedure of Equation 11-1.
The total thermal circuit for an extruded transmission
ΔT = Wi ⋅ R Thermali cable, shown for an installation in conduit (common in
the United States and increasingly used internationally),
Wi = I 2 R ac Qi is illustrated as an electrical analog in Figure 11-3. The
thermal equivalent for a pipe-type cable is shown in Fig-
ΔT
I= ure 11-4. The thermal circuits of Figure 11-3 and 11-4
(
R ac ⋅ Σ Qi R Thermal i ) 11-1
show thermal capacitances for each component of the
cable system. All of these thermal capacitances are eval-
Where uated for transient or emergency calculations. For
ΔT = allowable temperature rise, C°. steady-state calculations with a continuous, non-varying
Wi = losses developed in the conductor, W/m. magnitude of load current (100% load factor), thermal
capacitance is excluded from the thermal circuit. This
R Thermal i = thermal resistance of various “i-th" rating is sometimes referred to as the “continuous” or
layers, C°-m/W (thermal ohm-meter [C°- “sustained” rating in many parts of the world. In the
m/W]). United States, the practice is to allow for the cyclic varia-
Rac = electrical resistance, ohm/m. tion of the load current (i.e., a load/loss factor of less
Qi = the ratio of losses in the “ith” layer plus the than 100%), which usually allows for a smaller conduc-
ratio of losses in all inner layers (including tor size to be selected. This “cyclic” rating can be devel-
the conductor) to that of the losses of only oped using a “cyclic rating factor” from IEC 60853 or
the conductor. using the “loss factor” method from the Neher-McGrath
paper. In the Ohm’s Law analogy, a change in applied
The summation sign, Σ, denotes that we sum up the voltage (temperature) does not instantly change the volt-
various products of ac and thermal resistances from the age across an electrical capacitor, and so for the purpose
equivalent thermal circuit that will be discussed below; of calculation under cyclic variation, the electrical (ther-
this notation is for simplicity and is not numerically mal) resistance of the earth may be considered to have
correct. been reduced.

In Figures 11-3 and 11-4, the thermal resistances and

heat sources are shown, analogous to electrical resis-
tances and current sources in a conventional Ohm’s law
circuit. The temperature of the conductor, Tc, is deter-

11-4
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
mined by adding up the temperature rises above the
ambient earth temperature, Te a r t h , as heat passes
through the various thermal resistances. The compo-
nents of the thermal circuit represent one cable, includ-
ing the thermal resistance as seen from one cable, which
is mathematically reduced to allow for the mutual heat-
ing among adjacent cables. The earth component of the
thermal circuit is actually a thermal composite R-C net-
wo rk , wh i c h fo r s i m p l i c i t y h a s b e e n s h ow n a s
ΣR n ⋅ C n .
Qi can be found from Figures 11-3 and 11-4. For exam-
ple, QS = (WC + WS) / WC and QP = (WC + WS + WP) /
WC. QS and Q P are used to relate all of the heat losses
experienced by the various cable layers back to the con-
ductor losses. So, for example, the heat losses flowing
through the jacket thermal resistance, R Jacket , in Figure
11-3 are WC + WS or numerically equivalent to WC • QS.
Figure 11-3 Equivalent thermal circuit for extruded-dielectric and self-contained
fluid-filled cable types.
Figure 11-4 Equivalent thermal circuit for pipe-type cables.
Chapter 11: Ampacity
Components of the Cable Thermal Circuit
Each of these components is summarized below and dis-
cussed in detail later in this chapter.
Temperatures and Temperature Rise
Temperatures of interest include conductor tempera-
ture, cable/earth interface temperature, and ambient
earth temperature.
To calculate the ampacity, the conductor temperature is
determined for a given current and checked against the
maximum allowable conductor temperature based on
the insulation material. For the above thermal circuits,
the temperature rise above ambient is found using
Equation 11-4, where the ac losses (I2R) and dielectric
heat losses (Wd) pass through the various thermal resis-
tances to give a temperature rise (Equation 11-4 is a
generalization):
( )
Tmax = I 2 R ac + Wd × R thermal + Tambient
ΔT = Tmax − ΔTd − Tambient = I 2 R ac × R thermal
11-4
11-5
Chapter 11: Ampacity
Typical ampacity calculations assume that the voltage
remains constant, so dielectric losses are fixed. Then,
the only unknown in Equation 11-4 is the current, as
follows (as a convention, thermal quantities are shown
with an over-line to distinguish these values from electri-
cal quantities). The term, Qi, is introduced to properly
account for the ac losses at the various, “ith” layers of
the thermal circuit in Equation 11-5, which are summed
together to give the total effect of temperature rise
between the conductor and ambient earth:
ΔT
I=
( ) amperes 11-5
R ac ⋅ Σ Q i R Thermali
Losses
Losses consist of ohmic (I2R) losses in the conductor,
dielectric losses in the insulation, and losses due to cir-
culating and eddy currents in the shield/sheath. Addi-
tional eddy current and hysteresis losses are generated
when extruded and self-contained cables are put in cas-
ings and in pipe-type cables. Submarine cables may have
additional losses due to the armor.
Thermal Resistances
Thermal resistances for single-conductor cables
(extruded, self-contained) consist of the cable insula-
tion, jacket, annular space between the cable and inside
of the conduit, the duct material (when used), and the
earth, which includes the thermal backfill (concrete,
Fluidized Thermal Backfill™ [FTB]) around the cables
along with the native soil. There are also thermal resis-
tances to account for mutual heating among cable
phases and adjacent circuits.
Pipe-type cables have thermal resistances in the insula-
tion, pressurization fluid (liquid or gas) in the pipe,
pipe-coating material, and the earth, including backfill,
native soil, and mutual heating components. Section
11.4 discusses additional thermal resistances that
develop when fluid circulation or forced cooling are
used on pipe-type cables.
For all cable types, the thermal resistances of metallic
layers (shield/screen, sheath, armor, pipe, etc.) are
neglected because the thermal conductivity of these lay-
ers is much larger as compared to the nonmetallic lay-
ers. For this reason, these thermal resistances do not
appear in the equivalent thermal circuits used for cable
ampacity.
Thermal Capacitances
Each of the components in the cable system has a ther-
mal capacitance that is important when evaluating situ-
ations where the load will be changing, particularly for
short-term emergency ampacities. The effect of the ther-
11-6
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
mal capacitance of surrounding soil on steady-state rat-
ings of buried cables is addressed by looking at
“attainment” factors that evaluate the temperature
response of the surrounding soil in response to changes
of heat output. This will be discussed further in Section
11.3.6.
Special Situations for Ampacity Calculations
Chapter 11 deals principally with buried cable systems,
which account for the vast majority of transmission
cables. Cables in air—for example, on bridges, riser sec-
tions, etc.—are treated separately in Section 11.2.6. This
section also discusses related topics such as cables in air-
filled tunnels.
Trenchless installations (horizontal directional drilling,
pipe jacking, etc.) are discussed in Section 11.2.7, and
the derating effects of cables crossing external heat
sources are discussed in Section 11.2.8.
Typically associated with system studies, fault current
capability calculations are specialized methods for
determining ratings during very short duration events
lasting less than a second. The intent is to determine
what current levels can be sustained by the cable before
a circuit breaker or other circuit protection has time to
operate. These sorts of calculations are much different
than typical emergency or transient ratings that last sev-
eral minutes to many hours and are described in Section
11.2.9. The background and application of fault current
calculations are discussed in Chapter 16.
Submarine cable ratings generally follow the same
approaches as conventional buried cables, although
there are additional considerations from the standpoint
of soil types that are typically found on sea beds, at the
bottom of lakes and in rivers, and in the land-fall
regions. Also, high-voltage direct current (HVDC) cable
systems are not affected by dielectric losses, but may be
limited by temperatures other than the conductor tem-
perature. A discussion of the installation considerations
and general design parameters, including ampacity, for
submarine cables is contained in Chapter 7.
Approaches
Virtually all steady-state ampacity calculations are
based on the Neher-McGrath procedure given in the
classic paper, “The Calculation of Temperature Rise
and Load Capability of Cable Systems” (Neher and
McGrath 1957). The procedure has been refined and
characterized based on cable system types by CIGRE in
the IEC Publication 60287; this latter document is now
the predominant approach used throughout the world,
both in hand calculations and by computer programs.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
The procedure to calculate ampacity is relatively simple
to follow and has been verified to be accurate by many
tests. The procedure used for ampacity analyses details
each of the terms—thermal resistance, thermal capaci-
tance, ac resistance, etc.—described above. The IEC-
60287 procedure is the basis for presentation of most
material in this chapter. However, the Neher-McGrath
paper is good background, particularly when referring
to hand calculations done on older cable systems in the
United States where U.S. units (inches, feet, etc.) are
employed. For the calculation procedure described here,
the nomenclature and symbols used in the Neher-
McGrath paper are followed, along with the daily loss
factor, though the equations are from IEC-60287 and
use metric units to be consistent with worldwide practice.
Definition of Terms
Symbols and terms used in this chapter are defined in
Section 11.7. These definitions are consistent with those
of the Neher-McGrath paper using metric values. “T”
will be used to denote temperatures, “R” for ac resis-
tances, “ R ” for thermal resistances, and “W” for heat
(watts). For reference, the equivalent IEC symbols are
“θ” for temperature or temperature rise, “W” for heat,
“T” for thermal resistance, and “Q” for thermal capaci-
tance.
11.2.2 Utility System Data
System conditions for cable operation must be carefully
defined to accurately determine the required conductor
size, and to provide cable ampacities for all operating
conditions. The most important system conditions are
system voltage, expected peak current, expected daily
load shape, loading during contingencies and preload
levels, and reactive power flow. Note that although the
term, “cable loading,” is commonly used instead of the
more proper term, “peak current,” current through the
cable may have little relationship to system load. On
some tie lines, for example, cable current is inversely
proportional to system load. The focus of this chapter is
the current-carrying capacity of cable circuits, rather
than the system load flow characteristics.
System Voltage and Expected Peak Current
System voltage is seldom a variable, although in some
cases the power transfer requirements may dictate
selecting a higher voltage level. In the interest of conser-
vatism, many engineers select maximum system voltage
rather than nominal voltage (e.g., 362 kV rather than
Chapter 11: Ampacity
345 kV) for calculating dielectric losses. System voltage,
particularly for the extra-high-voltage cables, has impli-
cations for charging current and system stability. This
topic is discussed in great detail in Chapter 16.
Design peak current levels should be chosen carefully.
Choosing an unrealistically high current—for example,
to match the never-attained thermal rating of an over-
head line— can result in selecting an unnecessarily large
conductor size, adding forced cooling, or installing an
additional circuit.
Expected Load Shape
The large thermal mass and long thermal time constant
of the cable system permits an ampacity that is deter-
mined more by the average daily load rather than the
peak load. As described in Section 11.2.2, the earth
thermal circuit is modified to account for the effect of
the daily load shape.
The earth's temperature response to a time-varying heat
input can be represented by a series of thermal R-C sec-
tions. The inner sections close to the heat source have a
short time constant. They represent the “close in” por-
tion of the earth with relatively small mass (or volume)
of earth. Sections farther from the heat source have pro-
gressively larger thermal mass and longer time con-
stants. The temperature rises of the inner sections react
to short time changes in heat input (i.e., respond to
high-frequency load changes), while the sections further
out react to long-time changes in heat input (i.e.,
respond to lower frequency load changes). For cyclic
loads of a 24-hour-time period, the earth thermal circuit
can be represented by a two-zone steady-state model. In
an inner zone, the temperature rise is proportional to
the peak joule (I2R) losses. In the outer zone, the tem-
perature rise is proportional to the average joule losses.
The diameter of the circular boundary between the two
zones, defined to be DX, can be related to the length of
the load cycle and the earth thermal diffusivity or ther-
mal capacity. This is the method of accounting for the
effect of a cyclic load adopted in the Neher-McGrath
paper and used in this chapter.
Many system planners are familiar with a “load factor”
that relates the peak load to the average daily load. In
cable systems, we are interested in heat output—a func-
tion of I2R—so we use the daily “loss factor,” which is
11-7
Chapter 11: Ampacity
essentially the load factor of the losses as defined by the
following equations:
24
∑ Ii
Load Factor = i =1
24 ⋅ I max
24
∑ I i2
Loss Factor = i =1
24 ⋅ I 2max
Where:
Ii are hourly load values (amperes).
Imax is the maximum hourly load value during the
cycle (amperes).
With the increasing availability of load information
from utility data acquisition systems, loss factors can be
calculated directly using historical load records. In
many cases, though, only the daily load factor is known.
The loss factor can be estimated from the load factor
using an empirical relationship. One such relationship is
as follows:
Loss Factor = 0.3(Load Factor ) + 0.7(Load Factor )2
(Distribution cables sometimes follow a similar relation-
ship, Loss Factor = 0.2 (Load Factor) + 0.8 (Load Fac-
tor)2, but it is important to note that these load factor-
to-loss factor relationships are specific to a given system
and should not necessarily be applied arbitrarily.) The
loss factor versus load factor relationship based on
Equation 11-7 is shown graphically in Figure 11-5 (note
that the loss factor is lower than the load factor for a
given load shape).
Figure 11-5 Loss factor vs. load factor for a typical
transmission cable.
11-8
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Other Methods for Modeling Load Shape
Other approaches can be applied to account for load
cycles in cable ratings. The IEC method in its basic form
assumes that the load remains constant (e.g., a loss fac-
tor of 100%), but ratings by this method can be modi-
fied by a companion document, IEC-60853 (IEC 1989),
to account for the periodic load variations, particularly
when the load is not closely sinusoidal. The IEC
approach to account for load variations does not easily
lend itself to hand calculations and generally gives close
agreement to the Neher-McGrath method under typical
11-6
loading patterns.
Longer load cycles have been modeled using a Fast Fou-
rier Transformer (FFT) method (Thomann et al. 1991)
and are used today in some computer programs. The
approach uses a FFT to convert a load period in time
domain to frequency domain, where a steady-state tem-
perature calculation is done at each of the frequencies.
The calculated temperatures in frequency domain are
passed through an inverse FFT to give a continuous
function that shows variations in temperature with
respect to time. A basic assumption for this method is
that the analysis period is part of an ever-repeating
cycle.
Contingency Criteria and Cable Preload
11-7
Ampacity calculations must consider contingency crite-
ria as well as steady-state conditions. The cable design
engineer should determine the expected contingency
loading and duration, and frequency of occurrence of
the contingency. Typically, ampacity requirements are
given for transient loading (e.g., 15 or 20 minutes),
short-term emergencies (2-4 hours), long-term emergen-
cies (8-24 hours), and emergency repair time (300 hours
to one month or longer).
The heat-storage capacity of the cable and the immedi-
ately surrounding earth are important for calculating
transient and emergency ratings. This capacity depends
upon temperatures prior to the contingency. A cable
operating at one-half rated load will have current-
dependent losses roughly one-quarter as great as that at
full-load losses; the temperature rise due to current-
dependent losses will, therefore, be one-quarter as great
as that at full-load temperatures. Many utilities have
preload criteria assumed to be a percentage of rated cur-
rent—typically 50 to 75%. Conductor temperature is
calculated based upon preload conditions, and that tem-
perature then forms the basis for calculating transient
and emergency ratings. The design engineer should,
therefore, determine expected preload prior to emer-
gency conditions. Section 11.3 describes how to calcu-
late ampacities for transient and emergency loadings.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Cable preload also has implications for fault current
capability calculations. For these types of calculations, it
is common to assume full rated load and the corre-
sponding rated temperatures on the cable prior to the
initiation of the fault. This will be discussed in greater
detail in Section 11.2.9.
Reactive Power Flow
The power requirements should be precisely defined.
Ampacity calculations give a total current in the con-
ductors that will achieve the maximum allowable con-
ductor temperature. That total current is the phasor
sum of real current and reactive current, as shown in
Equation 11-8 and Figure 11-6.
I total = I 2real + I 2react or I real = I 2total − I 2react
MVA = MW 2 + MVAR 2 or MW = MVA 2 − MVAR 2
11-8
Two sources of reactive power flow in the cable may
reduce the allowable real power flow: charging current
generated by the cable itself, and through-flow of reac-
tive power. Charging current can be calculated readily,
and is treated in Section 11.2.5, Calculation Procedures.
Through-flow of reactive power is a function of system
conditions, and should be evaluated using a load-flow
program as described in Chapter 16. The cable engineer
and system planner may have to resolve the total current
or MVA rating (thermal) of the cable with the reactive
power flow that is a function of the overall power sys-
tem. As a separate step, the cable engineer and system
planner should determine if the required real power
transfer (MW) will be met based upon reactive power
flows and system compensation. Refer to the example at
the end of this chapter for determining real power trans-
fer from a calculated total current rating.
11.2.3 Cable Data
Ampacity calculations should begin by selecting a cable
that is expected to meet the power transfer requirements
while supporting the necessary line-to-ground voltage
for the selected insulation type. Depending on permitted
Figure 11-6 Real, reactive, and total current.
Chapter 11: Ampacity
stress levels in the insulation, the insulation thickness is
designated mostly by the system voltage and is some-
what standardized for most cable voltage classes.
The current-carrying capacity—the subject of this chap-
ter—is dependent on many cable system characteristics.
These data must be obtained to use in the calculations:
• Conductor material, size, construction, and proper-
ties
• Conductor semiconducting shield material, thick-
ness, and properties
• Insulation material, thickness, and properties
• Insulation semiconducting shield material, thickness,
and properties
• Metallic insulation shield type (wire or tape) and con-
struction
• Sheath material, thickness, properties, and electrical
connection
• Jacket material, thickness, and properties (single-con-
ductor cables)
• Conduit properties and size (unless direct buried)
Additionally for pipe-type cables:
• Pipe-filling medium
• Pipe size
• Pipe-coating material, thickness, properties
Cable data are discussed in detail in Chapters 4 through
7. Many of the items have only a minor effect on ampac-
ity. Components with larger effects are conductor mate-
rial and size, insulation material and thickness, sheath
material and properties, and the sheath-bonding
method. A brief summary of the effect of each item on
cable ampacity is given below.
Conductor Material, Size, Construction, and
Properties
The materials, size, construction, and properties of the
conductor are important parameters that determine the
ohmic losses in the conductor. Stranding and conductor
treatment affect ac losses, as described in Section 11.2.5.
Figure 11-7 shows the effect of conductor size and mate-
rial on the ampacity of a 230-kV extruded-dielectric
cable, with two circuits arranged vertically in a duct
bank.
Conductor Semiconducting Shield Material,
Thickness, and Properties
Conductor semiconducting shielding has a very minor
effect on ohmic losses. There is an effect on thermal
resistance, which is normally taken into account by
11-9
Chapter 11: Ampacity
Figure 11-7 Ampacity of 230-kV extruded-dielectric
(XLPE) cable as a function of conductor size and
material.
including the shield material as part of the insulation
thickness for thermal resistance calculations.
Insulation Material, Thickness, and Properties
Insulation has a major effect on cable ampacity. As
described in Chapters 4 through 7, insulation material
determines the allowable conductor operating tempera-
ture. The dielectric constant and dissipation factor of
the insulation, and its dimensions, will determine the
dielectric losses. Insulation dimensions and thermal
resistivity determine the insulation thermal resistance
for a given conductor size. The impact of insulation
material selection is most pronounced on self-contained
fluid-filled or pipe-type cables when deciding between
kraft paper and laminated paper-polypropylene insula-
tion materials. Figure 11-8 shows cable ampacity for
conventional impregnated-paper insulation and for lam-
inated paper-polypropylene insulation as a function of
conductor size for a pair of 345-kV pipe-type cables.
Figure 11-8 Ampacity of 345-kV pipe-type cable as a function of insulation
material and conductor size.
11-10
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Insulation Semiconducting Shield Material,
Thickness, and Properties
Differences in insulation semiconducting shielding have
a minor effect on losses for all cable types. Thermal
resistance of the semiconductive shielding should be
taken into account, generally by considering the shield-
ing as part of the insulation material.
Shield and Sheath Material, Thickness, Properties,
and Electrical Connection
Ampacity is affected by inductively-induced circulating
currents flowing in the metallic shield and sheath in
extruded-dielectric and self-contained cables, as well as
in armor wires (if present). Eddy current losses also
develop in the shields of all cable that use continuous
metallic layers (e.g., extruded lead, longitudinally-taped
foil, corrugated metallic sheaths, etc.), including in pipe-
type cables. As described in Section 11.2.5, if single-con-
ductor cable sheaths are grounded at only one point or
if they are perfectly cross-bonded, eddy-current losses
are induced, which give a small reduction in cable
ampacity. If the sheaths are grounded at more than one
point or if there are different minor-section lengths in
cross bonding, induced currents in the sheath result in
ohmic losses that are sometimes almost as large as those
in the conductor. The magnitude of the induced cur-
rents and shield and sheath losses are a function of the
electrical resistivity of the shield and sheath. Figure 11-9
shows the difference in ampacity for an extruded-dielec-
tric cable with single-point-grounded and with multiple-
point-grounded sheaths.
The topic of sheath bonding is discussed in greater
detail in Chapter 12.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Jacket Material, Thickness, and Properties
The jacketing over single-conductor cables presents an
additional thermal resistance that must be considered
when an ampacity calculation is performed.
Cable to Duct or Pipe
When cables are installed in conduits, heat generated in
the cable must pass through the air in a duct system. Since
air has a relatively high thermal resistance to heat as com-
pared to most other materials, sometimes conduits are
filled with water or a grout material to reduce the thermal
resistance and increase ampacity by a few percent.
A fluid-filled pipe-type cable will have an ampacity
about 2% greater than a nitrogen gas-filled, pipe-type
cable because of the better heat transfer through the liq-
uid. Cables designed for gas-filled systems also require a
slightly greater insulation thickness, so there is an added
thermal resistance from the insulation. Fluid boundary-
layer resistances are important in circulation and
forced-cooling calculations, as described in Section 11.4.
Conduit Material, Thickness, and Properties
In addition to the thermal resistance from the cable sur-
face to the conduit, the presence of a nonmetallic duct
introduces an additional thermal resistance in the cir-
cuit, though it does not affect losses. When using
trenchless installation methods, this can be a significant
factor when considering the generally thicker conduit
materials and the use of a casing. Plastic casing pipes
introduce an additional thermal resistance layer.
The presence of a metallic conduit or casing pipe
(including the pipe of a pipe-type cable) results in signif-
icant hysteresis losses due to magnetically-induced cur-
rents. In addition, the conductor, shield, and sheath
Figure 11-9 Effect of sheath grounding method on single-conductor
cable ampacity.
Chapter 11: Ampacity
losses are increased. Metallic conduits and steel cable
pipes have a negligible thermal resistance. Significant
circulating current losses may be generated in stainless
steel conduits used for some single conductor cables
because the conduits are usually grounded at one or
both ends. Riser pipes between a trifurcator and termi-
nation in pipe-type cables can also have circulating cur-
rent losses if the grounding is not properly managed.
Corrosion Coating Material, Thickness, and
Properties
Corrosion coatings for casing pipes or on the outside of
pipe-type cables give an additional thermal resistance,
but the effect is fairly small.
11.2.4 Installation Data
Installation conditions have a substantial impact on
cable ampacity, and the user often can change installa-
tion conditions to optimize ampacity. Major installation
factors affecting ampacity include the following:
• Burial depth of cable
• Spacing between circuits, and among phases
• Thermal resistivity of native backfill and controlled
backfill (see Section 11.2.6)
• Dimensions of trench and controlled backfill
• Presence of nearby heat sources
• Ambient earth temperature
General comments on the effects of cable installation
conditions on ampacity are given in the following sub-
sections.
Burial Depth
All heat generated by the cable must eventually reach
the surface of the earth. A greater depth of burial cre-
11-11
Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

ates a longer heat flow path and greater thermal resis- increasing thermal resistivity). So, although a shallow
tance, and results in lower ampacity, even though earth burial depth reduces thermal resistance, other installa-
temperature may decrease and moisture levels may tion factors must be considered when evaluating ampac-
increase with depth. Figure 11-10 shows the effect of ity and placement of cables.
burial depth on the ampacity of a pair of 230-kV
Spacing Between Circuits and Among Phases
crosslinked polyethylene cables with 1200 mm2 (2368
Spacing between circuits, and among phases for single-
kcmil) conductors. Ambient earth temperature is
phase cables, determines the heating effect of one cable
assumed to drop for every 30 cm (12 in.) of increased
on the others (see Figure 11-11). Increasing the spacing
burial depth, which would be reasonable for northern
gives greater ampacities, although for single-conductor
latitudes during summer months. A typical burial depth
cables, ampacity for the close trefoil configuration may
for a trenched installation is about 1.1 m (42 in.).
be higher because of better cancellation of magnetic
fields and lower sheath losses when sheaths are multiple-
Barring other factors, it is generally better to have a
point grounded. For this reason, multipoint bonded
more shallow burial depth to minimize the earth ther-
cables (mostly at distribution voltages) are placed in a
mal resistance. However, ambient soil temperatures are
single conduit or in close-trefoil (triangular) configura-
often greater near the surface (potentially reducing
tion to minimize circulating current losses.
ampacity), and soils tend to be drier above the water
table (potentially reducing soil moisture content and

Figure 11-10 Effect of burial depth on cable ampacity of 230-kV XLPE cables.

Figure 11-11 Effect of circuit spacing on ampacity of 230-kV extruded-dielectric cables.

11-12
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Thermal Resistivity of Native Backfill
Since all heat generated in self-cooled cables must flow
through the earth, the thermal resistivity of native back-
fill strongly affects cable ampacity. Except for conductor
size, most of the cable construction is fixed based upon
the voltage class of the cable. The native soil outside the
cable trench is also fixed (and represents a large part of
the total thermal resistance), but must be factored into
the ampacity calculations. Higher soil thermal resistivity
results in a higher thermal resistance to heat leaving the
cable and lower ampacity.
Soils may also have great variability in soil conditions
over a few meters of cable route. Therefore, it is impor-
tant to find the worst conditions along the cable route—
“weakest link” in the chain—and base ratings on that
limiting location. Figure 11-12 shows the impact of soil
thermal resistivity on ampacity. Soils with a thermal
resistivity that is low in natural (in situ) conditions may
dry out substantially when exposed to cable heating.
Good quality thermal backfills show relatively minor
changes in thermal resistivity as moisture content is
reduced.
Controlled Backfill
Backfilling the trench with a material having controlled
thermal resistivity is often an effective way to increase
cable ampacity. Figure 11-12 also shows the effect of
adding a controlled backfill with a resistivity of 0.5C°-
m/W in the trench, this being surrounded by native soil
having resistivities shown on the axis of abscissas. The
figure also illustrates the improvement in ampacity that
might be achieved by adding additional thermal backfill
up to the top of the trench, a technique sometimes used
in areas with particularly poor native soil conditions.
Using a good quality thermal backfill (thermal sand,
Fluidized Thermal Backfill™ [FTB]) can improve the
allowable current-carrying capacity. Chapter 12
Figure 11-12 Effect of soil resistivity on ampacity of 230-kV XLPE cable duct bank.
Chapter 11: Ampacity
describes soil characteristics, thermal testing, and types
of backfill materials.
Trench Dimensions
Increasing the trench dimensions beyond minimum
requirements permits the use of additional controlled
backfill, which increases cable ampacity. Utilities some-
times widen the trench at specific locations of high
native soil thermal resistivity to preserve circuit ampac-
ity or mitigate a hot spot.
Presence of Nearby Heat Sources
Heat sources within a distance of about 4 m (12 ft) of
typical trenched installations raise the temperature of
the earth, reduce the allowable flow of heat from the
transmission cable, and thereby reduce the cable ampac-
ity. For interfering heat sources such as other transmis-
sion cables, distribution circuits, or steam mains, an
interference temperature rise is calculated as described
in the “Thermal Resistances” portion of Section 11.2.5
and in Section 11.2.8.
Ambient Earth Temperature
Although the surface of the earth is the ultimate sink for
heat generated from the power cable, heat flows to the
ambient earth for the purposes of ampacity calcula-
tions. Ambient earth temperature varies substantially
throughout the world, as discussed in Chapter 12. Val-
ues for ambient temperature for areas around the world
are given in IEC 60287-3-1 and later in this chapter in
Tables 11-2 and 11-3. Like native soil thermal resistivity,
there is little control over the ambient soil temperature,
but it must be factored into the cable ratings. One con-
sideration about the ambient temperature is the burial
depth. Greater temperature extremes are experienced
close to the surface, so summer ambient temperatures
are more significant at shallow depths. Also, surface
coverings have an impact on ratings. Soil ambient tem-
11-13
Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

peratures may be 3-5°C warmer below asphalt than Temperatures

other areas because of the increased solar absorptivity
Conductor (Insulation) Temperature
of the surface.
The maximum operating temperature of a conductor is
limited by the temperature performance of the insula-
11.2.5 Calculation Procedures
tion material. Extruded materials—polyethylene,
Significant activity in the late 1940s and early 1950s crosslinked polyethylene, and ethylene-propylene rub-
resulted in a Symposium on Temperature Rise of Cables ber—can operate up to a certain temperature where the
and the publishing of many papers on cable ampacity materials may soften or otherwise experience a degrada-
(Neher 1949). This activity culminated in the publica- tion in dielectric performance or because thermal
tion of the Neher-McGrath paper, “Calculation of Tem- expansion may damage the shielding layers or sheath.
perature Rise and Load Capability of Cable Systems”
(Neher and McGrath 1957), which is the basis for Paper-based insulations demonstrate a relationship
almost all steady-state ampacity calculations, including between temperatures and aging rate. For example, the
those in IEC 60287. The calculation procedures in this aging rate of impregnated paper doubles with every
section follow the IEC 60287 approach, with roots in 8-10C° increase in temperature. Maximum conductor
Neher-McGrath including the use of the loss-factor temperatures for paper-insulated cables are based upon
method to account for daily load cycles. The interpreta- a 40-year life at maximum operating temperature, plus a
tion in this chapter is intended to simplify rating calcu- limited number of excursions to higher, emergency oper-
lations for the major transmission cable types, although ating temperatures (see Section 11.3).
IEC 60287 and Neher-McGrath continue to be good
references. Typical insulation temperature limits are summarized in
Table 11-1. Utilities following AEIC recommendations
The thermal circuit for an extruded underground cable
system, shown originally in Figure 11-3, is reproduced
here as Figure 11-13. This section addresses tempera-
tures, losses, and thermal resistances of the cable sys-
tem, thermal resistances of the earth system, and
solving the thermal circuit to give rated ampacity. All
ampacity calculations are on a per-conductor basis,
even for pipe-type cables where there are three conduc-
tors in the pipe.

A typical trench cross section for an extruded-dielectric

cable system is shown in Figure 11-14, and a typical
pipe-type circuit is shown in Figure 11-15 (trefoil cables
on the left and cradled cables on the right). Nomencla-
ture used in this section is shown in these two figures,
and definitions of these and other terms are provided at
the end of this chapter, along with detailed worked
examples. Figure 11-14 Extruded-dielectric cable system
installation.

Figure 11-13 Electrical analog of cable thermal circuit.

Figure 11-15 Pipe-type cable system installation.

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

may reduce these maximum-operating temperatures by ambient soil temperatures in recent years due to place-
10 C° when the thermal environment in which they are ment of cables below pavement and generally higher
installed is not well documented or understood. ambient temperatures seen in recent years.

Longer-duration emergencies are often considered to “Ambient” soil temperature is the temperature at the
account for the typically longer repair times encoun- burial depth of the cable in the absence of any non-
tered with transmission cables. Some utilities permit native heat sources. These temperatures are usually
emergencies up to 720 hours (30 days) for this purpose established during a route thermal survey (described in
on the basis that the emergency calculations usually Chapter 12). Typical values at a 1 m (3.3 ft) depth for
consider the temperature response to a step function representative cities are given in Tables 11-2 and 11-3.
and that the ultimate emergency temperature is not
reached until the end of the emergency rating period.
Ambient Earth Temperature
The other “given” temperature is the ambient earth
temperature, which varies substantially depending on
geographic location and time of year. Summertime tem-
peratures generally decrease with depth, and wintertime
temperatures generally increase with depth down to 5-6
m (15-20 ft). Below that depth, ambient earth tempera-
ture is reasonably constant until much greater depths.
The variation in ambient earth temperature is linked to
the variation in the ambient air temperature over the
year and, within 60 cm (2 ft) of the surface, the solar
heating. Figure 11-16, taken from a paper (Neher 1949)
shows this effect for the Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
area. Many utilities have adopted somewhat higher

Table 11-1 Allowable Conductor Temperature for Different

Insulation Materials
Maximum Normal
Insulation (Continuous) Maximum Emergency
Material Temperature Temperature
105-130°Ca, 72 hours
Crosslinked continuousb
90°C
Polyethylene 105°C- peak at end
of 100-300 hours Figure 11-16 Ambient earth temperature as a function of
105°C peak at end: up depth for Philadelphia.
Impregnated to 100 hours
85°Cc
Paper 100°C peak at end:
100-300 hours
Table 11-2 U.S. Ambient Soil Temperatures at Typical
105°C peak at end:
Laminated Paper up to 100 hours Installation Depthsa
85°Cc
Polypropylene 100°C peak at end: Maximum Maximum
100-300 hours Location Summer Winter
Ethylene-Propy-
90°C 130°C °C °C
lene Rubber
Atlanta 25 20
Linear
Boston 22 18
Low-Density 75°C 90°C
Polyethylene Chicago 22 18
Denver 22 17
a. Depends on shield construction and agreement from manu-
facturer. Honolulu 30 30
b. Based on Association of Edison Illuminating Companies Miami 30 25
CS-7 specification. However, the unpublished draft CS-6 New York 27 18
specification limits the temperature of HV transmission Palo Alto 22 20
cable to 105°C. San Juan, PR 31 29
c. Outside the United States, paper-insulated cables are per-
mitted to operate up to 90°C. a. E.g., 1.1 m (42 in.).

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Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Table 11-3 International Ambient Soil Temperatures (from Where:

IEC 60287-3-1) TAverage =Average annual air temperature, °C.
Maximum Maximum
A = Difference between maximum and mini-
Location Summer Winter mum air temperatures, C°.
°C °C x = Depth below the earth's surface, in.
Australia 25 18 a = Thermal diffusivity, in.2/hr (2.75 from
Austria 20 0 Neher-McGrath).
Canada 20 -5 t0 = Length of period, hours (8760 hours
Finland 15 0 equals one year).
France 20 10 t = Time since maximum air temperature
Germany 20 0 occurred, hr.
Italy 20 5
Japan 25 15 The temperature is only an estimation because it could
Netherlands 20 5 be influenced by surface conditions (including surface
17 (south) 0 (south) cover that might influence the solar absorptivity of the
Norway
13 (north) -5 (north) ground), localized geography and weather.
Poland 15 5
Temperatures of Outer Cable Layers
Singapore 30 25
South Africa 22 15
Temperatures of the cable shield, sheath, and, if present,
Sweden 15 0
pipe or duct may be calculated once the thermal circuit
Switzerland 20 -10
of Figure 11-13 is solved. This is an iterative process,
United Kingdom 15 15
given that the electrical resistances of the shield and/or
sheath are temperature dependent, and the temperatures
will not be known precisely prior to calculating the resis-
Ambient earth temperatures can often be obtained from tance of these components. For typical calculations, an
local soil conservation services. Thermal probes, described assumed value of the shield/sheath temperature of 10-
in Chapter 12, indicate ambient earth temperature at the 15C° below the rated conductor temperature is a rea-
time and depth of testing, and the utility can install a sim- sonable approximation for normal ampacity.
ple thermocouple or thermister probe that will permit
year-round measurement. The reader should be aware Depending on the soil conditions, some cable ratings are
that ambient soil temperatures tend to lag behind ambient limited by the earth interface temperature (most often
air temperature by 4-6 weeks in the higher latitudes. For for direct-buried cables), rather than the conductor tem-
example, the highest ambient air temperatures in the perature, because of a concern about moisture migra-
northern hemisphere generally occur in late July or early tion and soil drying. These conditions could increase the
August, but the peak ambient soil temperatures are not soil thermal resistivity, although a good-quality thermal
present until early to mid-September. backfill generally mitigates these concerns. A typical
earth interface temperature for large single-conductor
Within the top several meters of the earth, the ambient cables, cables in conduit, or pipe-type cables is on the
soil temperature varies as a function of a variety of order of 50-65°C (smaller diameter cables, e.g., distribu-
parameters, but most significantly due to seasonal varia- tion voltages, might use a lower value because there is a
tions in ambient air temperature and soil depth. When greater heat flux density at a given temperature). At ele-
the ambient soil temperature is not known, it may be vated temperatures, moisture may migrate away from
estimated (Williams and Gold 2003) by knowing the the cable, which causes the earth thermal resistance to
average annual air temperature, time of year, and burial become greater, thus raising the temperature, which
depth by evaluating an equation of the form: causes further drying, and so forth until this thermal

π
− x⋅
⋅ cos⎛⎜ 2tπt − x a⋅πt ⎞⎟
a⋅t 0 11-9
T( t , x ) = TAverage + A ⋅ e
⎝ o 0⎠

11-16
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
runaway leads to cable overheating and eventual failure.
Thermal runaway is generally more of a problem with
higher-temperature cable systems and with cables having
a high heat flux, such as direct buried self-contained
cables. Chapter 12 addresses this concern in more detail
and discusses the concept of heat flux, which may be a
better indication of the tendency of the soil to dry.
Electrical Resistance and Losses
Dielectric losses and charging-current losses are basi-
cally independent of circuit loading, while current-pro-
duced losses vary as the square of circuit loading. Since
the voltage can reasonably be treated as a constant, the
temperature rise due to dielectric loss is calculated and
removed from the total allowable temperature rise, as
shown in Equation 11-10.
ΔTC = TC – Ta – ΔTd C°11-10 11-10
Where:
TC = allowable conductor temperature, °C.
Ta = ambient earth temperature, °C.
ΔTC = conductor temperature rise due to current-
dependent losses, C°.
ΔTd = conductor temperature rise due to dielectric
losses, C°.
These losses are discussed in more detail below.
Dielectric Losses
Losses are generated in insulating materials that are
subjected to an alternating electrical field as the mole-
cules attempt to realign themselves each time the field
reverses. Food is heated in a microwave oven by the
same principle—except the fields in microwave ovens
alternate at 25 MHz rather than at 50 or 60 Hz as in a
transmission line.
Dielectric loss, Wd, is directly proportional to the square
of the voltage and to the dielectric constant and dissipa-
tion factor of the insulating material, and is affected by
cable dimensions as shown in Equation 11-11. For
crosslinked polyethylene cables up to 138 kV and
impregnated-paper and EPR insulations up to 69 kV,
dielectric losses are generally negligible. Because the
losses are so great in EPR insulations, they are generally
not used for cables above 115 kV. At 230 kV and higher
voltages, laminated paper-polypropylene insulation is
considered for new self-contained or pipe-type cable
installations because the losses are about 20% of similar
kraft paper-insulated cables.
Dielectric heating comes from charging and discharging
the insulating dielectric at 50 or 60 times per second.
Chapter 11: Ampacity
The dielectric heat loss, Wd, can be found from the fol-
lowing equation:
Wd = 2πf ⋅ C ⋅ E 02 ⋅ tan δ
2πf ( 2π ⋅ ε r ⋅ ε 0 ) E 02 tan δ
=
⎛ D ⎞
ln ⎜ insulation ⎟
⎜D ⎟
⎝ cond _ shield ⎠
2πf ⋅ ε r ⋅ E 02 tan δ ⋅10−9
≈ (W / m)
⎛ Dinsulation ⎞
18ln ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜D
⎝ cond _ shield ⎠ 11-11
Where:
C = Capacitance, F/m.
f = power frequency, Hz.
εo = permittivity of free space =
8.854 x 10-12 F/m
εr = relative permittivity of the insulation
(specific inductive capacitance or
dielectric constant), dimensionless.
tan δ = insulation dissipation factor, dimen-
sionless.
E0 = line to ground voltage applied across
the insulation, V.
Dinsulation = diameter over the insulation (mm)
Dcond_shield = diameter over the conductor shield
(mm)
Since the dielectric losses vary as the square of operat-
ing voltage, cable operation at maximum normal system
voltage (e.g., 242 kV), rather than nominal voltage (e.g.,
230 kV), can increase the losses by as much as 10%.
Actual operating voltage should be used if known; oth-
erwise, the conservative approach is to use the maximum
normal system voltage.
The dielectric constant of a material, εr, also known as
Specific Inductive Capacity (SIC) or relative permittiv-
ity, is the ratio of the capacitance of a pair of electrodes
separated by that material, compared to the capacitance
with vacuum as the dielectric—i.e., it determines the
capacitance of a given electrode system. The dielectric
constant is essentially independent of temperature. Typ-
ical values are given in Table 11-4.
The dissipation factor of the insulating material is equal
to the tangent of the loss angle of the material, and is
often called “tan δ”. For small loss angles, usually the
case for insulating materials, the dissipation factor,
tan δ, is essentially the same as the dielectric power fac-
tor “cos δ”. Dissipation factor is, therefore, often called
“power factor.” Dissipation factor, tan δ, or power fac-
11-17
Chapter 11: Ampacity
tor, cos δ , refer to the real (in-phase) component of
losses in the insulation, as shown in Figure 11-17.
Some typical insulation parameters are listed in Table
11-4. Dissipation factors tend to increase with tempera-
ture, particularly for paper-based insulations.
Both the dielectric constant and the dissipation factor of
a type of an insulating material can be controlled some-
what during manufacture. Paper or laminated paper-
polypropylene insulations can be controlled by selecting
a lower-density grade of kraft paper washed with deion-
ized water and using a higher percentage of polypropy-
lene relative to the paper. Modern XLPE cables at
transmission class voltages generally use unfilled grades
of homopolmer polyethylene. The dielectric properties
of crosslinked polyethylene are temperature dependent,
particularly for some grades of copolymer polyethylene.
Tan δ for impregnated-paper insulation is dependent on
temperature; it is generally lowest at 75-85°C, as dis-
cussed in Chapters 4-7. Dissipation factor is often
expressed in percent—i.e., a tan δ of 0.0005 is equivalent
to 0.05%. The dielectric loss factor, which is the product
of dielectric constant and dissipation factor, is often
used as a figure of merit for a particular insulation and
should, of course, be as low as possible.
Charging-Current Losses
A cable is a long capacitor, and energy must be supplied
through the conductor by current flow to charge and dis-
charge the capacitor at power frequency (50 or 60 times
Figure 11-17 Dissipation factor and power factor
for a dielectric material.
Table 11-4 Typical Insulation Material Dielectric Constants and Dissipation Factors
Dielectric Constant
(εr)
Insulation Material Range
Crosslinked Polyethylene 2.1-2.3
Impregnated Paper, Fluid-Filled 3.3-3.7
Impregnated Paper, Gas-Filled 3.3-3.7
Laminated Paper-Polypropylene 2.7-2.9
Ethylene-Propylene-Rubber 2.5-4.0
11-18
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
each second). The current flow returns through the cable
shield. Charging current heats the conductor and shield,
and can be significant for long, high-voltage cables. This
is sometimes a concern for systems engineers when eval-
uating the stability of an overall power system. The cur-
rent flows any time that the circuit is energized, so
charging-current losses should properly be considered in
the same manner as dielectric losses. The distribution of
charging current along the conductor is nonlinear, being
a maximum at the cable end supplying the charging cur-
rent and a minimum at the remote end, though often the
charging current may be supplied from both ends of the
cable. Conservative calculations take the hottest position
and assume that all the charging current is supplied for
the entire cable length by one end.
Charging current in the conductor is a reactive current
in that it leads phase current by 90°. Dielectric loss in
the insulation is supplied by the real (in-phase) compo-
nent of charging current. Dielectric losses are generated
on a per-meter basis and increase the radial heat gener-
ated in the cable, ultimately reducing normal ampacity.
Charging current flows all the time that the cable is
energized, and the heat that it generates in the conduc-
tor ultimately limits the allowable real power transfer.
Further discussion is given in Chapter 16.
Voltages were lower and lines were shorter when the
original Neher-McGrath paper was published in 1957,
so charging current was a smaller proportion of load
current than for modern high-voltage cable systems. For
this reason, charging current was not separated from
load current and was assumed to have the same load
factor—i.e., to have the same cyclic pattern as the load
current. The proper approach is to determine the maxi-
mum charging current and temperature rise due to that
current at 100% load factor, and subtract that rise from
the total permitted rise. Unfortunately, this is an itera-
tive procedure that requires the solution of the entire
electrical circuit of Figure 11-13. This procedure is rec-
ommended if the circuit load factor is less than 50% and
if voltage is 230 kV or higher. As will be illustrated in
the examples at the end of this chapter, the difference in
approaches can be a few percent of the rating. If this
approach is followed, the user should be sure that the
Dissipation Factor
(tan δ)
Typical Range Typical
2.3 0.001-0.005 0.001
3.5 0.0025-0.0045 0.0025
3.5 0.003-0.004 0.003
2.7 0.0007-0.0010 0.0007
3.0 0.002-0.08 0.005
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

daily load factor for current-dependent losses supplied Dc Resistance

by the planning department does not already include Dc resistance can be calculated using Equation 11-14
the effect of charging current. Equation 11-12 shows the using data from Table 11-5. The resistance is a function
calculation of charging current, Ic. Calculation of cable of the cross-sectional area of the material and is defined
capacitance, C, is shown in Equation 11-13. by the following relationship:

2πf ⋅ ε r ⋅ E 0 ⋅ 10 −9 ρ
I C = 2πf ⋅ C ⋅ E 0 = R dc20 = (ohm/m) 11-14
Area ⋅ 10 −6
(A/m)
⎛ D insulation ⎞
18 ln⎜ ⎟ Where:
⎜ D cond _ shield ⎟ ρ = electrical resistivity of metal in ohm- m at
⎝ ⎠ 20°C
11-12
Area = cross-sectional area of metal in mm2.
−9
ε r ⋅ 10
C=
⎛ D insulation ⎞ (F/m) The dc resistance can be adjusted to other temperatures
18 ln⎜ ⎟
11-13
using the following relationship:
⎜ D cond _ shield ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎡ T−τ ⎤
Where: R dcT = R dc 20 ⋅ ⎢ (ohm/m)
⎣ 20 − τ ⎥⎦
11-15
f = frequency, Hz.
C = capacitance, F/m. Where:
E0 = line-to-neutral voltage, V. τ = inferred temperature of zero resistance
εr = relative permittivity of the insulation (spe- from Table 11-5, °C.
cific inductive capacitance, dielectric con- T = temperature of the conductor, °C.
stant), dimensionless.
Dinsulation = diameter over the insulation (mm) The resistances must be adjusted to the temperatures at
D cond_shield = diameter over the conductor shield which the materials will operate. For example, the con-
(mm) ductor resistance would typically be adjusted to 90°C
for a crosslinked polyethylene cable. The shield and
Although electrical resistances are commonly stated in sheath resistances, and the skid wire on a pipe-type
microhms/m, charging current is sometimes stated in cable, should also be adjusted to their operating temper-
A/km or A/1000 ft because the quantity is generally ature. This may be done iteratively after performing an
small. The effect of charging current is discussed further initial ampacity calculation or by assuming some typical
in Chapter 16, and in a published reference (IEEE temperature drop across the insulation (10-25C°) below
1990). the conductor temperature.
Current-Dependent Losses Some typical values of electrical resistivity are listed in
Ohmic (I2R) losses arise from the flow of current Table 11-5, along with their temperature correction
through an electrical resistance, such as conductor cur- coefficients.
rents and induced currents in short-circuited cable
sheaths or other parallel conductors having a return
path. In addition, for ac operation, skin and proximity Table 11-5 Typical Electrical Resistivities and Temperature
effects increase the losses in conductors, and eddy-cur- Factors for Common Cable Metals
rent losses are introduced in cable shields and sheaths. Electrical Resistivity Inferred Temperature
Those losses are reflected back to conductor losses by (ρ) of Zero Resistance,
calculating an increment in ac resistance at the conduc- Material Ohm-meters at 20°C τ, °C
tor and shield. If the cables are installed in steel pipe or 2.8264 x 10-8
casing, eddy-current and hysteresis losses are also Aluminum (conductor) -228.1
2.84 x 10-8 (sheath)
reflected back to the conductor. Losses for each compo-
Brass 6.317 x 10-8 -912.0
nent of the cable system are addressed below.
Bronze 3.5 x 10-8 -564.0
Conductor Losses Copper 1.7241 x 10-8 -234.5
Conductor losses equal I2Rac, where Rac is conductor ac Lead 21.4 x 10-8 -236.0
resistance. Conductor resistance consists of three com- Stainless Steel 70 x 10-8 n.a.
ponents: dc resistance, increases due to skin effect, and Zinc 6.633 x 10-8 -218.7
increases due to proximity effect.

11-19
Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Note that the variation of stainless steel is minimal with
respect to temperature over the typical operating range
of a cable.
A factor 1.025 (2.5%) is typically applied to the dc resis-
tance to consider the strand-lay factor relative to the
resistance of the equivalent size of solid conductor. The
strand-lay factor increases for conductor sizes larger
than 1000 mm2 (~2000 kcmil).
lent conductor cross section in square millimeters; values
are shown at 25°C. (Note that the conversion from
square millimeters to kcmil is 1.9735, so a 1000 mm2 con-
ductor has an equivalent area of 1973.5 kcmil.) These
resistances may be corrected to temperatures other than
25°C using Equation 11-15 above or the following:
Temperature Correction for Copper:
RdcT = Rdc25 (1 + 0.00385 (T-25))

Some U.S. specifications (e.g., AEIC) tabulate dc resis-
tance as a function of conductor size, material, and con-
struction. These tabulations include the stranding effect
for the conductors. Table 11-6 provides the resistance of
standard AEIC conductor sizes in kcmil with the equiva-
Temperature Correction for Aluminum:
RdcT = Rdc25 (1 + 0.00395 (T-25))
The IEC has standard conductor sizes listed in Publica-
tion 60228. The IEC does not distinguish conductor

Table 11-6 Dc Resistance of Copper and Aluminum Conductors by AEIC Size (kcmil)
Resistance at 25°C, ohm x 10-6/m
Size of Conductors Copper Aluminum
Round Segmental Hollow Round Segmental Hollow
kcmil mm2 Conductors Conductors Core Conductors Conductors Core

167.8 (3/0) 85.02 210.63 210.63 210.63 344.49 344.49 —

211.6 (4/0) 107.2 166.99 166.99 166.99 274.28 274.28 —

250 127 141.40 141.40 141.40 232.28 232.28 —

300 152 118.11 118.11 118.11 193.57 193.57 —
350 177 101.05 101.05 101.05 165.68 165.68 —
400 203 88.58 88.58 88.58 145.01 145.01 —
450 228 78.74 78.74 78.74 130.91 130.91 —
500 253 70.87 70.87 70.87 — 116.14 —
550 279 64.30 64.30 64.30 105.64 105.64 —
600 304 59.06 59.06 59.06 96.78 96.78 —
650 329 54.46 54.46 54.46 89.24 89.24 —
700 355 50.52 50.52 50.52 83.01 83.01 —
750 380 47.24 47.24 47.57 77.43 77.43 78.08
800 405 44.29 44.29 44.62 72.51 — 73.16
900 456 39.37 39.37 39.70 64.63 — 65.29
1,000 507 35.43 35.43 35.76 58.07 58.07 58.73
1,250 633 28.31 28.44 28.58 46.59 46.59 46.92
1,500 760 23.59 23.72 23.82 38.71 39.04 39.04
1,750 887 20.24 20.31 20.44 33.14 33.46 33.46
2,000 1,013 17.68 17.78 17.88 29.04 29.17 29.20
2,250 1,140 15.88 15.81 15.88 26.05 25.95 —
2,500 1,267 14.30 14.24 14.30 23.46 23.36 —
2,750 1,393 12.99 12.93 12.89 20.93 20.80 21.33
3,000 1,520 11.91 11.84 11.91 19.52 19.42 19.52
3,250 1,647 11.09 10.96 — 17.85 17.65 —
3,500 1,776 10.30 10.17 10.30 16.90 16.70 16.90
3,750 1,900 9.61 9.48 — 15.49 15.26 —
4,000 2,027 9.02 8.89 8.89 14.80 14.60 14.76

11-20
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

resistances by conductor construction type (e.g., round,
segmental, etc.). The standard conductor values are
listed in Table 11-7.
The reader should note that the nominal conductor
resistance may differ from the maximum allowable con-
ductor resistance. The actual resistance of the conduc-
tor may be somewhat greater than the nominal value, so
this should be factored into design and as-built ampac-
ity calculations.
AC Skin and Proximity Effects
There is unequal current distribution in an ac current-
carrying conductor due to the magnetic field induced by
the flow of electrical current. As a result, losses in the
conductor are affected by self and mutual inductance;
the self-inductance causes the current to concentrate
near the conductor surface—called “conductor skin
effect”—and the magnetic field of neighboring conduc-
tors affects the distribution of current across the con-
ductor—called “conductor proximity effect.” When
determining the total losses from the cable conductor,
these two parameters must be determined. The impact
of these effects on the dc resistance—called the “ac-dc
ratio”—is a function of the conductor type and con-
struction.
The conductor current density and distribution are
influenced by several factors:
• The dependence of interwire resistance on conductor
compaction and whether it is impregnated with
dielectric fluid or is dry, as in an XLPE cable
• The use of a stranded concentric, a stranded segmen-
tal, or a hollow-core conductor
• The dc resistivity of the metal, the higher resistivity of
aluminum being beneficial for current distribution.
The effect of the particular conductor type and con-
struction is quantified by the conductor skin effect cor-
rection factor, kS, and proximity effect correction factor,
kP. The reference unity values are those of a solid cylin-
drical conductor, which for large cross-sectional areas
gives the greatest (worst) ac-dc ratio. The accurate mea-
surement of the ac-dc resistance ratio is difficult and has
resulted in few published values being available. Early
published values are mainly for conductors impregnated

Table 11-7 Dc Resistance of Class 2 Stranded Copper and Aluminum Conductors by IEC Size (mm2)
Resistance at 20°C, ohm x 10-6 / m

Size of Conductors Copper

Aluminum or Alumi-
Plain Wires Metal-Coated Wires num Alloy
mm2 kcmil Conductors Conductors Conductors
50 98.7 387.0 391.0 641.0
70 138.1 268.0 270.0 443.0
95 187.5 193.0 195.0 320.0
120 236.8 153.0 154.0 253.0
150 296.0 124.0 126.0 206.0
185 365.1 99.1 100.0 164.0
240 473.6 75.4 76.2 125.0
300 592.1 60.1 60.7 100.0
400 789.4 47.0 47.5 77.8
500 986.8 36.6 36.9 60.5
630 1243.3 28.3 28.6 46.9
800 1578.8 22.1 22.4 36.7
1,000 1973.5 17.6 17.7 29.1
1,200 2368.2 15.1 15.1 24.7
1,400 2762.9 12.9 12.9 21.2
1,600 3157.6 11.3 11.3 18.6
1,800 3552.3 10.1 10.1 16.5
2,000 3947.0 9.0 9.0 14.9
2,500 4933.8 7.2 7.2 12.7

11-21
Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

with dielectric fluid, as used in HPFF and SCFF cables Where:

(examples are listed in Table 11-8, including values from
the Neher-McGrath paper). The recent availability of
XLPE cables with large stranded segmental conductors
has shown that k s and k p values are higher than for
fluid-filled conductors. As a result, CIGRE Technical
Brochure 272-220 (CIGRE 2005) recommends that, for
large segmental conductors of 1600 mm2 (3158 kcmil),
the skin and proximity effect factors should be mea-
sured when the cables are qualification tested; if mea-
surements are unavailable, the values from Table 11-9
should be used.
During conductor selection, the construction of the
conductor may be specified to optimize the losses in the
conductor. Some manufacturers have considered a
higher number of segments (7 or 9) in the conductor to
reduce skin and proximity effects. Values of the conduc-
tor skin effect correction factor and proximity effect
correction factor (also called the “transverse conductiv-
ity factor”) are listed in Tables 11-8 and 11-9.
For hollow-core conductors, the skin effect factor, kS,
may be calculated using the following equations:
4 ⋅ Area
d'c = + di2
π 11-16
Area = is the cross-sectional area of the conductor,
mm2
di = is the inner diameter of the conductor (e.g.,
the central duct diameter), mm.
d'c = is the outer diameter of an equivalent solid
conductor having the same central duct
diameter, mm.
Where specific values for aluminum conductors do not
exist, the copper values may be used as conservative esti-
mates. Segmenting is important in reducing conductor
ac losses for large conductor siz es. A 1200 mm 2
(2368 kcmil) four-segment copper conductor has an
ac/dc resistance ratio of about 1.08. That ratio would be
greater than 1.25 if the conductor had a standard con-
centric construction. The ac/dc resistance ratio is less for
aluminum conductors of equivalent size because alumi-
num is characterized by a lower conductivity, and the
oxide on individual strands gives some segregation of
currents. Some manufacturers offer five- and six-seg-
ment conductors, while others put a cupric oxide or
enamel coating on individual conductor strands to
improve the ac/dc ratios (reduce the skin and proximity
effects). The values of kS and kP in Table 11-9 provide a
relative comparison of the impact on ac resistance
ratios.

2 An approximation of a Bessel Function is used in

⎛ d ' −d ⎞⎛ d'c +2 ⋅d i ⎞
k S = ⎜⎜ c i ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ Neher-McGrath and IEC methods to calculate skin and
⎝ d'c +d i ⎠⎝ d 'c +d i ⎠ 11-17
proximity effect factors. The increment in ac resistance
from skin effect is a function of conductor size and con-
Table 11-8 Skin and Proximity Effect Factors for Various struction, but typically adds 5-12% to the dc resistance
Conductor Types of the conductor. The ac resistance increment for con-
Conductor Type kS kP ductor skin effect, YCS, can be found from Equations
Concentric round, dry, Cu 1.0 1.0 11-18 and 11-19, where kS is the conductor skin effect
Concentric round, in oil, Cu 1.0 0.8 factor based on the conductor construction and XS is
Compact round, in oil, Cu 1.0 0.6 between 0 and 2.8. ELECTRA No. 272 (CIGRE 2005)
Compact 4-segment, dry, Cu 0.435 0.6
Compact 4-segment, in oil, Cu 0.435 0.37 Table 11-9 Skin and Proximity Effect Factors for Large
Compact 4-segment, in oil, 0.35 (trefoil), 0.46 Segmental Conductors
0.39
pipe-type, Cu (cradled) Conductor Type kS kP
0.29 (trefoil), 0.36 Bidirectional stranding of copper
Compact segmental, Al 0.35 0.8 0.37
(cradled) bare wires
Compact 5-segment 0.435 0.37 Unidirectional stranding of copper
0.62 0.37
See bare wires
Hollow, stranded
below 0.33 (Cu), Interlayer insulated copper bare
0.5 0.37
Hollow core, 6-segment, in oil, 0.19 (Al, trefoil or wires
0.39
Cu square), Unidirectional copper oxidized
Hollow core, 6-segment, Al, 0.27 (Al, flat or vertical) (cupric oxide) coated conductor 0.35 0.2
0.26 strands
in oil
Hollow core, 4-segment, in oil 0.435 0.37 Enamel-coated conductor strands 0.25 0.15

11-22
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

notes that some large conductors now fall outside this
range and gives an improved formulae for YCS.
2
⎛ 8πfk S ⋅ 10 − 7 ⎞ work by Katz (Katz et al. n.d.) suggested a value of 1.5
XS = ⎜
4 ⎟
⎜ R dcT ⎟ the ratio of the ac resistance of the conductor, including
⎝ ⎠
4
XS
YCS =
4
192 + 0.8 ⋅ X S
When multiple (typically multiples of 3 phases) ac
current-carrying conductors are brought together, the
magnetic field from each conductor causes the current
in adjacent conductors to shift to the near side of the
conductor, which increases the effective resistance; this
is the proximity effect. The proximity effect is a function
of cable phase spacing, and can add 2-5% to the dc resis-
tance of the conductor for typical spacings. When multi-
ple circuits are involved, the proximity effect is
conservatively determined using the nearest cable phase
spacing. The ac resistance increment for conductor
proximity effect, YCP, can be found from Equation 11-20
(see below), where kP is the proximity effect factor based
on the conductor construction.
The conductor resistance, including skin and proximity
effects, can be calculated using Equations 11-21 and
11-22:
For cables in air or soil:
R ac = R dcT ⋅ (1 + YCS + YCP ) , ohm/m
For cables in a steel pipe or casing:
R ac = R dcT ⋅ (1 + 1.5 ⋅ (YCS + YCP )) , ohm/m
(For cables in a steel pipe or casing, conductor ac resis-
tances are calculated for cables as if they were in air. If
the cables are installed in a ferromagnetic casing, con-
duit, or pipe, as for HPFF cables, the magnetic field is
distorted and resistances are increased. Neher-McGrath
had proposed a value of 1.7 to account for incremental
losses when cables are installed in steel pipes, but later
would be more accurate.) The ac/dc ratio for the cable is
skin and proximity effects, to that of the conductor’s dc
11-18
resistance alone.
Shield, Sheath, and Skid wire Resistance
Current in the conductor induces voltages in parallel con-
11-19 ductors, including the outer metallic layers of the cable.
Depending on the cable type, there are various metallic
layers outside of the cable insulation that are affected this
way. A summary of typical layers is as follows:
Extruded: concentric stranded copper or aluminum
wires, copper or aluminum tapes, extruded
lead, corrugated copper, corrugated alumi-
num or corrugated stainless steel, possibly
armor for submarine installations.
Pipe-Type: helically applied metallic tape(s), helically
applied skid wire(s).
SCFF: extruded lead alloy or corrugated alumi-
num sheath (corrugated copper has been
used very rarely), possibly with additional
copper wires or tapes, and perhaps with
armor wires for submarine cables.
If the shield on an extruded or self-contained cable is
11-21 grounded at more than one point, the induced voltage
causes current flow in the shield, which results in ohmic
losses. The circulating current greatly reduces eddy cur-
rent losses. However, losses in metallic shields/sheaths of
11-22 single-conductor cables from circulating currents can be
substantial and may result in as much as a 35% reduc-
tion in cable ampacity, as compared to a single-point
bonded shield/sheath or one that has perfect cross-
bonding.

2
⎛ 8πfk P ⋅10−7 ⎞
XP 4
=⎜ ⎟
⎝ R dcT ⎠
⎛ ⎞
⎛ 4
⎞ ⎛ DConductor ⎞
2
⎜ ⎛D ⎞
2
⎟
XP 1.18
YCP = ⎜ ⋅
4 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⋅ ⎜ 0.312 ⋅ ⎜ Conductor ⎟⎟ + ⎟
⎜ ⎜ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 192 + 0.8 ⋅ X P ⎠ ⎝ d phase ⎠ ⎝ d phase ⎠ XP4
+ 0.27 ⎟
⎜ 192 + 0.8 ⋅ X P 4
⎝ ⎠ 11-20
Where:
DConductor = outside diameter of conductor, mm
dphase = axial spacing between adjacent cables, mm

11-23
Chapter 11: Ampacity
As an alternative, many short (< 800 m [< 2600 ft])
transmission cable circuits are single-point bonded
(shield/sheath directly grounded at only one location, so
circulating currents cannot develop). For longer circuits,
the cable shield/sheath connections are transposed at a
third of the circuit length or major section length; when
the difference in lengths is less than 15%, the net circu-
lating current is very small, so the ratings approach
those of similar single-point bonded cables. The impact
of larger discrepancies in the three minor section lengths
should be considered for ampacity. The topic of
shield/sheath bonding is discussed in Chapter 10, and
the calculation of circulating currents is discussed in
greater detail in Chapter 16.
Unlike single-core cables, pipe-type cables do not suffer
a significant reduction in ampacity from the shield/skid
wire being continuously bonded, because these layers
are generally high resistance, and the close phase spac-
ing better cancels magnetic fields. The shield/skid wire
losses in pipe-type cables are generally less than 5%.
Regardless of the cable type, the resistance of the metal-
lic layers outside the insulation of each cable phase must
be evaluated. These resistance values would then be
adjusted for the temperature of the respective layer and
appropriately applied to calculate eddy current and cir-
culating current loss increments.
Calculation of Shield, Sheath, and Skid wire Resistances
The calculation of the dc resistance of the shield, sheath,
or skid wire (for the remainder of this section, these will
all be referred to as “shields”), Rs, is given in Equations
11-23 to 11-25. Electrical resistivity, ρ, is obtained from
Table 11-5, and the calculated resistance is then adjusted
to the expected operating temperature of the component
using Equation 11-15. Equations for specific shield con-
structions are listed below in Equations 11-24 and 11-25.
The electrical resistance, Rs, for a non-taped (tube)
layer, such as an extruded or welded metallic sheath
(e.g., the lead sheath on an extruded or self-contained
cable) can be calculated by knowing the cross-sectional
area (Equation 11-23) of the layer and then using the
equation for resistance (Equation 11-24):
Area =
( 2
π D Outer )
− D 2Inner (mm2) 11-23
4 π ⋅ D1 ⋅ D 2
ρ 4
R dc 20 = (ohm/m) 11-24
Area ⋅ 10 − 6
Where:
DOuter = is the outer diameter of the shield layer,
mm.
11-24
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
DInner = is the inner diameter of the shield layer,
mm.
Area = is the cross-sectional area of the shield
layer, mm2.
ρ = is the electrical resistivity of the metallic
layer, ohm-m.
If a longitudinally taped foil shield or sheath is used, the
calculations should factor in the additional foil material
used where the foil is overlapped, usually about 15 mm
(0.6 in.).
The following equation can be used for a helically-
applied metallic layer—e.g., a helically applied tape
intercalated with an insulating tape (or a tape where the
lay length is greater than the tape width), skid wire, or
armor. However, if the taped shield is not intercalated
with an insulating tape, Equation 11-24 for a non-taped
layer (or tube) should be used.
2
ρ ⎛ π ⋅ D Layer ⎞
R dc20 = ⋅ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ (ohm/m)
N ⋅ Area ⋅ 10 − 6 ⎜ Lay Layer ⎟
⎝ ⎠
11-25
Where:
ρ = is the electrical resistivity of layer, ohm/m.
DLayer = is the average diameter of the helical layer,
mm.
LayLayer = is the distance along the cable for one turn
of the tape or wire (e.g., the “lay”), mm.
Area = is the cross-sectional area of a single metal-
lic tape, wire or skid wire, mm2.
N = is the number of shield wires, shield tapes,
or skid wires.
For wire-strand shields, the lay of the wires depends on
the manufacturer. A typical value for the lay is approxi-
mately seven times the wire shield diameter (e.g., if the
cable diameter at the wire shield is 90 mm, then the wire
lay would be approximately 630 mm). For metallic taped
shields, the tape width is often about 22 mm (0.875 in.),
with the tape lapped by 3 mm (0.125 in.), so the lay is
19 mm (0.75 in.).
For taped shields, the area is the width of the tape times
the thickness of the tape. For a skid wire, the area is:
Area = (mm2) 11-26
Where:
D1 = height of the skid wire (usually half the
diameter), mm.
D2 = width of the skid wire, mm.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

As an example, a 2.54 mm high by 5.08 mm wide (0.1 in. These currents also exist in pipe-type cables, but are
x 0.2 in.) “D”-shaped skid wire would have an area of generally very small because of close phase spacing and
10.13 mm2 (0.0157 in.2 or about 20 kcmil). high-resistance shields and skid wires.

For a stranded shield, the area of a single strand must be Calculation of the circulating current increment requires
calculated using the following: determining the average mutual reactance between adja-
cent cable phases and depends on the configuration of
2
π ⋅ D strand the phases. Equations 11-29 to 11-31 should be applied
Area = (mm2) 11-27 appropriately depending on the cable configuration that
4 most closely matches the indicated cable positions. S,
Where:
the center-to-center phase spacing, and, DSM, the mean
Dstrand = diameter of a single wire shield strand,
diameter of the shield/sheath/skid wire layer, are used in
mm.
the following:
When different metals are involved for the shield layers,
For cables in equilateral (trefoil or triangular) configu-
the resistance of each layer should be adjusted sepa-
ration:
rately to the expected operating temperature of the
shield. Typically, this is 10-25C° lower than rated con-
⎛ 2⋅S ⎞
ductor temperature. Finally, the total resistance for all X m = 4πf ⋅ 10 − 7 ⋅ ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (ohm/m) 11-29
of the shield layers is determined by taking the resis- ⎝ D SM ⎠
tances electrically in parallel, as follows:
For cables in flat/vertical configuration:
1 1 1 1
= + + .... +
R S R s1 R s 2 R sn ⎛ 2.52 ⋅ S ⎞
11-28 X m = 4πf ⋅ 10 − 7 ⋅ ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (ohm/m) 11-30
D
⎝ SM ⎠
The shield resistance calculated in Equation 11-28 is not
used directly. It is used to calculate the two components For cables in cradled configuration:
for ac shield losses: an increment, YCC, due to circulat-
ing currents in the shield, and an increment, YEC, due to ⎛ 2 .3 ⋅ S ⎞
eddy currents in the shield. These loss increments are a X m = 4πf ⋅ 10 − 7 ⋅ ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (ohm/m) 11-31
function of the resistance, mutual reactance (described ⎝ D SM ⎠
below), and sheath bonding mode. Where:
f = power frequency, Hz.
Mutual Reactance and Shield Loss Increments for S = axial spacing between nearest phases, mm.
Circulating Currents DSM = mean diameter of the metallic shield,
Circulating currents exist when a cable metallic shield, sheath and/or skid wire, mm.
sheath, neutral, or skidwire is grounded and bonded at
both ends (e.g., multipoint bonding—see Chapter 10). Equations 11-29 to 11-31 are taken from IEC 60287 and
The resulting induced current is a function of the resis- assume that the cable phases are transposed; equations
tance and spacing among phases according to Lenz’s for nontransposed cables are also given in IEC. A
law. Circulating currents exist in single-core cables (e.g., sophisticated matrix solution for the nontransposed
extruded-dielectric or self-contained cable types), when case is discussed in Chapter 16.
the metallic sheath is grounded at both ends or on cross-
bonded systems, where the minor section lengths are not Since the goal is to calculate the conductor current, the
equal in length. Circulating-current losses can be large shield current is not calculated separately. Instead, the
for single-conductor cables with spacings greater than incremental increase in losses from shield circulating
100 mm (4 in.) and may reduce ampacity by 35%. currents can be found and reflected back as an increased
Because of these large losses, single-conductor transmis- conductor resistance by using Equation 11-32.
sion cables are typically configured with open-circuited
sheaths unless sheath voltages become excessive. In this RS 1
case, the sheaths are often cross-bonded. For long YCC = ⋅
R ac 2
⎛R ⎞
1 + ⎜⎜ S
underwater crossings, where cross-bonding is not feasi-
⎟⎟
ble, short-circuited sheaths are the only option.
⎝ Xm ⎠
11-32

11-25
Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Where: For cables in triangular (trefoil) formation:

YCC = incremental increase in losses from shield
2
circulating currents, dimensionless ⎛ m 2 ⎞ ⎛ DSM ⎞
RS = total shield/sheath/skid wire resistance, YSe0 = 3 ⋅ ⎜ ⋅
2 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
ohm/m. ⎝ 1+ m ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⋅S ⎠
Rac = ac resistance of conductor, ohm/m. 0.92⋅m +1.66
⎛D ⎞
Xm = mutual reactance, ohm/m. YSe1 = (1.14 ⋅ m 2.45
+ 0.33) ⋅ ⎜ SM ⎟
⎝ 2 ⋅S ⎠ 11-35
For cross-bonded cable systems, many ampacity calcu-
lations assume perfect cross-bonding and no separate Then, the increment in losses for eddy currents may be
ground continuity conductors such that there is no net calculated:
circulating current in the cable shields. However, practi-
cal placement of joints in actual installations often 8π 2 f
means there is some discrepancy among the minor sec- X ec =
tion lengths of a cross-bonded cable system. In these ρShield ⋅ 10 7
11-36
cases, a net circulating current could develop that gener- 1.74
ates sufficient heating to cause a derating effect. Usually, ⎛t
g s = 1 + ⎜⎜ Shield
⎞
⎟⎟ (
⋅ X ec ⋅ D S ⋅ 10 − 3 − 1.6 )
a difference—longest to shortest—in minor section ⎝ DS ⎠
lengths of less than 20% allows the circulating currents 11-37
to be neglected. In situations where there is a greater
⎛R ⎞ ⎛ (X ⋅ t )4 ⎞
discrepancy in the lengths or where one or more ground YEC = ⎜⎜ S' ⎟⎟ ⋅ ⎜ g s ⋅ YSe0 ⋅ (1 + YSe1 ) + ec Shield ⎟
continuity conductors is used, a sophisticated solution ⎝ R ac ⎠ ⎝⎜ 12 ⋅ 1012 ⎟
⎠
method as described in Chapter 16 is needed to find the
11-38
circulating current and determine the loss increment. Where:
Shield Loss Increments for Eddy Currents RS ' = resistance of only the layer(s) where eddy
Eddy-current losses are principally of interest for single- currents may occur, ohm/m.
conductor cables with open-circuit sheaths or nearly Rac = ac resistance of conductor including skin
equal minor section lengths on cross-bonded cables; and proximity effects, ohm/m.
they are often neglected for cables in steel casings or tShield = thickness of the shield or sheath layer for
cable pipes. Eddy-current losses occur when a continu- eddy current loss calculations, mm.
ous concentric metallic layer exists around the cable DS = diameter over cable sheath, mm. (For cor-
core (e.g., a corrugated or extruded metal sheath or lon- rugated sheaths, use the mean outside
gitudinally taped metallic shield, but not stranded diameter: ½ (diameter over the crests +
shields). The mechanics for calculating the eddy-current diameter over the troughs) + sheath thick-
losses, borrowed from IEC 60287, are somewhat oner- ness.)
ous but not particularly complicated. The equations to DSM = mean diameter of the metallic shield,
sheath, and/or skid wire, mm.
perform these calculations were derived empirically and ρ shield =Electrical resistivity of shield at operating
are listed below. For additional background, please see
IEC 60287. temperature, ohm-m.
m = calculation coefficient.
2πf ⋅ 10 −7 gS = calculation coefficient.
m= Yse0 = calculation coefficient.
R S' 11-33 Yse1 = calculation coefficient.

For cables in flat or vertical formation (center cable in Other variables were defined earlier. Eddy-current losses
the group): for cables in cradled configuration (e.g., pipe-type) can
be neglected.
2
⎛ m 2 ⎞ ⎛ DSM ⎞
YSe0 = 6⋅⎜ ⋅
2 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1+ m ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⋅S ⎠
1.4⋅m + 0.7
⎛D ⎞
YSe1 = 0.86 ⋅ m 3.08
⋅ ⎜ SM ⎟
⎝ 2 ⋅S ⎠ 11-34

11-26
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
AC Resistance Including Circulating Current and Eddy-
current Increments
The heat generated by the conductor is calculated using
Equation 11-39 and includes the conductor skin effect
and conductor proximity effect:
WConductor = I 2 R dcT (1 + YCS + YCP ) = I 2 R ac W/m
When calculating ampacity, the losses in the metallic
shield, sheath, and/or skid wire are assumed to be
directly proportional to the conductor current. As such,
the ampacity equations are arranged in a manner to
allow for the solution of the conductor current in terms
of all the losses from the conductor, shield/sheath/skid
wire, and (for pipe-type systems) the cable pipe. A simi-
lar relationship may also be developed for cables in cas-
ings or that have metallic armor. The losses in the
shield/sheath/skid wire include the circulating current
and eddy-current effects:
WShield = I 2 R ac (YCC + YEC ) W/m
The total losses applied to cable layers in the equivalent
thermal circuit outside the shield include both the con-
ductor losses and shield losses. A loss ratio, QS, can be
calculated for each layer as follows:
WConductor + WShield
QS = = 1 + YCC + YEC
WConductor
If the cables are installed in ferromagnetic conduits, cas-
ings, or pipes, the losses are:
WConductor = I 2 R dcT (1 + 1.5(YCS + YCP ))
W/m
WShield = I 2 R ac (1.5 )( YSC + YEC )
= I 2 R dcT (1 + 1.5 ( YCS + YCP ) ) ( YSC + YEC ) W / m
Where:
RdcT = dc resistance of the cable conductor at
temperature, T (usually rated), ohm/m.
The loss ratio would be calculated accordingly.
Increments for Pipe Losses
Pipe cables have additional losses from eddy current and
hysteresis heating in the cable pipe as a result of the ac
cables within the pipe. Empirical equations are used for
calculating incremental pipe losses in pipe-type cables
using the following equations:
Chapter 11: Ampacity
For cradled configurations:
0.0438 ⋅ D Skidwire + 0.0226 ⋅ ID Pipe
YPL =
R ac ⋅ 10 6
11-44
11-39 For trefoil configurations:
0.115 ⋅ D Skidwire − 0.01485 ⋅ ID Pipe
YPL =
R ac ⋅ 10 6
11-45
Where:
DSkidwire = diameter over cable skid wires, mm.
IDPipe = Inner diameter of the cable pipe, mm.
The Equations 11-44 and 11-45 are for 60 Hz. If the
power system is 50 Hz, the values of YP should be multi-
plied by 0.76.
11-40 The equations are empirical because the actual pipe
losses are dependent on many factors including the
magnetic permeability and resistivity. The permeability
is a function of the current (magnetic field) and point of
saturation on the pipe’s B-H curve; these characteristics
are usually not known by the cable engineer for a spe-
cific line pipe. The thickness does not typically affect the
pipe losses (and does not appear in the equation above)
because practical pipe thicknesses are beyond the skin
depth at power frequency.
11-41
The incremental pipe losses are injected into the thermal
circuit at the pipe portion of the thermal circuit:
WPipe = I 2 R ac (YPL ) (W/m)
11-46
11-42 Losses calculated from Equation 11-46 are on a per-
conductor basis, for each of the three conductors in a
pipe-type cable. This is necessary, since the calculated
cable ampacity is for each conductor, even for a pipe-
type system. Pipe losses can account for as much as one-
11-43
third of the total ohmic losses for pipe-type cable. (Katz
et al. 1978) and (EPRI 1982) give further discussions of
pipe losses and calculation procedures.
Note that the pipe-loss increment, YPL, is not multiplied
by the 1.5 factor. Note also that the pipe-loss increment
is several percent greater for cables in cradled configura-
tion than triangular configuration, because the cradled
configuration places the cable phases in closer proximity
to the cable pipe and has a greater average spacing (geo-
metric mean radius) among phases. Pipe-type cables are
cradled most of the time, unless the ratio of the inside
diameter to cable diameter is less than 2.5. Therefore,
11-27
Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

cradled configuration should generally be assumed, using the appropriate geometric factors and the mate-
unless the cables are known to lay in close trefoil config- rial’s thermal resistivity.
uration.
Thermal Resistances of Insulation, Cable Coverings, and
Duct
In a similar manner as for the shield/sheath/skid wire,
The calculation of thermal resistance is an extension of
the loss ratio for pipe losses, QP, may also be calculated:
Figure 11-18, except that most cable system compo-
WConductor + WShield + WPipe nents, being cylindrical, follow a relationship like the
QP = following:
WConductor
ρ DOuter dr
= 1 + 1.5 ( YCC + YEC ) + YPL
2π ∫DInner r
11-47
R=
Total Ac Resistance, AC/DC Ratio, and Loss Ratios (Qs, Wp)
ρ
Total ac conductor resistance equals the dc resistance = ( ln(DOuter ) − ln(D Inner ) )
plus the sum of the ac increments, as described by the 2π
equations earlier in this section. The ac/dc ratio of a ρ ⎛ ⎞
cable system is defined as the total overall ac resistance = ln ⎜ D Outer ⎟ (C° - m / W)
divided by the dc resistance of the conductor, for all 2 π ⎝ D Inner ⎠
11-48
components at their normal operating temperature. Where
DOuter is the outer diameter of the layer in milli-
Some ampacity calculations tabulate the value Q s, as meters, and
described above, which is the ratio of losses produced by DInner is the inner diameter of the layer in milli-
the shield and conductor, to that of only the conductor. meters. A bar is used over the thermal
Similarly for pipe-type cables, a value, Q p, is used to resistance terms to avoid confusion with
describe the ratio of losses in the pipe, shield, and con- electrical resistances.
ductor to those only in the conductor, including “1.5”
factor. These values will be discussed in later sections of Equation 11-48 above applies to the cable insulation,
this chapter. cable jackets and coverings, conduits, and pipe coatings.
When more than one cable is inside the layer, such as the
Thermal Resistances
case with pipe-type cables (n = 3), a factor of “n” repre-
The electrical analog of the cable thermal circuit is given
sents the number of cables producing heat within that
in Figure 11-3. The previous section of this chapter
diameter; this permits one cable only to be modeled
addressed loss (ac) calculations; the present section
inside the pipe.
describes thermal resistance calculations. The flow of
losses through these resistances gives the temperature at
ρ ⎛D ⎞
each of the nodes in the equivalent thermal circuit of R= ⋅ n ⋅ ln⎜⎜ Outer ⎟⎟ (C°-m/W) 11-49
Figure 11-3. 2π ⎝ D Inner ⎠
Thermal resistivities are given in units of C°-m/W (or Depending on the layer involved, Table 11-10 summa-
K-m/W), though units of C°-cm/W (a factor of 100 rizes what parameters to use for DInner and DOuter. Ther-
times) are sometimes used with soil thermal resistivity
test results (e.g., a value of 120C°-cm/W is equivalent to
1.20 C°-m/W). The units describe that a 1-W heat flow
through a cube 1 m on each side, having a thermal resis-
tivity of 1C°-m/W, will cause a 1C° rise across the cube,
as shown in Figure 11-18. The symbol for thermal resis-
tivity is ρ, the lowercase Greek letter “rho” with a bar
over the variable to distinguish it from an electrical
resistivity. One often hears the term “the rho of the
soil,” which is simply the thermal resistivity in C°-m/W
or the inverse of thermal conductivity.

Thermal resistivity is a property of the material, as is

electrical resistivity. Thermal resistance is calculated Figure 11-18 Definition of thermal resistivity.

11-28
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

mal resistances for cable to conduit or pipe and the Table 11-11 Thermal Resistivities of Common Cable
earth components will be discussed in later sections. Materials
Range Typical
Some of these parameters are illustrated in Figure 11-19. Material (C°-m/W) (C°-m/W)
6.0 (HPFF),
Impregnated Paper 5.0-6.0
The thermal resistivities of common cable materials are 5.0 (SCFF)
listed in Table 11-11. 6.0 (HPFF),
Laminated Paper-Polypropylene 5.5-6.5
5.5 (SCFF)
Crosslinked Polyethylene 3.5-4.0 3.5
Conductor and insulation semiconducting shields are
Ethylene-Propylene-Rubber 4.5-5.0 4.5
considered part of the insulation for most thermal resis-
Somastic 1.0 1.0
tance calculations. Conductor losses flow through the
PVC 4.0-4.5 4.0
entire insulation, and the dielectric losses are taken as
Neoprene 3.8-5.8 4.0
flowing through half of the insulation thermal resistance
Epoxy Resin 0.7-4.45 1.0
Water-Swellable Tapes 6.0-15.0 7.5
Thermoplastic Pipe Coating 3.5-4.5 4.0
Table 11-10 Calculation Parameters for Thermal Resistance
Layers
for calculation purposes. Rigorous evaluation of inte-
Cable Layer or
Component DInner (mm) DOuter (mm) grated dielectric losses and heat flow has shown that this
Diameter over non-
approach is correct for homogeneous insulation struc-
Conductor outer tures.
Insulation metallic insulation
diameter, Dc
shield, Di
Metallic Metallic shields and sheaths, steel casings and pipes, and
Diameter over cable
Jacket shield/sheath outer
diameter, Ds
jacket, Dj metallic conduits have negligible thermal resistances.
Conduit inner Conduit outer Cable to Conduit (or Pipe) Thermal Resistance
Conduit
diameter, Ddi diameter, Ddo
Equation 11-50 solves the empirical Neher-McGrath-
Pipe outer diameter, Diameter over pipe developed equation for the cable-to-conduit thermal
Pipe Coating
Dpo coating, Dpc
resistance for the major transmission cable applications.
Plastic Casing Casing inner Casing outer
(HDDa, etc.) diameter diameter A mean duct air temperature of 75°C or pipe-filling (liq-
uid or gas) of 60°C is usually assumed, although the
a. “HDD” is an abbreviation for horizontal directional
value may be iterated when doing detailed ampacity cal-
drilling.
culations. The thermal resistance between a cable and
the inside of a conduit or pipe can be determined using
the following, with values from Table 11-12:

n ⋅U
R= (C ° − m / W )
1 + 0.1(V + Y ⋅ Tmean ) ⋅ Dcable
11-50
Where:
Tmean = mean temperature of the duct air, or nitro-
gen gas or dielectric liquid in the pipe, °C.
Dcable = outer diameter of the cable, mm, when one
cable is installed in the conduit, or is equal
to 2.15 x outer diameter of the cable, mm,
when three cores are installed inside a
common conduit or pipe.
n = number of cables within the conduit or
pipe.
U, V, and Y as defined in Table 11-12.

Dcable for single-core cables is the diameter over the cable

jacket. Dcable for pipe-type cables is the diameter of the
Figure 11-19 Dimensions for thermal cable underneath the skid wires. The values from Table
resistances of cable layers and coverings. 11-12 are empirical; specific values for PVC or PE ducts

11-29
Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Table 11-12 Pipe and Duct Thermal Resistance Constants − Wρ ∞ dr − Wρ

(ln(∞) − ln(d' ) ) (C°)
2π ∫d ' r
ΔTP − = =
Configuration U V Y
2π
Fiber Duct (PVC or PE) in Con- 11-52
5.2 0.91 0.010
crete
Asbestos Cement in Concrete 5.2 1.1 0.011 The combined effect of the two temperature rises is the
Pipe-Type, HPGF 0.95 0.46 0.0021 following:
Pipe-Type, HPFF 0.26 0.0 0.0026
Earthenware Ducts 1.87 0.28 0.0036 ΔTP = ΔTP + + ΔTP −
Wρ
were not developed by Neher-McGrath, so values for = ( ln(d ') − ln(d) )
fiber duct are typically used. 2π
Wρ ⎛ d ' ⎞
Additional information on thermal resistance from = ln ⎜ ⎟
cable to duct or pipe wall is given in Appendix I of the
2π ⎝ d ⎠ 11-53
Neher-McGrath paper and in References (Buller and
Neher 1953) and (Morris and Burrell 1954). For self- Where d’ equals d, the total temperature rise is zero,
cooled, pipe-type cable circuits, the temperature drop which means that there is an isotherm halfway between
through the fluid to the pipe is calculated to be about the locations of +W and –W; for ampacity calculations,
6% of the total thermal resistance. For forced-cooled this is assumed to correspond to the earth’s surface (or,
cables, where heat is removed by the cable fluid, the in the case of submarine cables, the interface between
thermal resistances of the fluid films at the cable shield the seabed and the water).
and pipe wall are also important; see Section 11.4.
Earth Thermal Resistance By substituting d' = (h + x ) 2 + y 2 ,
The cable thermal resistances describe components of
the thermal circuit out to the interface with the sur- d'
rounding soil. For direct-buried cables, this is the pipe d = (h − x ) 2 + y 2 , and k = , the following
d
coating (on pipe-type cables) or the jacket on single- equation can be developed:
conductor cables. Single-core cables installed in con-
duits have an earth interface at the outside of the con- 2 2
⎡ k2 +1 ⎤ 2 ⎡ 2k ⎤
duit. At that point, the earth portion of the thermal
⎢x − 2 h⎥ + y = ⎢ h⎥
circuit starts. ⎢⎣ k − 1 ⎥⎦ ⎣k2 −1 ⎦
11-54
The thermal resistance of the earth portion of the circuit
often accounts for more than half of the total thermal By rearranging this equation and completing the square,
resistance and is the most variable of the resistances. values of r and L may be assigned to portions of Equa-
Modeling of the earth thermal circuit is quite complex. tion 11-54:
The foundation of the calculation method used for 2
2k
ampacity calculations is to consider the temperature rise r= h and L = k + 1 h 11-55
at a point, P, due to two heat sources that are equal but k2 −1 k2 −1
opposite located in an infinite medium of uniform ther-
mal resistivity, as shown in Figure 11-20. If the thermal
resistivity is assumed to be uniform and is unaffected by
temperature, then superposition can be used to determine
the temperature effect of each heat source at Point P.

The heat sources, +W and –W, can be thought of as infi-

nitely long, for which the temperature rise for one unit
length (e.g., 1 m) at point P is defined by the following
equations:

+ Wρ ∞ dr + Wρ
(ln(∞) − ln(d) ) (C°)
2π ∫d r
ΔTP + = =
2π Figure 11-20 Fundamental configuration for the
11-51 earth thermal resistance calculation.

11-30
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

Solving these two equations in terms of k gives: diameter pipes when (2L/Dearth) ≤ 10, in which the earth
surface is no longer isothermal. For example, a 345-kV
L + L2 − r 2 pipe-type cable in a 273 mm (10.75 in.) cable pipe at a
k= burial depth of 0.8 m (32 in.) (CIGRE 2003) has a ratio
r 11-56 of about 6:1. A combined equation is given in CIGRE
TB 218 using a heat transfer coefficient β and a parame-
Then, substituting back into Equation 11-53: ter h1, to allow for convection in air at the soil surface.
For a soil thermal resistivity of 1.2 C°-m/W, β is typi-
Wρ ⎛ d ' ⎞ cally ≤0.6 (C°-m2/W).
ΔTP = ln ⎜ ⎟
2π ⎝ d ⎠
β
h1 = 2(L + )
Wρ ⎛ 2L + 4L − Dearth ⎞
2 2
⎜ ⎟ ρ
= ln
2π ⎜ Dearth ⎟
⎝ ⎠ 11-57
⎢ln ⎜ 1 ( 1 earth ) ⎟⎥
⎡ ⎛ 2h + 4h 2 − D 2 ⎞ ⎤
⎢ ⎜ Dearth ⎟⎟ ⎥
Dividing both sides by the heat, W, gives the thermal ρ ⎢ ⎜⎝ ⎠⎥
resistance to ambient earth of a single cable of diameter, R earth =
Dearth, installed at depth, L, below ground: 2π ⎢ ⎡ h 2 +S 2 ⎤
⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ +2 ⋅ ln ⎢ ⎥
1 P
⎥
⎛ 2 2 ⎞ ⎢⎣ SP ⎥⎦
ρ ⎜ 2L + 4L − D earth ⎟ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
R earth = ln⎜ ⎟
11-59
2π ⎜ D earth ⎟ Where:
⎝ ⎠ 11-58 R earth = thermal resistance of earth plus mutual
This basic approach considers that the earth surface and heating and surface transfer (C°-m/W).
cable (or conduit or pipe coating) surface are isotherms, ρ = thermal resistivity of earth, C°-m/W.
and that the heat sources below ground do not interrupt
the flow of heat of adjacent heat sources, often referred
β = heat transfer coefficient at surface, C°-
to as the Kennelly Hypothesis, which is given in the m2/W.
paper, “The Temperature Rise of Buried Cables and h1 = computational parameter, mm.
Pipes” (Neher 1949). In addition to the adaptations of Dearth = diameter over conduit, pipe or cable jack-
the Kennelly formulas, the Neher paper discusses effects ets, mm.
of superposition of heat flows, the effect of solar heating L = depth from surface to center of cable, con-
and heat from the center of the earth, and the variation duit or pipe, mm.
of temperature with depth of burial. These topics are SP = axial spacing between cable, conduit or
discussed in other sections of this chapter. pipe centers, mm.

Equation 11-58 represents the normal case for a buried
cable in which the surface of the earth is taken to be an
isotherm, this being valid when the ratio (2L/Dearth) ≥
10; for example, a 6 in. (150 mm) diameter cable at a
depth of 39 in. (1000 mm) has a ratio of 13:1; shallower
burial depths are modeled using the same method, but
the validity of the results may be questioned. Neher
developed an addition to the classical Kennelly equation
method to allow for cases of shallow burial or large-
Certain modifications to the basic approach for normal
burial depth ratios described above are used to consider
mutual heating from multiple cable phases (or pipes)
installed in the same trench, the temperature averaging
effects of the daily loss factor, and presences of special
backfill placed in the cable trench. These topics are dis-
cussed later. The generalized form of the earth thermal
resistance equation that will be used in this chapter is as
follows:

ρ ⎛ ⎛ D ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ 2 ⋅ L + 4 ⋅ L2 − D 2 ⎞ ⎞⎞
R earth = ⎜
⋅ n ⋅ ln ⎜ x
⎟ + LF ⋅ ⎜ ln ⎜⎜
x
⎟ + ln ( F ) ⎟ ⎟ [C°-m/W]
2π ⎜ ⎝ Dearth ⎠ ⎜ Dx ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠⎠
11-60
Where:
L = centerline burial depth of the center of the cable, pipe, or conduit, mm.
Dearth = diameter of the earth interface (cable OD, pipe OD, or conduit OD), mm.
Dx = diameter beyond which the effect of average daily losses applies (see below), mm.
ρ = the thermal resistivity of the soil in contact with the cable, C°-m/W.
11-31
Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

n = number of cables within diameter, Dearth. Within diameter, Dx, temperatures fluctuate with daily
LF = the 24-hour loss factor for the load on the load shape; beyond Dx, only the average daily losses are
cables, per-unit. seen, and temperature fluctuations are small. In addi-
F = geometric factor representing mutual heat- tion to the thermal diffusivity, diameter, Dx, is affected
ing between multiple cables (this will be by the duration of the load cycle. Most rating calcula-
discussed further below). tions, including those discussed in this chapter, consider
a daily (24-hour) load cycle.
Typically the value, n, is 1 for extruded and self-con-
tained transmission cables and 3 for pipe-type cables. An empirical equation relates the thermal diffusivity
and load cycle duration (24 hours) to diameter D x
Earth Thermal Resistivity
according to the following equation:
Earth thermal resistivity can vary substantially over the
length of the circuit and with time, due to changes in
D x = 1.02 α soil ⋅ 24 (mm) 11-61
moisture content. Values range from below 0.40 to over
4.0C°-m/W. Earth thermal resistivity is discussed in
detail in Chapter 12. Calculation procedures to account Where αsoil is the thermal diffusivity in mm 2 /hr. This
for controlled backfill or a concrete envelope around value may also be expressed in m2/second (by dividing
ducts are given later in this section, but note that resis- values in mm2/hr by 3.6 x 109), which is useful for emer-
tivity of material—native soil or controlled backfill— gency rating calculations by IEC 60853.
directly in contact with the cables, conduits, or pipes
should be used in Equation 11-60. Table 11-13 summa- Unlike soil thermal resistivity, the thermal diffusivity is
rizes some typical values of soils and backfills that are not a parameter that is measured during either in situ or
used for the earth portion of the thermal circuit. laboratory soil testing. Another empirical relationship is
often used to relate thermal resistivity to thermal diffu-
Diameter Dx sivity:
Buried cable systems have very large thermal capaci-
tance; this thermal capacitance means that temperature 6.71 × 10 4
α soil = (mm2/hr)
(ρ native ⋅100)
changes from changing loads diminish with increased 11-62
0.8
distance away from the cable. Beyond a short distance
from the cables, temperature rise is a function of average Where
daily heat input from the cable, rather than peak input. is the native soil thermal resistivity in
The cable conductor, however, reaches maximum values
ρ native C°-m/W. For a thermal diffusivity of 1775
more quickly, and its temperature is a function of peak mm 2 /hr (2.75 in. 2 /hr), diameter, D x , is
rather than average load. There is a transition from approximately 210 mm (8.3 in.). Many
peak to average effect at some intermediate point. Dx hand calculations use this value, although
defines the diameter of the transition from peak to aver- most computer programs calculate the
age, and is a function of how easily heat moves into the diameter D x based on the soil thermal
soil, called the thermal diffusivity, αsoil. Diffusivity is the resistivity.
ratio of the thermal conductivity (inverse of thermal
resistivity, ρ) to the thermal capacity, C, of the soil. Note that for some larger conduits and many pipe-type
cables, diameter Dx may be smaller than the actual outer
Table 11-13 Typical Soil Thermal Resistivity Values
diameter of the cable pipe. Although this may seem
Thermal Resistivity counter intuitive, the basic form of the Kennelly
5% Moisture 0% Moisture Hypothesis assumes that the cables are “line” (zero
Soil Type (C°-m/W) (C°-m/W)
diameter) heat sources, so diameter Dx remains consis-
Fluidized Thermal Backfill 0.4 0.75
tent with the approach.
Concrete 0.6 0.8
Stone Screenings 0.4 1.0 Loss Factor
Thermal Sand 0.5 1.0 From the cable conductor out to diameter, Dx, the ther-
Uniform Sand 0.7 2.0 mal resistances of the various cable and soil layers expe-
Clay 1.0 2.5 rience the peak heat output from the cable. At distances
Lake Bottom 1.0 (50% moisture) >3.0 of Dx and further away from the cable, the soil thermal
Seabed (typical)
0.7 (100%
>3.0
resistance experiences the average, rather than the peak,
moisture) daily heat output. To account for this effect, the daily
Highly Organic Soil >3.0 >6.0 loss factor is used, which relates the peak losses to aver-
age losses. The loss factor (and related load factor) was

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
discussed at the beginning of this chapter. Beyond diam-
eter, Dx, the earth thermal resistance is multiplied by
loss factor.
A basic assumption of ampacity calculations is that the
load shape is sinusoidal; for most circuits, this is a rea-
sonable assumption. A reference (Morris and Burrell
1954) gives a good description of the effects of daily
load shapes. Loss factor applies only to current-depen-
dent losses. Dielectric losses are present all the time—
assuming that the cable is always energized—and there-
fore have a unity (1.0) loss factor.
Depth of Burial
Depth of burial, L, is to the centerline of the cable for
which rating calculations are being performed. The cen-
terline depth—to the center of a direct buried cable, cen-
ter of the conduit for duct installations, or center of the
pipe for pipe-type—should be used for the depth of
burial.
Note that because of asymmetry in the cable positions,
usually one of the cables runs at a higher temperature
than the others, and this cable should be used for rating
calculations. The operating temperature of a cable for a
given load is affected by the depth and relative position
to other cables (or heat sources) in or near the trench, as
will be discussed in the next section.
Sometimes the hottest cable is self-evident by inspection
of the trench cross section (e.g., the middle cable when
three cable phases are placed in a flat configuration).
However, other installations may not be as obvious.
When calculating ratings by hand, it may be necessary
to evaluate the rating based on more than one phase
position; most cable rating programs take this into con-
sideration. Figure 11-21 illustrates the impact of burial
Figure 11-21 Conductor temperatures as a function of
duct bank position.
Chapter 11: Ampacity
depth and mutual heating on the conductor tempera-
tures for three equally-loaded 230-kV XLPE cable cir-
cuits in a duct bank.
Mutual-Heating Factor
The presence of other heat sources, resulting in mutual
heating, reduces the ampacity of a cable system; for typ-
ical trenched installations, the area of concern is within
about 4 m (13 ft) of the trench. Cable ratings for deeper
cable installations, including directional drilling, should
consider an even wider range where mutual heating
could be important. For ampacity, we will focus on
mutual heating from nearby equally-loaded cables.
Unequal loading and other types of heat sources are dis-
cussed in the next section.
Nearby equally loaded cables are evaluated by deter-
mining an effective increase in thermal resistance for the
cable being analyzed. Using the thermal equivalent of
Ohm’s law, the calculation determines the temperature
rise caused by the equally loaded cables on to the “hot-
test” cable. For simplicity, many hand ampacity calcula-
tions also assume that the temperature is the same for
all cables, so that both the loading and resistance, and
consequentially, the heat output, are the same for all
cables. This is a conservative assumption.
With the assumption that the earth’s surface is an iso-
therm, a “method of images” is used to model the heat
leaving each cable and its mutual heating effects on the
other cables. Two examples, a two-circuit pipe-type
cable and the three phases of a single-core cable, are
shown in Figure 11-22.
The mutual heating effect is evaluated knowing the dis-
tance from a given cable to the image of an adjacent
cable divided by the actual distance separating the
Figure 11-22 Illustration of mutual heating by method of
images.
11-33
Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

cables; the product of all these ratios is used to find the These values are shown graphically in Figures 11-14 and
mutual heating factor, F, as follows: 11-15.

⎛ d' ⎞ ⎛ d' ⎞ ⎛ d' ⎞ Once the mutual heating factor is known, the thermal
F = ⎜⎜ 12 ⎟⎟ ⋅ ⎜⎜ 13 ⎟⎟...⎜⎜ 1N ⎟⎟ resistance representing mutual heating can be evaluated
⎝ d12 ⎠ ⎝ d13 ⎠ ⎝ d1N ⎠ 11-63 using the following equation:
Where,
N = number of cables, conduits or pipes in the ρ
group. R mutual = ⋅ n ⋅ LF ⋅ ln (F) (C°-m/W) 11-68

d12’ = distance from cable 1 to image of cable 2,

mm.
d12 = distance from cable 1 to cable 2, mm.
d13’ = distance from cable 1 to image of cable 3,
mm.
d13 = distance from cable 1 to cable 3, mm.
d1N’ = distance from cable 1 to image of cable n,
mm.
d1N = distance from cable 1 to cable n, mm.
There are “n-1” terms in the mutual heating factor cal-
culation—e.g., there are two terms for a single three-
phase extruded-dielectric circuit; there are no terms (no
mutual heating) for a single pipe-type circuit (one pipe).
The x-y coordinate pairs are usually available for each
cable, duct, or pipe in the trench. When this is the case,
the generalized equations to calculate the distances are:
2π
Where n is the number of energized cables within the ref-
erence location. For direct-buried cables or conduit
installations of transmission cables, n equals one. For a
pipe-type cable, n equals three. If the cables are installed
in special backfill, the thermal resistivity used to calcu-
late the mutual heating thermal resistance should be
that of the backfill.
Interference Temperature Rise
The mutual-heating terms developed above assume that
all cables are equally loaded. There are many conditions
where the external heat source has a different heat input,
such as steam mains or distribution duct banks, result-
ing in an interference temperature rise, ΔTint. The tem-
perature rise due to each of the external heat sources is
subtracted from the total allowable conductor tempera-
ture rise in the same way that temperature rise due to
dielectric loss is subtracted. Interference temperature
rise for each source is calculated from Equation 11-69:

d1n ' = (x n − x1 )2 + (y n + y1 )2 11-64 ΔTint = Wint ⋅ R int (C°) 11-69

Wint, the heat input from the extraneous heat source is

d1n = (x n − x1 )
2
+ (y n − y1 )2
11-65
the average daily heat input. This could be heat from a
steam main, a distribution duct bank, or another
unequally loaded transmission circuit. The value of Wint
The F factor has also been solved for certain common for nearby cables is given in Equation 11-70.
geometries. For a single-circuit, one-core cable in flat
configuration, the following equation can be used:
( )
Wint = (n int ) I int 2 ⋅ R ac − int ⋅ (LFint ) + Wd int (W/m)
4L2 11-70
F= +1 Where:
Sp 2 Iint = conductor current in other interfering heat
11-66 sources, amperes.
Rac-int = ac resistance of other heat source, ohm/m.
For two pipe-type cables buried at the same depth, the LFint = loss factor of other heat source, dimen-
following equation applies: sionless.
Wdint = dielectric loss in other heat source, W/m.
4L2 nint = number of cables at the location of the
F= +1 interfering heat source, dimensionless.
Sc 2
11-67
Where: For a steam pipe or another heat source where the watt
L = burial depth of the cables, mm. output is not known, but a temperature, perhaps from a
Sp = phase spacing, mm. thermocouple, can be determined, the heat output from
Sc = circuit spacing, mm.

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

that source can be calculated using the thermal equiva-
lent of Ohm’s law in Equation 11-71:
(Tsource − Tambient ) (W/m)
Wint = 11-71
R source,earth
Where:
Tsource = surface temperature of external heat
source, °C.
Tambient= ambient soil temperature “remote” from
any heat sources, °C.
R source, earth = thermal resistance to ambient earth
for external heat source, C°-m/W.
The effective thermal resistance to the external heat
source is calculated from Equation 11-72 for the appro-
priate distance between the cable being rated and the
external heat source (similar to that of mutual heating).
ρ rectangular with centerline burial depth, Lb, is to calcu-
R int = ⋅ n ⋅ ln(Fint ) (C°-m/W) 11-72
2π
Where:
Fint = mutual heating factor between the external
heat source and cable, dimensionless
R int = thermal resistance between an external heat
source and a cable, C°-m/W
The cable engineer should check the effect of the exter-
nal heat source on all of the cables, as discussed in the
mutual heating section above. If the external heat source
is a cable circuit, it will also experience a temperature
rise from the transmission circuit(s) for which the rating
is being calculated and may require a reduction in rat-
ing. If the external heat source is in the same special
backfill envelope as the cable being rated, a correction
factor should be applied as discussed in the next section.
Effect of Controlled Backfill and Concrete Envelope Around
Duct Bank
Up to this point, the thermal resistances representing
heat flow to the ground surface and mutual heating tem-
perature rise have used a value for the trench backfill
material in direct contact with the cables, conduits, or
pipes. However, in actual installations, the thermal resis-
tivity of the native soil outside of the trench is typically
different, usually greater, and this must be factored into
the ampacity calculations.
the effective thermal resistivity to the ground surface, as
most heat flows in the region above the cables. Earth
thermal resistance should be calculated for the thermal
resistivity of the concrete or controlled backfill, which is
typically a rectangular envelope around the cables, as
shown in Figure 11-23. Then a correction to the earth
thermal resistance is made to adjust for the different ther-
mal resistivity outside the trench. If the soil outside the
trench has a higher thermal resistivity, the correction
increases the total thermal resistance. If the native soil
has a lower earth thermal resistivity, as might be the case
when Bentonite-based drilling mud surrounds the con-
duits in a horizontal directionally drilled installation,
then the correction will decrease the total earth thermal
resistance.
The method of calculating the correction to the native
soil thermal resistance when the backfill envelope is
late the diameter, Db, of an equivalent circular envelope
with an isothermal circle. These parameters are illus-
trated in Figure 11-23.
The circumscribing circle diameter, Db, is found using
the following equation:
⎡ ⎤
⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ x ⎞⎛ 4 x ⎞ ⎛ y2 ⎞
D b = exp ⎢⎜ ⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ ln⎜1 + ⎟ + ln (x )⎥ (mm)
⎢⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ y ⎠⎝ π y ⎠ ⎜ x2
⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
11-73
Where:
x = short dimension of the backfill envelope,
mm.
y = long dimension of the backfill envelope,
mm.
The same procedure may be used to determine the ther-
mal resistivity correction when the backfill envelope is
circular, as would be the case for a directionally drilled
installation; Db is the diameter of the bore hole or casing.

For normal trenched cable installations, utilities fre-

quently place backfill with a controlled thermal resistiv-
ity in transmission-cable trenches—e.g., concrete
encasement around the conduits, thermal sand, or Fluid-
ized Thermal Backfill™ (FTB) around the cables, con- Figure 11-23 Trench backfill width and height, envelope
duits or pipes. These materials usually have a lower diameter Db, and backfill depth, Lb.
thermal resistivity than the native soil, thereby lowering

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Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Then, knowing the centerline depth, Lb, of the backfill The procedure described above is valid as long as the
envelope, a geometric factor for the backfill can be cal- ratio of the long dimension of special backfill to the
culated: short dimension (y/x) of the special backfill is 3 or less,
which is generally the case. However, there are situations
⎛ 2 ⋅ L + 4 ⋅ L 2 − D2 ⎞ where the backfill dimensions are particularly narrow or
⎜ b b b ⎟
G b = ln⎜ ⎟ (dimensionless) short—for example, when a duct bank is rolled flat to be
⎜ Db ⎟ installed in the roadbed across a bridge—in which case,
⎝ ⎠ the long-short ratio falls outside of the 3:1 limitation.
11-74
To address these configurations, a paper (El-Kady and
The thermal resistance correction for native soil with Horrocks 1985) was developed using finite element
different thermal resistivity, ρ native , than the backfill analyses that tabulated extended values for the Gb factor
thermal resistivity, ρ backfill , can be calculated using the in considering these unusual duct bank configurations.
above geometric correction factor as shown in Equation Note, however, that the table of values was developed
11-75. using a single heat source in the middle of the backfill
envelope and does not consider the relative position of
the heat source within the backfill. Instead of using
Equation 11-75 above, the values may be picked from
Table 11-14. Note that, when selecting Gb values from

ρnative − ρbackfill
R correction = ⋅ n ⋅ N ⋅ LF ⋅ G b [C° − m / Watt]
2π 11-75
Where:
n = number of cables per conduit, location, or pipe.
N = number of occupied conduits or locations within the backfill envelope.
ρ native = native soil thermal resistivity, C°-m/W.
ρ backfill = backfill envelope thermal resistivity, C°-m/W.

Table 11-14 Extended Geometric Values (Gb) for Backfills

Lb/h (backfill depth / height)

0.6 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 20.0
0.05 0.08 0.32 0.39 0.59 0.77 0.93 1.08 1.21 1.34 1.45 1.56 1.67 1.77 1.87 1.96 2.05 2.14 2.23 2.31 2.47
0.1 0.10 0.36 0.65 0.94 1.18 1.39 1.57 1.72 1.87 2.00 2.13 2.25 2.37 2.47 2.57 2.66 2.76 2.85 2.94 3.12
0.2 0.14 0.45 1.00 1.37 1.68 1.93 2.12 2.28 2.39 2.53 2.66 2.79 2.90 3.01 3.12 3.21 3.31 3.41 3.51 3.69
0.3 0.18 0.56 1.26 1.68 2.02 2.29 2.48 2.63 2.75 2.89 3.02 3.15 3.27 3.38 3.49 3.59 3.69 3.80 3.89 4.08
0.4 0.22 0.68 1.43 1.86 2.19 2.45 2.66 2.80 2.95 3.09 3.22 3.35 3.47 3.58 3.69 3.79 3.88 3.99 4.08 4.27
0.5 0.25 0.81 1.51 1.92 2.21 2.46 2.67 2.83 2.99 3.13 3.25 3.38 3.50 3.61 3.71 3.81 3.91 4.01 4.11 4.29
0.6 0.29 0.90 1.62 2.04 2.34 2.60 2.81 2.98 3.15 3.29 3.42 3.55 3.68 3.80 3.91 4.02 4.13 4.24 4.35 4.56
0.7 0.32 0.97 1.71 2.14 2.44 2.70 2.92 3.10 3.27 3.43 3.57 3.72 3.86 3.99 4.12 4.24 4.37 4.49 4.62 4.86
0.8 0.35 1.04 1.81 2.26 2.58 2.87 3.12 3.34 3.55 3.74 3.92 4.11 4.29 4.47 4.64 4.81 5.00 5.19 5.39 5.79
0.9 0.39 1.11 1.90 2.39 2.74 3.07 3.37 3.64 3.91 4.16 4.40 4.65 4.90 5.15 5.39 5.63 5.89 6.14 6.41 6.94
h/w (height / width)

1.0 0.42 1.17 2.00 2.52 2.93 3.30 3.65 3.98 4.31 4.63 4.95 5.27 5.59 5.90 6.21 6.52 6.82 7.15 7.47 8.10
1.2 0.47 1.24 2.06 2.58 2.98 3.35 3.70 4.03 4.36 4.68 5.00 5.32 5.64 5.95 6.26 6.57 6.87 7.20 7.52 8.15
1.4 0.52 1.31 2.12 2.64 3.03 3.40 3.75 4.08 4.41 4.73 5.05 5.37 5.69 6.00 6.31 6.62 6.92 7.25 7.57 8.20
1.6 0.56 1.37 2.18 2.70 3.10 3.47 3.82 4.15 4.48 4.81 5.14 5.46 5.78 6.09 6.40 6.71 7.03 7.34 7.66 8.29
1.8 0.60 1.43 2.24 2.76 3.17 3.55 3.91 4.24 4.58 4.92 5.26 5.59 5.92 6.24 6.56 6.87 7.19 7.52 7.85 8.50
2.0 0.64 1.48 2.31 2.83 3.25 3.64 4.01 4.36 4.72 5.07 5.43 5.78 6.12 6.45 6.78 7.11 7.45 7.79 8.13 8.82
2.2 0.67 1.52 2.39 2.90 3.35 3.77 4.17 4.55 4.94 5.32 5.71 6.09 6.47 6.84 7.21 7.58 7.96 8.33 8.71 9.46
2.4 0.70 1.56 2.46 2.98 3.44 3.89 4.32 4.74 5.16 5.58 6.00 6.42 6.83 7.24 7.65 8.05 8.46 8.87 9.28 10.11
2.6 0.73 1.59 2.53 3.05 3.54 4.02 4.49 4.94 5.39 5.84 6.29 6.74 7.19 7.63 8.08 8.52 8.97 9.41 9.86 10.75
2.8 0.76 1.62 2.60 3.13 3.65 4.15 4.65 5.13 5.62 6.10 6.58 7.06 7.55 8.03 8.51 8.99 9.47 9.96 10.40 11.41
3.0 0.79 1.64 2.66 3.20 3.74 4.28 4.81 5.33 5.85 6.37 6.88 7.40 7.92 8.43 8.95 9.47 9.99 10.51 11.00 12.06
3.2 0.82 1.67 2.72 3.27 3.84 4.41 4.97 5.53 6.08 6.63 7.18 7.73 8.29 8.84 9.39 9.95 10.50 11.06 11.60 12.72
3.4 0.84 1.70 2.77 3.35 3.95 4.55 5.14 5.73 6.32 6.90 7.48 8.07 8.66 9.25 9.84 10.43 11.02 11.61 12.20 13.38
3.6 0.86 1.72 2.81 3.42 4.05 4.68 5.31 5.94 6.56 7.20 7.79 8.41 9.04 9.66 10.29 10.92 11.54 12.17 12.70 14.04
3.8 0.80 1.75 2.85 3.49 4.16 4.82 5.48 6.14 6.80 7.45 8.10 8.76 9.42 10.08 10.74 11.41 12.07 12.73 13.30 14.71
4.0 0.90 1.77 2.89 3.56 4.26 4.96 5.66 6.35 7.04 7.73 8.42 9.11 9.81 10.50 11.20 11.90 12.60 13.29 13.90 15.38
4.5 0.94 1.83 2.96 3.74 4.53 5.31 6.10 6.88 7.66 8.44 9.22 10.00 10.79 11.57 12.35 13.14 13.93 14.71 15.50 17.08
5.0 0.97 1.88 3.00 3.91 4.79 5.67 6.55 7.42 8.29 9.17 10.04 10.90 11.79 12.66 13.53 14.40 15.28 16.15 17.00 18.79

11-36
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
the table for cases where the long-short backfill dimen-
sion is less than 3:1, there may be a slight discrepancy in
the resulting ampacity.
Calculating Allowable Current
As derived in Equation 11-76, the allowable current for
a cable system, I, is calculated as:
ΔT
I=
( )
R ac ⋅ Σ Q i R Thermali
11-76
Where:
ΔT = allowable conductor temperature rise, C°.
R Thermal i = thermal resistance of the “i-th” layer
in the equivalent thermal circuit,
C°-m/W.
Rac = ac resistance of the conductor, ohm/m.
Once an inventory has been taken of all losses and ther-
mal resistances, calculating the ampacity of the cable
requires solving the electrical analog given in Figure
11-3. The allowable temperature drop from the conduc-
tor to the remote earth heat sink is divided by the appro-
priate thermal resistances to give the amount of heat
that can be generated. That heat generation is divided
into two components, non-current-dependent and cur-
rent-dependent. The temperature drop due to non-cur-
rent-dependent loss (i.e., dielectric loss plus charging
losses, if sufficiently high) is removed from the total
allowable temperature drop. Also, any interference tem-
perature rise, ΔTint, is also deducted from the allowable
conductor temperature rise. The remainder of the tem-
Figure 11-24 Heat flow through thermal resistances for extruded and self-contained
cables (left) and pipe-type cables (right).
Chapter 11: Ampacity
perature rise is strictly available for current-dependent
heat. If the allowable conductor temperature is 90°C,
ambient earth temperature is 25°C, and the temperature
rise due to dielectric and charging current loss is calcu-
lated to be 6°C, then the rise available for current-
dependent losses is 90 – 25 – 6 = 59C°. Separating the
two components permits a straightforward calculation
of allowable conductor current. After the dielectric
losses and each of the electrical and thermal resistances
are calculated, as shown earlier in this chapter, their val-
ues may be arranged, as shown in Figure 11-24, which
clearly shows the components of the thermal circuit.
Temperature Rise Due to Dielectric Losses
The ac and thermal resistances complete the equivalent
thermal circuit, so that ampacity can be calculated. The
temperature rise due to dielectric losses, ΔTd, is calcu-
lated using the appropriate equation below. Distributed
dielectric losses are generated throughout the insulation,
but are accurately represented by injecting the total loss,
Wd, at the center of the insulation thermal resistance, as
shown in Figure 11-24.
Because the voltage on an energized cable system is
assumed to be constant, the thermal resistances used for
dielectric temperature rise are calculated in the same
manner as for current-dependent losses, except that the
loss factor is 100% (1.0 per unit). Therefore, it is neces-
sary to consider the thermal resistance values used for
dielectric temperature separately from those used for
current-dependent losses, which are a function of the
daily loss factor.
11-37
Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

The temperature rise caused by dielectric heating can be

determined as follows. R cable − to − pipe = thermal resistance between
cable surface and pipe, C°-m/W.
For extruded and self-contained cables in conduit:
R pipe coating = pipe-covering thermal resistance,
⎛ R insulation + R jacket
1
2
⎞ C°-m/W.
⎜ ⎟ Wd = insulation dielectric losses, W/m.
ΔTd = Wd ⎜ + R cable− to −duct + R duct ⎟ [C°]
⎜ ⎟
⎜ + R earth + R mutual + R correction ⎟ Available Temperature Rise for Current-Dependent Losses
⎝ ⎠
11-77
The available temperature rise for current-dependent
losses, ΔTC, is shown in Equation 11-80.
For direct-buried extruded and self-contained cables:
ΔTC = TC − Tambient − ΔTd − ΔTint erference C°
⎛ 12 R insulation + R jacket ⎞
ΔTd = Wd ⎜ ⎟ [C°] 11-80
⎜ +R + R + R ⎟ Where:
⎝ earth mutual correction ⎠ TC = allowable conductor temperature,
11-78 °C.
For pipe-type cables:
Tambient = ambient earth temperature, °C.
ΔTd = conductor temperature rise due to
⎛ 12 R insulation + R cable− to − pipe ⎞ dielectric and charging-current
⎜ ⎟ losses, C°.
ΔTd = Wd ⎜ + R pipe coating + R earth ⎟ [C°] 11-79 ΔTinterference = temperature rise due to extraneous
⎜ ⎟ heat source, C°.
⎜ + R mutual + R correction ⎟
⎝ ⎠ Summation of Electrical and Thermal Resistances
Where:
R insulation = insulation thermal resistance, The sum of the products of electrical resistance and all
C°-m/W. of the thermal resistances to ambient earth,

R jacket = jacket thermal resistance, ( )

R ac ⋅ Σ Q i ⋅ R thermal , is calculated as shown in Equa-
tion 11-81 for single-core (extruded, self-contained)
C°-m/W.
cables, and as shown in Equation 11-82 for pipe-type
R cable − to − duct = thermal resistance between cable cables. Each of the terms is shown in Figure 11-24.
surface (jacket) and conduit
⎛ R insulation + ⎞
(duct), C°-m/W. ⎜ ⎟
R duct ⎜ ⎛ R jacket + ⎞⎟
= duct thermal resistance, C°-m/W. ⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ ⎜R ⎟⎟
R earth = earth thermal resistance (calcu- ⎜ cable − to − duct + ⎟
⎜ ⎟
lated with 100% loss factor), R ac × ⎜ ⎜ R duct + ⎟⎟
C°-m/W. ⎜ QS × ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ ⎜ R earth + ⎟⎟
R mutual = thermal resistance to account for
⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜
multiple cables within the trench ⎜ ⎜ R mutual + ⎟⎟
(calculated with 100% loss fac- ⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎟
tor), C°-m/W. ⎝ ⎝ R correction ⎠⎠
R correction = correction factor for controlled ( )
= R ac ⋅ Σ Q i R Thermal i [C° / ampere 2 ]
11-81
backfill or concrete–encased duct
(calculated with 100% loss fac-
tor), C°-m/W.

11-38
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

be calculated from Equation 11-84. This equation

assumes that charging current has the same load factor
⎛ R insulation + Q S × R cable − to − pipe +⎞ as load current.
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎛ R pipe coating + ⎞ ⎟
⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ I total = I real 2 + I reactive 2 (A) 11-84

R ac × ⎜ ⎜R + ⎟ ⎟
⎜ Q P × ⎜ earth ⎟ ⎟ For this evaluation of charging-current effects, Ireactive is
⎜ ⎜ R mutual + ⎟ ⎟ set equal to Ic max. If there is a known through-flow of
⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ reactive power, that value would be included in Ireactive as
⎜ ⎜R ⎟ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ correction ⎠ ⎠ well.

( )
= R ac ⋅ Σ Q i R Thermal i [C° / ampere 2 ]
11-82
Calculating Allowable Current
The allowable current, I, to give the specified conductor
temperature is calculated from Equation 11-76, which is
repeated here as 11-83 where all terms were defined
above.
ΔT
I=
( )
(amperes) 11-83
R ac ⋅ Σ Q i R Thermal i
Effect of Charging Current
Equation 11-83 shows the calculation of total current
that gives the allowable conductor temperature rise.
That current consists of the phasor sum of real current
and reactive charging current. Equation 11-12 gave the
calculation of charging current, Ic, per unit length. Max-
imum charging current, Ic max occurs at the end of the
line where charging current exits, and is equal to per-
unit charging current times line length. If shunt com-
pensation or system conditions force the charging cur-
rent to flow equally from each end of the cable,
maximum charging current, Ic max, is equal to the per-
unit charging current times one-half the line length.
This is illustrated in Figure 11-25.
In ampacity calculations, charging current is considered
for the last cable meter where the maximum heat is gen-
erated. For voltages less than 230 kV and for daily load
factors greater than 50%, the allowable real current may
Cable circuits are always limited by thermal constraints
(as compared to overhead lines that may have thermal,
voltage, or stability limits). The maximum length of ac
cable circuits between shunt compensation reactors is
limited by the charging current since charging current
increases proportionally with length. As the length of
the underground line is increased, a point is reached
where the total charging current equals the cable
ampacity. This occurs at what is called the “critical
length” of the cables, where no real power may be trans-
ferred without causing the conductor to exceed rated
temperature. The critical length can be calculated from
the following equation:
I
Critical Length = (m) 11-85
IC
Where:
I = normal ampacity, amperes.
IC = charging current, amperes/m.
The maximum feasible line length must be significantly
less than the critical length in order to transmit reason-
able amounts of real power. However, the concept of
critical line length quantifies the absolute maximum
lengths between shunt compensation that can be
achieved for different types of underground cables.
Table 11-15 shows critical line lengths based on typical
insulation thicknesses and parameters.

Figure 11-25 Charging current magnitude profile.

11-39
Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Table 11-15 Approximate Critical Lengths for Underground For direct-buried extruded and self-contained cables:
Cable Circuits with Typical Insulation Thicknesses
Laminated ⎛ R insulation + ⎞
Crosslinked Paper- Ethylene- ⎜ ⎟
Poly- Polypropy- Propylene- ΔTIc = Ic max 2 ⋅ R ac ⎜ ⎛ R jacket + R earth ⎞ ⎟ [C°]
⎜ QS ⋅ ⎜ ⎟⎟
Voltage ethylene Kraft Paper lene Rubber
(kV) Critical Lengths, km (miles) ⎜ ⎜ +R + R ⎟⎟
69 262 (163) 101 (63) n.a. 193 (120) ⎝ ⎝ mutual correction ⎠ ⎠

115 209 (130) 77 (48) n.a. 132 (82) 11-89

138 193 (120) 72 (45) n.a. 113 (70)
161 183 (114) 67 (42) 84 (52) n.a. For pipe-type cables:
230 130 (81) 48 (30) 58 (36) n.a.
345-400 85 (53) 32 (20) 47 (29) n.a.
⎛ ⋅R insulation + QS ⋅ R cable− to− pipe + ⎞
⎜ ⎟
500 76 (47) 27 (17) 37 (23) n.a.
ΔTIc = Ic max 2 ⋅ R ac ⎜ ⎛ R pipe coating + R earth + ⎞ ⎟ [C°]
⎜ QP ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
The calculations above assume a 3158 kcmil (1600 mm2) ⎜ ⎜R + R ⎟ ⎟
segmental copper conductor. Laminated paper-polypro- ⎝ ⎝ mutual correction ⎠ ⎠
pylene is not generally used for voltages below 161 kV, 11-90
and the relatively high dielectric constant and dissipa-
tion factor for EPR insulation limits the application of This temperature rise is subtracted from the allowable
these cables to 138 kV or below. conductor temperature in the same manner as dielectric
losses shown earlier in Equation 11-80, and the allow-
For voltages 230 kV and greater and for load factors less able real current is calculated as shown in Equation
than 50%, Equation 11-84 will give ampacities that are a 11-83. The worked examples in the appendix at the back
few percent too high for long lines. Charging current has of this chapter illustrate the differences between this
a 100% load factor, present whenever the line is ener- approach and that discussed in the Neher-McGrath
gized, and the temperature rise is, therefore, higher than paper.
if it had the same load factor as the cable. The preferred
approach in this case is to evaluate the temperature rise Solving Equation 11-83 gives the peak allowable current
due to charging-current losses in the same manner as is for the stated cable design, installation conditions, and
done for dielectric losses. operating conditions. If the calculated ampacity is too
low or too high, the user must change one of the design
Peak charging current losses are calculated for extruded conditions, such as conductor size, and repeat the calcu-
and self-contained cables and pipe-type cables using lation. Eventually the desired ampacity is reached, and
Equations 11-86 and 11-87, respectively: no further iterations are required.
WIc max = I c max 2 × R ac ⋅ Q S (W/m) 11-86 Iterative solutions of equations of the type presented in
2 this section are ideally suited for computer program-
WIc max = I c max × R ac ⋅ Q P (W/m) 11-87 ming. Many users have developed programs to solve the
Where: ampacity equations. Most such programs follow Neher-
Ic max = maximum charging current, amperes. McGrath with enhancements from IEC 60287, and
result in a calculated ampacity as developed in this
The temperature rise due to charging current is calcu- chapter. Other programs have adapted the basic proce-
lated as shown in Equations 11-88, 11-89, and 11-90 for dures but solve for conductor temperature for a stated
the last meter of cable in the circuit, remembering to cal- cable loading; rating calculations are done by iterating
culate earth thermal resistances with 100% loss factor. the assumed load until rated temperature is achieved.
Some solution methods utilize finite element modeling
For extruded and self-contained cables in conduit: to perform a true two- or three-dimensional heat trans-
fer solution; details of these numerical techniques are
⎛ R insulation + ⎞ beyond the scope of this book.
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎛ R jacket + R cable − to − duct ⎞ ⎟ 11.2.6 Cables in Air and Tunnels
ΔTIc = Ic max 2 ⋅ R ac ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ [C°]
⎜ QS ⋅ ⎜ + R duct + R earth ⎟⎟ Approach
⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎟ Transmission cables may be installed above ground for
⎜ ⎜ + R mutual + R correction ⎟ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠ bridge crossings, tunnel installations, or riser sections.
All electrical resistances are the same as those calculated
11-88

11-40
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

in Section 11.2.5, and cable thermal resistances are the Table 11-16 Constants for Cables-in-Air Calculations (Black
same out to De, the diameter at the start of the external Surfaces)
portion of the circuit. Installation Z E g Mode
Single cable, conduit,
0.21 3.94 0.60
≥0.3 De away from
The principal differences for in-air cables are the follow- or pipe solid surface
ing: Two horizontal cables,
conduits, or pipes, 0.29 2.35 0.50
≥0.5 De away from
• Solar radiation provides heat input. The traditional touching solid surface
buried-cable calculation procedure does not consider Three cables, con- ≥0.5 De away from
0.96 1.25 0.20
this heat input. duits, or pipes in trefoil solid surface
• Heat transfer by conduction, the predominant mode Three horizontal
cables, conduits, or 0.62 1.95 0.25
≥0.5 De away from
for buried cables, is negligible. pipes touching solid surface

• Heat transfer for cables in air is by free or forced con- Two vertical cables,
≥0.5 De away from
conduits, or pipes 1.42 0.86 0.25
vection and by radiation. touching solid surface

Thermal Resistance, Cable to Air Two vertical cables,

conduits, or pipes 0.75 2.80 0.30
≥0.5 De away from
In general, the ampacity of an otherwise-identical cable spaced solid surface
circuit will be greater when installed in air rather than in Three vertical cables,
the ground. The basic equation for the environment conduits, or pipes 1.61 0.42 0.20
≥1.0 De away from
touching solid surface
(outside the cable) thermal resistance is defined by
Equation 11-91: Three vertical cables,
conduits, or pipes 1.31 2.00 0.20
≥0.5 De away from
spaced solid surface
1000
R air = [C°-m/W] Single cable, conduit, Attached to solid
⎛ Z ⎞ 1.69 0.63 0.25
π ⋅ De ⎜ ⎟
+ E ΔTsurface − to − ambient
4 or pipe surface
⎜ (D )g ⎟ Three cables, Attached to solid
⎝ e ⎠ onduits, or pipes
0.94 0.79 0.20
surface
11-91
Where: Note that the constants above should be applied only when
De = diameter of cable, conduit or pipe to envi- diameter, De, is not greater than 150 mm (5.9 in) for cables
spaced from a surface and 80 mm (3.1 in) for cables in direct
ronment, mm.
contact with a surface.
Z, g, E = constants from Table 11-16 based on the
installation mode.
ΔTsurface-to-ambient The surface-to-ambient air temperature rise is not a
= cable, conduit or pipe surface temperature straightforward value to determine because of the
rise above ambient air, C°. nature of convection and radiation heat loss. The heat
balance equation at the surface of the cable must satisfy
the following:

Wac + Wd = Wconvection + Wradiation − Wsolar

11-92
Where:
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 1 ⎟
Wradiation = 5.69 ⋅10 −8
(T
surface
4
− Tambient air 4
) π ⋅ De (10 ) ⎜ 1 1 ⎟ (W / m)
−3

⎜ + −1 ⎟
⎝e ε ⎠
( Tsurface − Tambient air )
4
−3
Wconvection = 8.523 ⋅ π ⋅10 ⋅ De ⋅ 3 (W / m)
Tsurface + Tambient air
2
ε = emissivity of the cable, conduit, or pipe surface.
2
⎛ D ⎞
e = ⎜1 − e ⎟ , dimensionless, with d equal to theclosest cable spacing.
⎝ επd ⎠

11-41
Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

The radiation and convection heat loss equations are ΔTsurface-to-ambient

from (CIGRE 1985b) and account for the reradiation of = temperature difference between the cable
cables in close proximity in air. surface and air, C°.

Because of the fourth-order terms in the above series of
equations, the temperature rise from the surface to
ambient air must be found iteratively. For a given load
condition, the temperature difference from the conduc-
tor to the cable, conduit, or pipe surface is determined
using the equivalent thermal circuit discussed earlier in
this chapter, excluding the earth, mutual heating, and
backfill correction. This is then compared to an
assumed value for the surface temperature using the
convection and radiation equations above. If the heat
balance is satisfied, then the correct value of cable sur-
face temperature has been found, and the air thermal
resistance can be calculated.
The air thermal resistance could also be calculated using
an equation of this form:
Tsurface − Tambient air
R air =
Wradiation + Wconvection 11-93
Most utilities know the maximum ambient air tempera-
ture on their system. In the absence of specific data,
ambient air temperature is usually assumed to be 40°C.
A first approximation of the temperature difference
between the ambient air and cable, conduit, or pipe sur-
face would be 60°C.
Note that loss factor does not enter in the thermal resis-
tance equation for cables in air. This is because time
constants for cables in air are only a few hours, as com-
pared to many tens of hours for buried cables.
The change in air temperature in the tunnel may also be
of interest when trying to size air-cooling equipment.
The tunnel air temperature change as it passes down the
tunnel provides an indication of the heat being absorbed
by the tunnel air. The air mass flow through the tunnel
is defined by the following equation:
•
m = ρ⋅A⋅υ 11-95
Where:
•
m = air mass flow rate, kg/s.
ρ = air density, kg/m3.
A = free area within the tunnel, m2.
The heat removed by the air as it flows through the tun-
nel can then be found from the following equation:
•
q = m⋅ CP ⋅ ( TOUT − TIN ) W
11-96
Where:
CP = air specific heat, kJ/kg-C°.
TOUT = air temperature leaving the tunnel, °C.
TIN = air temperature entering the tunnel, °C.
Solar Heat Input
The absorptivity, a, determines the amount of heat
absorbed by the cable surface from the sun, and ε is the
amount of heat radiated from the cable to its surround-
ings. Typical values of the factors absorptivity, a, and
emissivity, ε, in relation to unity values for perfect black
body absorbers and radiators are given in Table 11-17.

The calculation procedures in ANSI/IEEE Std. 738- Many utilities have specific data for solar heat input,
1986, “IEEE Standard for Calculation of Bare Over- Qsun, for their location. If such data is unavailable, val-
head Conductor Temperature and Ampacity Under ues of 1000 W/m2 (93 W/ft2) for cables in a horizontal
Steady-State Conditions,” (ANSI/IEEE 1986) provides
useful information on calculating in-air ratings. Table 11-17 Absorptivity and Emissivity of Cable-Covering
Materials
A consideration for cables installed in tunnels is that Absorptivity, a Emissivity, ε
there may be forced-air ventilation longitudinally along Black plastic 0.45-0.8 0.8-0.95
the tunnel. The convective heat loss is a function of the Bitumen/jute serving 0.8 0.95
longitudinal airflow velocity within the tunnel accord- Polychloroprene 0.8 0.9
ing to an equation of the form: PVC 0.6 0.9

ΔTsurface - to - ambient PE 0.4 0.9

WConvection = Yellow plastic 0.1-0.4 0.8-0.95
1 Lead, weathered 0.6 0.63

7.6(υ ⋅ D e )0.65
11-94
Aluminum, weathered * 0.3-0.45
Stainless steel * 0.14-0.38
Where:
υ = air flow velocity within the tunnel, m/s. * No data available. Use emissivity data.

11-42
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

position and 700 W/m2 (65 W/ft2) for cables in a vertical The equation for cables in conduit is included because
position may be used. The calculation of solar heat single-core cables are occasionally installed in duct for
input, Wsun, is given in Equation 11-97. bridge and tunnel installations.

a ⋅ Qsun ⋅ De Allowable Conductor Temperature Rise

Wsun = W/m The allowable conductor temperature rise, ΔT, is calcu-
1000 11-97 lated as shown in Equation 11-102.
Where:
a = absorptivity, dimensionless. ΔT = TC − Tambient − ΔTd − ΔTsun 11-102
Qsun = solar heat input, W/m2.
De = diameter at start of external portion of Summation of Electrical and Thermal Resistances
thermal circuit, mm. The sum of products of electrical and thermal resis-
tances to ambient air is calculated in a similar manner
The temperature rise due to solar heat input is calcu- as for buried cables, replacing the earth thermal resis-
lated from Equation 11-97 and is subtracted from the tances with the air thermal resistance, as follows:
total allowable conductor temperature rise of Equation
⎛ R insulation + ⎞
11-80, in the same manner as dielectric losses. ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎛ R jacket + ⎞⎟
⎛R ⎞ ⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎟
ΔTsun = Wsun ⎜⎜ air ⎟
⎟ ⎜R ⎟⎟
R ac × ⎜ cable − to − duct + ⎟
⎝ n ⎠ 11-98 ⎜ QS × ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎜ R duct + ⎟⎟
Where n is the number of cables within diameter D e ⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ ⎜R ⎟⎟
(e.g., 1 for most single-core transmission cables, and 3 ⎝ ⎝ air ⎠⎠
for pipe-type cables).

Solar input is zero for tunnels, bridges, and other shel-

( )
= R ac ⋅ Σ Q i R Thermal i [C° / ampere 2 ]
11-103
tered installations.
Calculating Allowable Current ⎛ R insulation + Q S × R cable − to − pipe +⎞
⎜ ⎟
Calculation procedures are the same as those for buried
R ac × ⎜ ⎛ ⎞ ⎟
cables, with the thermal resistances for earth, mutual ⎜ Q × ⎜ R pipe coating + ⎟ ⎟
heating, and backfill correction being replaced by the ⎜ P ⎜R ⎟ ⎟
cable-to-air thermal resistance above. ⎝ ⎝ air ⎠ ⎠
Temperature Rise Due to Dielectric Losses
The temperature rise due to dielectric loss, Td, is calcu-
( )
= R ac ⋅ Σ Q i R Thermal i [C° / ampere 2 ]
11-104
lated as shown in Equations 11-99, 11-100, and 11-101. Allowable Current
Allowable current, I, to give the specified conductor
For extruded and self-contained cables in conduit: temperature is calculated as shown in Equation 11-83,
which is repeated below.
⎛ 12 R insulation + R jacket ⎞
ΔTd = Wd ⎜ ⎟ [°C]
⎜ +R ⎟ ΔT
⎝ cable − to −duct + R + R air ⎠ I= (amperes)
( )
duct

11-99
R ac ⋅ Σ Qi R Thermal i

For direct-buried extruded and self-contained cables:

11.2.7 Ampacity for Trenchless Installations
ΔTd = Wd ( 1
2 )
R insulation + R jacket + R air [°C]
11-100
The extensive topic of “trenchless” installations—hori-
zontal directional drilling (HDD), pipe jacking, micro-
tunneling, etc.—is covered in other portions of this book
For pipe-type cables: (see Chapter 12). This section discusses the impact on
cable ratings from installing cables using these methods.
⎛ 12 R insulation + R cable − to − pipe ⎞
ΔTd = Wd ⎜ ⎟ [°C] Implications for Ampacity
⎜ +R + R ⎟ The mechanics of calculating ampacity for trenchless
⎝ pipe coating air ⎠ 11-101 installations are no different than for installations that

11-43
Chapter 11: Ampacity
utilize conventional open trenching; the Kennelly equa-
tions apply just the same. The following sections discuss
the issues that should be considered for ampacity of
cables installed by trenchless methods.
Earth Thermal Resistance for Trenchless Installations
Instead of a burial depth in the top few meters of earth,
the burial depth may be tens of meters below the
ground, and the earth thermal resistance calculation
must accurately consider this parameter.
The thermal resistance calculation that corrects for
backfill is somewhat different with trenchless installa-
tions. Generally, trenchless installations have a circular,
rather than rectangular, backfill envelope, so that the
diameter of the backfill, Db, is known directly based on
the borehole size or the size of the casing that is used.
In addition to the circular backfill envelope, the backfill
material more often has a greater thermal resistivity
than the native soil in trenchless installations. Many
times, the trenchless installation methods are in highly
compacted soil below fill materials and below the water
table; sometimes the boring may be through rock. As a
result, the native soil thermal resistivity outside of the
bore is relatively good (low)—often below 0.9C°-m/W. If
a bundle of conduits or cable pipe(s) is installed without
a casing, Bentonite-based drilling mud is left around the
cables after the bore is completed; dry Bentonite can
have a very high thermal resistivity—in excess of
2.5C°-m/W—and, when combined with water in a drill-
ing mud, is generally no better than 1.5C°-m/W (pure
water has a ther mal resistivity of approximately
1.65C°-m/W). Cables installed within a casing may have
the interstitial space between the conduits or pipes and
the casing filled with pure water or a fluidized grout.
However, because of pump pressure concerns when
grouting, the grout material usually has a relatively high
water content, so the thermal resistivity is usually no
better than 0.9C°-m/W. In either situation—casing or
no casing—the thermal resistance correction for native
soil materials may be negative, since the native soil ther-
mal resistivity could be less than that of the drilling
mud, water, or grout.
The impact of deep burial depths on the earth thermal
resistance tends to diminish for typical trenchless
depths. Although the burial depth may be high, the
ambient temperature is often better, because surface
solar effects are not present, and the thermal resistivity
is generally better.
Ambient Temperature
As with conventional trenched installations, the allowable
conductor temperature rise is constrained by ambient
temperature. The most significant difference in the ambi-
ent temperature for trenchless installations is that the sea-
11-44
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
sonal variation in temperature is generally much smaller
than that for trenched installations. Below a depth of 6 m
(20 ft) or so, the ambient soil temperature approaches the
average annual air temperature for the area.
In summer months, this means that the ambient soil
temperature for the trenchless sections is cooler than for
conventional trenched sections. However, during winter
months, the inverse is true, and the ambient soil temper-
ature at the greater depths is warmer. This should be
factored into summer and winter ratings.
Use of a Casing
One of the most important decisions regarding trench-
less cable projects is the selection of a casing. This is an
important issue for both civil and electrical engineering
of the project. One must decide if a casing is necessary,
and if so, decide what type of casing to use. The installa-
tion design details of deciding on use of a casing and
what type are covered in Chapter 12. This section sum-
marizes the implications for ampacity.
If a steel casing is selected (12.5-25.0 mm, 0.5-1.0 in. in
thickness), the heat transfer through the casing is not a
factor because of the high thermal conductivity of the
steel. Also, there is an opportunity to put a low thermal
resistivity grout between the inner cable conduits and
the casing to improve ampacity. Frequently, the limita-
tion on ampacity is the section closest to the surface but
below where it is practical to excavate, because these
areas may be above the water table or consist of fill or
organic content, making the thermal resistivity worse.
With extruded or self-contained cables, a steel casing
results in additional losses from hysteresis and eddy-cur-
rent losses in the steel pipe. This additional heating may
unacceptably reduce the ampacity. For pipe-type cables,
a steel outer casing does not present an ampacity prob-
lem because the magnetic field external to the cable
pipes is so low.
With a plastic casing, there is no magnetic heating that
can reduce the cable ratings. However, the relatively high
thermal resistivity of the plastic casing—typically
3.5-4.5C°-m/W—combined with the thick casing wall (50-
75 mm, 2-3 in.) means that a very high thermal resistance
is located in a region of relatively high heat flux near the
cables. Often this higher thermal resistance added by the
plastic casing offsets the magnetic heating effect of a steel
casing, so the ampacity is only slightly better with the
plastic casing over using steel. From an ampacity stand-
point, there is no particular reason to select a plastic cas-
ing with pipe-type cables, although there may be
installation issues that need to be considered.
Number of Bores and Mutual Heating
As was discussed in the trenched section, mutual heat-
ing effects from parallel cable circuits affect the rating of
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
cables. The zone of influence for mutual heating
expands significantly for directionally drilled installa-
tions by virtue of the deeper installation depth. Typi-
cally, heat sources with horizontal spacing that is within
four times the burial depth should be investigated as
being a possible source of mutual heating.
This has an impact when installing multiple circuits by
directional drilling. Although a larger, more risky bore
might be attempted, installing multiple sets of cables in
a single boring has significant cost savings. However,
mutual heating effects will be high. The alternative is to
install two smaller bores, thereby reducing mutual heat-
ing but increasing civil costs. A factor to consider is the
easement and right-of-way constraints that may exist for
two bores.
Shield Losses
The installation of extruded or self-contained cables in a
shared casing reduces the induced voltage, the circulat-
ing shield currents, and the heat losses in a solidly
grounded system. Separate bores are usually widely
spaced, because of the drilling tolerance, and if these are
each used to house a single cable phase, a significant
increase in circulating current losses results. Although
the use of a specially bonded cable scheme in this situa-
tion eliminates circulating losses, the induced voltages
per meter length remain high, and must be within the
design limits for sheath voltage limiters at the adjacent
joints, and section-length and width-percentage toler-
ances in a cross-bonded scheme.
Grout Considerations
Grouting is an option for cable installations that utilize a
casing. The grout generally consists of a mixture of sand,
water, and a fluidizer such as Bentonite or fly ash. For
ampacity purposes, the cable engineer would like to have
as much sand in the grout mixture as possible to mini-
mize the thermal resistivity. The trenchless installation
contractor is mainly concerned about pumping pressures,
which can be reduced by lowering the sand content and
increasing the water and fluidizer content. Also, the
pumping pressures from grouting, possibly combined
with the heat of hydration from cement in the grout, may
cause plastic conduits inside the casing to partially col-
lapse, affecting the ability to install the cables.
Wh ⋅ρsoil ⋅ e γ⋅Δz − 1 N − v⋅γ⋅Δz ⎛ ( L + L h )2 + ( v ⋅ Δz ⋅ cos β )2 ⎞
ΔTinf =
4π
∑ e ⋅ ln ⎜
⎜ ( L − L )2 + ( v ⋅ Δz ⋅ cos β )2 ⎟
v =1
⎝ h
Chapter 11: Ampacity
Use of water to grout the interstitial space between the
inner ducts or pipes and the casing is better than leaving
the space filled with air. Air has a thermal resistivity of
approximately 45C°-m/W, while water is 1.65C°-m/W.
Using water also affords the possibility that the inner
duct or pipe bundle could be pulled out at some future
time and replaced, though the removal/replacement is
rarely considered for practical reasons.
11.2.8 Ampacity Implications for Crossing
External Heat Sources
Invariably, underground transmission cables are faced
with the possibility of crossing other utilities, including
underground transmission or distribution circuits and
steam lines. The interference temperature rise concept
discussed earlier in this chapter is a conservative
approach for considering these crossings. It assumes
that the external heat source is parallel to the transmis-
sion cable, with no longitudinal heat flow.
In some circumstances, this conservative approach
shows an unacceptable derating effect. The IEC has a
section of 60287 (Part 3) that covers the topic of cross-
ing cables. The basic approach to these calculations is
detailed below and outlined as follows:
1. Select a center “reference” (usually the center) in the
group of cables causing the derating. The horizontal
distance, Sh (e.g., phase, conduit, or pipe spacing) is
used to determine mutual heating for other cables in
the derating group.
2. Separate contributions of interference temperature
rise will be calculated for each cable. Evaluate the
interference temperature rise of the crossing cable(s)
on the circuit of interest using the equations
described below.
3. Calculate the normal rating of each installation using
the procedures of this chapter, neglecting the impact
of the crossing. The load on the cables causing an
interference temperature rise is assumed to be fixed.
Equations 11-105 and 11-106 define the interference
temperature rise for oblique cable (or other heat source)
crossings for, respectively, the primary interference
source at depth L and other interference sources that
have a horizontal displacement from the primary cable
of Sh. at depth L. The cables cross at an angle β.
⎟
⎠ 11-105
11-45
Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

⎛ ⎛⎛ Sh ⎞ ⎞ ⎞
2

⎜ ( L + L h ) + ⎜ ⎜ v ⋅ Δz +
2
cos β ⎟ ⎟
Wh ⋅ρsoil ⋅ e γ⋅Δz − 1 N − v⋅γ⋅Δz ⎜ ⎝ ⎝ cos β ⎟⎠ ⎠ ⎟
ΔTinf =
4π
∑ e ⋅ ln ⎜ 2 ⎟
v =1
⎜ ( L − L )2 + ⎛ ⎛ v ⋅ Δz + Sh ⎞ cos β ⎞ ⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎜ cos β ⎟⎠
h
⎝ ⎝⎝ ⎠ ⎠
11-106
Where:
β = crossing angle of heat source, ° (degrees)
(0° is perpendicular, 90° is parallel).
Wh = heat output from cable, conduit, or pipe, W/m.
γ = axial thermal resistances of conductor, C°-m/W.
Δz = incremental distance over which mutual heating effect is assessed; “N” such increments are evaluated
from 1 to “v”, m.
L = burial depth of primary interference cable, m.
Lh = burial depth of crossing cable, m.
Sh = horizontal displacement of other cables grouped with the crossing cables, m.
v = incremental counter for evaluating the temperatures.

Δz should typically be set to 0.1 m (about 4 in.) unless the
cables and heat source(s) being evaluated are small in
diameter and very close together, in which case a smaller
step should be used. The range over which calculations
should be evaluated is normally 6-10 m (20-35 ft), so the
value of N would be on the order of 60 (6 m/0.1 m). The
above procedure is ideally set up for use with a computer
program, but approximate calculations may be deter-
mined by using relatively large step sizes (0.5 m), so that
the summation term can be evaluated by hand. A com-
puter spreadsheet might also be used.
The derating effect can then be calculated as follows:
ΔTinf
Derating = 1 − ×100 [%]
TC − Tambient − ΔTd
11-107
A similar set of equations could be used to evaluate the
impact of the transmission cables on the distribution
duct bank (or any set of crossing cables), with the calcu-
lations iterated until the assumed rating used to calcu-
late Wh matches the calculated rating.
power systems, there is also a cable damage limit or
fault-current capability that must be considered. This is
principally of interest for the metallic shield (screen) and
sheath of extruded and self-contained cables; there is
seldom a concern about fault-current capability for a
pipe-type cable, because the steel cable pipe has a tre-
mendous capacity to carry fault current, and the shields
of pipe-type cables are continuously grounded.
T h e c ro s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a o f t h e c abl e m e t a l l i c
shield/sheath must be selected to carry fault current until
the fault is cleared by a circuit breaker, without exceeding
the short-circuit temperature rating of the insulation.
Table 11-18 lists the short-circuit temperature rating for
transmission cable insulation and jacket materials.
Despite the use of polyethylene and PVC as cable jacket
materials, most manufacturers permit a maximum fault-
current temperature of 200-250°C because of conserva-
tive aspects of these calculations.

Figure 11-26 illustrates a possible scenario where an

extruded transmission cable circuit in a duct bank
crosses distribution cables, and the figure identifies the
parameters used in the calculation equations. The distri-
bution circuit is assumed to cause a derating effect on
the transmission circuit.

11.2.9 Fault Current Calculations

In addition to the normal or emergency ampacity values Figure 11-26 Derating of crossing cables.
that are used in consideration of load flow within the

11-46
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

Equation 11-108 is used to calculate the shield/sheath Table 11-19 Constants for Calculating Required Cross-
cross-sectional area, Area, that is required to prevent Sectional Area for Short-Circuit Currents
overheating. The formula assumes adiabatic conditions
during the fault; where no heat is conducted away from Material k τ (°C)
the conductor during the time of the short circuit and Copper 50237 -234.5
that all of the energy produced by I2 R losses must be Aluminum 21144 -228.1
stored by the thermal capacitance of the conductor Lead 1641 -236.0
material. The same approach may be used to calculate
the fault-current capability of a cable conductor. tion where the primary breaker fails to clear the short-
circuit current. A typical “stuck-breaker” clearing time
k ⎡ T2 − τ ⎤ is 15 cycles (at 60 Hz), or 0.25 s. Some utilities use very
I sc = Area ln ⎢ ⎥A conservative values of 30 cycles (at 60 Hz) or 0.5 s.
t ⎣ T1 − τ ⎦
11-108 Multimetal Shield and Sheaths
Where:
The approach described above is valid for a single metal-
Isc = maximum short-circuit current, A.
lic shield or sheath layer or situations where the metal
k = constant for conductor or shield/sheath
used for the shield and sheath is the same (e.g., a copper
material, dimensionless.
foil laminate used with copper shield wires). However,
Area = shield cross-sectional area, mm2.
some cable constructions utilize two different metals
t = time of short circuit, seconds.
such as copper shield wires in parallel with corrugated
τ = inferred temperature of zero resistance, °C.
stainless steel sheath or aluminum foil laminate.
T1 = pre-fault temperature of metal, °C.
T2 = allowable short-circuit temperature of the
For foil laminate sheaths, CIGRE Technical Brochure
insulation material, °C.
272 (CIGRE 2005) recommends that the shield wire con-
ductor should alone be counted to carry short-circuit
Values for τ and k for Equation 11-108 are listed in
current and that the presence of a parallel thin metallic
Table 11-19. For transmission cables, the time, t, is nor-
foil water barrier be ignored. In the case of a parallel
mally assumed to be the backup-breaker fault-clearing
thick metallic sheath (for example, of a welded or
time. That is, the worst case is assumed to be the situa-
extruded construction), then both the shield conductor
and sheath should be counted to share the current. The
Table 11-18 Short-Circuit Design Temperatures for Jacket apportion of current to the sheath layers should be based
and Insulation Materials on the magnitudes of their parallel resistances, not on
Short-Circuit Design their impedances because this gives a safer design.
Material Temperature (°C)
LDPE 150 When two different metals are used for the shield and
XLPE 250 sheath, small time steps must be evaluated as the resis-
PVC 150 tance of the materials changes during the fault, taking
EPR 250 the resistance of the two metals in parallel during each
Impregnated paper 150-160 time step and adjusting the current division between the
Laminated paper-polypropylene 150-160 materials (see Equation 11-109).

⎛ ⎛ T(t − 1) − τ1 ⎞ ⎛ T(t − 1) − τ2 ⎞ ⎞
⎜ R1 ⎜ ⎟ R2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
2 ⎛ Δt ⎞ ⎜ ⎝ −τ1 ⎠ ⎝ −τ2 ⎠ ⎟
T(t) = T(t − 1) + Isc ⎜ ⎟
⎝ H ⎠ ⎜ ⎛ T(t − 1) − τ1 ⎞ ⎛ T(t − 1) − τ2 ⎞ ⎟
⎜⎜ R1 ⎜ ⎟ + R 2⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ −τ1 ⎠ ⎝ −τ2 ⎠⎠ 11-109
Where:
T(t-1) = shield/sheath temperature from last time step, °C.
Isc = short-circuit current, amperes.
R1 = resistance of first metal at 0°C, ohm/m.
R2 = resistance of second metal at 0°C, ohm/m.
τ1 = inferred temperature of zero resistance of first metal, °C.
τ2 = inferred temperature of zero resistance of second metal, °C.
H = total heat quantity to raise temperatures of both metals 1 C°, kg-J/C°-m3.
Δτ = time step, s.

11-47
Chapter 11: Ampacity
H is calculated from the products of the volumetric spe-
cific heat capacities and the volumes of the shield and
sheath. The time step should be on the order of 1 milli-
second to get good results. If the final temperature at the
end of the calculation exceeds the fault–duty-rated tem-
perature, the cross-sectional area of one or the other of
the metals should be increased, or the fault duration
further limited.
11.3 TRANSIENT RATING AND TEMPERATURE
CALCULATIONS
Although the understanding of transient temperature
rise and the simpler of the solution methods are reason-
able to understand and to do by hand calculations, the
more accurate of the calculation methods are complex
numerical methods that are solved using computer pro-
grams. The reader may find useful references to industry
standard methods in IEC 60853 Parts 1, 2 and 3; CIGRE
ELECTRA 24, 44, 87, and 145; and Anders 1997.
11.3.1 Application
Transient calculations for power transmission cables are
performed to solve for the following:
• Temperature response to load fluctuation as a func-
tion of time
• Maximum load for a specified time period for given
initial and final temperatures
• Pressure variation of the dielectric fluid with change
of load, or maximum loading as limited by pressure
considerations.
This section will not cover hydraulic transient calcula-
tions for pipe-type and self-contained cables.
11.3.2 Methodology
Transient-loading calculations take the thermal inertia
or capacitance of the cable system and its environment
into consideration, while steady-state calculations
ignore this thermal capacitance and consider only the
thermal resistance. For cyclic loading, the steady-state
calculations are modified to take thermal capacitance of
the earth into account by multiplying the resistance
beyond diameter Dx by a daily loss factor, as described
in Section 11.2. Both transient and steady-state methods
utilize thermal conduction models.
Convection and radiation heat transfer such as at the
cable/duct air interface are converted to an equivalent
thermal resistance. Since this equivalent thermal resis-
tance is not a constant, a nonlinear resistance-capaci-
tance (R – C) model results.
11-48
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
For cables installed in free air under bridges, on risers or
on underground-to-overhead transition poles, a thermal
transient conduction model is used out to the cable-air
interface; the convection and radiation heat loss (and
solar heat absorption, when present) are modeled as for
normal steady-state ampacity.
11.3.3 Considerations for Distributed vs. Lumped
Thermal Capacitance
Although the thermal capacitance is distributed
throughout the cable system and surroundings as shown
in Figure 11-27, the conduction model used usually
lumps the capacitance at discrete points (nodes) in the
thermal circuit. However, a rigorous analytical solution
of the heat conduction equation exists for the case of a
step-change in load, which assumes conduction in a uni-
form medium with distributed thermal capacitance and
resistance. This analytical solution is used for the tem-
perature transient of the earth portion of the thermal
circuit for the case of a step-change in load.
Computer programs can model the multisection “dis-
tributed” network and are readily available. However, a
simplified “lumped” method combined with an expo-
nential integral is published in industry standards (IEC
60853) and is available for hand calculations.
11.3.4 Selection of Solution Method
Two methods are discussed here. The first may be
applied to calculating the temperature response to load
variations for any wave shape. A multisection thermal
resistance-capacitance (R – C) network represents the
cable(s), and surrounding duct or pipe (if present) and
earth. The second method may be used to obtain the
temperature response to a step-load change or series of
step-load changes. This method uses a simplified (R –
C) network for the cable and an analytic solution for the
earth portion of the thermal circuit.
Although both methods are generally easier to apply
when implemented in a computer program, the multi-
section R – C network requires a computer model, while
the simplified (lumped) thermal model could be applied
by hand calculations.
Figure 11-27 Distributed thermal capacitances.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

11.3.5 Multisection R-C Network Method The thermal capacitance of each section is the volume
Figure 11-28 shows a typical resistance-capacitance net- of material times the specific heat, which is given by:
work representation of an extruded cable installed in a
π ⋅ Cp n ⎛D 2 D 2 ⎞
conduit. Networks for self-contained or pipe-type cables
Cn = ⎜ n − n −1 ⎟ [J/C°-m] 11-110
are of similar form. The nodes of the network represent 4 ⎜ Nn N n −1 ⎟⎠
the conductor, several diameters through the insulation, ⎝
the metallic shield tape, jacket, bulk air temperature, Where:
conduit, and several points through the earth. Cpn = specific heat of section n, J/C°-m3.
Dn = diameter over section n, m.
Various schemes are possible for apportioning the ther- Dn-1 = diameter under section n, m.
mal resistance and capacitance of insulation and earth Nn = number of conductors inside diameter Dn.
in the thermal circuit. In the case shown in Figure
11-28, the insulation has been subdivided into n sections Table 11-20 lists the bulk (specific) thermal capacities of
using a constant diameter ratio so that each section has materials typically used in transmission cable systems.
the same thermal resistance. Then each section is
divided into two equal subsections, and the thermal The earth thermal resistance is divided in a similar fash-
capacitance of each major section is lumped at the mid- ion. If transients involving load variations of long dura-
point to form a “T” section, as shown in Figure 11-29. Table 11-20 Thermal Capacities for Cable Materials
Material Cp (J/C°-m3)
The earth is divided into m sections in the same fashion as
Copper 3.45 x 106
the insulation. Two additional sections are included for
Aluminum 2.5 x 106
the air space in the conduit (or dielectric fluid in the pipe).
Oil 1.7 x 106
The result is a network of n + m + 3 sections, each Impregnated paper 2.0 x 106
having a resistance and capacitance as shown in Figure Lead 1.45 x106
11-28. The first and last sections have thermal resistance Bronze 3.4 x 106
of Rins / (2n ) , and the rest have Rins / n . The number of Brass 3.0 x 106
sections of insulation to be employed depends on the Steel 3.8 x 106
thickness of the insulation and the period of interest, Nitrogen @ 200 psi (1380 kPa) 0.017 x106
but in general, 4-10 sections are used (CIGRE 1983). PVC 1.7 x 106
Fewer sections might be used when considering only Polyethylene 2.4 x 106
long-time transients and/or thin-walled (e.g., distribu- Rubber and rubber-like materials 2.0 x 106
tion) cables. For very short transients or extra-high- Textile servings 2.0 x 106
voltage cables, the accuracy can be improved by increas- Anticorrosion protection on pipes 2.0 x 106
ing the number of insulation sections. Earth, concrete 2.0 to 2.5 x 106
Duct materials (fiber, polyethylene, etc.) 2.0 x 106

Figure 11-28 Equivalent thermal circuit of an extruded cable in conduit.

Figure 11-29 “T” Section.

11-49
Chapter 11: Ampacity
tion are to be considered, at least 10 sections are required
to accurately model the temperature rise versus time.
Fewer sections may be employed if only short-time tran-
sients (less than 24 hours) are to be calculated. Note that
the product of thermal resistance and thermal capaci-
tance for each section has the dimension of time. The
appropriate heat inputs are then applied at the conduc-
tor, insulation, shield/sheath, and duct nodes, in propor-
tion to the load (or square of voltage for dielectric loss).
This network represents one isolated cable. The effect of
a nearby cable or three-phase circuit on the first circuit or
cable can be accounted for by another, similar network
with one of its earth nodes representing the temperature
rise at cable 1 due to the loading of cable 2. Then at each
time step, the temperature rise due to circuit 2 is added to
the temperature of each node in the circuit 1 model. If
two three-phase circuits or three spaced cables have iden-
tical characteristics and losses, a simplification involving
the use of one network may be employed.
At each node, the rate of temperature increase is:
dT δT Wn ( Tn +1 − Tn ) ( Tn −1 − Tn )
≡ = + + (C° / s)
dt δt Cn Cn ⋅ R n Cn ⋅ R n −1
11-111
Where:
Wn = heat input to the node n, W/m.
Tn = temperatures at node n, °C.
R n = thermal resistance between Tn+1 and Tn,
C°-m/W.
Cn = thermal capacitance at node n, J/C°-m.
The differential equations for dT/dt are approximated by
the difference equations for δT/δt. The equations (1 for
each node) are solved by a numerical integration tech-
nique. The simplest such technique involves choosing a
suitably small time-step (δt) and multiplying the value of
by δT/δt by δt.
The initial temperatures at each node are calculated
based on initial loading and a steady-state calculation as
described in Section 11.2. Then, for each time-step and
for each node, the temperature increase, δT, is calculated
and added to the previous temperature.
At each time-step, the heat inputs are adjusted accord-
ing to the load variation and the preceding estimate of
conductor, insulation, and shield temperature. This
allows refinement of the temperature-dependent dielec-
tric loss and electrical resistance (along with hydraulic
transients). Also, the temperature-dependant cable-to-
conduit or cable-to-pipe thermal resistance may be
11-50
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
adjusted at each time-step based on the temperatures
calculated for the previous time step.
In cases where ampacity (constant load for time t) is
required corresponding to a starting temperature, Tφ,
and final temperature, Tmax, at least two repetitions of
the above step-by-step procedure are required. An initial
estimate of load is input to the model. Then after the
specified time, the calculated conductor temperature,
TC, is used to obtain a second or “educated” estimate of
the load according to Equations 11-112 to 11-115.
This load is input to the model for time t, and the process
is repeated. Since the model is nonlinear, several repeti-
tions may be necessary to converge to the required answer.
Tmax − Tφ + AF ( Tφ − ΔTd − Tambient )
Wf = [W / m]
R total ⋅ AF
11-112
TC − Tφ
AF = [dim ensionless]
R total ( Wf − Wo )
11-113
{ }
N
R total = ∑ R n [C° - m / W]
n =1
11-114
Wf
It =
R ac
11-115
Where:
Tmax = final conductor temperature, °C.
Tφ = initial conductor temperature, °C.
Wo = initial watt loss, W/m.
Wf = final watt loss, W/m.
R total = total thermal resistance from conductor to
ambient for constant load, C°-m/W.
AF = transient attainment factor, dimensionless.
Rac = conductor ac resistance at Tmax, ohm/m.
It = transient ampacity, amperes.
The calculation of the attainment factor, AF, is
described below.
11.3.6 Composite R-C/Exponential Integral
Method
A quicker, closed-form solution for ampacity can be
obtained by utilizing a two- or three-section R-C model
for the cable system and an analytic expression, the
exponential integral function, which describes the tem-
perature response of the earth to a step-change in load.
The R-C network describes the temperature rise of the
cable conductor over a fixed cable-earth interface tem-
perature (the internal portion of the thermal circuit)—
e.g., the cable temperature transient response. The expo-
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

nential integral function describes the temperature Where:

response of the earth interface for constant heat input
(the external portion of the cable thermal circuit). The
coupling between the internal and external portions of
the thermal circuit is approximated by calculating sepa-
rate “attainment factors” for each section. These attain-
ment factors are the ratios of transient to steady-state
temperature rise. The cable (internal) temperature
response to a given load after time, t, is given by Equa-
tion 11-116:
Wi = heat output of a particular cable, pipe, or
conduit including shield and sheath losses,
W/m.
t = time (duration) of the response, s.
a, b = internal cable time constants based on the
R-C network, 1/s.
Ra, Rb= thermal resistances from the equivalent
R-C network during the time period being
evaluated, C°-m/W.

( )
ΔTcable (t) = Wi R a (1 − e − at ) + R b (1 − e − bt ) [ C°]
11-116
The assignment of values to the thermal R-C network in
Figure 11-28 is based upon the cable construction.
Tables 11-21, 11-22, 11-23, and 11-24 summarize the
basic equations that are necessary to calculate the R-C

Table 11-21 Thermal R-C Network Parameters for Extruded and Self-Contained Cables, Direct Buried
Parameter Short-Time Emergency Long-Time Emergency

RA 1R R insulation
2 insulation

RB 1R + Q S ⋅ R jacket Q S ⋅ R jacket
2 insulation

⎛ D insulation ⎞ Not applicable

C i1
Cp insulation π ⋅ D conductor ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
4
⎝ − D conductor ⎠
⎛ D insulation ⎞ Not applicable
Ci2
Cp insulation π ⋅ D insulation ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
4
⎝ − D conductor ⎠
CA C conductor + p ⋅ C i1 C conductor + p ⋅ C insulation

CB pC i 2 + (1 − p)C i1 + (1 − p )C insulation +
⎡ C shield / sheath + p' C jacket ⎤
⎢(1 − p )C i 2 + ⎥×
⎢⎣ QS ⎥⎦ C shield / sheath + p' C jacket
2 QS
⎛ Q S R jacket ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
R + Q S R jacket
⎝ 2 insulation ⎠
p 1 1 1 1
− −
D insulation ⎛ D insulation ⎞ D insulation ⎛ D insulation ⎞
2
ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1 2 ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1
D conductor ⎝ D conductor ⎠ D conductor
⎝ D conductor ⎠
p' 1 1 1 1
− −
D jacket ⎛ D ⎞
2 D jacket ⎛ D ⎞
2
2 ln jacket 2 ln jacket
D shield ⎜⎜ D ⎟ −1
⎟ D shield ⎜⎜ D ⎟ −1
⎟
⎝ shield ⎠ ⎝ shield ⎠

11-51
Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Table 11-22 Thermal R-C Network Parameters for Extruded and Self-Contained Cables, in Conduit

Parameter Short-Time Emergency Long-Time Emergency

RA 1
2 R insulation R insulation

RB ⎛ R jacket + ⎞ ⎛ R jacket + ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
1
2 R insulation + Q S ⋅ ⎜ R cable − to − conduit + ⎟ QS ⋅ ⎜ R cable-to-conduit +⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ R conduit ⎟ ⎜ R conduit ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

⎛ D insulation ⎞ Not applicable

Ci1
Cp insulation π ⋅ D insulation ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
4
⎝ − D conductor ⎠

⎛ D insulation ⎞ Not applicable

Ci2
Cp insulation π ⋅ D insulation ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
4
⎝ − D conductor ⎠

CA C conductor + p ⋅ C i1 C conductor + p ⋅ C insulation

CB (1 − p ) Ci1 + 0.3 ⋅ Ci2 (1 − p ) Cinsulation +

Cshield / sheath + C jacket + 0.5 ⋅ Cconduit
QS

p 1 1 1 1
− −
D insulation ⎛ D insulation ⎞ D insulation ⎛ D insulation ⎞
2
ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1 2 ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1
D conductor ⎝ D conductor ⎠ D conductor
⎝ D conductor ⎠

11-52
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

Table 11-23 Thermal R-C Network Parameters for HPFF Cables

Parameter Short-Time Emergency Long-Time Emergency

RA 1R R insulation + 12 QS R Cable − to − Pipe

2 insulation
1R + Q S R Cable − to − Pipe +
RB 1
QS R Cable − to − Pipe + Q P R Pipe Coating
2 insulation 2

Q P R Pipe Coating

C i1 ⎛ D insulation ⎞
Cp insulation π ⋅ D conductor ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ Not applicable
4
⎝ − D conductor ⎠

Ci2 ⎛ D insulation ⎞
Cp insulation π ⋅ D insulation ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ Not applicable
4
⎝ − D conductor ⎠

CA C conductor + p ⋅ C i1 C conductor + p ⋅ C insulation

CB (1 − p ) Ci1 + Ci2 Cdielectric liquid

(1 − p ) Cinsulation +
QS
p 1 1 1 1
− −
D insulation ⎛ D insulation ⎞ D insulation ⎛ D insulation ⎞
2
ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1 2 ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1
D conductor ⎝ D conductor ⎠ D conductor
⎝ D conductor ⎠

11-53
Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Table 11-24 Thermal R-C Network Parameters for HPGF Cables

Parameter Short-Time Emergency Long-Time Emergency

RA 1R R insulation
2 insulation

RB 1R + Q S R Cable − to − Pipe + Q S R Cable − to − Pipe + Q P R Pipe Coating

2 insulation
Q P R Pipe Coating

C i1 ⎛D ⎞ Not applicable
Cp insulation π ⋅ D conductor ⎜⎜ insulation ⎟⎟
4
⎝ − D conductor ⎠

Ci2 ⎛D ⎞ Not applicable

Cp insulation π ⋅ D insulation ⎜⎜ insulation ⎟⎟
4
⎝ − D conductor ⎠

CA C conductor + p ⋅ C i1 C conductor + p ⋅ C insulation

CB (1 − p )C i1 + 0.3 ⋅ C i2 C dielectric liquid

(1 − p )C insulation + +
QS
0.5 ⋅ C pipe
QP

p 1 1 1 1
− −
D insulation ⎛ D insulation ⎞ D insulation ⎛ D insulation ⎞
2
ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1 2 ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1
D conductor ⎝ D conductor ⎠ D conductor
⎝ D conductor ⎠

network parameters. In all of these tables, R ’s are ther- The values needed to calculate the cable transient tem-
mal resistances in C°-m/W, C ’s are thermal capaci- perature response are developed from the following
tances in J/C°-m, Q S is the ratio of losses in the series of equations:
conductor and shield/sheath (or conductor and
shield/skid wire for pipe-type cables) to those of only the
conductor, and QP is the ratio of losses in the conductor,
M= 1
2 (C (R
A A )
+ R B + CB ⋅ R B (s) ) 11-117
shield, skid wire, and pipe to those of only the conduc-
tor (for pipe-type cables). N = CA ⋅ R A ⋅ CB ⋅ R B (s ) 2
11-118

The duration of the emergency is determined by multi- M + M2 − N

a= (1/ s)
plying the cable thermal resistance by the cable thermal N 11-119
capacitance. If the emergency of interest is longer than
one-third of this time, then the emergency is considered a M − M2 − N
“long-time” emergency. If the emergency duration is less b= (1/ s)
than one-third of this time, the emergency is a “short- N 11-120

1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
time” emergency. There is some overlap between the cal-

()
culation approaches, so for emergency durations close to
one-third, 1 R core ⋅ C core should be evaluated using
Ra = ⎜
a − b ⎝ CA
(
− b R A + R B ⎟ (C° − m / W) )
3 ⎠
both methods and the more conservative value used as 11-121
the rating.

11-54
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
( )
R b = R A + R B − R a (C° − m / W)
11-122
The cable surface attainment factor, assuming per-unit
current, can be calculated from Equation 11-123:
ΔTcable (t)
α= (dim ensionless)
(
Wi R A + R B ) 11-123
Calculating Attainment Factors
Reference (VanWormer 1955) gives equations for a
three-section R-C network for the internal portion, with
numerical methods providing the required solution for
the roots of a cubic equation.
A two-section network is not valid for all possible tran-
sient durations, so two different networks must be evalu-
ated—one for times less than a critical time, typically
about 1 hr, and one for longer-duration emergencies. The
solutions to these networks will cross at the critical time,
though the results are usually close. This requires that
both networks be evaluated for each time, and the larger
of the resulting transient thermal resistances selected.
Calculation of the internal (cable) temperature transient
(using the R-C network) and the environmental temper-
ature transient (using attainment factors) was developed
further and published in IEC 60853 (IEC 1989).
The temperature response to a step load may be calcu-
lated using Equation 11-124 (see below).
In Equation 11-124, the first two exponential integrals
evaluate the “self ” temperature response to a single
cable, conduit or pipe. The last two exponential inte-
ρs ⎡ ⎛ Dearth
2
⎞ ⎛ L2 ⎞ N ⎡ ⎛ d i, j2 ⎞
ΔTearth (t) = Wi ⎢−Ei ⎜ − ⎟ + Ei ⎜ − ⎟ + ∑ ⎢ − Ei ⎜⎜ −
4π ⎢ ⎝ 16δt ⎠ ⎝ δt ⎠ j= 2 ⎣⎢ ⎝ 4δt ⎠
⎣
Where:
Wi = heat output of each cable (assuming equal loading), W/m.
“Ei” = notation for exponential integral.
Dearth = earth diameter for the cable, conduit, or pipe, m.
L = burial depth for the cable being evaluated (usually the hottest cable in the group), m.
t = time (duration) of the response, s.
δ = thermal diffusivity, m2/s.
ρ soil = soil thermal resistivity, C°-m/W.
di,j = distance between cable, conduit or pipe “i” to cable, conduit or pipe “j”, m.
d’i,j = distance between cable, conduit or pipe “i” to image of cable, conduit or pipe “j”, m.
Chapter 11: Ampacity
grals in Equation 11-124 evaluate the mutual heating
contributions after time, t, has passed.
Complete Temperature Transient and Computing
Emergency Ratings
Once the cable and earth (environment) temperature
transients are known, the complete temperature
response to a step-change in load may be computed
using Equation 11-125.
ΔTtransient ( t ) = ΔTcable ( t ) + α ⋅ ΔTearth ( t ) [C°]
11-125
The temperature of the conductor at the end of the tran-
sient (emergency) is the temperature rise from Equation
11-125 added to the temperature of the cable prior to
the emergency. The current assumed during the tran-
sient would be adjusted until this temperature equals the
allowable emergency temperature for the cable system
corresponding to the emergency duration.
Short-Time Transients—Cautionary Note
Caution should be exercised in applying the above
methodology for very short-time transients where high-
load currents are involved. For instance, at the end of a
15-min transient, the temperature could be increasing
very rapidly, especially with currents calculated based
on low starting temperatures. Though there is no “ther-
mal momentum” to the rising temperature, application
of the calculated ampacity for longer than the time
assumed in the calculation may result in subjecting the
cables to excessive temperatures with consequent loss of
life or damage. Excessive heating may also result from
errors in the assumed parameters, such as ambient tem
perature, earth thermal resistivity, etc.
IEC 60287 states that the accuracy of the equations for
determining temperature have not been verified for
emergency times of less than 10 min.
⎛ d 'i, j2 ⎞ ⎤ ⎤
⎟⎟ + Ei ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ ⎥ ⎥
⎝ 4δt ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎦⎥
11-124
11-55
Chapter 11: Ampacity
11.3.7 Special Topics
The topics described below are quite specialized, and
may be evaluated using the listed references.
• Pressure transients may be calculated based on tem-
peratures determined as described in this chapter.
Equations for pressure variation will be found in Ref-
erence (Mattews and Malburg 1977).
• Temperature transients of three-conductor cables are
discussed in Reference (Wollaston 1949). A single-
conductor cable equivalent is developed.
• Forced-cooled cable transient methodology is out-
lined in Reference (CIGRE 1986).
• Transients in splices and other accessories involve a
two-dimensional model and are discussed in Refer-
ence (Weedy 1988).
11.4 FORCED COOLING
11.4.1 Introduction
This section presents calculation procedures for deter-
mining steady-state forced-cooled ratings, temperatures,
and pressure loss for pipe-type cables. Guidelines are
also provided for the application of cooling equipment
and accessories to achieve an integrated system design.
These procedures are presented in simplified form and
may be used for planning studies or preliminary engi-
neering estimates. The user is encouraged to refer to the
Designer’s Handbook for Forced-Cooled High-Pressure
Oil-Filled Pipe-Type Cable Systems (EPRI 1984) for a
thorough treatment of the subject. Also, the CIGRE
document, “The Calculation of Continuous Rating for
Forced-Cooled High Pressure Oil-Filled Pipe-Type
Cables” (CIGRE 1987), is suggested for those only
interested in thermal ratings. (Forced-cooling calcula-
tions in the United States and overseas are performed in
SI units, and the Designers Handbook uses only those
units. Section 11.4, therefore, uses only SI units.)
Forced cooling has been applied in the United States
since the first documented installation was commis-
sioned at the Public Service Electric & Gas Co.,
Sewaren, New Jersey generating station in 1948. System
design engineers were faced with many basic uncertain-
ties, which were primarily in the areas of thermal resis-
tances between cable or pipe and fluid and the pressure
drop due to flow in the cable pipe (friction factor). Early
applications tended to use moderate levels of cooling on
short tie lines, and uncertainties in these parameters had
minimal impact or were easily compensated for by over-
design. In the 1970s, forced cooling was perceived as a
means to substantially upgrade the capacity of major
transmission lines of considerable length. Design opti-
11-56
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
mization would require high confidence in ther-
mal/hydraulic design parameters.
This prompted a series of investigations. Full-scale tests
were conducted by Commonwealth Edison (Williams et
al. 1971) and Power Technologies. Inc. (Williams et al.
1976b), and model studies were conducted by the Mas-
sachusetts Institute of Technology (Slutz et al. 1975;
Koci et al. 1977) and the University of Illinois (Chato
1977; Chato et al. 1980). Bulk power projects by Tokyo
Electric also prompted investigations in Japan (Wan-
tanabe 1974; Wantanabe et al. 1975). The model studies
predicted as much as a ten-fold increase in friction fac-
tor due to cable snaking and relatively poor heat trans-
fer from cable or pipe to filling fluid in laminar flow.
Also, distortions of the thermal field within the cable
insulation due to preferential cooling of one surface
(nonisothermal shield) would create a higher-than-
anticipated conductor temperature rise above the tem-
perature of the filling fluid (Glicksman et al. 1978). This
effect, sometimes referred to as an apparent increase in
insulation thermal resistivity, was also reported by ear-
lier full-scale investigations in Japan (Furukawa Electric
1969) and the United States (Williams et al. 1976b).
Subsequently, EPRI and the U.S. Energy Research and
Development Administration co-sponsored the con-
struction of a highly instrumented, full-scale research
facility at Waltz Mill, Pennsylvania to supplement and
confirm the results of the earlier investigations and
determine the applicability of such data to full-scale sys-
tems (Williams et al. 1976a). This project was completed
i n 1 9 7 7 . T h e e n s u i n g E P R I r e s e a r c h p rog r a m
(Burghardt et al. 1983) supported the high friction-fac-
tor predictions under snaking, but found them to be
highly localized with increases in overall pressure drop
only 5-10% for typical systems. Cable-to-fluid and pipe-
to-fluid film resistances, under forced cooling, were gen-
erally found to be lower than self-cooled (uncirculated)
film resistances. However, for long, straight cable
lengths of uniform geometry, an increase in the film
resistances can occur due to the formation of a thermal
boundary layer. These thermal resistances are on the
same order of magnitude as those that occur in self-
cooled cables. Minor increases in apparent cable insula-
tion thermal resistivities were observed during the Waltz
Mill experimentation, which supported earlier theoreti-
cal studies predicting that the relatively high thermal
conductance, copper shield/brass skid wire construc-
tion would tend to maintain shield isothermality.
The full-scale experiment indicated that heat transfer
was much better than previously assumed on the periph-
ery of the cables not directly exposed to fluid flow. This
limited increases in apparent thermal resistivities to only
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
10-12% for worst-case constructions, utilizing relatively
poor thermal conductance stainless-steel shields and
skid wires. Furthermore, at very high Reynolds numbers
(high turbulence), all surfaces of the cables are equally
cooled, virtually eliminating the apparent increase in
thermal resistivity. In an effort to quantify losses, a calo-
rimetric method was devised, which revealed that there
is a difference in ac losses in each cable phase even
though the phase currents are equal. This difference
could be up to a 10% increase in loss on the center phase
of cables in cradled configuration. It should be pointed
out that this phenomenon was observed for the Waltz
Mill cable/pipe geometry, which had a low cable-diame-
ter-to-pipe-diameter ratio, and may not necessarily
apply equally to all types of cable systems. Although
this phenomenon is not peculiar to forced-cooled cable,
the imbalance in losses is more apparent at higher
forced-cooled ac currents, which can cause heating of
one phase relative to the average.
The results of these investigations were correlated, and
generalized equations were presented in the Designer’s
Handbook (EPRI 1984). This section represents a
digest of the calculation portion of the Designer’s
Handbook. Complicated cable configuration and
degree-of-snaking estimating techniques have been elim-
inated, and a simplified friction-factor chart (for pres-
sure-drop calculations), based on a rational distribution
of geometries, has been provided.
There are several noted changes in this book, as com-
pared to the 1992 edition. Since the combination of the
aforementioned factors can lead to very pessimistic
results, this edition of the reference book has adopted
several changes. A Reynolds number dependent equa-
tion for applying the non-isothermal shield effect has
been included. As the development of a thermal bound-
ary layer is only likely in laminar flow, the impact of the
development of the thermal boundary layer has been
removed from the fluid film resistance equations in the
Figure 11-30 Basic cooling loop with cable pipes as the fluid supply and return path.
Chapter 11: Ampacity
turbulent regime. The factor used to account for loss
imbalances observed at Waltz Mill has been removed,
since this factor has not been substantiated by more
generalized and comprehensive studies. Should a thor-
ough study of the imbalanced ac losses ensue, it could
be more legitimately applied. A more generalized equa-
tion for calculating allowable current under forced-cool-
ing (Equation 11-142) has also been substituted.
The basic cooling loop is depicted in Figure 11-30. It is
the smallest entity containing coolant supply and return
paths, the pump, and heat exchanger over which conser-
vation of mass and energy is maintained. Hence, the cal-
culation procedure refers to the “cooling loop.” Many
cooling loops can be employed, and a variety of flow
paths can be utilized as long as temperatures and pres-
sures fall within the required boundaries. Figure 11-31
shows a more complex cooling system.
11.4.2 Units, Nomenclature, and Conventions
The forced-cooled calculations adhere to the SI conven-
tion, which will provide a 1:1 correlation with the equa-
tions and methodologies presented in the Designer’s
Handbook (EPRI 1984). All equations and parameters
henceforth are in terms of SI units. An over-bar conven-
tion is used to distinguish thermal resistance ( R ) from
i
electrical resistances ( R ).
ac
11.4.3 Calculating Losses
The losses, with the exception of the daily loss factor, are
computed using equations presented for self-cooled
HPFF cables given previously in this chapter (Section
11.2.5). The closed-form solutions given in this section
require constant loss parameters over the length of the
cooling section. Therefore, it is recommended that the loss
parameters be fixed at the limiting temperature condition.
The effect of the daily load cycle and the introduction of
the loss factor are treated somewhat differently in the
forced-cooled equations. The forced-cooled equations
11-57
Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Figure 11-31 Multiple cooling loops.

were developed on the basis that 100% attainment is D = inside pipe diameter, m.
achieved between mid-fluid and conductor at peak
loading, while heat flow from mid-fluid outward is Area A is the cross-sectional flow area:
related to some function of the daily load factor. The
A = π ⎡( D/2 ) -3 ( d/2 ) ⎤ m
2 2
following equation for the forced-cooled loss factor,
LFfc, was empirically derived, comparing the results of ⎣ ⎦ 11-128
the steady-state solution to a dynamic model for a num- Fluid Properties
ber of cases. Table 11-25 presents a compilation of properties for
some of the commonly used fluids in pipe-type cable
LFfc =0.8 ( f ) +0.2 ( f ) dimensionless
2

11-126 systems for design and cooling-fluid selection purposes.

Where:
f = load factor The volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion, β, can
be taken as a constant equal to 0.00075 per C° over
The similarity of this equation to that used for distribu- common temperature ranges.
tion cables is by coincidence.
Calculating Thermal-Hydraulic Parameters and
Dimensionless Quantities
11.4.4 Thermal-Hydraulic Characterization
The following parameters and dimensionless quantities
The following sections deal with calculating the dimen- must be determined to compute the liquid film resis-
sionless quantities that will, in turn, be used to calculate tances and pressure loss due to friction. These should be
fluid-film resistance and friction factors. expressed as a function of temperature using the equa-
tions for the liquid properties if iterative procedures are
Geometric Parameters
used.
Diameter d is the fictitious diameter over the cable cal-
culated by taking the cross-sectional area of the cable
V is the mean velocity
over the shielding tape plus the cross-sectional area
taken by the skid wires. For typical cable construction: V = Q/A m/s 11-129
d = 1.01 x (dia. over shield), double-entry skid
wires (m). Re is the Reynolds Number
d = 1.005 x (dia. over shield), single-entry skid V Dh
wires (m). Re = dim ensionless
υ 11-130
A hydraulic diameter, Dh, is calculated to give an equiv-
alent flow diameter for the three cables in the pipe: Pr is the Prandtl Number

D 2 -3d 2 τc p υ
Dh = m Pr = dimensionless
D+3d 11-127
k 11-131
Where:
d = effective cable diameter over the shield, m.

11-58
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

Table 11-25 Fluid Properties

Fluid Constant τ cp k υ
TDB A -0.533 3.50 -7.0 E-5 -4.6430
B 862 1800 0.153 2.0135
LVM A -0.6300 4.25 -7.0 E-5 -5.5000
B 911 1730 0.124 2.1420
LVA B1 A -0.6200 2.50 -7.0 E-5 -5.8770
B 880 1750 0.113 2.2585
LVP A -0.6300 4.00 -7.0 E-5 -5.5400
B 846 2050 0.123 2.2770
LVA B2 A -0.6200 2.50 -6.1150
No Data
B 880 1750 2.3245
HVP A -0.6132 4.00 -7.0 E-5 -6.5270
B 862 1890 0.112 2.5026
HVM A -0.6300 3.50 -7.5200
No Data
B 941 1750 2.5739
Definition of Fluid Acronyms
TDB—Tridecylbenzene
LVP—Low-Viscosity Polybutene
LVM—Low-Viscosity Mineral Oil
HVP—High-Viscosity Polybutene
LVA B1—Low-Viscosity Alkylbenzene
HVM—High-Viscosity Mineral Oil
LVA B2—Low-Viscosity Alkylbenzene
Equations for determining thermal properties of fluids which vary with temperature
Density τ = AT +B (kg/m3)
Specific heat cp = AT + B (W-sec/kg-C°)
Thermal conductivity k = AT + B (W/C°-m)
Kinematic viscosity υ = (exp(exp(A x 10-3 x T + B))) x 10-8 (m2/sec)
T = fluid temperature in °C.

Gr is the Grashof Number g = 9.8 m/s2 = acceleration due to gravity.

β = volumetric coefficient of thermal expan-
g β ΔT D3h sion per C°.
Gr = dimensionless ΔΤ
υ2 11-132
= temperature difference between shield or
Where: pipe and mid-fluid, C°.
Q = flow rate, m3/s (Note that m3/s = GPM x Calculating Cable Component Thermal Resistances
6.309 x 10-5.).
A = cross sectional flow area, m2. Insulation Resistance— Ri
V = velocity, m/s.
Dh = hydraulic diameter, m. The insulation resistance calculated in Equation 11-48
υ = kinematic viscosity C°-m/W. must be corrected to account for a nonisothermal shield
τ = density kg/m3. due to forced fluid circulation. Table 11-26 lists correc-
cp = specific heat, W-sec/kg-C°. tion factors (Zi) for common cable constructions.
k = thermal conductivity, W/C°-m.

⎣ ( )
R icorr = ⎡1 + 1.05 ⋅ ( exp ( −0.0002 Re ) − 0.05 ) ⋅ ( Zi − 1) ⎤ ⋅ R insulation
⎦ 11-133
Where:
R i corr =corrected insulation resistance, C°-m/W.
Zi = correction factor from Table 11-26.
R insulation = calculated insulation resistance from Equation 11-49, C°-m/W.

11-59
Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Table 11-26 Insulation Resistance Correction Factors (Zi)

Conductor Insulation Thickness (cm/in.)
mm2 kcmil Shield Mat’l. Skid wire Mat’l. 0.508/0.2 1.016/0.4 1.524/0.6 2.032/0.8 2.54/1.0
507 1000 Copper Brass 1.01 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
760 1500 1.02 1.01 1.00 1.00 1.00
1013 2000 1.03 1.02 1.01 1.01 1.01
1267 2500 1.03 1.02 1.02 1.01 1.01
1520 3000 1.04 1.03 1.02 1.02 1.02
507 1000 Copper Stainless Steel 1.02 1.02 1.01 1.01 1.01
760 1500 1.03 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.02
1013 2000 1.04 1.03 1.02 1.02 1.02
1267 2500 1.05 1.03 1.03 1.02 1.02
1520 3000 1.05 1.04 1.03 1.03 1.03
507 1000 Zinc Stainless Steel 1.06 1.05 1.04 1.04 1.04
760 1500 1.07 1.06 1.05 1.05 1.05
1013 2000 1.09 1.07 1.06 1.06 1.05
1267 2500 1.10 1.08 1.07 1.06 1.06
1520 3000 1.10 1.09 1.07 1.07 1.07
507 1000 Stainless Steel Stainless Steel 1.11 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.09
760 1500 1.12 1.11 1.10 1.10 1.10
1013 2000 1.12 1.12 1.11 1.11 1.10
1267 2500 1.13 1.12 1.12 1.11 1.11
1520 3000 1.13 1.12 1.12 1.12 1.12

Dielectric Liquid Fluid Resistances Ap = surface area of inner pipe wall per meter,
These values are determined for both laminar and tur- m2.
bulent flow conditions. H = constant, = 14 if pipe is cabled, 5.5 if pipe
is clear, dimensionless.
R so is the shield-to-fluid resistance
Wetted surface areas of cable, A c , and pipe, A p, are
2.75D defined in Equations 11-138 and 11-139:
h
Laminar: R sol = C°-m/W
kA c ( Gr i Pr )
0.25

11-134
A c = π Ds m 2 11-138
28 A p = π Dp m 2
Turbulent : R sot = 11-139
0.8 0.33
k ⋅ Re Pr 11-135 Where:
Ds = cable shield diameter, m.
R op is the fluid-to-pipe resistance Dp = pipe inside diameter, m.

3D Coating Resistance
h
Laminar: R opl = C°-m/W R d is the protective-coating thermal resistance,
kA p ( GrPr )
0.25

11-136 C°-m/W, calculated from Equation 11-49. The number

3H of conductors should be set to 3.
Turbulent: R opt = C°-m/W
k Re 0.8 Pr 0.33 11-137
Earth Resistance
Where: R earth is the earth thermal resistance, C°-m/W, and is
Dh = hydraulic diameter, m. calculated by Equation 11-60. The loss factor should
k = thermal conductivity. W/C°-m. not be introduced in this resistance (e.g., the calculation
Ac = surface area of cable per meter, m2. should be done at 100% loss factor as would be done for
Gr = Grashof number, dimensionless. dielectric losses). The number of conductors should be
Pr = Prandtl number, dimensionless. set to 3. The mutual heating thermal resistance compo-
Re = Reynolds number, dimensionless. nent, the mutual thermal resistance component is

11-60
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

included in Equation 11-60. Both the self-heating resis-
tance, ( R ), and the mutual term can be applied to
earth
liquid supply or return lines without cable.
11.4.5 Axial Thermal Calculations
The basic forced-cooled thermal formulas for a single
pipe are developed from the following equivalent resis-
tance network shown in Figure 11-32.
Where nodes are defined as follows:
s = the combined surface of the three cables.
o = the mid-fluid point.
p = the steel pipe.
d = the earth interface.
e = the earth at the horizontal centerline of the
pipe.
Wφ = heat injected at the mid-fluid node (Wc +
Wd + Ws), W/m.
Wp = pipe loss, W/m.
Cable surface temperatures are assumed to be isother-
mal, and therefore, conductor (Wc), dielectric (Wd), and
shield (Ws) losses are lumped together to act as a single
source Wφ at node s. Eddy-current losses in the pipe (Wp)
act at node p and heat (q) is removed by fluid flow in the
axial direction at the mid-fluid node, o. The resistances
from mid-fluid to ambient earth contain a multiplying
factor of 3 since the losses are based on a single cable.
Also, the heat removal term, q, contains a one-third fac-
tor to yield the proper temperature rise in the axial direc-
tion. The resistances in the network are as follows:
R so = cable-surface-to-fluid film resistance for
one cable, C°-m/W.
R op = pipe-to-fluid film resistance including 3x
factor, C°-m/W.
R d = protective-coating resistance including 3x
factor, C°-m/W.
R e = effective earth resistance including 3x fac-
tor, C°-m/W.
The following differential equation can be written for
the model given in Figure 11-32.
dTo ( x )
λ = To ( x ) -To ( u )
dx 11-140
Where:
λ = forced-cooling characteristic = –CQRoe/3,
m/°C
To (u) = ultimate temperature of the liquid without
forced cooling, °C.
To (x) = temperature of the liquid at any distance x,
°C.

Integrating Equation 11-140 explicitly and applying the

boundary condition at x = Φ, and To (x) = To (i) initial
oil temperature at the inlet, °C, yields the following use-
ful forms for a cooling section of length, L:
Relationships for the Single-Pipe Case
−L
Q= ft 3 / s
⎛ T − ΔTc' − To (u ) ⎞
C ⋅ R oe ln⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟
Figure 11-32 Equivalent resistance network for forced- ⎝ T o (i ) − To ( u ) ⎠
cooling calculations.
11-141

⎡⎛ Ri⎞ + Rso⎤ − Toi ⋅ exp⎛ L ⎞ − ( 3 ⋅ Wd ⋅ Roe100 + Te) ⋅ ⎛ 1 − exp⎛ L ⎞ ⎞

Tc − Wd ⋅ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦ ⎝λ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ λ ⎠⎠
I :=
⎡ ⎛ ⎛ L ⎞ ⎞⎤
Rac ⋅ ⎢( Ri + Rso) + Roa ⋅ ⎜ 1 − exp⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎠⎦ 11-142

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Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Case 1—Thermally Remote Pipes

⎛1⎞ ⎛ ⎛ L ⎞⎞
To (1) = To ( i ) exp ⎜ ⎟ + To ( u ) ⎜ 1 − exp ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ °C R mut < 0.1R e : Pipes are treated individually by setting
⎝λ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ λ ⎠⎠
the outlet of one pipe equal to the inlet of the other at
11-143

Tc (1) = To (1) + ΔTc' °C

the turnaround point: To ( )1 = To (i)2
11-144
Case 2—Parallel Identical Cable Pipe
The auxiliary equations for the above are: 0.1 ⋅ R e < R mut < 0.6 ⋅ R e : Set R e = R e + R mut
−CQR oe and set L=2L
λ= m / °C
3 11-145

(
⎡(1 + Yc' ) R + R so
ΔTc' = I 2 R dc ⎢ i )⎤⎥
⎢+Y R ⎥
⎣ s so ⎦
⎛R ⎞
+ Wd ⎜ i + R so ⎟ C° Case 3—Separate Supply Pipe
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ 11-146
0.1 R e <R mut <0.6 R e : The supply pipe (#1) is
neglected, and the fluid inlet temperature to the cable
To ( u ) = I 2 R dc (1 + Yc ) R oa pipe is set to the fluid temperature into the supply pipe:

( )
+ Wd R op + R d + R e' + Te °C
11-147
To ( i )2 = To ( i )1

R oa' = qs R op + q e R pe TOM
11-148

( )
R op = R op + R d + R e . ( LFfc ) TOM
11-149

R oe100 = R op + R d + R e
11-150

( )
Case 4—Separate Return Pipe
R pe = R d + R 3 . ( LFfc ) TOM
11-151 0.1 R e <R mut <0.6 R e : The pipes are treated individ-
Ys ually, as in Case 1, but mutual resistances are added to
qs =1+ dimensionless
1+Yc R e1 .SetR e1 = R e1 + R mut and set R e2 = R e2 + R mut
11-152
Ys +Yp
q e =1+ dimensionless
1+Yc 11-153
R oe100 = The combined oil and earth thermal
resistance taken at 100% loss factor.

Each of these terms is defined in the Nomenclature at Case 5—Symmetrical Systems

the end of this chapter. Symmetrical systems can be accommodated by adding
the mutual resistances of the second system to the first:
Procedures for the Multipipe Case
A liquid supply or return pipe is required to establish a set R e2 = R e2 + R mut2 •2 '
circulation loop. This pipe could be a parallel cable pipe
or an uncabled pipe specifically incorporated to form
the cooling loop. If parallel pipes are in thermal proxim-
ity to one another, then a true thermal solution requires
the inclusion of thermal interference effects, which sig-
nificantly complicates the mathematical approach.
Under many conditions, though, the single-pipe solu-
tion yields fairly accurate results. The following guide-
lines may be used for applying the single-pipe equations
to multi-pipe configurations.

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

11.4.6 Pressure-Loss Calculations Fluid properties should be evaluated at the one-third

The pressure loss in the cable system can be calculated point:
from Equation 11-154.
2Tin + Tout
Teval = °C
ΔP = K f ⋅ f
(γ ⋅V 2
⋅ Δx ) 3 11-157 11-157

2 ⋅ Dh 11.4.7 Application of Equations

11-154
Where: Cooling Plant
Kf = correction factor, dimensionless. The cooling plant heat load, H, is calculated from
f = friction factor, dimensionless. Equation 11-158.
γ = density, kg/m3.
V = velocity m/s. CQ ( To ( ) -To ( i ) )
Δx = length, m. H = kW
Dh = hydraulic diameter, m.
1000 11-158
Where:
Pressure drop in psi may be obtained by multiplying val- C = specific thermal capacity, W-s/m3-C°.
ues in Pascals by 1.45 x 10-4. Q = flow rate, m3/s.
To ( ) =fluid temperature at outlet.
A correction factor, K f = 1.2, is recommended to To (i) = fluid temperature at inlet.
account for additional losses due to cable snaking and
accessories such as joints and diffusion chambers. The The fluid temperature can typically be lowered to within
friction factor, f, for cabled pipe can be determined from 5-6°C of the heat-sink temperature with a heat
Figure 11-33. exchanger. If additional temperature differential is
required, then mechanical refrigeration must be
For uncabled pipe, the friction factor, f, can be approxi- employed. The split between mechanical refrigeration,
mated from Equation 11-155 and 11-156:

64
f= Re < 1800
Re 11-155

f = 0.0356 Re > 1800 11-156

Figure 11-33 Friction factor versus Reynolds Number.

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Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

H mr, and the heat exchanger, H he, is calculated from are thoroughly discussed in EPRI Report EL-2233,
Equations 11-159 and 11-160. High Ampacity Terminations (G&W Electric Specialty
Co. 1982.). On the other hand, the porcelain is likely to
To ( ) -The +6 be the weakest pressure component in the system. This
H he = H kW
To ( ) − To ( i ) may limit the maximum allowable flows or dictate the
11-159 system flow configuration.
Hmr = H-Hhe kW 11-160
Hydraulic Components
The power requirements for the cooling plant, P c , Fluid exit and entrance chambers must be included to
including the pump, can be estimated from Equation complete the hydraulic circulation scheme. Entrance
11-161 for a pressure drop, ΔP. (diffusion) chambers are designed to prevent impinge-
ment of fluid normal to the cable surface while exhibit-
⎛ QΔP ⎞ ing fairly low pressure losses. The interior surface must
Pc = 1.1⎜ 0.05H he +0.25H mr + ⎟ kW also allow cable pulling. Although an exit chamber may
⎝ 1000 x Eff ⎠ be a simple “T” fitting, diffusion chambers are some-
11-161 times employed in case flow direction needs to be
reversed. Other hydraulic components such as valves
Pump efficiency (Eff) can be as low as 0.50, but usually and fittings should be selected with low pressure loss in
an efficiency of 0.80 can be obtained under the design mind.
working conditions.
Splices
The ultimate operating pressures under forced-cooling
The higher insulation thermal resistance ( R ) of should be reviewed so that hydraulic components meet
ij the required pressure capabilities.
splices, as compared to cable, should not be ignored at
the higher loadings afforded by forced cooling. An System Design
investigation by Engelhardt (Engelhardt 1972) suggests The degree of forced cooling is usually limited by the
the multiplication factors in Table 11-27 for various maximum allowable pressure drop around the cooling
splice types. loop. The high pressure is limited by the pressure capa-
Table 11-27 Splice Insulation Thermal Resistances bility of components, and the low pressure is limited by
Multiplication Factors either the minimum cable pressure or minimum pump-
suction pressure. The minimum cable pressure is usually
R ij 1000-1200 kPa (145-175 psi) and pump-suction pres-
Construction sures should be maintained above 310 kPa (45 psi) to
eliminate cavitation during startup or transient condi-
Crepe Paper 1.5 Ri tions. A pressure profile can be drawn along the cooling
loop, including pressure losses in the cable pipe, supply
Flat Paper 1.33 Ri or return line, heat exchanger, and other components.
The static profile due to elevation changes is then super-
Cast Epoxy 1.25 Ri imposed on the pressure profile due to flow. All system
components must be capable of withstanding the pres-
LPP 1.13 Ri sure associated with its location in the cooling loop.
Likewise, a fluid-temperature profile around the cooling
loop can be generated. Conductor-temperature rises,
The temperature rise of the splice conductor over fluid including those of the splices, can be superimposed on
can be estimated by substituting R for R in Equa- the fluid-temperature profile. If pressure or temperature
ij i
tion 11-146. limits are exceeded for a given cable loading and cable
Terminals design, the length of the cooling loop must be
Unlike splices, which are almost always thermally limit- decreased. In a multiple cooling-loop design, tempera-
ing in forced-cooled cable systems, terminals and risers tures and pressures must be balanced at the fluid turn-
are likely to be satisfactory without modification. Under around point. These concepts are treated more
typical conditions, terminals can carry 35% more cur- thoroughly in Chapter 9.
rent than the cable in pipe. When fluid is circulated
through the risers, even more capacity is realized due to 11.4.7 Alternative Calculation Approach
axial conduction of heat away from the terminal toward In addition to the methodology summarized above
the risers. Terminal ampacities and cooling procedures based on the EPRI handbook on forced cooling,

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
CIGRE (CIGRE 1987) developed a methodology for
evaluating forced-cooled ratings on pipe-type cables.
The methodology is based on consideration for addi-
tional pressure drop (up to 20%) that may occur as a
result of cable snaking.
The approach outlined in the reference requires the
solution of simultaneous equations and up to an “nth”
order polynomial, where there are “n” cable pipes being
evaluated. The basic forms of the equations are as fol-
lows (for a two pipe system):
ΔT1 ( x ) = K1 ⋅ a11 ⋅ e P1 ⋅ x + K 2 ⋅ a12 ⋅ e P2 ⋅ x
11-162
ΔT2 ( x ) = K1 ⋅ a 21 ⋅ e P1 ⋅ x + K 2 ⋅ a 22 ⋅ e P2 ⋅ x
11-163
Where K1 and K2 reflect the uncooled temperatures of
Pipe 1 and Pipe 2, a11, a12, a21, and a22 are constants that
relate the mutual heating between the cable pipes, P 1
and P 2 are constants that reflect the dielectric liquid
flow rate and change in temperature with respect to dis-
tance, x, along the cable pipes. Using the above equa-
tions, the change in temperature from the cooled to the
uncooled case can be determined with respect to dis-
tance along the pipe. The reader is encouraged to review
the references at the end of this chapter for additional
information on this methodology.
11.5 AMPACITY VERIFICATION AND
UPRATING
Cable system owners sometimes are faced with the real-
world challenge of understanding a cable circuit for
which complete information is initially unavailable. In
conjunction with obtaining a better understanding of
the parameters affecting ampacity—called an “ampac-
ity audit”—utility engineers in particular are called
upon to get more capacity out of existing infrastructure
or perform “uprating.”
This section is not intended to be a comprehensive dis-
cussion on these topics. Various publications, including
EPRI’s Increased Power Flow Guidebook-Underground
Cables (1001818, December 2003), have a detailed dis-
cussion of these topics. Following is a summary of the
issues to consider.
11.5.1 Ampacity Verification
An ampacity verification study is focused on gaining an
increased understanding of the parameters needed to
calculate ampacity. Often, particularly with older cable
system installations, the basis for the ratings used on the
line are not well documented or understood. Some basic
Chapter 11: Ampacity
considerations for an ampacity audit are briefly dis-
cussed below.
The basic concepts include performing a soil thermal
survey to determine soil characteristics and ambient
temperatures, evaluating load history, and then calculat-
ing ampacity. If the AEIC guidelines are being followed
on a circuit that previously had used assumed soil
parameters (requiring a 10C° drop in maximum allow-
able conductor operating temperatures), regaining the
10C° in conductor temperature through a thermal sur-
vey by itself generally allows a 10% or more increase in
ampacity assuming no other mitigating factors.
The ampacity audit is geared towards verifying the
ampacity by whatever means are available and assessing
which locations along the route limit the overall circuit
ampacity.
Cable Construction Identification
It is necessary to identify what cable constructions are
installed along a given circuit, particularly if the cable
system is older and may have had sections replaced dur-
ing repairs. A careful review of owner records often
reveals manufacturer’s data sheets that show the con-
ductor size, insulation thickness, shield construction,
etc. One-line diagrams are sometimes annotated with
cable manufacturing data. If only conductor size and
material can be identified, most of the other parameters
for the cable can be developed based on the system
operating voltage and industry standards.
Develop Installation Data
As-built installation records are very helpful during an
ampacity audit, since these details provide the burial
depth, relative cable spacing, etc., needed for the ampac-
ity calculations. Sometimes senior engineering staff may
have first-hand knowledge of a particular circuit’s
installation data that can be helpful. Failing that, an
above-ground or underground survey may help with
identifying the installation conditions, including using
test pits to locate cable circuits.
One particular challenge to getting the needed installa-
tion data is evaluating interference temperature effects
that may be raising the temperature of the cable system
and, consequentially, robbing amperes from the circuit
or accelerating cable loss-of-life, because the circuit is
unknowingly being heated above its rated temperature.
Route Thermal Survey
A route thermal survey is primarily focused on identify-
ing the soil thermal resistivities along the cable route
where the circuit of interest is installed. A qualified soil
testing specialist would be called in to work with a local
driller. Soil thermal resistivity tests can be done in the
11-65
Chapter 11: Ampacity
field—called in situ—to identify the soil conditions as
they naturally exist. The field measurement also pro-
vides an ambient soil temperature at the depth and time
of year when the measurements are taken. In addition to
field measurements, samples would be obtained for lab-
oratory analyses to develop thermal dryout curves
showing the impact of moisture content on thermal
resistivity. This information would then be used to
update the cable ratings.
Distributed Fiber Optic Temperature Sensing
Distributed fiber optic temperature sensing (DFOTS)
uses a specialized optical time-domain reflectometer
(OTDR) to measure the temperature along a multimode
optical fiber; this type of measurement is also called dis-
tributed temperature sensing (DTS). The process works
by taking advantage of temperature-dependent reflec-
tions (called “backscatter” based on the Raman Effect)
in the fiber. The special OTDR instrument (see Figure
11-34) records the magnitude of the reflection (propor-
tional to temperature) and the time for reflections to
return after sending an incident 1080 nm laser pulse into
the fiber, which, when combined with the fiber’s propa-
gation velocity, gives the distance to the measurement
location. By successively sending light pulses into the
fiber, the special OTDR can scan the entire fiber and
obtain a temperature trace along the fiber with a spatial
resolution of approximately 1 m and a temperature
accuracy of 1°C for multimode fibers (less accuracy is
obtained with single-mode fibers). The obvious advan-
tage to DFOTS is that a continuous end-to-end temper-
ature measurement is possible, allowing the ampacity
study to reveal all of the hot spots along the cable route.
Later, these hot spots could be instrumented with ther-
mocouples for extended temperature measurements at
key locations.
DFOTS offers the possibility that all the hot spots along
a cable circuit could be identified. The reason for each
Figure 11-34 Two types of DTS equipment being used in
the field for an ampacity audit (courtesy of PDC).
11-66
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
hot spot would need to be developed using the owner’s
plan and profile information. Once the hot spots are
identified, a mitigation plan could then be developed
and implemented.
11.5.2 Uprating
The following methods are mostly applicable to pipe-
type cables, although there are applications that could
extend to extruded or self-contained cables.
Dielectric Fluid Circulation
Fluid circulation in HPFF cables is a common technique
for mitigating relatively short thermally-limiting sections.
Circulating the dielectric liquid within the cable pipe
allows the heat generated in the hot section to be trans-
ferred to other portions of the route, mitigating the hot
temperatures at that location. One requirement for this to
be implemented is to have a fluid return pipe or a parallel
cable pipe that permits a continuous circulation path.
Flow rates are generally in the range of 20-160 l/m (5-40
gpm) depending on the length of the hot spot. Fluid oscil-
lation can sometimes be applied where no fluid return
pipe is available but is less efficient than circulation.
Fluid circulation can be extended to forced cooling, as
discussed earlier in this chapter, to actively increase the
capacity of a pipe-type cable.
Heat Pipes
Heat pipes are passive devices that take advantage of the
heat of vaporization of an internal fluid to remove heat
from a location and move the heat a few meters away. A
heat pipe is constructed using an evaporative coolant
such as an alcohol-water or ammonia-water mixture in a
partially filled copper tube. A partial vacuum may be
drawn on the tube to adjust the vapor pressure to the
operating temperature range for the particular applica-
tion. The heat pipe is then installed at an angle with the
low point installed near the heat source (cable, steam
main, etc.). Heat from the source is absorbed by the
coolant solution, causing a phase change to vapor, which
rises, carrying the heat away. The gaseous vapor then
condenses at the remote location back to a liquid, away
from the hot spot, and then drains back to the hot spot
location. This continuous process removes heat from the
hot spot location. The number and installation geometry
of the heat pipes are typically designed by a specialist.
Real-Time Dynamic Ratings
Comparison of Book and Real-Time Dynamic Ratings
Book or “precalculated” ratings of buried transmission
lines have historically been based on assumptions about
the nature of the load cycle and the thermal parameters
of the surroundings. The thermal properties of cable
components and containment systems have been mea-
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
sured in laboratories and are well known. Although the
thermal resistivity and diffusivity of the soil surrounding
the cable systems can be determined in the laboratory,
these properties are weather dependent, and to a certain
extent dependent on cable loading. They vary with time
and in space due to variation in the soil type, density,
and moisture content. The latter is a function of rainfall,
location of the water table, and loading. In addition,
ambient temperature varies with depth and with season.
Normal ratings are strongly influenced by the earth por-
tion of the thermal circuit. The temperature rise in the
earth due to cable loading is normally greater than the
temperature rise in the cable from the earth interface to
the conductor. Without knowledge of the thermal state
of the cable system, precalculated or “book” ratings
must use conservative assumptions for earth properties
and ambient temperature.
Steady-state or normal ratings are a function of the load
cycle, since the thermal time constant of the earth is
long compared to the length of the daily load cycle.
Transient or emergency ratings are a function of the
load shape and the starting load or temperature of the
cable system. Without real-time measurement and a
modeling system, these assumptions for preloading
must also be conservative
Knowledge of the ambient earth temperature, load his-
tory, and the temperature response of the cable system
to this load enables real-time dynamic ratings to be
computed based on actual rather than assumed condi-
tions. The result is ratings that are frequently higher
than those based on assumptions about the parameters
enumerated above. In particular, dynamic emergency
ratings can be significantly higher than ratings that
assume loading at 100% of the normal rating. Normal
ratings can also be higher in the case where the designer
has assumed conservative thermal resistivity and ambi-
ent temperatures.
Components of a Real-Time Dynamic Rating System
The principal components of a real–time dynamic rat-
ings system are: (a) continuous data collection, (b) a
dynamic thermal model, (c) a parameter identification
algorithm, and (d) a ratings algorithm.
Data collected are: (1) continuous load current, (2)
ambient earth temperature, and (3) temperature mea-
sured on the cable system such as the surface of a pipe
or cable, an empty duct, or a temperature inside the
cable jacket.
Chapter 11: Ampacity
The Dynamic Thermal Model is a computer-based
mathematical thermal model based on the geometry
and design of the cable system that is able to dynami-
cally respond to cable loading and external thermal con-
di t i o n s. I t c o n t i nu o u s ly o b t a i n s d at a f ro m t h e
measurement system and updates its thermal state on a
frequent basis (typically 1 minute).
The parameter identification algorithm uses the com-
puted and measured temperatures and adjusts or com-
putes the unknown thermal parameters, such as the
earth thermal resistivity and diffusivity, so as to mini-
mize the difference between measured and computed
temperatures. The result is a thermal model that can be
used to compute accurate ratings.
The ratings algorithm uses the thermal model to com-
pute ratings based on the present thermal state of the
cable system. Normal and long-time emergency ratings
may be based on the actual load cycle. All ratings reflect
the actual ambient conditions rather than assumed con-
stant ambient earth temperature and earth thermal
resistivity.
Location of Measurements
Measurements can be made either at discrete “cross sec-
tions” or continuously from end to end by the use of
optical fiber. When discrete measurements are used,
locations to be measured are selected taking into con-
sideration variation in depth, location of the water table
and crossing or parallel cables, and other heat sources.
Locations at shallow depth tend to limit ratings in sum-
mer. Deeper sections tend to limit ratings at other times
of the year.
Typical Real-Time Data
Data available from a real-time ratings system include
the inputs—load currents, ambient earth temperatures
at various depths, and cable or containment surface
temperatures—and outputs, such as normal and emer-
gency ratings. Also available are quantities used to com-
pute the ratings, including computed cable temperatures
and identified thermal resistivity, daily and weekly load
and loss factors, computed currents at points along the
route, power factor, and power delivered.
System Operational Considerations
Since some calculated real-time ratings vary consider-
ably from day to day or week to week, system operators
may require continuously updated minimum and/or
average ratings computed over a period of time such as
30 days.
Comparison of Real-time and Precalculated Ratings
Normal dynamic ratings will be above precalculated val-
ues if the assumptions regarding soil properties were
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Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

conservative. It is possible that normal ratings will be ings depends on the level of loading at the time that the
below the precalculated values in cases where higher ratings are computed.
than assumed thermal resistivity exists. In any case, a
Quasi-Dynamic
real-time dynamic rating system maximizes the rating
While real-time ratings are very helpful to cable system
capability of the cable system and ensures that it is oper-
engineers and operators, sometimes a comprehensive
ating safely within its temperature limits. Typically
real-time rating system cannot be implemented. Instead,
emergency dynamic ratings are significantly above pre-
many of the techniques used for full real-time rating can
calculated values.
be applied on an intermittent basis to gain an under-
standing of the operating history of the circuit and its
Typical normal rating increases range from 3 to 7%.
overall capability. Also, this may help a cable system
Typical 300-hr emergency rating increases range from 4
owner get past a capacity shortfall until another means
to 14%. Short-time emergency rating increases are typi-
of increasing capacity can be achieved.
cally much greater. The increase in the emergency rat-

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

11.6 WORKED EXAMPLES

This portion of the chapter contains worked examples using the equations and concepts discussed earlier to demon-
strate for the reader how to perform ampacity calculations.

11.6.1 Example 1 – 230-kV Crosslinked Polyethylene Cable Normal Rating

Ampacity Example for Extruded Dielectric (XD) Cable

The ampacity calculation is for a 230-kV 1200 mm2 segmented copper conductor, with 23 mm XLPE insulation, cop-
per wire shield and copper foil laminate moisture barrier, two circuits installed in a vertical duct bank.

Cable Data:

A = 2368.2 Conductor area, kcmil

ρconductor = 1.7241 x 10-8 Conductor electrical resistivity at 20°C, ohm-m

τconductor = -234.5 Inferred temperature of zero resistance, °C

kS = 0.435 Conductor skin effect factor, dry segmental

kp = 0.6 Conductor proximitty effect factor, dry segmental

Dc = 1.774 Diameter of the segmental conductor, inches

Tc = 90 Maximum allowable normal conductor operating temperature, °C

tcs = 0.063 Thickness of conductor semiconducting shield, in.

ti = 0.906 Insulation wall thickness, in.

ρinsulation = 3.5 Thermal resistivity of insulation, C°-m/Watt

tis = 0.067 Thickness of insulation semiconducting shield, in.

num_wires = 46 Number of wires in stranded copper shield

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Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

wire_diameter = 0.095 Diameter of stranded shield wires, in.

ρwire = 1.7241 x 10-8 Electrical resistivity of wire shield (copper in this case) at 20°C, ohm-mm2/m

τwire = -234.5 Inferred temperature of zero resistance, °C

tsheath = 0.006 Thickness of foil moisture barrier/metallic sheath, in.

ρsheath = 1.7241 x 10-8 Electrical resistivity of metallic sheath (copper in this case) at 20°C, ohm-mm2/m

τsheath = -234.5 Inferred temperature of zero resistance, °C

tj = 0.122 Jacket thickness, in.

ρ jacket = 3.5 Thermal resistivity of jacket, C°-m/Watt

εr = 2.3 Dielectric constant of the insulation

tan δ = 0.001 Dissipation factor of the insulation, numeric

f = 60 Power frequency, Hz

n' = 1 Number of conductors per duct

Ta = 25 Ambient earth temperature, °C

LF = 0.62 24-hour daily loss factor, per unit

E = 230000 System line-to-line voltage, volts

circuits = 2 Number of circuits

N = circuits·3 Number of occupied ducts

Duct Data:

ODduct = 6.625 PVC Duct outside diameter, in.

tduct = 0.28 Thickness of duct wall, in.

IDduct = ODduct-2·tduct

IDduct = 6.065 Duct inside diameter, in.

ρ duct = 6.00 Thermal resistivity of duct/conduit, C°-m/Watt

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

Installation Data:
x_loc1 = -10
x_loc2 = -10
x_loc3 = -10
Horizontal locations of conduit centers, in.
x_loc4 = 10
x_loc5 = 10
x_loc6 = 10

burial1 = 65
burial2 = 75
burial3 = 85
Burial depths to conduit centers, in.
burial4 = 65
burial5 = 75
burial6 = 85

In this particular vertical configuration, the middle cable has the highest temperature, so that will be used as the basis
for ampacity calculations.

ρnative = 1.20 Thermal resistivity of the native earth, C°-m/Watt

ρbackfill = 0.60 Thermal resistivity of the duct concrete, C°-m/Watt

Widthcbf = 33 Width of backfill, in.

Heightcbf = 33 Height of backfill, in.

Center_Depthcbf = 75 Depth to center of backfill envelop, in.

Calculate Cable Geometry:

DCS = DC + 2·tCS Diameter over the conductor shield, in.

Dcs = 1.900

Dinsulation = Dcs + 2·ti Diameter over the insulation, in.

Dinsulation = 3.712

Dis = Dinsulation + 2·tis Diameter over the insulation shield, in.

Dis = 3.846

Dms = Dis + 2·wire_diameter Dia. over the metallic shield, in. If a taped shield, this is 2 times the tape
thickness.
Dms = 4.036

Dmss = Dms + 2·tms Dia. over the metallic sheath, in.

Dmss = 4.048

Djacket = Dmss + 2·tj Diameter over jacket, in.

Djacket = 4.292

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Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Clearance = IDduct – Djacket Clearance in conduit, in.

Clearance = 1.773

Metric Conversion of Variables:

A
Area conductor = Areaconductor = 1200.0 mm2
1.9735
Dconductor = Dc·(25.4) Dconductor = 45.060 mm

Dcond_shield = Dcs·(25.4) Dcond_shield = 48.260 mm

Dinsulation = Dinsulation·(25.4) Dinsulation = 94.285 mm

Dinsl_shield = Dis·(25.4) Dinsl_shield = 97.688 mm

Dmet_shield = Dms·(25.4) Dmet_shield = 102.514 mm

tms = tms·(25.4) tms = 0.152 mm

lay_wires = Dmet_shield·6.7 Length of lay, mm (= 6.7 times diameter of layer)

lay_wires = 686.846 mm

wire_diameter wire_diameter = 2.413 mm

= wire_diameter·(25.4)

Dmet_sheath = Dmss·(25.4) Dmet_sheath = 102.819 mm

Djacket = Djacket·(25.4) Djacket = 109.017 mm

ODduct = ODduct·(25.4) ODduct = 168.275 mm

IDduct = IDduct·(25.4) IDduct = 154.051 mm

Dearth = ODduct earth diameter, mm (jacket OD for direct buried cables)

i = 1..N i = 1..6

⎛ - 254 ⎞ ⎛1651 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
x_loci = x_loci·(25.4) buriali = buriali·(25.4) ⎜ - 254 ⎟ ⎜1905 ⎟
Widthcbf = Widthcbf·(25.4) ⎜ - 254 ⎟ ⎜ 2159 ⎟
x_loci = ⎜ ⎟ buriali= ⎜ ⎟ mm
Heightcbf = Heightcbf·(25.4) ⎜ 254 ⎟ ⎜1651 ⎟
Center_Depthcbf = Center_Depthcbf·(25.4) ⎜ 254 ⎟ ⎜1905 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 254 ⎟ ⎜ 2159 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Calculate the dielectric losses:

2
⎛ E ⎞
2 ⋅π ⋅ f ⋅ε r ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ tan δ ⋅10 −9
Wd = ⎝ 3⎠
⎛ D ⎞
18 ⋅1n⎜ insulation ⎟
⎜D ⎟
⎝ cond _ shield ⎠
Wd = 1.268 W/m/phase

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

Calculate Cable Thermal Resistances:

ρinsulation ⎛ Dinsl _ shield ⎞

Ri = ·1n ⎜ ⎟
2⋅π ⎝ Dconductor ⎠

R i = 0.431 C°-m/W

ρ jacket ⎛ D jacket ⎞
Rj = ·1n ⎜ ⎟
2⋅π ⎜ D met _ sheath ⎟
⎝ ⎠

R j = 0.033 C°-m/W

U = 5.2 V = 0.91 Y = 0.01 Constants for fiber duct in concrete (Use earthenware duct constants for soap
stone or terracotta ducts)

Estimate of mean temperature in duct, °C (This is an iterative calculation based on rated ampacity. See the end of
this worked example for calculation method.)
Tmduct = 75.002 °C

U
R cable_to_d uct = R cable_to_duct = 0.2723 C°-m/W
1 + 0.1·(V + Y·Tm duct )·(D jacket )

ρ ⎛ OD duct ⎞
R duct = duct ⋅ 1n ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2⋅π ⎝ ID duct ⎠

R duct = 0.084 C°-m/W

Calculate External Thermal Resistances

Calculate geometric correction factor for backfill envelope:
x = Widthcbf x = 838.2 y = Heightcbf y = 838.2 y is always the longer dimension of the backfill

⎡ 1 ⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ 4 x ⎞ ⎛ y2 ⎞ ⎤
⎢⎛⎜ ⎞⎟⋅⎜ ⎟⋅⎜ − ⎟⋅1n ⎜1+ ⎟ +1n ( x ) ⎥ Db = 921.455 mm
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎢⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ y ⎠ ⎝ π y ⎠ ⎜ x 2 ⎟ ⎥
Db = e ⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦

Lb = Center_Depthcbf Lb = 1905 mm

⎛ 2·L + 4·L 2 − D 2 ⎞
G b = 1n⎜ b b b ⎟ Gb = 2.098 (dimensionless)
⎜ Db ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Calculate diameter Dx

6.71·10 4 mm 2
α soil' = Thermal diffusivity of native soil α soil ' = 1456.725
(ρ native ·100) 0.8 hour

D x = 1.02· α soil' ·24 Diameter beyond which 24 hour average Dx = 190.719

losses apply, mm

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Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

The self and mutual earth thermal resistances each consist of two terms. The first term assumes
that the concrete resistivity applies everywhere, and the second term corrects for the excess of the
native earth resistivity over the concrete resistivity. The calculation assumes that the middle cable in the vertical posi-
tion is the hottest cable.
⎡ ⎡ 2·burial + 4(burial ) 2 − D 2 ⎤⎤
ρ backfill ⎢ ⎛ D x ⎞ ⎥ ⎥ + LF· (ρ native − ρ backfill ) ⋅ n '⋅G
Rearth = ⋅ 1n ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + LF·1n ⎢ 2 2 x
b
2·π ⎢ ⎝ OD duct ⎠ ⎢ Dx ⎥⎥ 2·π
⎣⎢ ⎣ ⎦ ⎦⎥
Rearth = 0.3544
Earth thermal resistance with backfill correction
for AC losses (at load factor of losses)

⎡ ⎡ 2·burial + 4(burial ) 2 − D 2 ⎤ ⎤
ρ backfill ⎢ ⎛ D x ⎞ x ⎥ ⎥ (ρ native − ρ backfill )
Rearth' = ⋅ 1n ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + 1n ⎢ 2 2
+ ⋅ n '⋅G b
2·π ⎢ ⎝ OD duct ⎠ ⎢ Dx ⎥⎥ 2·π
⎣⎢ ⎣ ⎦ ⎦⎥
Rearth' = 0.5644
Earth thermal resistance with backfill correction
for dielectric losses (100% loss factor)

Mutual thermal resistance among cable phases, plus correction for backfill

Distances from Cable #2 to images of other cables, mm

d' 21 = (x _ loc 2 − x _ loc 1 ) 2 + (burial 2 + burial 1 ) 2 d'21 = 3556.0

d' 23 = (x _ loc 2 − x _ loc 3 ) 2 + (burial 2 + burial 3 ) 2 d'23 = 4064.0

d' 24 = (x _ loc 2 − x _ loc 4 ) 2 + (burial 2 + burial 4 ) 2 d'24 = 3592.1

d' 25 = (x _ loc 2 − x _ loc 5 ) 2 + (burial 2 + burial 5 ) 2 d'25 = 3843.7

d' 26 = (x _ loc 2 − x _ loc 6 ) 2 + (burial 2 + burial 6 ) 2 d'26 = 4095.6

Distances from Cable #2 to other cables, mm

d 21 = (x _ loc 2 − x _ loc 1 ) 2 + (burial 2 − burial 1 ) 2 d21 = 254.0

d 23 = (x _ loc 2 − x _ loc 3 ) 2 + (burial 2 − burial 3 ) 2 d23 = 254.0

d 24 = (x _ loc 2 − x _ loc 4 ) 2 + (burial 2 − burial 4 ) 2 d24 = 568.0

d 25 = (x _ loc 2 − x _ loc 5 ) 2 + (burial 2 − burial 5 ) 2 d25 = 508.0

d 26 = (x _ loc 2 − x _ loc 6 ) 2 + (burial 2 − burial 6 ) 2 d26 = 568.0

⎛ d' ⎞ ⎛ d' ⎞ ⎛ d' ⎞ ⎛ d ' 25 ⎞ ⎛ d ' 26 ⎞

Ffactor = ⎜⎜ 21 ⎟⎟ ⋅ ⎜⎜ 23 ⎟⎟ ⋅ ⎜⎜ 24 ⎟⎟ ⋅ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⋅ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ Ffactor = 77297.9
⎝ d 21 ⎠ ⎝ d 23 ⎠ ⎝ d 24 ⎠ ⎝ d 25 ⎠ ⎝ d 26 ⎠

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

ρ ⎛ρ − ρ backfill ⎞
R mutual = backfill ⋅ n '⋅LF ⋅ ln(Ffactor ) + LF⎜⎜ native ⎟ ⋅ n '⋅( N − 1) ⋅ G b
⎟
2⋅π ⎝ 2 ⋅ π ⎠
R mutual = 1.287 C° - m/Watt

ρ ⎛ρ − ρ backfill ⎞
R mutual' = backfill ⋅ n '·1n (Ffactor ) + ⎜⎜ native ⎟ ⋅ n '⋅( N − 1) ⋅ G b
⎟
2⋅π ⎝ 2 ⋅ π ⎠
R mutual' = 2.076 C° - m/Watt

Sp = d21 minimum phase spacing, mm Sp = 254 mm

Calculate Conductor Resistance:

ρ conductor
R dc 20 = Rdc20 = 14.368 x 10-6 ohm/meter at 20°C
Area conductor ⋅ 10 − 6
Assume 2.5% Stranding of Conductor
Rdc20 = 14.727 x 10-6 ohm/meter at 20°C
R dc20 = R dc20 ⋅ 1.025

⎛ Tc − τ conductor ⎞
R dcT = R dc 20 ·⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ RdcT = 18.777 x 10-6 ohm/meter at 90°C
⎝ 20 − τ conductor ⎠

Calculate conductor skin effect factor:

2
⎛ 8·π·f ·(k S )·10 − 7 ⎞
XS = ⎜
4 ⎟ X S 4 = 12.204
⎜ R dcT ⎟
⎝ ⎠

XS4
YCS = YCS = 0.060
4
192 + 0.8 ⋅ X S
Calculate conductor proximity effect factor:
2
⎛ 8·π·f ·(k P )·10 − 7 ⎞
XP4 = ⎜ ⎟ X P 4 = 23.218
⎜ R dcT ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎡ ⎤
2 ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎢ ⎛ ⎞ ⎥
YCP = ⎜
XP ⎟·⎜ conductor ⎟ ·⎢0.312·⎜ D conductor
D ⎟ +
1.18
⎥
⎜ 192 + 0.8 ⋅ X 4 ⎟ ⎜ Sp ⎟ ⎜ Sp ⎟ ⎛ 4 ⎞
⎝ P ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎜ X P ⎟ + 0.27 ⎥
⎢ ⎜ 192 + 0.8 ⋅ X ⎟
4 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ P ⎠ ⎥⎦
YCP= 0.008
Rac = RdcT·(1 + YCS + YCP)
Rac = 20.116 x 10-6 ohm/meter

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Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Calculate the shield losses:

The bonding scheme for this case is cross-bonded so there is no circulating current. Eddy current
losses for the foil shield are included in the calculations. For the purposes of calculations
(for this and all cases), the temperature of a metallic insulation shield and the metallic sheath
will be assumed equal.

Wire Shield
This particular case does not include a taped metallic shield (wire shield instead), so the shield does
not have an impact on the calculated eddy current loss increments. If a taped shield is present, the
taped shield and metallic sheath (if present) must be considered together when calculating eddy
current losses. If only a taped shield is present with no metallic sheath, then only the taped shield is
considered for eddy current losses. If only a wire shield is present with no metallic sheath, then
there are no eddy current losses.

num _ wires·π·(wire _ diameter) 2

Area sheild = Areashield = 210.360 mm2
4
2
⎡ (D met _ shield + D insl _ shield ) ⎤
ρ wire ⎢ π· ⎥
R shield 20 = · 1+ ⎢ 2 ⎥
Area shield ⋅ 10 −6 ⎢ lay _ wires ⎥ Rshield20 = 90.142x10-6 ohm/meter
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
Continuous Metallic Sheath (assumes foil laminate is lapped 12.7 mm (0.5 in):

Area sheath = π·
[(D met_sheath )2 − (D met_shield )2 ]
+ t ms ·0.5 ⋅ 25.4 Areasheath = 51.090 mm2
4
ρ sheath
R sheath 20 = Rsheath20 = 337.462x10-6 ohm/meter
Area sheath ⋅ 10 − 6
Calculate Shield/Sheath Resistances, adjusted for temperature:
Ts=79.419°C

Ts - τ wire
R shieldT = R shield20 . RsheathT = 111.188x10-6 ohm/meter
20 - τ wire
Ts - τ sheath
R sheathT = R sheath20 . RsheathT = 416.251x10-6 ohm/meter
20 - τ sheath
1
Rs =
1 1 Rs = 87.749x10-6 ohm/meter
+
R shieldT R sheathT
Eddy current loss increment:

2·π·f ·10 −7 m = 0.091

m=
R sheathT

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

⎡ ⎡⎛ D ⎞⎤
2⎤
met _ sheath + D met _ shield
⎛ m ⎞ ⎢ ⎢⎜⎜
2 ⎟⎥
⎟
⎥
YSe0 = 6 ⋅ ⎜ ⎟. ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎜ 1 + m 2 ⎟ ⎢ ⎢⎢⎝ ⎠⎥ YSe0 = 1.994 x 10-3
⎥ ⎥
⎝ ⎠⎢ 2 ⋅ Sp ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎦
⎣⎣ ⎦
1.4 ⋅ m + 0.7
⎡⎛ D met _ sheath + D met _ shield ⎞⎤
⎢⎜ ⎟⎥
YSe1 = 0.86 ⋅ (m )3.08 ⎢⎜⎝ 2 ⎟
⎠⎥ YSe1 = 1.405 x 10-4
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⋅ Sp ⎥⎦

8 ⋅ π 2 ·f
X ec = Xec = 165.764
⎛ ρ sheath ⎞ 7
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⋅ 10
⎝ 10 6 ⎠
⎡ ⎡ ⎤
1.74 ⎤
⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎥
⎢ ⎢ t ms ⎥ ⎡ ⎛ D met_sheath + D met_shield ⎞ −3 ⎤⎥
g s = ⎢1 + ⎢ ⎥ ·⎢X ec ·⎜ ⎟·10 − 1.6⎥ ⎥ gs = 1.000
⎢ ⎢ ⎛ D met_sheath + D met_shield ⎜ ⎟
⎞⎥ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎥
⎢ ⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟⎥ ⎥
⎢ ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠⎦ ⎥
⎣ ⎦

⎛R ⎞⎡ (X .t )4 ⎤
⎟⎟.⎢g s .YSe0 .(1 + YSe1 ) + ec ms ⎥
YEC = ⎜⎜ sheathT Yec = 0.041
⎝ R ac ⎠ ⎣⎢ 12 × 1012 ⎦⎥

Since this cable is cross-bonded, no net circulating current is assumed.

YCC = 0

Calculate AC Resistance Including Metallic Shield/Sheath Losses:

Q S = 1 + YEC + YCC QS =1.041

Temperature rise from dielectric heating:

⎛ Ri ⎞
ΔTd = Wd .⎜⎜ + R j + R cable _ to _ duct + R duct + R earth ' + R mutual ' ⎟⎟ ΔTd = 4.116 C°
⎝ 2 ⎠
Allowable conductor temperature rise:

ΔTc = Tc – Ta – Td ΔTc = 60.884 C°

Summation of electrical and thermal resistances:

( (
RacΣQ i R thermal i = R ac · R i + Q s · R j + R cable_to_duct + R duct + R earth + R mutual ))
RacΣQ i R thermal i = 51.212x10 -6 C°/ampere 2

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Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

ΔTC
I rated = Irated = 1090.3
RacΣQ i R thermali
Itotal = 2.Irated Itotal = 2180.7
Tc = 90.000

⎛ W ⎞
Ts = Tc − ⎜ I rated 2 .R ac + d ⎟.R i Ts = 79.419
⎝ 2 ⎠

( ⎛
) ⎞
R cable _ to _ duct Calculate temperature to middle of
Tm duct = Ts _ calc − I rated 2 ⋅R ac ⋅Q s + Wd .⎜ R j + ⎟ air space in duct, °C
⎜ 2 ⎟ Tmduct = 75.002
⎝ ⎠

( )(
Tearth _ int erface = Ts _ calc − I rated 2 . R ac ⋅ Q s + Wd . R j + R cable _ to _ duct + R duct ) Tearth_interface = 69.232

11.6.2 Example 2 – 230-kV Crosslinked Polyethylene Cable Emergency Rating

Using the data from Example 1, calculate a 100-hour emergency for the cable system.
Calculate Thermal Capacitances for Emergency Ratings
Specific heats of various cable materials used in this cable construction:

Cp conductor = 3.45·10 6 copper conductor, J/C°-m3

Cp insulation = 2.40·10 6 XLPE insulation, J/C°-m3

Cp shield_sheath = 3.45·10 6 copper wires and sheath, J/C°-m3

PE jacket, J/C°-m3
Cp jacket = 2.400·10 6
PVC conduit, J/C°-m3
Cp conduit = 1.70·10 6

Area conductor C conductor = 4140.0

C conductor = .Cp conductor J/C°-m
6
10

C insulation =
Cp insulation π
10 6 4
[( )
. . D insl _ shield 2 − (D conductor )2 ] C insulation = 14161.0 J/C°-m

2
π·(wire_diameter )2 Cρshield _ sheath ⎛ π·D met_shield ⎞
Cshield _ sheath = num _ wires· · · 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ C shield _ sheath = 971.1 J/C°-m
4 6
10 ⎝ lay _ wires ⎠

+
Cpshield _ sheath π
106
[( ) (
. . D met _ sheath 2 − D met _ shield 2
4
)]

C jacket =
Cp jacket π
10 6 4
[( )
. . D jacket 2 − (D met _ sheath ) 2 ] C jacket = 2474.7 J/C°-m

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

C conduit =
Cp conduit π
10 6 4
[
. . (OD duct )2 − (ID duct ) 2 ] C conduit = 6121.5 J/C°-m

Calculate thermal diffusivity of soil (convert from mm2/hour to m2/second)

6.71⋅104 mm 2
δsoil ' = Thermal diffusivity of native soil
( ρnative .100 )0.8 hour

2 mm 2
1 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
δsoil = δ soil ' . . .⎜ ⎟ δ soil = 4.046 x10 −7 sec ond
60 60 ⎝ 1000 ⎠

Check duration of emergency to see if “long duration” or “short duration”

R check = R i + R j = 0.464

C check = C conductor + C insulation + C shield _ sheath + C jacket

= 21746.9

If emergency duration is greater than this time, then

R .C t check = 3360.9 seconds
t check = check check it’s considered “long duration”. Otherwise, it's
3 t check “short duration”.
= 56.015 minutes
60
Calculate Long Duration Emergency and Transient Temperature Response Constants

RA = Ri R A = 0.431

R B = Q s .(R j + R cable_to_duct + R duct ) R B = 0.405

1 1
p= − p = 0.381
⎛D ⎞ 2
2·ln⎜⎜ insulation ⎟⎟ ⎛⎜ D insulation ⎞⎟ − 1
⎝ Dconductor ⎠ ⎜⎝ D conductor ⎟⎠

CA = Cconductor + p·Cinsulation C A = 9538.1

1
Cshield_sheath + C jacket + ·Cconduit
C B = (1 − p) · C insulation + 2
C B = 15011.6
Qs

1
[ ( )
M = · C A · R A + R B + C B ·R B
2
] M = 7030.6 s

N = C A ⋅ R A ·C B ·R B N = 2.501 x107 s2

M + M2 − N
a= a = 4.786x10-4 1/s
N

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Chapter 11: Ampacity EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

M − M2 − N
b= b = 8.353x10-5 1/s
N

Ra =
1 ⎡ 1
·⎢
a − b ⎣ CA
( ⎤
− b· RA + RB ⎥ ) R a = 0.08 C°-m/W
⎦
R b = R A + R B − Ra R b = 0.748 C°-m/W

Define function to calculate exponential integrals: -Ei(x) = f(x), Ei(x) = -(f(x))

⎡
Ei _ max(x ) ≡ − ⎢− 0.5772156649 − In(− x ) − ∑
∞
(− 1)n ·(- x )n ⎤ Function to calculate exponential integrals.
⎥
⎣⎢ n =1
n·n! ⎦⎥

Calculate Long Duration Emergency (100 hour) for 105°C

t = 100·60·60 emergency duration (seconds) Current is normalized (1 ampere)
i = 0,1..N – 1 Calculate the temperature rise of each cable

105 − τ conductor
Rac emergency = (R ac )(Q s ) Racemergency = 21.914x10-6 Ohm/m
90 − τ conductor
I100 = 1232.5 amperes Irated = 1090.3 amperes
(assumed emergency rating value to give 105°C (from early “normal” rating calculation)
after 100 hours)
Wi = I1002·Racemergency - Irated2·Rac Qs Wi = 8.386 – Calculate additional heat added by emergency,
W/m
Wc = I1002·Racemergency - Irated2·Rac Wc = 9.373 W/m

Cable transient temperature rise:

[ ( ) (
Δ Tcable = Wc R a · 1 - e -a·t + R b · 1 - e − b ⋅ t )] ΔTcable = 7.839 C

Cable surface attainment factor:

ΔTcable
αt = αt = 1.000
(
Wc · R A + R B )

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

Calculate the earth transient temperature rise:

⎡ ⎡ ⎛D ⎡ ⎛ d ' ⎞2 ⎤ ⎤
⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ burial ⎞2 ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ d ⎞2 ⎤
2
⎢ ⎢ − ⎜ earth ⎟ ⎥ ⎢−⎜ 2
⎟ ⎥ ⎢ − ⎜ 21 ⎟ ⎥ ⎢ − ⎜ 21 ⎟ ⎥ ⎥
⎢ ⎢ ⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎥ − − Ei ⎢ ⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎥ + −Ei ⎢ ⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎥ − −Ei ⎢ ⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎥ ... ⎥
⎢ − Ei
⎢ 16·t·δsoil ⎥ ⎢ t·δsoil ⎥ ⎢ 4·t·δsoil ⎥ ⎢ 4·t·δsoil ⎥ ⎥
⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎥
⎢ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎡ ⎛ d ⎞ ⎤ 2 ⎡ ⎛ d' ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ 2 ⎡ ⎛ d ⎞ ⎤ 2 ⎡ ⎛ d ' ⎞ ⎤ ⎤⎥
2
⎢ ⎢−⎜ 23
⎥ ⎢−⎜ 23
⎥ ⎢ ⎢−⎜ 24
⎟ ⎥ ⎢−⎜ 24
⎟ ⎥ ⎥⎥
ρ 1000 ⎟⎠ ⎥ 1000 ⎟⎠ ⎥ ⎢ 1000 ⎠ ⎥ 1000 ⎠ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥
= native i ⎢ + − Ei ⎢ ⎝ − − Ei ⎢ ⎝ + − Ei ⎢ ⎝ − − Ei ⎢ ⎝
·W
ΔTearth ...
4·π ⎢ ⎢ 4·t·δsoil ⎥ ⎢ 4·t·δsoil ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ 4·t·δsoil ⎥ ⎢ 4·t·δsoil ⎥ ⎥ ⎥
⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎥⎥
⎢ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎦⎥ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎡ ⎛ d ⎞ ⎤ 2 ⎡ ⎛ d' ⎞ ⎤ 2 ⎡ ⎡ ⎛ d ⎞ ⎤ 2 ⎡ ⎛ d ' ⎞ ⎤ ⎤⎥
2

⎢ ⎢ ⎜ − 25
⎟ ⎥ ⎢ ⎜ − 25
⎟ ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎜− 26
⎟ ⎥ ⎢ ⎜− 26
⎟ ⎥ ⎥
1000 ⎠ ⎥ 1000 ⎠ ⎥ ⎢ 1000 ⎠ ⎥ 1000 ⎠ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥
⎢ + − Ei ⎢ ⎝ − − Ei ⎢ ⎝ + −Ei ⎢ ⎝ − −Ei ⎢ ⎝ ... ⎥
⎢ ⎢ 4·t·δsoil ⎥ ⎢ 4·t·δsoil ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ 4·t·δsoil ⎥ ⎢ 4·t·δsoil ⎥ ⎥ ⎥
⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎥⎥
⎣ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎦⎥ ⎦

ΔTtransient = ΔTcable + αt·ΔTearth ΔTtransient = 15.0 C°

Tcemergency = Tc+ΔTtransient Tcemergency = 105.0 °C I100 = 1235.7

This is the 100-hour emergency rating. Value is determined by

iterating I100 until the emergency conductor temperature is at
rated emergency temperature (in this case, 105°C).

11.6.3 Example 3 – Calculation of Shield/Sheath Fault Current Capability

Calculate the fault current capability for a 15-cycle fault at 60Hz for the copper wire shield
and copper foil laminate sheath

Several values are used from the ampacity calculation:

Shield/sheath temperature prior to the fault: Ts = 79.419 °C

Since the shield/sheath are in contact with cross-linked polyethylene (Tmax=250°C) and a medium density polyethylene
jacket (Tmax = 150°C), the fault current temperature will be limited to the lesser of these values (e.g., 150°C).

MDPE Jacket maximum allowable temperature: T2 = 150°C

Shield/sheath is Copper: k = 50237 T = τ sheath T = -234.5°C

timefault = 0.25 seconds

Area = Areashield + Areasheath

Calculate fault current:

k ⎛T −T⎞
I fault = Area· .In⎜ 2 ⎟ I fault
= 52.8 kA (thousands of amperes)
time fault ⎝ Ts − T ⎠ 1000

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11.6.4 Example 4 – 345-kV Pipe-Type Cable Normal Rating

Pipe-Type Cable Ampacity Worked Example

Cables are 345-kV HPFF cables with 2500-kcmil segmental copper conductors, 600
mils laminated paper-polypropylene insulation, 0.1 x 0.2, 2 x 3 in. lay stainless steel
skid wires in a nominal 8-in. cable pipe, 2 circuits, 0.62 loss factor.

Cable Data:
A = 2500 Conductor area, kcmil
ρconductor =1.7241x10-8 Electrical resistivity, copper conductor, ohm-m at 20°C
τconductor = -234.5 Inferred temperature of zero resistance, °C
ks = 0.39 Conductor skin effect factor, in oil
kp = 0.46 Conductor proximitty effect factor, in oil, cradled
Dc = 1.824 Diameter of the segmental conductor, inches
Tc = 85 Maximum normal conductor operating temperature, °C
tcs = 0.005 Thickness of conductor semiconducting shield, inches
Values for LPP Insulation
ti = 0.600 Insulation wall thickness, inches
εr = 2.7 Dielectric constant of the insulation
tan δ = 0.0007 Dissipation factor of the insulation, numeric

ρinsulation = 6.00 Thermal resistivity of the insulation, C°-m/Watt

tis = 0.005 Thickness of insulation shield tapes, inches

ρshield = 70x10-8 Electrical resistivity of stainless steel shield tapes, ohm-m at 20°C
Skid Wire Size/Type 0.1in. x 0.2in., 2 x 3in. lay
ρskidwire = 70x10-8 Electrical resistivity of stainless steel skid wire, ohm-m at 20°C
f = 60 Hz
LF = 0.62 Daily (24-hour) loss factor, per unit (entered below)
n=3 Number of cables within pipe or conduit
N=2

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Pipe Data:
Pipe is HPFF
ODpipe = 8.625 Pipe outside diameter, inches
IDpipe = ODpipe -2(0.25) IDpipe = 8.125 Pipe inner diameter, inches
tcoating = 0.07 Pipe coating (Somastic) thickness, inches
Thermal resistivity of the pipe coating, C°-m/W
ρcoating = 3.5
Installation Data:
x1 = –15 x2 = 15 Horizontal location of pipe center, inches
burial1 = 42 burial2 = 42 Burial depth to pipe center, inches
Ta = 25 Ambient earth temperature, °C
f = 60 Power frequency, Hz
E = 345000 x 1.05 System maximum line to line voltage, volts
Thermal resistivity of the native earth, C°-m/W
ρ native = 0.9
Thermal resistivity of the duct concrete,
ρ backfill = 0.5 C°-m/W
Widthcbf = 50.5 Heightcbf=26.5 Width and height of backfill, inches
Center_Depthcbf = 39 Value for center-line depth of cbf is arbitrary
Calculate Cable Geometry:
Dcs = Dc + 2tcs Diameter over the conductor shield, inches
Dinsulation = Dcs + 2ti Diameter over the insulation, inches
Dis = Dinsulation + 2tis Diameter over the insulation shield, inches
Dskidwire = Dis + 1.5 x 0.1 Diameter over 0.1" skid wires, inches
(1.5 factor assumes skid wires “nest”)
Dearth = ODpipe + 2tcoating

(ID − D skidwire ) ⎡ ⎛
Clearance in pipes, inches
0.5
ID pipe D skidwire ⎞⎤
⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎥
pipe
Clearance = − 1.366 D skidwire +
⎟
2 2 ⎣⎢ ⎝ ID pipe − D skidwire ⎠⎦⎥
Dcs = 1.834
Dinsulation = 3.034
Dis = 3.044
Dskidwire = 3.194
Dearth = 8.765
Clearance = 1.163

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Metric Conversion of Variables

A
Area conductor =
1.9735
Dconductor = Dc(25.4)
Dcond_shield = Dcs(25.4)
Dinsulation = Dinsulation(25.4)
Dinsl_shield = Dis(25.4)
Dskidwire = Dskidwire(25.4)
ODpipe = ODpipe(25.4)
IDpipe = IDpipe(25.4)
Dearth = Dearth(25.4)
burial1 = buriall(25.4)
x1 = x1(25.4)
Widthcbf = Widthcbf(25.4)
Heightcbf = Heightcbf(25.4)
Center_Depthcbf = Center_Depthcbf(25.4)
Areaconductor = 1266.8 mm2
Dconductor = 46.33 mm
Dcond_shield = 46.584 mm
Dinsulation = 77.064 mm
Dinsl_shield = 77.318 mm
Dskidwire = 81.128 mm
ODpipe = 219.075 mm
IDpipe = 206.375 mm
Dearth = 222.631 mm
burial2 = burial2(25.4) burial1 = burial2 = 1066.8 mm
x2 = x2(25.4) x1 = -381 mm; x2 = 381 mm
Widthcbf = 1282.7 mm
Heightcbf = 673.1 mm
Center_Depthcbf = 990.6 mm

Calculate the dielectric losses:

2
⎛ E ⎞
2πfε r ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ tan δ10 −9
⎝ 3⎠
Wd =
⎛ D ⎞
18 ln⎜ insulation ⎟
⎜ D cond _ shield ⎟
⎝ ⎠ Wd = 3.44 W/m/phase
Calculate Conductor Resistance:

ρ conductor
R dc 20 =
Area conductor ⋅ 10 − 6

⎡ T − τ conductor ⎤
R dcT = R dc 20 ⎢ c ⎥ Rdc20 = 1.3610 x 10-5 ohms/meter
⎣ 20 − τ conductor ⎦
RdcT = RdcT1.025 Assume 2.5% Stranding of Conductor, Ohms/meter
2 2
⎛ 8πf (k P )10 − 7 ⎞ ⎛ 8πf (k P )10 − 7 ⎞
XS = ⎜
4 ⎟ XP =⎜
4 ⎟
⎜ R dcT ⎟ ⎜ R dcT ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

X S 4 = 11.277 X P 4 = 15.688

Xs4
YCS = S = Dskidwire YCS = 0.056
192 + 0.8 ⋅ X s 4

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⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎛ 4 ⎞ 2 ⎢ 2 ⎥
YCP = ⎜
XP ⎟·⎛⎜ D conductor ⎞⎟ ·⎢0.312·⎛⎜ D conductor ⎞
⎟ +
1.18
⎥ YCP=0.088
⎜ 192 + 0.8 ⋅ X 4 ⎟ ⎝ S ⎠ ⎢ ⎝ S ⎠ ⎛ XP4 ⎞
⎝ P ⎠ ⎜ ⎟ + 0.27 ⎥
⎢ ⎜ 192 + 0.8 ⋅ X 4 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ P ⎠ ⎥⎦
Rac = RdcT[1+1.5(YCS+YCP)] Rac=21.29x10-6
Calculate the shield and skid wire loss increments:
Area of shield tape is width of tape times thickness. Resistance of shield tape is the area
times the helical length times the resistivity divided by the area. Shield tape thickness is
0.005 in. stainless steel, with 1/8 in. lapped, with typical tape width of 7/8 in. Assume there
are two tapes.

7 1
widthshield_tape = (25.4) thicknessshield_tape = 0.005x25.4 lapshield = (25.4)
8 8
(
area shield tape = thickness shield tape width shield tape)( ) layshield = widthshield_tape – lapshield

2
ρ shield ⎛ π ⋅ D insl _ shield ⎞
R shield = 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
area shield tape ⋅ 10 − 6 ⎝ lay shield ⎠
Rshield = 3.172 x 10-6 ohm/meter
Skid wire resistance:
Area of ellipse is pi * major_radius * minor_radius. Area of skid wire is half this. Skid
wire is 0.1 x 0.2, 3-inch lay, 2 wires. Material is stainless steel.

25.4 area sw = π (minor radius )(major radius )

minor_radius = 0.1x25.4 major_radius = 0.2 2
2
layskidwire = 3x25.4

2
⎛ π ⋅ D skidwire ⎞
Length of a helix is 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ lay skidwire ⎠
2
ρ skidwire ⎛ πD skidwire ⎞
R skidwire = 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
area sw ⋅ 10 − 6 ⎝ lay skidwire ⎠ Rskidwire = 0.241 x 10-6 ohm/meter
1
Rs =
1 1 1 1
+ + + Rs = 0.1121 x 10-6 ohm/meter
R skidwire R skidwire R shield R shield

Calculate Mutual Reactance (assume cradled configuration):

⎛ 2.3D insl _ shield ⎞

X m = 2(2 πf )10 −7 ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ Xm = 5.917 x 10-5 ohm
⎝ Dskidwire ⎠

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Rs 1
YCC =
R ac 2
⎛R ⎞ YCC = 5.263 x 10-3
1 + ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟
⎝ Xm ⎠
Q S = 1 + 1.5(YCC ) QS=1.008
Calculate the pipe loss increments to AC resistance:

YPL =
0.0438(D skidwire ) + 0.0226 ID pipe ( )
YPL = 0.469
R dcT 10 6
Q P = 1 + 1.5(YCC ) + YPL QP=1.477

Calculate Cable Thermal Resistances

ρ insulation ⎛ D insl _ shield ⎞

Ri = ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ R i = 0.489 C°-m/W
2π ⎝ D conductor ⎠
U = 0.26 V=0 Y = 0.0026 Constants for HPFF
Tmoil = 68.919 Estimate of mean temperature in duct, °C. (This is an iterative
calculation based on rated ampacity. See the end of this worked
example for calculation method.)

n⋅U
R oil = R oil = 0.196 C°-m/W
(
1 + 0.1(V + Y ⋅ Tm oil ) D insl _ shield ⋅ 2.15 )
ρcoating ⎛ D ⎞
R pipe _ coating = n ln⎜ earth ⎟
2π ⎜ OD ⎟ R pipe _ coating = 0.027 C°-m/W
⎝ pipe ⎠

Calculate External Thermal Resistances:

Calculate geometric correction factor for backfill envelope:
x = Heightcbf x = short dimension of backfill y = Widthcbf y = long dimension of backfill

⎡ 1 ⎛ x ⎞⎛ 4 x ⎞ ⎛ y 2 ⎞ ⎤
⎢⎛⎜ ⎞⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ − ⎟ ln ⎜1+ ⎟+ ln( x ) ⎥
⎢⎝ 2 ⎠⎜⎝ y ⎟⎠⎜⎝ π y ⎟⎠ ⎜ x 2 ⎟ ⎥ Db = 909.533 mm
Db = e⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦

Lb = Center_Depthcbf Lb = 990.6 mm

⎛ 2L + 4 L 2 − D 2 ⎞
⎜ b b b ⎟
=
G b ln⎜ ⎟
Gb = 1.414 (dimensionless)
⎜ Db ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Calculate diameter Dx

6.71x10 4 mm 2
α soil = Thermal diffusivity of native soil αsoil = 1.834 x 103 mm2/hour
(ρ native 100)0.8 hour

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 11: Ampacity

D x = 1.02 α soil 24 Diameter beyond which 24 hour average losses apply

Dx = 213.978 mm
⎛ ⎛ 2 ⋅ burial + 4 ⋅ burial 2 − D 2 ⎞ ⎞ Earth thermal resistance for AC losses at loss
ρ ⎜ ⎛ Dx ⎞ ⎟ ⎟ factor
R earth = backfill n ⋅ ⎜ ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + LF ln⎜⎜ 1 1 x
⎟⎟ ⎟
2π ⎜ ⎝ Dearth ⎠ ⎜ Dx ⎟
⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠ R earth = 0.433 C° − m/W

⎛ ⎛ 2 ⋅ burial + 4 ⋅ burial 2 − D 2 ⎞⎞ Earth thermal resistance for dielectric losses at

ρ ⎜ ⎛ Dx ⎞ ⎟⎟
R earth ' = backfill n ⋅ ⎜ ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ln⎜ 1 l x
⎟⎟ ⎟ 100% loss factor
2π ⎜⎜
⎜ ⎝ Dearth ⎠ Dx ⎟
⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠
R earth' = 0.704 C° - m/W

Mutual thermal resistance between two pipes (just for normal ampacities)
Distance between one cable pipe and image of
d'12 = [(x1-x2)2 + (burial1 + burial2)2]0.5 other cable pipe
d’12=2266 mm
Distance between one cable and the other
d12 = [(x1-x2)2 + (burial1 - burial2)2]0.5
d12=762 mm
d'
F12 = 12 F12=2.973
d12
ρ
R mutual = backfill n ⋅ LF ⋅ ln(F12 ) R mutual = 0.161 C°-m/W
2π
ρ
R mutual' = backfill n ⋅ ln(F12 ) R mutual' = 0.260 C°-m/W
2π
Thermal Resistance correction for native soil for
⎛ρ −ρ ⎞
R correction = LF⎜ native backfill ⎟n ⋅ N ⋅ G b AC losses
⎝ 2π ⎠ R correction = 0.335 C°-m/W
Thermal resistance correction for native soil for
(ρ native − ρ backfill ) dielectric losses
R correction ' = n ⋅ N⋅Gb
2π R correction' = 0.54 C°-m/W

Calculate Normal Ampacity on primary cable

( (
RacΣQ i Rthermal i = R ac R i + Q S R oil + Q P R pipe_coating + R earth + R mutual + R correction ))
RacΣQ i Rthermali = 4.469 x10 −5 C°/A2

⎛R ⎞
ΔTd = Wd ⎜ i + R oil + R pipe _ coating + R earth ' + R mutual' + R correction ' ⎟ ΔTd = 6.784 C°
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
ΔT = Tc- ΔTd-Ta ΔT = 53.216 C°

ΔT
I rated = Irated = 1091.2 A Itotal = 2 · Irated Itotal = 2182.4 A
RacΣQ i Rthermali

[ ( (
Tc = I rated 2 R ac R i + Q S ⋅ R oil + Q P ⋅ R pipe_coating + R earth + R mutual + R correction ))]+ ΔTd + Ta
Tc= 85 °C

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Ri
Tshield = Tc − I rated 2 R ac R i − Wd Tshield = 71.761 °C
2

(
Tmoil = Tshield − I rated 2 R ac ⋅ Qs + Wd ) R2oil

Tmoil = 68.919 °C

(
Tearth _ int erface = Toil − I rated 2 R acc ⋅ Qs + Wd ) R2 − ( I
oil
rated
2
)
R acc ⋅ Q p + Wd R pipe _ coating Tearth_interface = 64.977 °C

Temperature Rise Due to Charging Current:

E −9
2 ⋅π ⋅ f ⋅ ε r 10
I charging = 3 Icharging = 0.023 Amperes per meter
⎛ D ⎞
18 ln⎜ insulation ⎟
⎜D ⎟
⎝ cond _ shield ⎠

For a 16km (10-mile) circuit, the total charging current would be:
Icharging(16000) = 375.9 Amperes
WIc_max = (Icharging16000)2RaccQp WIc_max = 4.444 Watts per meter

⎡ ⎛ ⎛ R pipe coating + R earth + ⎞ ⎞⎤

( )
ΔTIc max = I ch arg ing (16000 )⎢R ac ⎜ R i + Q S ⋅ R oil + Q P ⋅ ⎜
⎢ ⎜ ⎜R
⎟ ⎟⎥
⎟ ⎟⎥
ΔTIc_max = 6.316 C°
⎣ ⎝ ⎝ mutual + R correction ⎠ ⎠⎦

ΔT − ΔTIc max
I rated =
RacΣQ i Rthermali
IratedIc = 1024.4 A
Alternate Approach to Calculating Allowable Real Current

(
I real = I rated 2 − I ch arg ing 16000 2 ) Ireal = 1024.4 A

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11.7 NOMENCLATURE

Symbol Description Units

a absorptivity —
a thermal diffusivity in.2/hr
a, b internal cable time constants based on the R-C network l/s
A difference between maximum and minimum air C°
temperatures
A free area within the tunnel m2
AF transient attainment factor dimensionless
Area cross-sectional area of metal mm2
C capacitance F/m
Ci thermal capacitance of material, i J/C°-m

CP air specific heat kJ/kg-C°

Cpn volumetric specific heat of material n J/C°-m3

D1 height of the skid wire mm
D2 width of the skid wire mm
Db circumscribing circle diameter for special backfill mm
d’c outer diameter of equivalent solid conductor of an mm
equivalent hollow-core, solid conductor
Dcable outer diameter of the cable when one cable is installed in mm
the conduit, or is equal to 2.15 x outer diameter of the
cable when three cores are installed inside a common
conduit or pipe
Dcond_shield diameter over the conductor shield mm
DConductor outside diameter of conductor mm
De diameter of cable, conduit, or pipe to environment mm
Dearth diameter over conduit, pipe, or cable jackets mm
di inner diameter of a hollow-core conductor mm
Dinsulation diameter over the insulation mm
d1N distance from cable 1 to cable n mm
d'1N distance from cable 1 to image of cable n mm
DInner inner diameter of thermal resistance layer mm
DLayer average diameter of the helical layer mm
dphase axial spacing between adjacent cables mm
DOuter outer diameter of thermal resistance layer mm
DS diameter over cable sheath mm
DSkid wire diameter over cable skid wires mm
DSM mean diameter of the metallic shield, sheath, and/or skid mm
wire
Dstrand diameter of a single-wire shield strand mm
Dx diameter beyond which the effect of average daily losses mm
applies
ΔT allowable conductor (or other) temperature rise C°
ΔTC conductor temperature rise due to current-dependent C°
losses

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Symbol Description Units

ΔTd conductor temperature rise due to dielectric losses C°

ΔTIc temperature rise due to charging current losses C°

ΔTint temperature rise due to extraneous heat source or C°

interference temperature rise
ΔTsurface − to − ambient cable, conduit, or pipe surface temperature rise above C°
ambient air
Δz incremental distance over which mutual heating effect is m
assessed; “N” such increments are evaluated from 1 to
“v”
E constant from Table 11-16 —
“Ei” notation for exponential integral —
f power frequency Hz
F geometric factor representing mutual heating between —
multiple cables
Fint mutual heating factor between the external heat source dimensionless
and cable
g constant from Table 11-16 —
Gb geometric correction factor for special backfill dimensionless
gS calculation coefficient —
H Total heat quantity to raise temperatures of both metals kg-J/C°-m3
1 C°
h1 computational parameter mm
I normal ampacity amperes
IC charging current amperes/m
Ic max maximum charging current amperes
IDPipe inner diameter of the cable pipe mm
Ii hourly load values amperes
Iint conductor current in other interfering heat sources amperes
Imax maximum hourly load value during the cycle amperes
Isc maximum short-circuit current amperes
It transient ampacity amperes
k constant for conductor or shield/sheath material dimensionless
kP conductor proximity effect factor —
kS conductor skin effect factor —
L depth from surface to center of cable, conduit, or pipe mm
Lb depth from surface to center of special backfill envelop mm
LayLayer distance along the cable for one turn of the tape or wire mm
LF 24-hour loss factor for the load on the cables —
LFfc forced cooled loss factor dimensionless
LFint loss factor of other heat source —
Lh burial depth of crossing cable m
m calculation coefficient —
• air mass flow rate kg/s
m

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Symbol Description Units

n number of cables within the conduit, pipe or earth —
diameter
N number of shield wires, shield tapes, or skid wires; also, —
number of cables, conduit, or pipes in a group
nint number of cables at the location of the interfering heat —
source
q heat removed from forced circulation W
Qi the ratio of losses in the “ith” layer plus the ratio of —
losses in all inner layers (including the conductor) to
that of the losses of only the conductor
QP ratio of losses in conductor, shield, and pipe to those —
just in the conductor
QS ratio of losses in conductor and shield to those just in
the conductor
Qsun solar heat input W/m2
R any thermal resistivity C°-m/W

R1 , R2 ac resistances of metals 1 and 2 ohm/m

thermal resistances from the equivalent R-C network C°-m/W
Ra , Rb
during the time period being evaluated
Rac electrical resistance ohm/m
Rac ac conductor resistance, including skin and proximity ohm/m
effects
Rac conductor ac resistance at Tmax ohm/m
Rac-int ac resistance of other heat source ohm/m
R cable − to − duct thermal resistance between cable surface (jacket) and C°-m/W
conduit (duct)
R cable − to − pipe thermal resistance between cable surface and pipe C°-m/W

R correction correction factor for controlled backfill or concrete– C°-m/W

encased duct
RdcT resistance at temperature, T ohm/m
R duct duct thermal resistance C°-m/W

R earth Thermal resistance of earth plus mutual heating (may C°-m/W

include surface transfer)
R earth earth thermal resistance C°-m/W

R insulation insulation thermal resistance C°-m/W

R int thermal resistance between an external heat source and C°-m/W

a cable
R Jacket thermal resistance of jacket C°-m/W

R mutual thermal resistance to account for multiple cables within C°-m/W

the trench

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Symbol Description Units

R pipe coating pipe-covering thermal resistance C°-m/W

RS total shield/sheath/skid wire resistance, or resistance of ohm/m

layer for eddy current losses only
R source, earth thermal resistance to ambient earth for external heat C°-m/W
source
R Thermal thermal resistance C°-m/W

R total total thermal resistance from conductor to ambient for C°-m/W

constant load
S axial spacing between nearest phases mm
Sc circuit spacing mm
Sh horizontal displacement of other cables grouped with m
the crossing cables
SP axial spacing between cable, conduit or pipe centers mm
t time since maximum air temperature occurred hr
t time of short circuit seconds
t time (duration) of the response seconds
tShield thickness of the shield or sheath layer for eddy current mm.
loss calculations
T temperature of the conductor °C
T temperature °C
t0 length of period hr
T1 pre-fault temperature of metal °C
T2 allowable short-circuit temperature of the insulation °C
material
Ta ambient earth temperature °C
Tambient ambient soil temperature “remote” from any heat °C
sources
TAverage average annual air temperature °C
tan δ insulation dissipation factor
TC allowable conductor temperature °C
Tmax final conductor temperature °C
Tmean mean temperature of the duct air, or nitrogen gas or °C
dielectric liquid in the pipe
Tφ initial conductor temperature °C

TOUT , TOUT air temperature leaving and entering the tunnel °C

tShield thickness of the shield layer mm
Tsource surface temperature of external heat source °C
T(t-1) shield/sheath temperature from last time step °C
U numerical constant from Table 11-12 —
v incremental counter for evaluating the temperatures —
V numerical constant from Table 11-12 —
Wconductor ac losses generated in the conductor W/m
Wd insulation dielectric losses W/m

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Symbol Description Units

Wdint dielectric loss in other heat source W/m
Wf final watt loss W/m
Wh heat output from cable, conduit, or pipe W/m
Wi losses developed in the conductor W/m
Wi heat output of a particular cable, pipe, or conduit W/m
including shield and sheath losses
WIc max heat output from charging current W/m
Wo initial watt loss W/m
WPipe pipe losses W/m
Wshield ac losses generated in the shield/sheath W/m
Wsun heat absorbed by cable from solar radiation W/m
x depth below the earth's surface in.
x short dimension of the backfill envelope mm
Xm mutual reactance ohm/m
y long dimension of the backfill envelope mm
Y numerical constant from Table 11-12 —
YCC increment in ac losses for shield/sheath circulating —
currents
YEC increment in ac losses for shield/sheath eddy currents —
YPL increment in ac losses for pipe heating effects —
Yse0 calculation coefficient —
Yse1 calculation coefficient —
Z constant from Table 11-16 —

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Greek Symbols

α soil thermal diffusivity of soil mm2/hour

β crossing angle of heat source °

β heat transfer coefficient at surface C°-m2/W
β volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion, dimensionless
δ thermal diffusivity m2/s
ε emissivity of the cable, conduit, or pipe surface —
εo = permittivity of free space = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m
εr = relative permittivity of the insulation (specific inductive dimensionsless
capacitance, dielectric constant)
γ axial thermal resistances of conductor C°-m/W
ρ air density kg/m3
ρ electrical resistivity of metal ohm-m
ρ thermal resistivity C°-m/W

ρ backfill backfill envelope thermal resistivity C°-m/W

ρ native native soil thermal resistivity C°-m/W

ρ shield electrical resistivity of shield at operating temperature ohm/m

τ inferred temperature of zero resistance °C

υ air flow velocity within the tunnel m/s

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
REFERENCES
AIEE. 1953. “Symposium on Temperature Rise of
Cables, AIEE Committee Report.” AIEE Transactions
on Power Apparatus and Systems. Vol. 72. June. pp. 530–
561. (This symposium contained four papers on cable
ampacity.)
Anders, G. J. 1997. Rating of Electric Power Cables.
McGraw-Hill. New York.
ANSI/IEEE. 1986. Std. 738-1986. “IEEE Standard for
Calculation of Bare Overhead Conductor Temperature
and Ampacity Under Steady-State Conditions.”
ASTM. 2000. Standard Test Methods for Laboratory
Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Standard
Effort (12,400 ft-lbf/ft3 (600 kN-m/m3). ASTM Stan-
dard D 698.
Buller, F. H., and J. H. Neher. 1953. “The Thermal
Resistance Between Cables and a Surrounding Pipe or
Duct.” AIEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Sys-
tems. Vol. 72. pp. 1260–1275.
Burghardt, R. H. Matthews, et al. 1983. “Full Scale
Forced Cooling Tests at Waltz Mill.” IEEE Paper, 83
WM, 009-8.
Chato, J. C. 1977. Free and Forced Convection Cooling
of Pipe-Type Electric Cable Systems. August . EPRI
EL-147.
Chato, J. C., J. M. Crowley, et al. 1980. Free and Forced
Convective Cooling of Pipe-Type Electric Cables. EPRI
Report no. EL-1872. Vol. 1.
CIGRE. 1983. Working Group 02 of CIGRE Study
Committee 21. “Computer Method for the Response of
Single-core Cables to a Step Function Thermal Tran-
sient.” ELECTRA. No. 87.
CIGRE. 1985a. Working Group 02 of CIGRE Study
Committee 21. “The Calculation of the Effective Exter-
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Engelhardt, J. 1972. “Ampacity Considerations of
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Glicksman, L. R., J. V. Sanders, et al. 1978. “Heat Con-
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 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

CHAPTER 12 Installation Design

Authors: Dennis E. Johnson, POWER Engineers, Inc.
Deepak Parmar, Geotherm, Inc.
Reviewer: John S. Rector, Black & Veatch

Design engineering for an underground transmission cable system has been called a busi-
ness of details. No single activity is especially complex, but long-term, reliable cable oper-
ation requires attention to a number of details at every stage of system design.

This chapter addresses many of the common design considerations for designing an
underground cable circuit: cable type selection, route considerations, surveying require-
ments, soil thermal properties, mechanical considerations, installation modes, and design
calculations.

Related information may be found in other chapters. Chapter 2 describes cable system
types and their common applications. Chapter 11 covers ampacity principles and calcula-
tion procedures. Chapter 13 provides detailed descriptions of installation procedures.
Chapter 7 describes special application cables, such as submarine, gas-insulated transmis-
sion line, and superconductors. Chapter 10 discusses grounding of underground cable
systems and cathodic protection.

Dennis Johnson is a Senior Project Engineer with POWER Engineers,

Inc. (POWER). He received a BSEE degree from Brigham Young Uni-
versity (1985). He joined Arizona Public Service in 1986, where he ini-
tially was responsible for distribution system design. He later worked
for Black & Veatch from 1988 to 2001 as a design and project engineer
on numerous substation, overhead, and underground transmission
projects at voltages ranging from 69 to 345 kV. Mr. Johnson has worked
as a Senior Project Engineer in POWER’s underground transmission
design group since 2001. Mr. Johnson is a Member of the IEEE Power Engineering Soci-
ety and a Voting Member of the IEEE Insulated Conductors Committee (ICC). He is a
member of various ICC subcommittees that are developing guides and standards for
high-voltage underground cable systems. He is a registered professional engineer in the
states of California, Connecticut, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Nevada, New York, Pennsyl-
vania, Texas, Vermont, and Virginia.

Deepak Parmar is President of Geotherm Inc. He holds a B.Sc. in civil

engineering from Woolwich Polytechnic (1966, London, U.K.) and a
Diploma in management studies (1972, Slough Polytechnic, U.K.).
During undergraduate studies, Mr. Parmar worked at Soil Mechanics
Ltd. in London. From 1973 to 1978, he worked with two civil engineering
consulting firms in Canada, specializing in geotechnical and material test-
ing, and instrumentation of tunnels and shafts. In 1978, Mr. Parmar
founded Geotherm Inc., specializing in underground cable-related soil
and backfill testing. Under contract with Ontario Hydro Research for two years, Mr. Par-
mar worked on EPRI-funded projects for the design and development of the Thermal

12-1
Chapter 12: Installation Design
Property Analyzer and thermal aspects of soil and
backfills. Since 1980, Mr. Parmar and Geotherm have
undertaken numerous research contracts for Canadian
government agencies as well as for electric utilities and
cable manufacturers in Canada, North America, and
overseas. Mr. Parmar and Geotherm have performed
more than 400 route thermal survey projects for under-
ground and submarine cable crossings. Mr. Parmar was
a member of the team of experts retained to investigate
the cable failures in Auckland, New Zealand, and he has
12-2
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
conducted numerous seminars and courses on under-
ground T&D cable ampacity. Mr. Parmar is a member
of the IEEE Power Engineering Society and Insulated
Conductors Committee, Canadian Society for Civil
Engineers, Canadian Geotechnical Society, Tunnelling
Association of Canada, Canadian Electrical Associa-
tion, and CIGRÉ. He has authored and coauthored
numerous papers on the application of thermal parame-
ters of soils and backfills, and was the principal author
for the IEEE Guide for Soil Thermal Resistivity Testing.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Design of an underground electric transmission cable
system installation involves anticipating a host of issues
related to the system’s planning, construction, and oper-
ation. While every installation will inevitably confront
site-specific issues, there are, nevertheless, a number of
common factors that can be expected with most system
installation designs.
This chapter describes the common challenges of instal-
lation design. It covers three primary areas. Section 12.2
reviews typical design considerations—including selec-
tion of the cable type, choosing the best route, surveying
practices, transitions to overhead systems, soil thermal
properties, mechanical considerations during cable
installation, and monitoring systems.
Section 12.3 describes the main modes of installation,
which are trenching (directly buried or in conduit),
trenchless installations, bridges, and underwater instal-
lations.
Section 12.4 briefly explains the series of calculations
that must be performed, principally related to cable
pulling tension and sidewall pressure.
12.2 COMMON DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
12.2.1 Cable-Type Selection
Often the primary procedure in installation design is to
decide on which type of transmission cable system to
use. Pipe-type cables have been the most commonly
used cable system at higher voltages in North America
until recently. Now, with the advances in purity of
extruded-dielectric cables and the general reluctance to
install fluid-filled systems in some parts of the United
States, extruded-dielectric cable systems are becoming
much more common at increasingly higher voltage lev-
els and longer circuit lengths. XLPE-insulated cables are
being designed and installed at voltages up to 230 kV
and 345 kV in long lengths. Self-contained fluid-filled
(SCFF) cables are generally only used in specialized
extra-high-voltage applications. Conditions on individ-
ual utility systems vary, which results in different cable
types being a better choice on one system than another.
Additional discussion on cable system selection is pro-
vided in Chapter 2.
Urban
Extruded-dielectric cables installed in duct banks and
pipe-type cables are frequently used in urban environ-
ments in the United States because of their ruggedness
and the ability to install short lengths of pipe or duct at
Chapter 12: Installation Design
one time in city streets with trench openings of only
300–600 ft (90–180 m). The cable is installed in a sepa-
rate operation, with minimal traffic disruption.
Suburban
In suburban locations, extruded-dielectric, pipe-type,
and SCFF cable can be used, depending upon the spe-
cific application. Careful route-specific technical analy-
sis and costing are required to determine the best cable
type for the application.
Rural
Rural installations are, by their nature, well-suited for
most cable systems. Low traffic volume and long trench
openings allow flexibility for the designer to consider all
the different types of cable systems.
Special Cases
Long underwater crossings often dictate use of SCFF or
extruded-dielectric cables, primarily because it is diffi-
cult to make pipe-type splices underwater. SCFF or
extruded-dielectric cables are generally preferred for
bridge crossings, because the weight and expansion
characteristics of pipe-type cable systems require resolu-
tion of the bending forces, which tends to complicate the
design. Short sections of cable requiring high power
transfer, such as substation ties, are often best served
with compressed-gas-insulated cable systems. For short
underground dips, extruded-dielectric cables are better
suited. Generally, pipe-type cable systems are not eco-
nomical in short lengths.
12.2.2 Route Considerations
A utility should investigate several alternative routes for
an underground cable. The optimal route can save sub-
stantial time and project cost, and in many U.S. states,
the siting commission requires that at least two routes
be investigated. Overhead routes are typically not the
best route for an underground cable.
In general, the shortest route is typically the least expen-
sive. In urban and suburban environments, the allowable
routes are usually limited to existing thoroughfares, and
existing rights-of-way. Frequently, the cable route may be
the same as the route determined suitable for an overhead
line. Detailed route considerations are discussed below.
Environmental
A primary routing consideration is to avoid activity,
where possible, in or near the following types of environ-
mentally sensitive areas. If an environmentally sensitive
area cannot be avoided, consideration should be made
to limit or mitigate the impact.
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Chapter 12: Installation Design
Wetlands
Wetlands provide habitat for many plant and wildlife
species in addition to providing a method for replenish-
ing the earth’s reserve of fresh water. Three characteris-
tics define a wetland: (1) standing water, (2) aquatic
vegetation, and (3) hydric (or hydraulic) soils. If any of
these three characteristics are present, a high probability
exists that this location will be designated a wetland
area. In North America, these types of areas are feder-
ally protected and require a special permit for cable sys-
tem crossings.
Wetlands should be avoided if at all possible by choosing
an alternate route. Depending on the type of wetland,
open trenching may be used, but more likely other meth-
ods of installation such as horizontal directional drilling
may need to be considered when crossing these areas.
Aesthetics
One of the main reasons for selecting an underground
cable system is the aesthetic benefit. The line is placed
underground, so the public cannot see the transmission
line until it exits the ground at the substation or at an
overhead-to-underground transition structure. Aesthet-
ics should be considered when locating and designing
transition structures.
Archeological/Historical
Construction activity in and around known archeologi-
cal sites is typically regulated in the United States by the
state through a State Historical Preservation Office
(SHPO). If the SHPO knows or suspects that an archeo-
logical site exists at or near the site of the planned facil-
ity, further investigation may be required. An
archeologist may need to be engaged to deal with the
process of working in or around these sites.
If an area is archeologically sensitive, the best option is
to reroute the line. There are no construction methods
that will limit the impact to an archeologically sensi-
tive area.
Electromagnetic Fields
Electromagnetic Fields (EMF) may be a significant fac-
tor in the regulatory and environmental process for site
selection. Even though there is no federal standard
defining allowable EMF levels, local jurisdictions may
have restrictions on EMF levels related to the siting of
power lines near schools, daycare centers, children’s
playgrounds, and residential areas.
As with overhead lines, underground lines generate
magnetic fields. However, because the cable shielding
contains the electric field within the cable, no external
electric field is generated.
12-4
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Magnetic field readings directly over a cable are gener-
ally higher than directly under an overhead transmis-
sion line, depending on the type of cable system and the
overhead conductor arrangement, generally because the
cables are closer to the measuring device. However, the
magnetic field strength falls off faster as you move away
from the centerline of the cables, as compared to an
overhead line. Similar to overhead transmission lines,
magnetic fields produced by cables systems can be
reduced by various mitigation methods. Chapter 16 dis-
cusses various mitigation methods.
Land Use
When routing an underground line, it is important to
know the type of area that the line will be traversing. The
type of land use often determines the amount of ease-
ment or right-of-way available for the underground line.
Underground lines are frequently located in existing
roadway rights-of-way. Typically, no easement is
required to install the underground line in public rights-
of-way; however, the owner of the road usually reserves
the right to have the utility relocate the underground
line if a future conflict occurs. For this reason, some
utilities prefer to install underground circuits within a
dedicated easement adjacent and parallel to the public
right-of-way, and to accept the added cost.
Urban
Urban areas are becoming more and more congested
with traffic and underground utilities. This makes the
installation of a new underground transmission line dif-
ficult. When choosing routes in urban areas for new cir-
cuits, extreme care is required to locate the existing
underground facilities. The typical location for a new
underground circuit in an urban area is within the road
right-of-way. There is usually very little undeveloped
land available that could be used for installing an under-
ground line. Major thoroughfares should be avoided
because of the large amount of traffic that would have
to be controlled. The designer should be aware that a
significant cost of installing circuits in urban locations is
traffic control.
Suburban
Suburban areas, like urban areas, are becoming con-
gested with traffic and construction activities. Schools,
churches, and homes will likely be located along the
route selected through suburban areas, requiring addi-
tional safety considerations during construction. These
areas should be avoided, if possible. During construc-
tion, the entire road may need to be closed to provide
sufficient working space for the installation of the
underground cable system.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Rural
Rural areas are generally easier locations in which to
construct underground lines because they usually have
fewer existing underground utilities; however, they also
lend themselves to overhead transmission lines more
easily than suburban and urban areas.
Construction and Maintenance Considerations
Regardless of whether the cable is installed in urban,
suburban, or rural locations, the cable route must be
patrolled routinely, and access maintained for quick
repairs in the event of a failure. An open space of
15–20 ft (4.5–6 m) is required for vehicle access along
the route (Blau 1975). During construction, an addi-
tional temporary easement of approximately 30–50 ft
(9–15 m) is needed to provide sufficient space for the
construction equipment along the route. Figures 12-1
and 12-2 show typical access requirements.
Recently Paved Streets
Metropolitan areas frequently have moratoriums on
new construction within newly paved or resurfaced
roadways. Sometimes it is possible, through long-range
planning and coordination with the local officials, to
install cable pipes or ducts in advance of when the cable
is actually needed, prior to repaving activities. Where
this is not possible, selection of another route is often
the best option.
Obstacles
Obstacles such as rivers, major highways, and railroads
should be avoided where possible. Crossing these obsta-
cles adds significantly to permitting requirements, con-
struction cost, and installation time. Additionally,
crossing these obstacles usually requires installing the
Figure 12-1 Typical and minimum access requirements for
urban and suburban areas.
Figure 12-2 Typical and minimum access requirements for
unpaved areas.
Chapter 12: Installation Design
underground cable deeper underground, which results
in reduced ampacity.
Other Utilities
In many areas, especially well-established cities, there
are usually extensive underground utilities already in
place. Avoiding these utilities can be costly and time-
consuming. In addition, if the cable must frequently dip
beneath other utilities, pulling lengths between man-
holes may need to be decreased, and ampacity may
decrease because of the greater burial depth. Although
it is generally not possible to avoid these utilities com-
pletely, some routes may have fewer subsurface obstruc-
tions than others. Where this cannot be avoided, it may
be desirable to install the cable system shallower, above
the existing utilities.
Heat Sources
Routes having other heat sources, such as multiple dis-
tribution circuits or steam mains, should be avoided.
These are usually found in downtown urban locations.
The designer should try to maintain at least 12 ft (3.6 m)
clearance from these other heat sources to avoid
decreasing the cable’s ampacity or installing a larger
conductor. Thermal barriers and heat pipes have been
used in special cases, although at a significant added
cost (Iwata et al. 1991). Each situation should be evalu-
ated individually.
Traffic Control
Traffic control is becoming a significant consideration
for street construction in all parts of the country. Most
jurisdictions require that a complete traffic control plan,
on a block-by-block basis, be provided during the per-
mitting process. Busy thoroughfares may require elabo-
rate traffic control measures, including severe
restrictions on the hours during which construction may
take place. Smaller streets usually have fewer restrictions
and may even allow closure for short periods of time.
The selected route must provide access for construction
material and equipment both during the installation and
after, should there be a cable failure.
Permitting
Longer underground cable routes frequently pass
through several different jurisdictions, adding to the
complexity of obtaining permits. There are some routes,
even in metropolitan areas, where construction is dis-
couraged or prohibited because of traffic congestion,
tourist attractions, etc. Zoning classifications affect the
allowable construction hours and noise levels, and dif-
ferent routes may have varying degrees of public opposi-
tion. Areas with potential archeological and historical
significance should be avoided wherever possible.
12-5
Chapter 12: Installation Design
Soil Types
Trenching costs vary significantly as a function of soil
type, amount of pavement, amount of rock, amount of
fill material, passage through old landfill areas, and
amount of contaminated soil (e.g., near old gasoline
stations with leaky underground tanks). Some soils
require more shoring than others, and extensive dewa-
tering may cause subsidence in some soil types.
Although there may not be many alternatives, the
designer should consider avoiding difficult trenching
areas. Detailed geotechnical evaluation is required in
the early stages of project design.
Soil Thermal Resistivity
Soil thermal resistivity can also vary widely along differ-
ent routes. Initial soil thermal studies should be made at
the same time as the geotechnical evaluation. The cost
of corrective backfill must be considered when evaluat-
ing different routes. A more detailed discussion of this
subject is included in Section 12.2.6.
12.2.3 Surveying
An accurate route survey, showing both above-grade
and below-grade structures and features, is a very
important design element. The survey can be either
land- or aerial-based; however, land-based surveys gen-
erally provide better detail of the surface features and
the below-grade obstacles that the designer will need to
know. Aerial-based photography and surveys provide a
good overall picture, but lack the detail and accuracy
considered necessary for an underground design.
Level of Survey
For an underground line survey, it is important to get the
most detailed planimetric and topographical survey pos-
sible. Even though a route centerline may have already
been determined, it is important to make certain that
sufficient area on either side of the centerline is surveyed
to identify open areas in case the cable system must be
rerouted during the detail design and construction stage.
Typically, a distance of about 50 ft (15 m) on either side
of the route centerline is sufficient for this purpose.
Pre-Design Survey
The planimetric and topographical survey should
include the following information:
• All property lines and street/utility rights-of-way.
• Curb lines, street lanes, manholes, streetlights, fire
hydrants, traffic lights, driveways, and all pertinent
physical information.
• Location of storm sewer inlets including widths,
depths, and elevations.
12-6
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
• All sewer, water, communication, electric, and gas
manholes and valve covers.
• Elevations to water/gas valve nuts or top of pipe, size
of pipes.
• Culverts and invert elevations on open pipes.
In addition, as part of the planimetric and topographi-
cal survey, the following steps should be taken:
• Ground elevations should be shot across the width of
the surveyed area to allow a 3-D Triangular Irregular
Network (TIN) model (file) to be generated. This will
allow the route to be relocated and a new profile to be
easily developed.
• The local underground locating service should be
notified to have all existing underground facilities
located prior to the survey commencing, so this infor-
mation can also be documented by the surveyor.
• Efforts should be made to locate other unmapped,
abandoned, and private underground facilities and
structures (fuel tanks, private lines [gas, electric, com-
munication, and water], old foundations, etc.).
• Contact all the local underground utilities and obtain
their facility drawings. This is a crucial step in verify-
ing the accuracy of the survey, and identifying data
missing from the survey.
Underground Locating
In addition to the field markings, in highly congested
areas, it may be necessary to field-locate existing under-
ground facilities to determine actual location and
depth. The American Society of Civil Engineers
(ASCE) has developed a guide for collecting existing
subsurface utility data (ASCE 2003). The ASCE guide
has established four levels of data to determine the
accuracy of the underground facility locations. These
levels are as follows:
• Utility Quality Level A—Precise horizontal and
vertical location of utilities by the actual exposure
and subsequent measurement of the existing subsur-
face facility.
• Utility Quality Level B—Information obtained
through the application of appropriate surface geo-
physical methods to determine the existence of sub-
surface utilities. Methods such as electromagnetic,
magnetic, elastic wave, and other high-cost special-
ized methods.
• Utility Quality Level C—Information obtained by
surveying and plotting visible above-ground utility
features.
• Utility Quality Level D—Information derived from
existing records or oral recollections.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
At a minimum, the designer should develop drawings
using information up to Level C for all underground
projects. If the project is in an urban area, or there is
evidence of a significant amount of existing under-
ground facilities, it is recommended that the documen-
tation be to Level B or A. If exact location is needed,
Level A is required.
The ASCE guide indicates that the total savings on a
typical underground project using Quality Level B and
A data may range from 10 to 15% compared with costs
from a project using Quality Level C and D data
(ASCE 2003).
Post-Design Survey
Once the design is completed, it is important to have
the route resurveyed to determine if any conflicts exist.
This step is usually performed as part of the construc-
tion survey.
12.2.4 Rerouting Existing Lines
Occasionally, an existing underground circuit must be
relocated or rerouted to accommodate new infrastruc-
ture or the addition of a new substation.
General
Regardless of the type of cable system installed, rerout-
ing or relocating an existing underground circuit is
costly, time-consuming, and usually requires an
extended outage. If only small adjustments of a few
inches are needed, it may be possible to expose the
underground line by excavation and raise or lower the
pipe or ducts, as required. If more than a few inches are
needed, a new length of cable must be installed. Because
most utilities do not have large quantities of transmis-
sion cable in stock, they are unlikely to be able to per-
form the relocation quickly. The time required for the
repair is normally based on how quickly a utility can
obtain the required skilled labor and materials. Depend-
ing on the cable type and its location, repairs can take
from 1 month, if the materials are on hand, to as much
as 6 months if the cable has to be manufactured.
In general, the relocation or rerouting process consists
of the following activities.
• Installation of new manholes around the existing
cable.
• Installation of new pipe or duct between the new
manholes.
• Installation of the new cable.
• Splicing of the new cable to the existing cable.
• Removal of old pipe or duct.
Chapter 12: Installation Design
Extruded-dielectric Cables
Direct-buried extruded-dielectric cables require that a
splice pit be opened at each end of the relocated area. A
trench is excavated between the two pits, and the new
cable is placed in the trench. The existing cable is cut,
and the new cable is spliced to the existing cable. Some-
times manholes are used in place of a splice pit, but are
not required.
If the cable is installed in a duct bank, the relocation
would follow the process described above. Special care
should be taken to protect the existing cable while the
duct bank concrete is being removed.
Pipe-type Cables
A gas-filled pipe-type cable system would follow a simi-
lar procedure to the one described above. The main dif-
ference is the need to reduce the gas pressure prior to
cutting into the cable pipe and replacing the gas after
the cable has been spliced.
For a fluid-filled pipe-type cable system, the main con-
cern is controlling the flow of the dielectric fluid. If the
line length is relatively short, it may be cost-effective to
remove the dielectric fluid from the pipe. If removing the
fluid is not practical, the most common method of con-
trolling the fluid is by freezing the fluid, thus solidifying
the fluid. This is commonly known as a “pipe freeze.”
Chapter 13 discusses the method of installing a “pipe
freeze.” The “pipe freeze” is placed on either side of the
new splice points. Once the freeze is in place, the fluid
between the freezes can be removed, and the pipe and
cable can be cut. After the new installation is complete,
and prior to releasing the “pipe freeze,” the new pipe is
filled with fluid.
SCFF Cables
As with pipe-type cable, the dielectric fluid in an SCFF
cable must be controlled. This is commonly done by the
freezing method similar to the pipe-type cable system.
Otherwise, the relocation process is similar to the pro-
cess associated with extruded dielectric cable.
12.2.5 Overhead-to-Underground Transition
The connection of an underground circuit directly to an
overhead line at a transition structure is becoming more
common. The designer should give considerable atten-
tion to the design of the transition structure.
General
The two most common ways of making an overhead-to-
underground transition is to use a single-shaft structure,
or a small transition site. When planning for an under-
ground-to-overhead transmission line transition, the
designer must consider several issues relating to the sit-
12-7
Chapter 12: Installation Design
ing of the structure or station. Some of the issues to be
considered are:
• Environmental/community impacts, such as wetland,
archeological, land contamination, public lands,
noise, aesthetics, and EMF.
• Physical site considerations, such as topography, geo-
logical, access, and overall land use.
• System requirements, such as switching, outage dura-
tion, and maintenance.
• Equipment requirements, such as load-break discon-
nect switches, breakers, and/or reactors.
In general, a complete system study should be per-
formed to determine the effect that the new under-
ground line will have on the overall transmission system.
Chapter 16 discusses the effect that an underground
cable system can have on a utility’s electrical system. In
addition, an analysis should be made on the equipment
to determine if the switches or breakers are capable of
switching out the cables given the anticipated charging
currents, and withstanding the anticipated switching
surges and overvoltages.
Single-structure Design
Design of the transition structure must provide the
proper electrical clearances defined in the latest version
of the National Electric Safety Code (NESC). These
clearances address the electrical clearance from the con-
ductors, jumper loops, equipment, and other energized
parts to the surfaces of the supporting structures and to
the spaces that will be designated for climbing and
working on the structures. Consideration should be
made to provide adequate climbing and working spaces
for safely performing maintenance on energized over-
head conductors using hot-line tools. The need to pro-
vide hot-line climbing and working areas should be
reviewed on a project-by-project basis, and the require-
ment waived where line configuration and installed
equipment on the structure would not permit hot-line
work or where the structure will not be climbed or
maintained with the line energized.
Structures must be designed for the wind, ice, equip-
ment, seismic, and code loads. Structure loads should
include all typical attachments for the structure with
conductors, static wires, and insulators.
Support arms must be designed for personnel loading
and all construction/installation loads. The attachment
plate for the terminations should have an open side to
prevent circulating currents from flowing in the plate.
Vertical steel members may be required below support
arms to provide support to the cable.
12-8
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
As with overhead line structures, various types of struc-
tures have been used for the transition pole, including
the following: self-supporting steel, guyed direct-
embedded steel, guyed wood, and guyed laminated. The
most common type of transition pole is self-supporting
steel. A self-supporting steel structure eliminates the
potential clearance issue that would exist if the structure
needed to be guyed. Since steel typically lasts a long
time, it eliminates the potential problem of needing to
replace a wood pole after a few years due to normal
deterioration. Additionally, wood structures dry out and
shrink, resulting in loose hardware fittings and guy wires.
Preferably, the cable should be installed on the outside
of the structure. There are special instances where the
cable may be required to be installed on the inside of the
structure by local ordinances. Special design and detail-
ing are required for a structure in which the cables pass
through the base plate and are installed internal to the
structure.
Transition Site Design
The layout of a transition site is determined by the
amount of equipment that is needed, such as disconnect
switches, reactors, breakers, control house, etc. The
design of this site is similar to a small switching station.
The utility should use their normal substation design
specifications and standards.
Extruded-dielectric Cables
Transition structures for voltages up to 230 kV are usu-
ally a single-pole structure, an H-frame structure, or an
A-frame structure. The single-pole structure is common
on rights-of-way, whereas the other structures are com-
monly found within substations. At voltages higher than
230 kV, extruded-dielectric cables generally transition to
overhead within a transition station.
Extruded-dielectric cables can be installed on the inside
or outside of the transition structure, and terminations
are placed on support arms, as shown in Figure 12-3.
Most manufacturers recommend clamping the cable on
the vertical face of the structure at 5- to 6-ft (1.5-1.8 m)
intervals. A support channel from the pole to the base
of the terminator is sometimes installed to provide addi-
tional support to the cable. Most terminations require
two cable clamps immediately beneath the terminator
base plate. Basket-weave grips could also be used to
support the section of cable from the pole to the sup-
port arm. Basket-weave grips may also be used at inter-
mediate points to support long vertical runs of single-
conductor cable.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 12: Installation Design

Most cable manufacturers and cable installers prefer
having the cable installed on the outside of the structure
because of the ease of the installation.
Pipe-type Cables
Pipe-type cable systems must have a pressurization plant
at one end of the cable system. If the new underground
line is in the middle of the overhead line, a transition site
is required at one end of the underground line to accom-
modate the pressurization plant. Pipe-type cable termi-
nations can be placed on single-pole structures, but they
would normally incorporate a small fenced area around
the facility. The reason for this is to provide protection
to the public in the unlikely event of a riser pipe failure.
Another design consideration when installing a pipe-
type cable on a single-pole structure is to limit the
mounting height of the terminations. The terminations
should be kept as low as possible for hydraulic reasons.
SCFF Cables
Most SCFF cable systems require a transition site
because of their pressurization system requirements. An
SCFF cable could be placed on a single-pole structure,
but would require the pressurization reservoirs to be
mounted on the structure.
12.2.6 Soil Thermal Properties and Special
Backfill
Importance
The earth portion of the thermal circuit is responsible
for the greatest percentage of thermal resistance for bur-
ied cables, often accounting for more than half of the
total resistance. The geometric component of resistance,
which is depth of burial, can be accurately determined
during route surveys. The intrinsic material component,
soil thermal resistivity (commonly called Thermal Rho
or TR), is the most variable of the components, chang-
ing with both time and distance along the route. Accu-
rately determining soil thermal resistivity permits much
more accurate ampacity calculations, and special back-
fill allows higher ampacity of the circuit. Thermal diffu-
sivity is a measure of the ability of soil to undergo
temperature change. Thermal diffusivity is important
for transient calculations and for calculating the effects
of daily load cycles as described in other sections below.
Factors Affecting Thermal Resistivity and Diffusivity
Several factors affect soil thermal resistivity and ther-
mal diffusivity. Figure 12-4 shows the effects of two of
the major determinants, soil composition (soil type) and
moisture content, for the most common soil types and
for some corrective thermal backfills. Similarly,

450

Soft Organic Clay

400 Clay
Silt
Silty Sand with Gravel
350 Uniform Sand
Stone Screenings
FTB
Thermal Resistivity ( C-cm/W)

300
o

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Moisture Content (% by dry weight)

Figure 12-3 Extruded-dielectric cable installed on a steel Figure 12-4 Soil thermal resistivity as a function of soil type
transition structure (courtesy POWER Engineers, Inc.). and moisture content (courtesy Geotherm Inc.).

12-9
Chapter 12: Installation Design
Figure 12-5 shows the effect of moisture content on
thermal diffusivity for some common soil types.
Moisture Content
Even soils that have poor composition can have accept-
able thermal resistivity if the moisture content is kept
high. For most soils, thermal resistivity increases only
marginally when moisture decreases from a wet to a
moist condition. If the moisture content drops below
the critical moisture content level, the thermal resistivity
increases substantially. Moisture moves away from
higher temperatures and tends to migrate from the
cable/soil interface to ambient earth. If the moisture
content for material other than clay is above the critical
value (the knee of the curves in Figure 12-4), moisture
moves back toward the cable by capillary action quickly
enough to prevent drying. Below the critical moisture
content, moisture does not return as rapidly, and the
soil will continue to dry. If this condition persists, a ther-
mal runaway condition can occur. Thermal runaway
happens when lower moisture content causes an
increase in thermal resistivity, which causes a higher
cable temperature rise, which in turn drives more mois-
ture away, causing further increases in thermal resistiv-
ity, etc. until there is a cable failure. Ambient moisture
content can be very low for sands in dry areas, giving
high thermal resistivities. Moisture content under paved
surfaces generally is higher than under unpaved sur-
faces. Clays fall in a special category, since field mois-
ture content is very high, typically 20–30%, and clays
dry and rewet at a much slower rate than other soils.
Moisture content is expressed as a percentage of the
weight of water to the dry weight of soil solids, as deter-
mined by oven drying at 105°C.
0.014
0.012
0.01
Thermal Diffusivity (cm /s)
2
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0
0 2 4 6
Moisture Content (% by dry weight)
Figure 12-5 Soil thermal diffusivity as a function of soil
type and moisture content (courtesy Geotherm Inc.).
12-10
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Soil Composition and Texture
Soil is a composite material consisting of solid particles,
water, and air. Heat flows through soil primarily by con-
duction from particle to particle. In some cases, it is by
conduction and/or convection through the moisture or
air that occupies the pore space between solid particles.
Even highly compacted soil can have up to 30% free vol-
ume that is occupied by moisture and/or air. In a totally
dry condition, this volume is filled with air, which has a
very high thermal resistivity (about 4000 C°.cm/watt
(40 K.m/W)), and thus the resulting soil resistivity is
high. A good thermal backfill is made up of well-graded
solid particles that provide more points of inter-particle
contact for conduction of heat. Two benefits result:
resistivity is low even at low moisture contents, and
moisture is less likely to migrate away from the cable/soil
interface. These benefits are attributed to the tight pack-
ing of the particles (high density, low porosity, and low
hydraulic conductivity). Figure 12-6 shows the mecha-
nism of heat transfer through wet and dry soil.
Specifications for controlled thermal backfill often
include a sieve analysis to ensure that the material falls
within specified limits of gradation characteristics. Fig-
ure 12-7 shows an envelope with upper and lower limits
for a good thermal backfill. This type of granular mate-
rial is made up of sound (nonporous) fine aggregate;
when installed at its optimum moisture content and at
95% standard Proctor density, it will give low and stable
thermal resistivity. The widespread use of the Thermal
stone screenings
sandy silt
sand
clay
8 10 12 14 16
Figure 12-6 Heat flow through soil—the effect of moisture
content on thermal resistivity (courtesy Geotherm Inc.).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 12: Installation Design

Property Analyzer (TPA) (EPRI 1981) has reduced the Soil Compaction (Density)
reliance only on gradation characteristic (sieve analysis), Once installed, the density of a backfill does not change;
because users can readily make direct, accurate measure- it is only the moisture content that may change due to
ments of thermal resistivity rather than inferring values various factors. Backfill material must be carefully com-
based only on sieve analysis. Soil texture refers to soil pacted. Compaction decreases thermal resistivity, espe-
grain size, shape, and particle size gradation. In engi- cially at low moisture contents, since the interparticle
neering applications, a soil is often qualitatively catego- heat path is improved. An increase in density of one
rized by a visual description using accepted adjectives to pound per cubic foot (16 kg/m3), which is approximately
indicate the fractional amount of each component (i.e., 1% additional compaction, can give a 2–3% decrease in
gravel, sand, silt, clay, etc.). resistivity (EPRI 1977). This improvement is especially
important at low moisture levels. Compaction is best
The 5% moisture content is a typical dry-season level carried out at moisture contents of 8–12% for granular,
for soils in many parts of North America. The first four noncohesive soils, and much higher for fine-grained
materials listed are very stable and will not reach zero (silty-clayey) soils. Great care should be taken to obtain
moisture content unless heat flux is very high. Ambient good compaction along the entire cable route to prevent
moisture contents for clays are often greater than 15%, hot spots.
but if subjected to high heat flux, they can become ther-
mally unstable. The numbers in Table 12-1 are only rep- Table 12-1 Representative Thermal Resistivity Values in
resentative. Any backfill material considered for use on C°.cm/watt (K.m/W)
a cable system should be tested thoroughly. Soil particle 5% Moisture 0% Moisture
soundness (porosity), mineral type (limestone, granite, Fluidized thermal backfill 40 (0.4) 80–100 (0.8–1.0)
basalt, mica, etc.), and organic content also affect the Concrete (no air) 30 (0.3) 70 (0.7)
thermal resistivity to some degree. Porosity and organic Stone screenings 40 (0.4) 100 (1.0)
content higher than 4% can increase the dry thermal Thermal sand 50 (0.5) 100 (1.0)
resistivity by as much as 15%. The user should evaluate Uniform sand 70 (0.7) 200 (2.0)
the cost of changing routes to avoid poor soils such as cin- Clay 100 (1.0) 250 (2.5)
ders or organic material, versus installing special backfill Lake bottom (organic) 100a (1.0) >300 (>3.0)
in the trench. Highly organic soil >300 (>3.0) >600 (>6.0)

a. 50% moisture.

GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION

unified soil classification system
GRAVEL SAND FINES
COARSE FINE COARSE MEDIUM FINE SILT CLAY
3" 1" 3/4" 1/2" #4 #8 #16 #30 #50 #100 #200 U.S. standard sieve
100 100

90 90

80 80

70 70

60 60
Percent Passing

50 50

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001
Grain Diameter (mm)

GRADING LIMITS FOR GRANULAR TYPE

THERMAL BACKFILL

Figure 12-7 Gradation limits for granular-type thermal backfill (courtesy of Geotherm, Inc.).

12-11
Chapter 12: Installation Design
Compaction is commonly specified in percentage of
Proctor Density (ASTM 1978). A Proctor Density of
100% gives the highest density possible for a given mate-
rial at the optimum moisture content. Proctor densities
of 90 to 95% are commonly specified for backfill in
cable trenches. In addition to improving thermal proper-
ties, high compaction reduces the chances of the pave-
ment settling. Many municipalities specify high Proctor
Densities to prevent the settling of road-base material.
Compaction (density) and moisture content of the
material affect both thermal resistivity and diffusivity.
Care should be taken to maintain the field (in situ) con-
ditions for the laboratory tests. A utility evaluating con-
trolled backfills may have laboratory tests performed at
several compaction levels to permit specification of field
compaction (density). Figure 12-8 demonstrates the
relationship between soil density and thermal resistivity.
Factors Affecting Thermal Stability
Unlike thermal resistivity and diffusivity, soil thermal
stability is a system-driven parameter. In other words,
soils can have widely differing thermal stabilities
depending on a number of operating and installed con-
ditions. Two criteria to reduce chances of dryout and to
evaluate thermal stability are discussed—soil interface
temperature and heat flux.
Figure 12-8 Effect of soil grain size and distribution on
density and thermal resistivity (courtesy Geotherm Inc.).
12-12
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Soil Interface Temperature
For many soils, if the temperature at the interface
between the heat source and the soil is kept below
50–60°C, a balance will be maintained between mois-
ture migration away from the heat source and capillary
action, which returns the moisture. The soil will, there-
fore, remain stable. Published ampacity tables for distri-
bution cables list three values of allowable ampacity:
that governed by conductor temperature, and those
(generally lower) governed by 50° and 60°C soil inter-
face temperatures (IPCEA 1976). Selection of the higher
interface temperature may be done only after testing the
soil; otherwise, the lower value should be used.
Heat Flux
Moisture migration actually occurs as a function of heat
flux at the surface of the heat source. Heat flux is deter-
mined by heat input in watts/foot (W/m) and cable
diameter in inches (mm). One approach to evaluating
soil stability is to energize a thermal probe using the
same heat input per unit length as the cable system (e.g.,
30 W/ft [98 W/m]) and measure thermal resistivity as a
function of time (Martin et al. 1981; Hartley and Black
1979). The time at which the slope changes (increase in
thermal resistivity) gives an indication of time to dryout.
The corresponding dryout time for the cable is obtained
from Equation 12-1:
2
⎛D ⎞
tc = t p ⎜ c ⎟ (min) 12-1
⎜D ⎟
⎝ p ⎠
Where:
tc = time for soil near cable to dry, min.
tp = time for soil near probe to dry, min.
Dc = diameter of cable/earth interface, in.
Dp = diameter of probe, in.
Figure 12-9 gives typical test results for sandy silt. A
dryout time of 20 minutes for a 157.5-mil (4-mm) probe
corresponds to a dryout time of about 112,500 minutes
or 78 days for an 11.81-in. (300-mm) cable pipe. Calcu-
lated dryout times for the cable system should be several
weeks to ensure stability over the summer season. This
approach can be conservative since cyclic loading and
rewetting due to rainfall serve to extend dryout time.
Soil thermal stability may also be evaluated during field
thermal surveys. A thermal probe may be energized at a
nominal heat input (typically 10 W/ft [33 W/m], which is
30–50% of typical cable heat input). After the slope of
temperature vs. log time has stabilized, the heat input is
increased tenfold. If a new, constant slope is achieved,
the soil is stable. If the slope continues to increase, the
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
soil is not considered stable. Figure 12-10 shows a typi-
cal curve for this test.
Concrete duct bank encasement and controlled backfill
both have excellent thermal stability. Their use transfers
the interface temperature and heat flux concern to the
interface with the native soil. Temperatures and heat
flux are low at that interface, and stability of the native
soil is not generally a problem.
Figure 12-9 Soil thermal stability for sandy silt.
Figure 12-10 Typical thermal stability test.
Chapter 12: Installation Design
Laboratory Thermal-Resistivity Measurement
Undisturbed soil samples retrieved in thin-wall Shelby
tubes or bulk soil samples should be tested for thermal
and geotechnical parameters by a qualified and experi-
enced laboratory. The tests should include natural mois-
ture content, density, sieve analysis, compaction, thermal
resistivity, thermal stability, and thermal resistivity vs.
moisture content (dryout tests). Nominal 3-in. (76-mm)
diameter Shelby tubes should be used to retrieve undis-
turbed samples. Care should be taken to maintain the
natural moisture and density of the samples during
retrieving and transportation. Figure 12-11 shows vari-
ous types of samples being tested in the laboratory for
thermal resistivity using a Thermal Property Analyzer.
A laboratory-type thermal needle, 0.125-in. (3.2-mm)
diameter, is inserted into the test sample and connected
to a Thermal Property Analyzer (TPA). A series of ther-
mal-resistivity measurements is made for various mois-
ture contents by stage-drying the sample. Enough time
should be allowed to ensure moisture redistribution
throughout the sample at the start of each new stage.
When testing disturbs bulk samples or granular soils, a
test mold similar to a Shelby tube can be used to repack
the soil at a specified density and moisture content. The
curves shown in Figure 12-4 were developed from these
laboratory tests.
A similar setup can be used to determine the thermal
diffusivity of the soil. The test sample, either taken as a
section from a Shelby tube or reconstituted in a mold, is
allowed to equilibrate at a constant elevated tempera-
ture overnight in an oven. This temperature should only
be about 8–10°C above the ambient room temperature.
The warm sample is immediately transferred to a circu-
lating water bath at a constant room temperature, and
Figure 12-11 Various types of samples being tested in
the laboratory (courtesy Geotherm Inc.).
12-13
Chapter 12: Installation Design
the temperature of the thermal needle is monitored with
time. The resultant plot of temperature vs. log time is
analyzed by the theory of Shannon and Wells (Shannon
and Wells 1947) to calculate the thermal diffusivity. Fig-
ure 12-12 shows this setup.
Field Thermal-Resistivity Measurement
In situ tests provide rapid and accurate values of soil
resistivity along a cable route. The thermal probe has
been used for many years for this purpose. It consists of
a stainless-steel tube that contains a precisely wound
heater and a temperature sensor of high resolution and
accuracy. The annular space is filled with a thermal
epoxy, and all components are electrically insulated.
Commonly used field thermal probes are 0.25 in.
(6 mm) in diameter and 12 in. (300 mm) long. Probes of
larger diameter and lengths up to 6.5 ft (2 m) with multi-
ple temperature sensors have also been used successfully
in special conditions.
The probe head is designed for easy adaptation to con-
ventional soil-drilling equipment. The probe is simply
inserted into the undisturbed native soil by pushing or
driving it to the desired depth at a test location. Power is
applied to the probe heater, and temperature rise is
monitored with time. The slope of temperature rise vs.
log time determines the value of soil thermal resistivity.
Figure 12-13 shows a drill rig setup for in situ thermal
resistivity testing and soil sampling. A TPA powered by
a portable generator or a power inverter is shown in use.
Figure 12-12 Shannon and Wells thermal diffusivity test
applied to a Shelby tube sample.
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
It is important to perform the tests at the expected cable
depth. Soil thermal resistivity is usually lower at greater
depths because of higher soil moisture content.
The TPA (EPRI 1981) was developed in the late 1970s
to automate field thermal-resistivity tests for greater
accuracy, simplicity, and reproducibility of test results.
When a thermal probe is used with a TPA, a laptop com-
puter controls the test input parameters. Test results—
including probe power, time, temperature, and thermal
resistivity—are all displayed and stored during a test run.
The TPA also facilitates the thermal-stability measure-
ments by extending the standard test over longer time
periods or by ramping the probe power to a higher value.
IEEE Standard 422-1981, “IEEE Guide for Soil Ther-
mal Resistivity Measurements,” (IEEE 1981) should be
followed for soil thermal-resistivity measurements.
Prior to conducting a field thermal survey, any available
soil data along the proposed cable route should be
reviewed. Data may be available from government agen-
cies, other utilities, or borehole logs for existing over-
head power line tower foundations. Soil thermal-
resistivity measurements should be made at least twice
in each soil formation, and at least every 0.5 mile
(800 m) depending on the length of the cable route. At
least two samples of each soil type should be tested in
Figure 12-13 In situ thermal resistivity testing
and soil sampling (courtesy Geotherm Inc.).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 12: Installation Design

the laboratory for thermal stability and resistivity vs. The addition of small quantities of cement to granular
moisture content. Since thermal-resistivity values are materials, such as well-graded sands and screenings, can
extremely moisture-dependent, it is best to make field provide excellent thermal resistivity and stability (Sandi-
measurements during the driest times of the year. Esti- ford 1981). The cement creates interparticle bonding
mates of moisture content at other times of the year can and lowers thermal resistivity by reducing contact resis-
be used to extrapolate thermal resistivities based on tance and filling fine air voids. This type of cement-
curves similar to those shown in Figure 12-4. based mixture must be moisture-conditioned to its opti-
mum value and should be placed by a compaction
Often a soil-testing firm breaks pavement and augers to method similar to that for granular-type backfill.
the desired depths where thermal-resistivity measure-
ments are to be taken, and the probe is inserted into Fluidized Thermal Backfill™ (FTB™) is a concrete-like
undisturbed soil below the augured hole. Soil samples material that has been used extensively over the past
for laboratory testing are normally retrieved from the 20+ years. It is a mixture of natural mineral aggregate,
same borehole, at depths in-between the test depths. At sand, cement, water, and a fluidizer that is formulated
locations where a soil drill-rig cannot be used, in situ to meet specific thermal and strength requirements. Fly-
thermal testing and soil sampling can be conducted in ash is a commonly used fluidizer. However, if flyash is
test pits dug by a backhoe. not readily available, a water-soluble resin or slag can be
used. FTB can be mixed in a regular concrete truck, and
Controlling Thermal Resistivity
most ready-mix concrete suppliers can handle this
It is not generally feasible or practical to modify the
material without any problem. FTB is delivered to the
thermal resistivity of native soil surrounding the cable
site in a fluid state and can be poured or pumped into
trench. Selected materials having good thermal resistiv-
trenches very easily using conventional concrete place-
ity and thermal stability can be placed in the trench,
ment equipment. FTB is often an ideal choice for cable
however, to reduce overall thermal resistivity. The entire
trench backfill application because of the advantages
trench width is filled with special backfill to a height
that it offers over granular-type backfill. Figure 12-14
typically about 1 ft (300 mm) above the cable. In some
shows the application of FTB on a typical duct bank
instances, the trench must be widened or entirely filled
project. The process is the same for pipe-type or direct
with special backfill to offset the effects of poor
buried applications.
native soil.
Preliminary work has been done to develop special
Backfill used for this purpose, commonly termed con-
additives that may be injected into native soils to lower
trolled backfill, is made of well-graded crushed stone
thermal resistivity and increase thermal stability (EPRI
screenings or well-graded sands with some fines that can
1977). Soil-interface temperature and heat-flux values
achieve high densities at relatively low moisture con-
are seldom problems if special backfill is used. A typical
tents. There are several sources of controlled backfill:
backfill thermal resistivity requirement is the range of
• Suitable natural sands having the required gradation 50–70 C°-cm/W at 3–4% moisture content.
characteristics can be found in many parts of the
country. The material must be well compacted in the
trench, in layers of 6–12 in. (150–300 mm) or so. A
1-ft (300 mm) layer compacts to about 8 in.
(200 mm). Standard civil engineering (construction)
practice must be followed where applicable.
• In other areas, well-graded crushed limestone screen-
ings are used to give good thermal resistivities.
The screenings must also be well compacted as
described above.

Granular backfills of this type should be tested in the

laboratory to evaluate maximum dry density and opti-
mum moisture content. In situ density of the backfill
when placed in the trench should be about 95% of this
maximum dry density and at the optimum moisture
content. A quality control/assurance program should be Figure 12-14 Fluidized Thermal Backfill™ (FTB™) being
implemented for all field applications. applied to a duct bank (courtesy Geotherm Inc.).

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Chapter 12: Installation Design EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

It is important that the backfill in the immediate vicinity in a few years, with the thermal capability of the cable
of the cables is installed at the best possible density in suffering accordingly. Problems associated with cables
order to achieve a low thermal resistivity. Figure 12-15 sinking in soft sediments should also be addressed.
shows that the temperature drop is inversely propor-
tional to the radial distance from the cable surface. Special attention must be paid to soil thermal resistivity
and stability measurements for most underwater cross-
Calculating Effective Thermal Resistivity ings, and specialized instrumentation approaches are
Placing special backfill in the cable trench lowers required. Reference (Radhakrishna and Stienmanis
the effective thermal resistivity compared to native soil. 1981) provides a good description of test equipment and
The heterogeneous earth portion is conveniently han- procedures. Figure 12-16 shows a drill rig on a barge
dled by using Equations 11-58 to 11-75, as detailed in used for submarine thermal surveys.
Chapter 11. This treatment is considered sufficiently
accurate for ratios of controlled backfill with long Figures 12-17 and 12-18 show a vibra core sampler and
dimensions to short dimensions up to 3/1. its adaptation to thermal probe for in situ thermal resis-
tivity measurements.
More sophisticated approaches, such as finite element
analysis (Soulsby and Donovan 1981), provide greater Thermal Resistivities for Cables in HDD (Horizontal
accuracy at the expense of more complicated calculation Directionally Drilled) Installation
procedures. Installation of cables or casing containing power cables
in directionally drilled bores is quite common when
Thermal Resistivities for Submarine Cables
Sub-bottom marine sediments are usually fully satu-
rated, so in situ thermal resistivities are generally low if
the material is nonorganic. However, depending upon
the composition of the material (very soft clay or mud),
the thermal stability may be poor. Heat generated dur-
ing normal power cable operation can cause the mois-
ture to migrate from the cable vicinity, creating areas of
very high thermal resistivity. The dryout problem is
especially severe when the bottom sediments are highly
organic. Fully saturated organic sediments with high
moisture contents are known to have thermal resistivi-
ties greater than 150 C°.cm/watt (1.5 K.m/W). It is very
difficult—and in most cases, impractical or expensive—
to install controlled thermal backfill in submarine appli-
cations. Thus, the cable design must accommodate the
bottom conditions with respect to thermal resistivity. Figure 12-16 Drill rig on a barge for submarine thermal
Care must be taken in areas where silting takes place. surveys (courtesy Geotherm Inc.).
One meter of cover today might be four meters of cover

Figure 12-15 Thermal gradients in a radiant flow field are Figure 12-17 Vibra core sampler (courtesy Geotherm Inc.).
inversely proportional to the distance from the heat source
(courtesy Geotherm Inc.).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 12: Installation Design

crossing railroads, highways, and rivers. For such instal-
lations, the geotechnical as well as thermal, properties
of the soil at the cable/casing elevation must be investi-
gated. This is conducted in the same manner as for shal-
low borings using a conventional soil drill rig. The
major difference is that, for river crossings, the cable ele-
vation may be below the water table, and bedrock may
be encountered at other locations.
12.2.7 Mechanical Considerations
The principal mechanical considerations for under-
ground transmission cables consist of pulling tensions
and sidewall pressures during cable installation,
as described in Section 12.3. Other considerations
include Thermomechanical Bending (TMB), proper
manhole racking, supports for vertical cable sections,
and vibration.

Below the water level, soil is saturated with water, and
the thermal resistivity is not of concern unless organic
material or peat is encountered. This is quite common in
the upper soil layers below the bottom and near the river
banks. It is impossible to install corrective backfill at
deep elevations, and therefore, measurement of ambient
temperature and thermal resistivity is very important.
Most bedrock has fairly low thermal resistivity ranging
between 40 and 65 C°.cm/W (0.40–0.65 K.m/W). The
annular space within the casing and around the cables
or cable conduits must be filled with a pumpable ther-
mal slurry of low thermal resistivity.
Ambient Earth Temperature
Figure 12-19 depicts the variation in the earth ambient
temperature at depths of up to 10 ft (3 m), as a function
of the time of year. Air temperature near the surface
changes significantly and quickly as a function of time,
whereas the temperature at depths is slow to react to
this change. Although this data was collected for
Toronto, Canada at latitude 40°, similar trends hold
true for other locations. In southern states, the varia-
tions in the upper and lower limits are smaller, and the
difference between the peaks at different depths (lag
time) is shorter.
Thermomechanical Bending
Cables expand and contract with load cycling. This
motion is usually accommodated by cable snaking
within the pipe of a pipe-type cable, or within the
duct for single-core duct systems. However, for large
conductor and cable sizes, it is critical to make an in-
depth investigation into this issue. For directly buried
single-core cables, the earth constrains most motion,
except for the small amount that may occur in man-
holes, if present.
Extruded-dielectric Cables
There have been a number of splice failures caused by
excessive unrestrained TMB forces within the manholes.
There has been significant discussion on the best way of
handling the TMB for large single-core cables. The com-
mon practice for determining the required duct size for
a particular installation is to size the inside diameter of
the conduit 1.5 times larger than the outside diameter of
the cable. For example, if the cable has an outside diam-
eter of 3.5 in. (89 mm), then the minimum-sized conduit
ID would need to be 5.25 in. (133 mm), resulting in a
6-in. (166-mm) duct requirement. Historically, no major
circuit failures have been caused by thermomechanical
forces when this practice has been followed. However, if
this practice is not followed, a detailed TMB analysis
should be made.

25

20

15
Temperature ( C)
o

10

5 Air temperature
1.5 m depth temp.
0 3.0 m depth temp.
Average ground temp.
-5 Freezing temperature
Min. & max. temp.

-10
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Day

Figure 12-18 Vibra core sampler with thermal probe for Figure 12-19 Variations in earth temperature at
testing (courtesy Geotherm Inc.). various depths as a function of time of year (courtesy
Geotherm Inc.).

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Chapter 12: Installation Design
The following variables affect the overall TMB design,
and each should be considered when determining the
best and most cost-effective design.
• Size of conduit
• Size of cable
• Size of the manhole
• Strength and number of cable clamps
• Route geometry
• Strength and design of the cable splice
• Cable restraint and support brackets
There are two common methods for handling the TMB
forces resulting from the cable load cycling: the first is
the straight-through approach using sufficient clamping
to force the cable expansion back into the duct; the sec-
ond is to install an S-bend within the manhole and allow
the S-bend to flex and absorb the expansion. With the
straight-through approach, the size of the conduit plays
an important part in the overall thermomechanical
design. When the cable is fully restrained and no move-
ment of the cable is permitted in the manhole, the
thermal expansion or contraction must be accommo-
dated in the duct. This could result in high internal com-
pressive and tensile forces. This design allows the
manholes to be shorter.
With the S-bend approach, compressive and tensile
forces are not developed within the cable. However,
because the cable is allowed to flex, special consider-
ation must be made to prevent the cable from exceeding
its bending limits. This results in the manhole needing to
be wider and longer.
Another factor that affects the overall TMB forces is
the number of vertical and horizontal bends that the
cable will go through between the manholes. If the route
has many bends, then the resulting forces will be smaller.
If the route is flat, the resulting forces will be signifi-
cantly higher.
Pipe-type Cables
Early 345-kV pipe-type cables have experienced TMB in
the splice area, where the pipe diameter increases in the
joint casing (Aabo and Moran, Jr. 1988; Moran et al.
1984). Early designs had long unsupported cable lengths
in this area, and the joints could flex too easily. These
early joints were retrofitted with additional joint sup-
ports, and new designs include the proper supports.
SCFF Cables
SCFF joints have experienced mechanical fatigue in
manholes. Sheaths have cracked at the transition to the
joint sleeve, and soldered connectors have pulled out
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
after many years of load cycling. Proper reinforcement
of the sheath/sleeve transition and the use of pressed
connectors have solved these two problems.
Manhole Racking and Sizing
Manhole racking is only required for SCFF and
extruded-dielectric cable. For pipe-type cables, no rack-
ing is typically needed, because the steel cable pipe/joint
sleeve usually supports itself across the manhole. If the
manhole is too long, the designer may want to provide
some type of support.
Extruded-dielectric Cables
As discussed previously, there are two common methods
of installing cable in a manhole: the straight-through
method and the S-bend method. The main design con-
cern with manhole racking is to protect the splice from
experiencing excessive thermomechanical forces.
Regardless of the installation method, this is accom-
plished by placing cable clamps on either side of the
splice to prevent the cable from moving near the splice.
When designing the cable supports for the straight-
through method, it is important to calculate the
expected TMB forces and design the cable clamp and
support hardware accordingly. This method allows the
manholes to be smaller. Sizing of the manhole is based
on the splice design. There must be enough space within
the manhole to allow the splice sleeve to slide out of the
way during splicing procedures. The typical inside
dimensions for a 138-kV manhole are 6 ft wide by 20 ft
long and 7 ft high (1.8 x 6.1 x 2.1 m). Figure 12-20
shows a typical manhole clamping arrangement.
For the S-bend design, the manholes must have enough
room to allow the cable to move smoothly to accommo-
date thermal expansion and contraction. This can gen-
Figure 12-20 Typical cable clamping arrangement for
cables passing straight through a manhole (courtesy
POWER Engineers, Inc.).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
erally be accomplished by having the cable ducts enter
the center of the manhole and then train the cables to
their proper position. The cables form two reverse
bends, as shown in Figure 12-21, as the joints are racked
on the manhole sidewall. The typical inside dimensions
for a 138-kV manhole with this arrangement are 8 ft
wide by 25 ft long and 7 ft high (2.4 x 7.6 x 2.1 m). Some
utilities make a full 360° loop in the manhole to ensure
that movement is not concentrated in one location,
which would require an even larger manhole. A straight
distance of at least two cable diameters should be left at
each end of the reverse bend. Enough straight distance
must be provided near the joint to allow the joint sleeve
to slide out of the way during splicing procedures.
Pipe-type Cables
Since there is typically no support requirements, the siz-
ing of the manhole for a pipe-type cable system is based
on the joint-casing design. A sufficient straight distance
from the face of the reducer to the manhole end wall
must be provided to allow the joint sleeve to slide out of
the way during splicing procedures. The joint casings
can be designed in multiple telescopic sections. This
design allows the manhole length to decrease. However,
additional welding is required with multiple sleeves
while the cable is in the pipe. The recommendation is to
limit the number of welds, if possible.
Supports for Vertical Cables
Special consideration of conductor stresses and
methods to support cable weight is required for cable
systems designed to be installed on steep slopes or verti-
cal applications.
Extruded-dielectric Cables
Extruded-dielectric cables can be installed on the inside
or outside of single-pole deadend structures. The cables
are typically clamped to the pole, as shown in
Figure 12-22. Cable clamps or basket-weave grips can
be used at intermediate points to support long vertical
runs of single-conductor cable. Thermal expansion and
contraction can be accommodated by cable snaking
between the clamps.
Figure 12-21 Training cables in a manhole (courtesy
POWER Engineers, Inc.).
Chapter 12: Installation Design
If an extruded cable is installed along a long steep slope,
an intermediate clamping manhole may be needed to
prevent the cable from ratcheting down the slope.
Pipe-type Cables
For vertical and steep slope designs, a riser cable design
is used for pipe-type cables. Long-lay stainless-steel
tapes are placed under the skid wires. These ribbons
support most of the cable weight. Anchor joints are
placed at the top of the slope, and skid joints are placed
at the bottom. Chapter 8 describes these types of joints.
SCFF Cables
The method for installing SCFF cables would be similar
to the methods described above for extruded-dielectric
cables. However, special consideration should be
given to the hydraulic issues associated with large eleva-
tion differences.
12.2.8 Monitoring
Monitoring systems can help to ensure long, trouble-
free cable life, and rapidly determine and locate troubles
on the cable system. Monitoring systems that are part of
cable system design are described below.
Temperature Monitoring
For many years utilities have installed thermocouples on
cable pipes several hundred feet (50–100 m) on either
side of manholes. The thermocouples are terminated in
boxes in the manholes, and can be read as desired. In
the 1970s, elaborate temperature monitoring was
applied as part of early dynamic rating systems (Patton
et al. 1979). Temperature monitoring is part of more
sophisticated dynamic rating systems designed in the
early 1990s (Engelhardt and Purnhagen 1991). Distrib-
uted fiber-optic temperature monitoring offers the pos-
sibility of monitoring temperatures along the entire
Figure 12-22 Cables clamped to a transition pole (courtesy
POWER Engineers, Inc.).
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Chapter 12: Installation Design EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

length of a cable. These systems are suitable for all cable the power cable screen, laid close to the screen or situ-
system types. ated in the interstices of a number of cables (e.g., a trefoil
arrangement). The optical fibers may be installed inside
Distributed Temperature Monitoring
a plastic or metal tube. A disadvantage of this method is
A distributed temperature monitoring system (DTS)
that it requires splicing the fiber at each manhole.
consists of installing a fiber optic cable, which acts as a
temperature sensor, along the entire length of a cable
The most common method in the majority of existing
and some type of monitoring. The monitoring system
and new cable installations is to install the temperature-
reads the temperature of the fiber. The monitoring sys-
sensing fibers nearby the cables. This can be accom-
tem can be permanent or portable. Whether the moni-
plished by either attaching the optical fibers to the cable
toring system is permanent or temporary should be
using cable ties or installing the optical fibers in an adja-
based on the needs of the utility. If real-time monitoring
cent conduit. If the cable surface is accessible along the
is desired, a permanent installation is necessary. If only
entire length, then the sensor can be fixed to the outside
historical or benchmark information is desired, a porta-
surface of the power cable. This would be the preferred
ble unit would be sufficient. With a portable system,
method for direct-buried cables. There will, however, be
multiple systems could be periodically monitored.
uncertainty in knowing what is being measured: the sur-
face of the cable or the layer of air or protection around
For the most accurate temperature reading, the best
the fiber in its vicinity. When a temperature-sensing
location to install the temperature-sensing fiber is inside
fiber is attached to a power cable, it may be installed in a
the conductor itself. This method eliminates outside
plastic or metal tube, or it may consist of an optical
interference and any misinterpretation of results. How-
fiber cable with additional strength members which may
ever, there is currently no manufacturer that can accom-
include metallic parts. If metallic parts are included,
plish this type of installation.
then consideration needs to be given to the possibility of
induced circulating currents generating additional heat-
The second best choice is to place the temperature-sens-
ing effects and causing temperature measurement errors.
ing fiber, during cable manufacturing, under the outside
In addition, the bonding and grounding of metallic
jacket. The calculation of the conductor temperature
parts needs to be considered. If the cable with the tem-
based on the measured temperature is straightforward in
perature-sensing fiber attached is to be pulled into a
this case, since the thermal characteristics of the cable
duct, special consideration needs to be given to the
materials are well known. When a temperature-sensing
forces that the fiber will encounter during the pulling of
fiber is integrated into the power cable, it may be part of
the power cable.

Table 12-2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fiber Optic Cable Location for Temperature Sensing
Advantages Disadvantages
Integrated into the power cable
Provides a better indication of the conductor core temperature Manufacture of power cable is more complex
More responsive to current loading Optical splicing at each cable joint is required and is more complicated
Fiber is protected by the power cable More fiber splices are needed (determined by power cable drum length),
resulting in higher dB losses.
Well-suited where power cable pulled into ducts May require more monitoring loops.
Fiber needs to be replaced and respliced in the event of a cable failure.
Externally attached to the outside of the power cable
Fiber cable can be run in long lengths without splicing, resulting Less responsive to load changes than integrated design
in lower dB losses
If installed in a tube, fibers can be blown out and new ones Less representative of conductor temperature
blown in, should a fiber failure occur
Can be easily attached to a conventional cable in an open Increases installation work
trench (before backfilling)
Can be easily attached to a power cable in a tunnel, or to the Not suitable for attaching to power cables that will be pulled through
roof or floor of a tunnel long ducts
In a separate duct or close to the power cable
Relatively easy to install or may already exist Least responsive method to load changes
Fiber cable can be retrofitted Least representative of conductor temperature— remote from conductor
Can be run in long lengths without splicing, resulting in lower
dB losses
Can use spare fibers in an already installed telecom cable

12-20
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
In a duct bank, any empty duct can be used to house the
temperature-sensing fiber. However, the farther the tem-
perature-sensing fiber is from the hottest conductor, the
more uncertainty is introduced in the correlation
between the measured temperature and the actual tem-
perature of the conductor, and thus the rating. When a
sensor fiber is separately installed and positioned a
short distance from the power cable, the cable construc-
tion can be of various types. The cable may be part of a
telecommunication system and one or two fibers made
available for temperature sensing. However, typically a
separate fiber cable is installed.
The advantages and disadvantages of using optical fiber
sensors in different configurations are given in Table 12-2.
Leak Detection
Rapid detection of a fluid leak reduces the amount of
fluid loss. Leak detection is especially important for
high-pressure fluid-filled (HPFF) cables, because of the
large quantities of fluid involved. Fluid loss is also
important in SCFF cable due to the significantly lower
reserves of dielectric fluid and the possibility of mois-
ture ingress and ultimate failure of the cable. As
described in Chapter 9, pressurizing plants contain sim-
ple leak detection in the form of fluid-level alarms on
the storage tanks or frequent-operation alarms on
pumps. Cumulative flow meters add further sophistica-
tion and reduce the amount of fluid loss before detec-
tion. More elaborate systems, combining software that
evaluates expected fluid expansion/contraction as a
function of cable loading, provide even further sensitiv-
ity (Engelhardt and Purnhagen 1991). Incorporating
these devices in the cable design and installations stages
is more effective and less costly than adding them after
the line is in service.
Leak Location
Once a leak is detected, rapid location minimizes fluid
loss. An EPRI project in the 1980s investigated many
leak location methods (Williams et al. 1983). Chapter 15
addresses the operating procedures for leak location and
repair. The engineer can take several steps at the design
stage to speed future leak location efforts.
Probes have been developed that can detect the very
slow fluid flow in the direction of a leak (Ghafurian et
al. 1989). These probes must be inserted into the cable
pipe. Valves can be added at any time. However, if they
are installed at the top of joint casings or perhaps on the
line pipe in cable manholes before cable installation, the
cost of installing them is lower, and there is no chance of
damage to the cable. These valves are also useful for
fluid sampling for dissolved gas analysis.
Chapter 12: Installation Design
Leak location cables were developed in the late 1980s
(Ghafurian et al. 1989). These cables are sensitive to
dielectric fluids, and may be placed in the trench adja-
cent to a cable pipe or an SCFF cable. They indicate
that a leak has occurred and locate a leak to within
about 6 ft (2 m).
12.2.9 Grounding/Cathodic Protection
Another important design consideration is the type of
grounding needed to ensure the proper operation of an
underground cable system. A detailed discussion of the
grounding and cathodic protection for underground
cable systems is included in Chapter 10.
12.3 INSTALLATION MODES
12.3.1 Splices: Directly Buried vs. in Manholes
Cable splices are required to join sections of cable. The
distance between splices is governed by pulling tensions
or the length of cable that can fit on a reel, and varies
from less than 1000 ft (300 m) to more than 7000 ft
(2100 m). Splices are described in detail in Chapter 8.
Splices must be made in a clean, dry environment.
Humidity control must be provided for higher-voltage
cables, especially paper-insulated cables. Splicing is
generally done in a permanent manhole, although splic-
ing requirements can be met using a temporary man-
hole, which is then backfilled, thus creating a directly
buried splice.
Most pipe-type cable splices are installed in permanent
manholes. Directly buried splices are often used with
directly buried SCFF or extruded-dielectric cables.
Some users provide permanent manholes for easy access
to splices even if the cables themselves are directly bur-
ied. Permanent manholes are almost always used for
cables in duct. Because of the increasing importance of
dissolved gas analysis, more utilities are installing sam-
pling valves on splice casings for HPFF and SCFF
cables (or are using the evacuating/filling valves that are
already in place), so that permanent manholes are nec-
essary for access to the valves.
A temporary manhole can consist of a precast or
poured concrete pit, with plywood walls and tarpaulins,
or a temporary chamber placed over the pit to protect
the cables during splicing. Typical dimensions are
6–10 ft wide x 15–20 ft long (1.8–3.0 x 4.6–6.1 m). After
the splice is complete and all tests are done, the pit is
filled with clean sand. Pavement is restored if necessary,
and a marker is placed so the splice can be located
quickly if repairs are needed.
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Chapter 12: Installation Design
Permanent manholes are typically 8 ft wide x 18 ft long
x 7 ft high (2.4 x 5.5 x 2.1 m), although sizes can vary
depending upon the number of circuits, cable type, and
voltage. Manholes can be precast, which are often less
costly if facilities exist nearby for casting and if many
manholes are ordered. Alternatively, field-poured man-
holes may be installed. Field-poured manholes are espe-
cially useful in areas where other utility lines are nearby,
preventing the installing of a precast manhole.
Almost all transmission cable manholes have two
accesses (chimneys) to facilitate cable installation. Man-
holes include significant steel reinforcement and the cor-
rect grade of concrete to ensure that there is no problem
with heavy truck traffic, and reinforcements are pro-
vided to permit installing cable-pulling accessories such
as sheaves. Figure 12-23 shows a precast manhole being
lowered into place.
12.3.2 Trenching
General
The most common method for constructing an under-
ground cable system is by open-cut trenching. This con-
sists of using a backhoe to remove the concrete, asphalt
road surface, topsoil, and subgrade material to the
desired depth, as shown in Figure 12-24. The material
can be stockpiled near the trench, if acceptable by the
local authorities, or removed to an appropriate off-site
location for disposal or used for fill as appropriate. The
pipe/duct is installed in the trench and the trench back-
filled. Fill materials can be thermal sand and/or a con-
crete mix. Depending on the depth, shoring of the
trench may be required. The U.S. Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) requires any trench
deeper than 5 ft (1.5m) to be shored unless a competent
Figure 12-23 Precast manhole being lowered into place
(courtesy POWER Engineers, Inc.).
12-22
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
person determines that the soil conditions do not
require shoring. Along roadways, shoring may be
needed to maintain the trench sides and prevent damage
to the rest of the roadway.
During the construction of the underground transmis-
sion line, obstacles, such as major roadways, large utili-
ties, and railroads may be encountered that require
alternatives to open trenching. In cases where open
trenching is not an option, jacking and boring or hori-
zontal directional drilling (HDD) may be used. Discus-
sion of these installation methods are provided later in
this chapter.
Beginning in the mid-1980s, utilities began installing
fiber-optic cables or spare ducts for future fiber-optic
cables. The fiber-optic cables are used for cable system
communication or other utility requirements. In some
cases, the utility may make the fiber-optic cables avail-
able for outside communication company use. Recently,
additional ducts were added for temperature-monitor-
ing purposes.
Extruded-dielectric Cables
Extruded-dielectric cables can be installed either directly
buried, as illustrated in Figure 12-25, or in duct, as illus-
trated in Figure 12-26. General practice in North Amer-
ica is to install the cables in ducts to facilitate removal
and replacement in event of cable failure. However,
directly buried cables have 10–15% higher ampacities
than duct cables because there is no dead air space to
impede heat transfer to the earth. Reference (Tarpey et al.
1991) describes an extruded-dielectric cable installation.
The advantages of direct-buried cable systems are that
they are significantly less expensive to install than duct
Figure 12-24 Backhoe excavating a trench (courtesy
POWER Engineers, Inc.).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
bank cable systems. Direct-buried cable systems can
require that significant lengths of trench be left open
until the cable is installed. Repairs to direct-buried cable
systems require the trench to be opened and the cables
exposed, which in itself may further damage the cable or
even the adjacent good cables. When the trench is
located within commercial or residential property, land-
owners can expect significant disruption to their busi-
ness or property due to the excavation required to
expose the cable system. Any type of cable can be direct
buried, provided that it is designed appropriately for
direct-buried applications.
Directly buried cables should be protected from above
to reduce the chances of dig-in. Precast or free-poured
concrete slabs are typically placed 1 ft (30 cm) or so
above the cables. Trench widths typically vary from 36
to 100 in. (91 to 254 cm), depending upon the number of
circuits and spacing among cables, and depths vary
from 46 to 52 in. (117 to 132 cm). Trenches for directly
buried cables often have controlled backfill installed to
improve ampacity. Spacing between adjacent phases is
usually 9–12 in. (23–30 cm), and typical spacing
between circuits is 24 in. (60 cm) or greater. Fiber-optic
cables can also be installed. In addition, ground conti-
nuity conductors can be installed in the trench to carry
fault currents if required by the bonding scheme.
It is possible to install single-conductor cables in duct
using the flat configuration shown in Figure 12-25.
Ampacity will be reduced because of the dead air space
in the ducts.
Figure 12-25 Typical directly buried
trench detail (courtesy POWER Engineers, Inc.).
Chapter 12: Installation Design
Duct banks designed for the utility industry are fre-
quently located within or near public rights-of-way such
as along roads and highways, beneath sidewalks, or in
green spaces within the rights-of-way that are assessable
to the general public. It is common practice in these
cases to encase the duct system in high-strength con-
crete of at least 3000 psi for protection from mechanical
damage. The concrete encasement also provides a mea-
sure of safety for the personnel who may be installing
another facility in close proximity to the duct system in
the future. The latest edition of the National Electric
Safety Code should be consulted to ensure that all
applicable code requirements for minimum burial depth
are met.
In some cases, the municipal authorities may allow the
installation of a duct bank system backfilled with a spe-
cial soil or thermal sand instead of high-strength con-
crete. In this instance, the utility should install and
maintain a “High-Voltage Buried Cable” warning sys-
tem of signs indicating the hazard potential, and the
utility should regularly patrol the cable route, especially
in areas where excavation is most likely. A good practice
to protect the ducts from mechanical damage is to place
4-in.-thick (10-cm) preformed concrete slabs on top of
the thermal sand backfill directly over the ducts, or to
simply pour a 3- to 4-in. (7- to 10-cm) layer of concrete
directly from the concrete truck about 1 ft (30 cm) above
the cable. Ducts installed in this fashion without con-
crete encasement should be at least Schedule 40 in thick-
ness. Thinner walled ducts may become oval in shape
when encased in concrete if proper pouring practices are
not followed.
Figure 12-26 Typical duct bank trench detail
(courtesy POWER Engineers, Inc.).
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Chapter 12: Installation Design
The designer should consider including one additional
duct per circuit as a spare conduit to be used in the
event that a new replacement cable needs to be pulled in.
Should a cable experience a fault, the heat and duration
of the fault may bond the cable to the duct material,
prohibiting the removal of the cable. If there is a possi-
bility of a future circuit being installed along the same
alignment, consideration needs to be given to the
cost/benefit of installing additional ducts during the ini-
tial installation. The incremental cost of including addi-
tional ducts during the design stage of the project is
small compared to the initial cost of excavating the
trench and repaving or relandscaping. If future circuits
are planned but not going to be installed at this time, the
ampacity requirements for the ultimate circuit build-out
needs to be incorporated into the duct bank design.
A t y p i c a l d u c t b a n k c o n fi g u rat i o n i s s h ow n i n
Figure 12-26. The ducts are installed in a vertical
stacked arrangement. Spacers hold the ducts in position
until a concrete envelope is poured around the ducts.
The concrete envelope provides mechanical protection
and aids heat dissipation. Since concrete has a low ther-
mal resistivity, controlled backfill is not generally
needed outside the envelope; clean fill is usually ade-
quate. The spare ducts may be used for fiber-optic
cables, ground continuity conductor, or replacement
power cable.
The duct materials primarily used today are polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), polyethylene (PE), and reinforced ther-
mosetting resin (fiberglass). Because transmission volt-
age cables are larger and generally heavier than
distribution cables, and because it is economically justi-
fiable to design longer pulls rather than shorter pulls,
the coefficient of friction of the duct material becomes
an important consideration in the selection of duct
material. The designer must consider the type of cable
jacket that will be used on the cable to avoid selection of
two materials (cable jacket and duct material) that pro-
duce a higher coefficient of friction, thus limiting the
length of the cable pull and potentially requiring an
additional manhole. For instance, a PE jacket and a PE
duct material would produce a higher coefficient of fric-
tion than a PE jacket in a PVC duct.
Most concrete-encased duct bank systems and direct
buried conduit systems use PVC duct. This material
comes in straight sections and, when joined together,
makes for an extremely straight duct system without
undulations. On the other hand, PE duct can generally
be delivered to the site on reels. This material has suffi-
cient elastic memory to cause the individual duct runs to
undulate, which increases pulling tensions. Although
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
this is acceptable for lightweight distribution cables, it is
not satisfactory for transmission voltage cables.
Although more expensive that PVC, fiberglass duct has
the advantage of being less brittle and generally stiffer
than PVC, making it suitable for nonburied duct runs
that are supported at regular intervals between hanger-
type supports without significant bowing between sup-
ports. Fiberglass is also a good alternative for installa-
tions that will be above grade and exposed to the
elements. Fiberglass is highly resistant to weathering
with good UV radiation stability (sunlight resistance).
Fiberglass also has a lower coefficient of friction, allow-
ing longer cable pulls with less reliance on lubricants.
Another advantage of using fiberglass conduits is that
fiberglass has a lower coefficient of thermal expansion,
which makes it an excellent option for bridge attach-
ments and other exposed installations.
PVC conduits are available in several ratings: DB or
Schedule 20, Schedule 40, and Schedule 80. Schedule 40
is the most commonly used PVC rating, although many
utilities will allow DB-rated PVC if it is encased in con-
crete. DB is thinner walled and is more easily broken
during construction activities, especially by workers
stepping on the conduit and by concrete dropping onto
it during encasement. Schedule 80 is considered heavy
wall and is often used where above-grade protection of
the cable is important, such as cable risers on termina-
tion structures. Be aware that, without special formula-
tion for UV resistance, PVC will grow brittle with
extended exposure to UV light.
Further discussion on conduit installation is provided in
Chapter 13, Section 13.4.2.
Trench widths can vary from 12 to 54 in. (46 to 137 cm),
depending upon the configuration of the cable or con-
duit. Occasionally, wider trenches are used to keep the
depth of the trench as shallow as possible. Most utilities
require the top of the concrete to be a minimum of 36 in.
below grade. Typically, the minimum spacing between
the edges of the ducts is 3 in. (76 mm). There are spacer
designs with this spacing. If a greater distance is needed,
the spacer would have to be special ordered. The mini-
mum distance from the duct to the edge of trench
should be 3 in. (76 mm). A distance greater than 3 in.
(76 mm) from the duct to the edge of trench may be nec-
essary, due to the trench depth, to facilitate the installa-
tion of the duct into the trench, or to provide sufficient
space for reinforcing steel. Reinforcing steel may be
installed if additional duct bank strength is needed, but
should never metallically encircle the duct bank.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Pipe-type Cables
The cables for high-pressure fluid-filled (HPFF) and
high-pressure gas-filled (HPGF) pipe-type cable systems
are installed in steel pipes, which withstand pressure,
provide protection, and facilitate replacing failed cables.
The pipe can be installed directly buried or encased in a
low-strength thermal concrete, as shown in Figure 12-27.
Many utilities install two cable pipes per trench, with
one line able to carry the full load for the duration of a
repair on a failed companion circuit. Reference (Hatcher
et al. 1966) describes pipe-type cable installations.
Trench widths can vary from 18 to 54 in. (46 to 137 cm),
depending upon pipe size, whether there are one or two
pipes per trench, and whether welding is done alongside
or in the trench. Occasionally, wider trenches are used
for three-pipe installations, or for circuits containing
fluid-return pipes for forced cooling. Typically, mini-
mum 24-in. (61-cm) spacing is maintained between
cable pipes to permit working on the pipes during instal-
lation and during possible future repairs. Greater spac-
ing also reduces mutual heating effects, thereby
improving ampacity.
Trench depth is selected to give a cover over the pipe of
36–42 in. (91–407 cm) if possible, since a shallower
depth provides greater ampacity. At these depths, shor-
ing may not be required, since the trench will be less
Figure 12-27 Typical pipe-type cable trench cross section
(courtesy POWER Engineers, Inc.).
Chapter 12: Installation Design
than 5 ft (1.5 m) deep. In many cases, however, the depth
must be greater to avoid existing utilities, or to maintain
sufficiently large bending radii, etc. Intersections require
greater depths because of the need to pass under exist-
ing utilities in the cross streets.
The trench is commonly filled with a special low-ther-
mal resistivity controlled backfill to aid heat dissipation
and improve ampacity. The amount of backfill varies
with native soil conditions. Many utilities standardize
on 12 in. (30 cm) above the cables. See Section 12.2.6 for
a discussion of controlled backfill. The material above
the controlled backfill may be native soil if it has suit-
able thermal and mechanical properties. If the line is
under pavement, roadbed sub-base is then installed, fol-
lowed by the base pavement and final pavement.
SCFF Cables
SCFF cables are installed in a similar manner as
extruded cables. Reference (Kozak et al. 1965) describes
an extensive SCFF cable installation.
12.3.3 Trenchless Installations
During the process of planning a route layout for an
underground cable system, extensive research must be
performed to locate any encumbrances that would pro-
hibit open trench excavation and force the utility into
using various trenchless technologies: horizontal direc-
tional drilling, jack and bore, and tunneling/microtunnel-
ing. These encumbrances could be due to the following:
• Numerous subsurface services that require a protec-
tive barrier between them and the cable system to
be installed.
• Major street intersections that cannot be excavated
by the open trench method during certain times.
Some city governments do not allow any open trench
excavation or work during normal business or com-
muter hours in particular areas of their city. All work
must then be scheduled for the night hours.
• Interstate or state highway systems including major
city parkways and boulevards where open trenching
is not permitted.
• Railroad systems where there is no available existing
underpass that could be utilized.
• Water or wetlands crossings.
Trenchless installation costs are generally greater than
costs for open trenching. However, it is quite possible
to reduce some installation costs by comprehensive
planning. When roads, highways, parks, airports, rail-
roads, etc., are built or rebuilt, utility planners should
take the opportunity to install bores, tunnels, man-
holes, or casings while open trenching is permitted,
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Chapter 12: Installation Design
thus reducing future installation costs. Being aware of
current and planned civil construction projects and
comparing them to anticipated cable routings can result
in significant savings, depending on the present worth
of future construction.
Descriptions of the various trenchless technologies are
given in the following subsections.
Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD)
Horizontal boring operations have become quite popu-
lar with utilities. This began with small directional bor-
ing operations for utility distribution services (electric,
gas, and telephone). Large directional boring machines
were then developed for long lengths of gas and oil
transmission pipe systems. They were previously only
used for river or water crossings where the cost of exca-
vation would exceed that of a directional bore, or where
excavation of the river bottom would present environ-
mental problems. This type of boring is now used by
electric utilities for underground transmission projects
where conventional trenching is not an alternative. The
North American Society for Trenchless Technology
(NASTT) has prepared a guide entitled Horizontal
Directional Drilling Consortium HDD Good Practices
Guidelines (NASTT 2004).
HDD can be a preferable construction method because
of its minimal impact to the surrounding environment.
One of the drawbacks to using a HDD is the impact
on the circuit ampacity. A typical HDD installation
results in the cable being installed at least 20 ft (6.1 m)
below grade.
HDD installations are used for both pipe and duct
installations. Typically, the longer installations (greater
than 1.5 miles, or 2.4 km) use pipe-type cable because of
two main factors: (1) the pulling forces are distributed
over three cables, instead of just one, and (2) pipe-type
cables frequently have a smaller diameter, thus, allowing
more cable to be carried on one reel; therefore longer
distances can be installed.
Figure 12-28 Plan and profile view of a horizontal directional drill (courtesy POWER Engineers, Inc.).
12-26
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
General
The HDD method consists of three processes. First, a
small-diameter pilot hole is drilled from entry to exit.
Next, the pilot hole is enlarged by reaming. Finally, the
product pipe is pulled into the enlarged hole. Each indi-
vidual process is described in detail.
There are several factors to be considered in the design
process of an HDD crossing. Among these are depth of
cover requirements, underlying soil conditions, existing
utilities, entry and exit angles, radius of curvature, and
compound curves and available drilling and pull back
space. Each individual design factor is discussed in
detail below. Equations used in the design process are
also provided.
The first to be discussed is the depth of cover. A plan
and profile view of a typical HDD crossing is presented
in Figure 12-28.
The underlying soil strata of an HDD should be investi-
gated to determine the suitability of the HDD method.
Soil samples should be taken at each end of the crossing
and at the center point, and/or the deepest point, along
the crossing. This information will allow the designer to
determine if there are any unusual or unexpected mate-
rials that the drill string will encounter. This informa-
tion will enable the designer to plan for the appropriate
equipment and drill head, select the casing material, and
understand the risks of the operation before mobilizing
to the site.
Soil conditions such as silts, sands, and clays tend to be
well suited to directional drilling. Soils containing gravel
and cobble make all phases of the HDD process much
more difficult. Even though facilities have been installed
in numerous types of rock formations, HDD in rock is
oftentimes much more costly than a comparative instal-
lation in soil. This is due to the need for specialized
rock-drilling tools. These tools are discussed in detail in
a later section. During the design phase, a geotechnical
exploration of the subsurface should be investigated to
determine the suitability of the HDD method. The
depth of the installation is determined primarily by the
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
type of soils encountered. One of the primary design
concerns is the potential of “frac out,” the loss of drill-
ing fluid, during the drilling process. Loss of drilling
fluid can cause significant environmental problems. The
deeper the installation, the less likely a “frac out” will
occur, but the greater the impact on circuit ampacity.
Existing utilities to be crossed and other underground
facilities and structures in the proximity of a planned
HDD crossing must be identified, just as with any
underground digging activity.
The entry angle of the directional drill needs to be
understood when planning the route and the set-up
area. The entry angle is defined as the angle that the bit
enters the ground relative to horizontal. Most direc-
tional drilling rigs are capable of an entry angle of
between 8 and 16°, although many drilling companies
prefer an entry angle of 11 to 12°. A steeper entry angle
allows the drill path to reach its maximum depth rela-
tive to the entry point in a shorter horizontal distance.
The exit angle must also be considered. Exit angles typi-
cally range from 6 to 20° or more relative to horizontal.
Shallower exit angles are generally reserved for larger-
diameter steel pipeline installations. Shallow exit angles
(6 to 10°) reduce the amount of pipe-handling require-
ments (cranes, side booms, etc.) on the exit side. The
downside is that a greater horizontal distance is
required when small exit angles are used, which
increases the length of the crossing. Steeper exit angles,
defined as in excess of 15° are used where distance con-
straints are a prime consideration in the design process.
Steep exit angles also increase the need for additional
pipe-handling equipment.
One of the most important factors in the design of an
HDD crossing is the radius of curvature. This is of
greater importance when steel pipe is used. A general
rule-of-thumb in the design process is 100 ft (12 m) of
radius per inch (cm) of outside diameter (OD) of prod-
uct pipe. For example, the radius for a nominal 10-in.
OD (25.4 cm) steel pipe would be 1000 ft (304.8 m).
Larger radii are desirable if sufficient room is available
in the length of the crossing. For high-density polyethyl-
ene (HDPE) pipe, much tighter radii can be used. As a
rule-of-thumb, the minimum radius of curvature for
HDPE pipe is given as 50 times the outside diameter.
Radii this small are generally not used, because the steel
drill pipe used to drill the pilot hole is incapable of toler-
ating relatively small radii. Equations used in the design
of HDD drill paths are presented below.
Chapter 12: Installation Design
Horizontal Distance of Curve = R (sin α ) 12-2
Where:
R = Radius of Curvature
α = entry or exit angle (degrees)
Vertical Distance of Curve = R (1 − cos α ) 12-3
Where:
R = Radius of Curvature
α = entry or exit angle (degrees)
Rπα
Length of Curve = 12-4
180
Where:
R = Radius of Curvature
α = entry or exit angle (degrees)
Compound curves should be avoided in the design
of HDD crossings whenever possible. A compound
curve occurs when there is a change in direction in both
the horizontal and vertical planes simultaneously. In
certain cases, it is an unavoidable situation. A method
for estimating the compound radius is given in the fol-
lowing equation:
( Rv ) 2 * ( R h ) 2
Rc = 12-5
( Rv ) 2 + ( R h ) 2
Where:
Rc = Compound Radius of Curvature
Rv = Vertical Radius of Curvature
Rh = Horizontal Radius of Curvature
Site Layout
In addition to the necessary space required to set up the
drilling machine, sufficient space is needed for preparing
the duct/pipe for pull back. This pullback area can be
narrow, but can be extremely long. Optimally, the length
of the pull back area should equal the length of the drill;
however, sometimes that may not be possible. Another
thing to consider is the weight of the pipe/conduit that is
being installed.
The size of the drilling area is dependent on the type of
drill rig required. HDD rigs are available in many sizes,
ranging from 7000 lbs (31,150 N) of pullback force to
1,000,000+ lbs (4450 kN). Also, the rigs have rotary
torque ra nging from approximately 4000 ft-lbs
(5420 N-m) to in excess of 80,000 ft-lbs (108,465 N-m).
The ancillary equipment that is used with the rig is a
mud pump, mud-cleaning system, drill pipe, a tempo-
rary site office, a control unit for the rig, power unit for
the rig, water supply, and a tool/spares container. A typ-
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Chapter 12: Installation Design EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

ical HDD site layout is shown in Figure 12-29. A typical common casing material is HDPE. Steel casings are also
footprint would be about 150 x 250 ft (45.7 x 76.2 m). used, but use of steel casings may result in a significant
A photo of an HDD rig is presented in Figure 12-30. reduction in ampacity due to additional losses from hys-
teresis and eddy current losses in the steel pipe. Also an
Extruded-dielectric Cables
HDPE casing is less likely to affect the tracking of a
Extruded cables are always installed in inner ducts
parallel bore as compared to a steel casing. The next
within a bore, both with and without casings. Though
step is to determine the size and thickness of the casing.
technically feasible, a cable system has never been
The diameter of the casing is determined by the number
installed directly into a bore: most owners consider this
and size of the ducts that will be installed in the casing.
risky since the cable could be damaged during installa-
The casing thickness is determined by the calculated
tion, and there would be no opportunity to pull out
stresses associated with the HDD design, as discussed
damaged cable in the event of a failure. Historically, the
previously. A plastic casing offers some advantages over
method of installing single-core cable with HDD tech-
steel in that the material is softer and more flexible, so
nology was to install an outer casing with the individual
bending radii may be smaller than a comparable steel
conduits installed inside.
casing. However, a steel casing has a higher tensile load
limit for pullback.
Installing a cable system without a casing has some
advantages, including avoiding the cost of the casing
When pulling the duct bundle into a casing, special
and possibly smaller trenchless bending radii, perhaps
spacers with rollers are usually used to maintain the
meaning the length of the bore is shorter since the con-
conduit spacing and lower the forces required to pull in
duit system can get down to depth more quickly without
the duct package. The most common material used for
as much setback. When no casing is used, the conduits
ducts within casings is HDPE, although PVC (polyvinyl
or cable pipes are installed directly during pullback, and
chloride) and fiberglass can also be used. Once the cas-
there is no opportunity to place an engineered grout
ing and ducts have been installed, it is recommended
backfill around the conduits or cable pipes. If the
that the casing be filled with a thermally approved grout
ampacity goals can be achieved, this is typically the low-
to eliminate the air pocket inside the casing and improve
est-cost alternative. In addition, there is one less pull-
the ampacity of the cable circuit. Depending on the
back step since the inner ducts or cable pipes do not
length and depth of the HDD installation, this can be
need to be pulled back into the casing pipe after the cas-
very problematic. The main design concern is the grout
ing is installed.
pressure, associated with filling the casing with grout.
Casing Design Considerations The designer needs to be sure that the duct material can
A number of design considerations are associated with withstand the grout pressure. If grouting is not used, the
installing a casing using the HDD method. The first designer must consider the derating effect of the air
consideration is to determine the casing material. A pocket on the circuit ampacity.

Figure 12-29 Typical HDD site layout (courtesy POWER Engineers, Inc.).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Bundle Design Considerations
The main design consideration for installing the ducts
as a bundle is to adequately size the ducts to withstand
the installation stresses. This normally requires a larger
wall thickness for the duct than what is needed for a
normal trench installation. Because the larger wall
thickness affects the inside diameter, a larger duct may
be needed. This will cause some problems with the inter-
face of the HDD duct to the normal trench duct. Either
the HDD duct is taken directly into a manhole, or a spe-
cial coupling is needed to make the transition. The con-
cern with the transition coupling is to make sure the
interface is smooth to prevent damage to the cable dur-
ing installation. The primary duct material used for this
type of HDD installation is HDPE due to the strength
of the joint. The HDPE is usually butt-fused together,
resulting in a very strong joint. Depending on the length
of the drill and the type of geography, the designer may
consider pressure-grouting the hole to improve the ther-
mal environment. If grouting is not used, the designer
must consider the thermal properties of the drilling mud
to determine the impact to the circuit ampacity.
Pipe-type Cables
Generally, an outer casing is not needed for pipe-type
cables, unless specifically required by local regulations.
For all cable systems, but particularly for pipe-type
cables, the casing offers protection and a degree of sec-
ondary containment in the event of a dielectric fluid
leak. If no casing is required, the cable pipe is pulled
directly into the hole similar to a casing. The thickness
and coating of the pipe are the main design concerns.
Depending on the length of the drill, the pipe thickness
may need to be increased to withstand the installation
Figure 12-30 Horizontal directional drilling rig (courtesy
POWER Engineers, Inc.).
Chapter 12: Installation Design
stresses. This may cause some problems when the
thicker HDD cable pipe is connected to the normal
cable pipe. It is recommended that the HDD cable pipe
be extended to the manholes. Otherwise, a special cou-
pling is needed.
The recommended coating for an HDD cable pipe is a
fusion-bonded epoxy with an external POWER-
CRETE™. This provides a stronger coating to with-
stand the abrasions that could occur during the
pullback. Another option is to increase the normal
coating thickness.
SCFF Cables
SCFF cables are installed similar to the method
described above for the extruded-dielectric cable.
Because of the associated depth, it is important to con-
sider any pressure-related issues.
Jack and Bore
Another trenchless alternative is boring, which involves
augering a holes and jacking a casing into the hole
simultaneously. The boring method is generally used to
provide an opening for cable systems under roadway
crossings, street intersections, and railroad crossings,
where no bends are necessary for the cable route. Bores
are normally less costly to install than other trenchless
methods, because less manual labor is required and they
can be installed faster.
General
One of the main design considerations with a jack-and-
bore operation is to ensure that there is adequate space
to perform the bore. To initiate a casing installation, a
pit having a minimum size of 40-ft (12.2-m) long by 10-
to 15-ft (3- to 4.6-m) wide is required by the boring
equipment and for placing and welding 20-ft (6.1-m)
sections of casing pipe. Also, prior to starting the boring
process, an exit pit approximately 10 ft (3 m) in length
should be excavated. Since a bore is basically at a
greater depth than an open trench, the entrance and exit
pits require shoring (and possibly tight sheeting) in
accordance with OSHA regulations. Secondly, if the
boring is to be done in poorly consolidated soil (soil that
begins to slough or flow if unsupported after a few min-
utes), solid sheeting is required to enclose the entire
entrance pit, allowing only an opening for inserting and
installing the casing and auger.
Casing sizes can vary for cable systems from 14 to 84 in.
(36 to 213 cm), depending upon the type of cable sys-
tem, number of circuits being installed, and length of
the bore. It is suggested that the design engineer select a
casing size with sufficient space or clearance to permit
an easy and thorough backfilling operation after the
cable system has been installed. Generally, casings
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Chapter 12: Installation Design
should be sized 8 in. (20 cm) larger than the OD of the
cable or cable pipe. Borings should be limited to lengths
less than about 400 ft (122 m). The longer the bore, the
more difficult it is to control the direction of the bore
and to fill the casing after the pipe/duct installation.
Selection of the casing material is also very important.
Historically, most bores have been installed with steel
casings, but there has been a trend to nonmetallic cas-
ings such as concrete, HDPE, fiberglass-reinforced con-
crete, and composites. The designer must consider the
derating effect on cable ampacity when using a steel cas-
ing or a concrete casing containing steel reinforcing.
Using a steel casing may reduce the circuit ampacity by
5–10%, for non-pipe-type cable systems. Each of these
materials has its own advantages and disadvantages and
may not be applicable to a particular application. Addi-
tionally, the owners of the facilities granting the crossing
permit will frequently have specific requirements for the
casing materials, thus, requiring the designer to use a
specific material. Contractors specializing in jack-and-
bore installations are the best source of information
regarding the application of the various casing materials
and their limitations in particular soil types.
Casing diameters for typical cable systems will usually
be between 14 and 84 in. (36 and 210 cm), depending on
the type of cable system, number and size of inner con-
duits, number of circuits being installed, and length of
the bore. Additionally, the wall thickness of the casings
will vary considerably, depending on the casing material
selected. For instance, a polyethylene casing will typi-
cally have a wall thickness of 2 to 3 in. (5 to 7 cm),
whereas a typical steel casing may have a wall thickness
of 0.5 in. (1.25 cm). Therefore, the resulting inner diam-
eter of the casing may be smaller for a nonsteel casing
than for a steel casing. It is suggested that the design
engineer select a casing size with sufficient space or
clearance to permit an easy and thorough backfilling
operation after the cable system has been installed. Gen-
erally, casings should be sized 8 in. (20 cm) larger than
the outside diameter (OD) of the cable or cable pipe.
Once the casing is installed, the pipe/duct is installed
using specially designed spacers. The pipe should then
be filled with a thermally approved grout. Since the
grout needs to be pumped into the casing, consideration
must be made to ensure that the grout is pumpable and
still retains good thermal properties.
Extruded-dielectric Cables
Since the number and size of ducts vary between
projects, the duct spacers are typically designed on a
project-to-project basis. The spacers are needed to
ensure the proper separation between the ducts. Spacers
12-30
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
with rollers are recommended to allow for easier instal-
lation of the conduit bundle. Detailed ampacity calcula-
tions should be made to determine the optimal duct
spacing for each installation. Typically, a minimum sep-
aration of 3 in. is recommended.
Pipe-type Cables
Normally, only one cable pipe is installed in a single cas-
ing. Polymer spacers are needed to protect the pipe coat-
ing by keeping it off the casing. The spacer runners can
be from 0.75 to 12 in. (19 to 305 mm) in length. With
longer runners, other ducts can be attached to the pipe
and pulled in with the cable pipe. These ducts are typi-
cally located on the outside of the spacer between the
runners and tied to the cable pipe using nylon ties.
SCFF Cables
SCFF cables are installed similar to the method
described above for extruded-dielectric cables.
Tunneling/Microtunneling
Other trenchless alternatives are tunneling or microtun-
neling, which involve digging and building the tunnel
simultaneously. These methods may be selected if the
size of the opening is too large to be accommodated by
either HDD or jack and bore.
Conventional tunneling is similar to pipe jacking. The
tunnel is excavated manually or mechanically, and the
spoil is removed using an auger system, carts, or con-
veyor. The difference is in how the pipe is installed. In
the case of tunneling, the pipe or tunnel liner is added at
the face of the tunnel. A temporary casing precedes the
liner plates, which are assembled at the face of the tun-
nel and added on. The temporary casing is then jacked
forward against the liner, as opposed to the entire length
being jacked forward. Additional pieces are added, and
the procedure continues. The diameters of the casings
are usually greater than 3.5 ft (1.2 m), with essentially
no upper limit. The driving distance also is unlimited.
This method may also be selected if cooling of the cir-
cuits is required to achieve the desired loading require-
ments. This method is very costly and should only be
used when the other methods cannot be used effectively.
Microtunneling is a horizontal boring technique that is
used in instances where the diameter of the final casing
is greater than what is customarily used in traditional
jack-and-bore operations or where rock is encountered.
Microtunneling uses highly sophisticated, laser-guided,
remote-controlled equipment. This enables the user to
monitor its precise location and to ensure accurate line
and grade. This system typically consists of a steerable
tunneling machine that is jacked from a shaft ahead of
the permanent pipes or a temporary casing. The spoil is
removed by using either the auger method or the slurry
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 12: Installation Design

method. The auger method uses a continuous flight of
augers to remove the spoil. The auger is surrounded by
a casing placed inside the permanent pipes or the tem-
porary casing. The slurry method uses a slurry mixture
to pump the spoil back to the surface.
Any of the cable types may be used in tunnels. Com-
pressed-gas-insulated cable can be an attractive
approach for tunnel installations, especially those with
large elevation changes, since there is no fire danger and
no problem with hydrostatic pressures. Ventilation is
important should a gas leak occur. Thermal expansion
is an important consideration since the aluminum enclo-
sure has a high coefficient of thermal expansion. It may
be necessary to anchor every three to five 40–60 ft
(12–18 m) sections, and to provide expansion relief in
the joints and enclosure between anchors. Further dis-
cussion on tunneling and microtunneling is provided in
Chapter 13, Section 13.3.1.
General
It is important to note that, because of the size of the
tunnels, it is not practical to fill the tunnels, so special
consideration needs to be taken to calculate the ampaci-
ties of the circuits based on the cables being installed in
air. Forced ventilation may be needed to achieve the
desired ampacities.
contract, but not damage the coating. Analysis should
be made on the cable pipe to determine the design limi-
tations. The pipe of pipe-type cables can be restrained,
and expansion can be accommodated, but restraining
the cables themselves is difficult in applications where
there are large elevation changes. Riser-type cable,
which has long-lay stainless-steel outer tapes to hold
most of the cable weight, may be required. As described
in Chapter 8, special anchor and skid joints are required
with the riser cable.
SCFF Cables
SCFF cables are installed similar to the method
described above for extruded-dielectric cables.
12.3.4 Bridges
Existing or new bridges can be an attractive alternative
to submarine cables for some water or railroad cross-
ings. When considering installing cable on a bridge, it is
very important to contact the owner of the bridge and
obtain all available design drawings. Some existing
bridges are not designed to accommodate additional
attachments. So, it is very important to have an existing
bridge analyzed to determine whether it can handle the
additional load. Another concern is the possibility that
the bridge may need to be rebuilt in the near future. This
may cause additional cost to the utility, because the util-

Leak detection and fire protection are very important

for tunnel installations of HPFF and SCFF cables. Leak
detection wires may be installed alongside the cables,
and fluid sensors can be installed in joint bays. Smoke
and fire monitoring can be provided using conventional
detectors or newly developed, fiber-optic temperature-
monitoring cables. For extensive tunnel installations in
Japan, the cables are typically placed in sand-filled
troughs, which provide cable restraint, contain possible
leaks, and provide fire protection (Nakagawa et al.
1973). Concrete protection has been provided in other
tunnels (Chaaban et al. 1991). Figure 12-31 shows an
SCFF installation in a tunnel.
Extruded-dielectric Cables
A design concern for installing a single-core cable in a
tunnel is to determine how the cable is to be supported.
Extruded-dielectric cables are normally installed in tun-
nels on support brackets spaced at 5 to 10 ft (1.5 to 3 m)
intervals, attached to the sidewall or to floor-mounted
stanchions. By allowing the cables to hang in a catenary
between supports, the TMB forces are relieved.
Pipe-type Cables
As with the single core, a major design concern is the
method used for supporting the cable pipe within the
tunnel. Because of the cable coating, it is important to Figure 12-31 Cable installation in a tunnel (Ray et al. 1974)
design a system that allows the cable pipe to expand and (courtesy IEEE).

12-31
Chapter 12: Installation Design
ity may be required to relocate the cable. An additional
alternative to attaching to an existing or new bridge is to
install a utility bridge. Some design considerations for a
separate utility bridge are the following:
• Protection from sun. Solar radiation will derate
the cable.
• Physical protection. Consideration should be made
to protect the cable system from potential
external damage.
• Cable/Duct radii. In many cases, sharp radii may be
required to attach to a separate utility bridge. This, of
course, will affect the pulling tensions and sidewall
pressures on the cable.
General
Cable/pipe clamps, cable weight, vibration, and methods
to account for bridge expansion joints are the major
design issues. Fairly elaborate schemes have been
employed to account for the large motion that occurs at
bridge expansion joints (Minemura and Maekawa 1989).
Compressed-gas-insulated cables are not generally
considered for bridge use because of their large
space requirements.
Extruded-dielectric Cables
Single-conductor cables are more easily installed on
bridges than pipe-type cable, since bending can be
accomplished by cable snaking, and elaborate expan-
sion joints are not required. If the bridge is short, ducts
may be used. The advantage of ducts is that they pro-
vide added mechanical protection and make installing
the cable easier. The main concern for installing ducts is
to have a duct that will not degrade over time due to UV
rays. Fiberglass duct is the preferred duct material for
bridge applications. Figure 12-32 shows a fiberglass duct
bridge crossing.
Figure 12-32 Bridge crossing with fiberglass duct (courtesy
POWER Engineers, Inc.).
12-32
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Pipe-type Cables
Many short, pipe-type cables have been installed on
bridges in North America (Sheirer and Winistsky 1958;
Gillette 1959). Pipe expansion is accommodated by 90°
or S-bends, or less commonly by expansion joints. Cable
weight, pipe expansion, bridge expansion joints, and
corrosion protection from road salts are design consider-
ations. Additionally, where the pipe is allowed to move
through its expansion range, Teflon-coated skid plates or
similar material can be used to protect the pipe coating.
SCFF Cables
There are significant numbers of SCFF installations on
bridges outside North America (Marquez et al. 1981),
including a 14-mile (22-km), 500-kV line installed in the
late 1980s (Minemura and Maekawa 1989). During
winter months, SCFF cables can experience excessive
pressures when load is restored after the cables are
de-energized, because of high fluid viscosity at low
ambient air temperatures on the bridge. Lower viscosity
fluids and larger fluid areas are used to reduce the pres-
sure problems.
SCFF cables are installed similar to the method
described above for extruded-dielectric cable.
12.3.5 Underwater Installations
Underwater power transmission cables have been success-
fully installed for over 65 years. This experience has
included all of the transmission cable types (with the
exception of compressed-gas-insulated and superconduct-
ing cables) in a wide range of installation environments.
While the longest submarine cables are dc, primarily
because of charging-current limitations associated with
long ac cables, the majority of submarine cable installa-
tions are ac. Chapter 7 provides a review of worldwide
submarine cable experience. Submarine cable installa-
tions involve a variety of potential hazards during
installation, operation, and even during retrieval for
repair. They are far more expensive to install than land-
based cables and extremely expensive to repair. Thus,
careful planning and thorough engineering of underwa-
ter cable installations are essential.
Installing cables underwater involves many technical
and economic design considerations beyond those in a
conventional underground cable installation. Selecting a
cable type and designing it specifically for underwater
installation involve more than defining the power trans-
mission capability and the desired transmission voltage.
Requirements for installation, operation, effects of
marine life and environment, fault location, cable
retrieval, and cable repair, as well as the effects of the
installation on the environment, are all factors to be
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
studied and evaluated in the planning stage of an under-
water installation. This is necessary to select the correct
cable, cable configuration, route, handling equipment,
and installation method.
Typical Design Aspects of Submarine Cables
Cables for underwater applications are similar in their
basic electrical design to conventional underground
cables, but they differ in their exterior mechanical
design, sheath requirements, and electrical bonding
methods. The most significant difference involves the
addition of armor, both to protect the cable from exter-
nal mechanical damage and to provide mechanical
strength to allow for cable installation and retrieval. The
cable jacket and sheath design also have a critical role in
ensuring the integrity of the cable. A more detailed dis-
cussion on submarine cable system design is provided in
Chapter 7. The following are key design aspects.
• Spacing
• Mechanical strength and protection
• Sheath/jacket requirements
• Corrosion protection
• Sheath bonding
• Cable losses
Types of Submarine Cable
The cable/utility industry has had successful submarine
experience with a variety of cable types, including
high-pressure fluid-filled pipe-type cables (HPFF), self-
contained fluid-filled cables (SCFF), conventional
solid-type mass-impregnated paper-insulated cables,
paper-impregnated gas-pressure-assisted cables, and
extruded-dielectric insulated cable. Selection of cable
type depends on the desired transmission operating
voltage and power transfer level, and the depth, length,
and profile of the circuit. The alternative cable types are
briefly described below.
Fluid-Filled, Fluid-Pressurized Cables
The highest-voltage submarine cables are those that are
impregnated and pressurized with dielectric liquid (pipe-
type and self-contained fluid-filled). Pipe-type and
SCFF cables are considered suitable for voltages up to
765 kV. These cables possess three advantages: their
high power transfer; their ability to match overhead
transmission voltages, which means transformers and
other substation equipment could be eliminated at the
land /submarine transitions; and the fact that they are
self-protecting and provide warning in case of damage
to the sheath or pipe. In case of limited sheath damage,
the pressurized systems will pump dielectric fluid out at
the site of the damage, minimizing water and other con-
taminants from entering and traveling up into the cable.
Fluid pressure drop or reduced fluid levels in the pres-
Chapter 12: Installation Design
surizing plant tank or reservoir can provide a warning of
potential sheath damage. However, the loss of dielectric
fluid is an environmental concern. These cable types are
only feasible for moderate water depths and short-to-
moderate lengths. Flow rate and pressure drop con-
straints related to transferring fluid in and out of the
cable due to load changes preclude using these cables for
really long lengths, generally more than 30 miles
(48 km). As the installation depth increases, the cable
must be maintained at a higher and higher pressure to
prevent the ingress of water should a leak occur, since
the specific gravity of the dielectric fluid is somewhat
lower than water. The above-surface portion of the cable
and its accessories must be designed to withstand the
fluid pressures necessary to provide slightly positive
internal pressure at the deepest point in the submarine
installation. For example, an 80 psi (550 kPa) pressure is
needed for the 1312-ft (400-m) depth of the Vancouver
Island cables.
High-Pressure Fluid-Filled Pipe-Type Cables
Pipe-type cable for submarine application has the same
construction as for land-based cables. Three impreg-
nated-paper-insulated conductors are installed in a pipe,
which is filled with dielectric fluid and pressurized.
Design differences for submarine application may
involve size and strength of skid wires, pipe wall thick-
ness, and concrete pipe coating. Heavier-walled pipes
are often used (0.5-in. or 0.375-in. vs. 0.25-in, wall
[12.7-mm or 9.5-mm vs. 6.4-mm wall]), and provide a
number of benefits, including increased mechanical
strength, greater weight to reduce buoyancy, better abil-
ity to withstand a corrosive or electrolysis condition in
the event of a coating failure, and reduced probability of
burn-through during a fault. A concrete coating is often
added to the exterior of the pipe for mechanical and
corrosion protection and for negative buoyancy.
The advantage of the pipe-type design is that the pipe
provides mechanical protection for the cables and allows
the three phases to be installed in close proximity. This
minimizes the installation trench size, spoils removal,
and construction time, and reduces environmental
impacts during construction. Pipe-type cable is not nor-
mally considered for long underwater crossings, because
it is limited by the mechanical forces required to pull the
cables into the pipe. The installed length cannot contain
field splices; splices do not fit in the pipe, nor do they
have the strength to be pulled into the pipe. In the event
of an electrical failure, the cables can be pulled out and
replaced from the land ends, with no need to deploy sur-
face repair ships or perform at-sea splices. The longest
section of submarine pipe-type cable, installed across
Long Island Sound near New York City, is 6900-ft
(2100-m) long (Bazzi 1982). One of the more ambitious
12-33
Chapter 12: Installation Design
projects was a 230-kV, 2-mile (3.2-km) crossing of the
Baltimore Harbor with five cable circuits and two
splices per circuit, which were made on platforms in the
harbor (Ruekert and Bien, Jr. 1979).
SCFF Cables
Single-conductor cables of this type utilize a conductor
with a hollow core for feeding dielectric fluid to the
cable, which is insulated with paper tapes impregnated
with a low-viscosity cable fluid. Three-conductor
designs, which are not normally utilized above 138 kV,
provide ducts in the spaces between conductors for flow
of dielectric fluids. The fluid can be pressurized to over
200 psi (1380 kPa) during operation. The insulated con-
ductor is covered with a lead-alloy sheath, insulating
jacket, bedding, and armor. This design can be installed
to depths of 3280 ft (1000 m). The length of the cable
depends on dielectric fluid-feeding limitations. With
very low-viscosity fluids, large duct size, and high fluid-
feed pressures, this cable could be installed in lengths of
over 20 miles (32 km).
Impregnated-Paper, Nonpressurized, Solid Cables
This cable type consists of a conductor insulated with
paper tapes impregnated with a very viscous dielectric
fluid. The insulated conductor is covered with a lead-
alloy sheath to prevent water ingress. An insulating
jacket, bedding, and armor wire are applied outside the
lead sheath. This cable is considered suitable for opera-
tion up to 45 kVac and 250 kVdc. Without changes to
the conductor and armoring design, this cable is limited
to installation in water depths of approximately 1500 ft
(500 m) (Bazzi 1982). Its greatest advantage is for use on
long submarine cables. It can be installed in very long
lengths, because it is nonpressurized, and thus limita-
tions regarding fluid-feeding pressures and fluid chan-
nel size do not pertain. The disadvantage of the
nonpressurized insulation is that the maximum operat-
ing voltage is limited, due to ionization limitations, par-
ticularly with alternating current. Also, its maximum
operating temperature must not exceed approximately
60°C or the impregnant in the cable will drain, causing
dielectric failure.
Gas-Filled, Pressurized Cables
This cable design utilizes a hollow-core, copper conduc-
tor wrapped with paper insulation that is impregnated
with a high-viscosity (jellylike) liquid. The cable is pres-
surized with gas. The advantages of this design, com-
pared to liquid-pressurized cables, are that the duct size
can be very small, thus reducing overall cable size and
weight, and extremely long lengths of cable are feasible,
since no dielectric liquid-feeding limitations exist.
Installation depth is limited to approximately 1300 ft
(400 m), based on gas pressure limitations. Below that
depth, the cable could be crushed due to water pressure.
12-34
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
This is only true if gas pressure is lost; the cable must be
designed for this contingency. The maximum voltage for
this cable is approximately 275 kVac and 250 kVdc
(Bazzi 1982).
Extruded-dielectric Cables
This cable type has been used commercially for land
installations at 230, 345, and 400 kV, and short sections
of cable are presently operating under test at 500 kV. It
consists of a conductor insulated with extruded solid
dielectric, such as cross-linked polyethylene or ethylene-
propylene rubber (up to 138 kV). The advantage of this
construction is that the dielectric is truly self-contained.
Without the need for internal pressurization, a heavy
wall sheath is not required, further reducing the cable
size and weight. Length is also not limited by fluid-
feeding limitations. However, the dielectric performance
of cross-linked polyethylene is significantly weakened in
the presence of even microscopic amounts of water.
Thus, although there is no internal pressurization, a
watertight metallic sheath is still critical for cross-linked
polyethylene cables. The major disadvantage is the basic
performance of the insulation. Unlike laminar impreg-
nated-paper dielectrics, extruded dielectrics are not for-
giving of defects in the insulation. One contaminant or
void can cause an eventual breakdown of the cable.
Thus, if extruded insulation is to be used for a subma-
rine transmission cable, great care should be taken to
ensure that manufacturing quality and factory testing
are performed using state-of-the-art materials, equip-
ment, and techniques.
Splicing Submarine Cables
The designs of splices for submarine cables differ from
those for land-based cables due to the mechanical
requirements associated with installation and retrieval,
as well as operation under high water pressures. The
required depth of installation and the method to be used
during installation are critical. For example, installa-
tions where the splice must pass over a capstan ten-
sioner, through a linear cable tensioner, or over a
moderately sized overboarding sheave, often place
severe design constraints on the maximum diameter and
length of a splice. Therefore, SCFF and extruded-dielec-
tric submarine cables are usually supplied in a single
length, with smaller “factory splices” being used to join
factory lengths of conductor. In three-conductor sub-
marine cable, these factory splices are usually staggered
over a length of 25–50 ft (7.6–15.2 m) to keep overall
dimensions to a minimum. Shallow-to-moderate water
depths, where the splice can be lowered off the side of
the cable installation vessel, would not necessarily
restrict the splice size in the same way, nor would the
mechanical stresses be the same.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
The electrical design of a splice for submarine cable is
no different from that of a land-based cable in terms of
maximum allowable radial and tangential electrical
stresses. Requirements of the cable-handling equipment
tend to be primary factors in the configuration of the
splice. For example, limitations of the cable-tensioning
equipment make it desirable for the submarine splice to
be the same or close to the diameter of the cable.
Whereas splices for land application typically have a
m a x i m u m i n s u l at i o n o u t e r d i a m e t e r ( O D ) o f
1.5–2.0 times the cable outer diameter, splices for deep-
water application are often designed as a “reconstruc-
tion” of the cable insulation, matching the cable insula-
tion outer diameter. Thus, the length of splice tapers,
the dielectric tapes used, and the method of application
are defined in large part by the desired splice OD.
The mechanical design of the splice is also determined
primarily by how it is to be lowered to the sea bottom.
Splices that must pass through or over a cable-tension-
ing device are designed to be “on size” with the cable.
These cable splices often use armoring similar to that of
the cable. The armor wires from one side of the splice
are hand-applied to the splice area and individually
welded to the cable armor to effectively reconstruct
the cable.
Cable splices to be installed by lowering over the side are
often installed in a submarine splice casing. Making the
splice is similar to that for a land-based cable, including
installing a lead sleeve over the complete splice. The cas-
ing has clamps on both sides, both to hold the cable
armor wires and to take the mechanical load from the
armor wires. After the splice is made and installed inside
the casing (lead sleeve and all), the casing is filled with
semi-hard insulating compound to provide further
assurance that the splice is mechanically protected and
water ingress is prevented.
Generally, it is desirable to minimize or eliminate alto-
gether the use of splices in submarine cables, because a
splice adds a site of potential weakness in the electrical
insulation and mechanical structure. Further, if splices
are to be made at sea, exposure time to possible storms
and shipboard failures is obviously increased. Installa-
tion and handling are made more complex depending
on the splice design. Submarine cable circuits are more
reliable if they do not contain splices, at least not in the
lead sheath, the reinforcement, or the armor. Most
major underwater cables have been produced splice-free
in long lengths stretching from shore to shore. Where
necessary, splices have been laid successfully in water of
moderate depth such as the English Channel (Gazzana-
Priaroggia and Mascio 1973).
Chapter 12: Installation Design
There are three different types of splices to be consid-
ered: flexible factory splices, field splices (at sea), and
repair splices. Flexible factory splices are provided to
allow the maximum length of cable to be installed with-
out the need for splicing at sea. Factory splices are supe-
rior to field splices in that their armor can still be applied
continuously, splice free, and they are made in highly
controlled conditions with trained factory technicians.
At-sea splices present greater risks, in that the splicing
must be accomplished on the vessel in varying weather
and sea conditions, and at-sea splices involve the recon-
struction of conductor, insulation, shields, jackets, and
armor. Extra cable is needed to allow the cable to be
brought up to the vessel, resulting in a “U-bend” in the
cable. While splicing is performed in a temperature- and
humidity-controlled enclosure, the cable-tensioning
equipment and vessel-positioning systems must be capa-
ble of holding the cables steady during the splicing oper-
ations. Heavy seas and severe deck motions can
obviously affect the quality of the splicing or, at least,
extend splicing time. In very heavy seas, it is sometimes
necessary to cut the cable free to protect the cable vessel
and its crew. At-sea splices should be completed
as quickly as possible to minimize exposure to bad
weather and sea conditions; if possible, they should be
avoided entirely.
Even if a submarine cable is designed and installed with-
out splices, a repair splice design must be available in
case of damage to a cable in mid-run, unless replace-
ment of the total length of submarine cable, shore to
shore, is economically and logistically feasible. There
have been cases where the submarine cable has been
damaged during the initial installation, in one case by
the anchor of the installation vessel. Thus, the repair
splice design should be completed before the installation
begins, and a suitable number of repair kits should be
available at the time of installation.
Underwater Installation Environment
Designing an underwater crossing requires consider-
ation of a number of factors related to the installation
environment. These factors affect the selection of the
type of cable, detailed cable construction, overall cable
transmission system configuration (i.e., how many cir-
cuits, how many spare phases, etc.), and the route of the
cable crossing. Obviously, length of the cable and maxi-
mum water depth are key technical issues, but addi-
tional factors must also be evaluated.
Underwater Profile and Bottom Topography
The underwater profile and bottom topography can be
significant factors in selecting the type of cable, the
route, and the method of installation. A mild, uniform
12-35
Chapter 12: Installation Design EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

elevation change for a cable crossing is generally desir- pended. Fast subsurface currents can actually move the
able. Securing cables on steep embankments usually pre- whole cable downstream. In severe conditions, anchor
sents some difficulties, and once installed, they could be systems have been installed to hold the cable in position
subject to problems such as impregnant migration with (Edison Electric Institute 1957). These currents can also
solid paper cables, or creepage of the insulation. Cables cause movement of thermal backfill and silt, burying a
on steep embankments are also more prone to damage cable beneath piles of soil.
from submarine landslides. Many methods have been
Water Temperatures and Bottom Soil Thermal
used to secure cables on steep embankments—including
Characteristics
concreting or grouting in place, anchoring, snaking,
Water temperature and soil thermal characteristics must
etc., all of which appear to have worked, but require
be considered very early in the design stages of subma-
periodic inspection. The submarine cable design engi-
rine cables. Just as thermal characteristics of the soil
neer should select the most appropriate method based
have a significant effect on the ampacity of land-based
on site conditions.
cables, the same is true with submarine cables. Poor
thermal conductivity of river and lake beds is not
A rough, erratic bottom makes cable installation diffi-
uncommon. Further, silt can dry out if it is in contact
cult and time consuming, and therefore expensive. If the
with a hot cable, and as it dries, it can form a thermal
cable is to be laid without being embedded, it is impor-
insulation that is capable of initiating thermal runaway
tant for the cable to lay flat on the bottom. If the bot-
and breakdown of the cable insulation. The 1969 failure
tom is such that lengths of the cable are unsupported
of a 115-kV fluid-filled cable crossing Lake Champlain
and underwater currents are present, these sections of
was attributed to thermal breakdown due to high ther-
the cable could be subject to damage due to cable move-
mal resistivity of the bottom soil conditions (Electrical
ment. Damage due to vibration from underwater cur-
World 1971). Additional discussion of soil thermal char-
rents (called strumming) can include abrasion, chafing,
acteristics is provided in Section 12.2.6.
and sheath fatigue. If the cables are to be embedded, a
rough bottom makes the job of trenching and placing
Water temperatures in deep waters might be quite cool,
the cables far more difficult. Some waterways have sig-
but improved cable ampacity over the total circuit due
nificant numbers of man-made obstacles such as sunken
to the cold-water environment cannot automatically be
barges, anchor lines, etc.
assumed. Water temperatures at the shore ends are usu-
ally higher. Further, the positive effect of cold waters
Thus, bottom soundings along potential routes should
can be eliminated by the bottom sediments that cover
be taken to obtain accurate profile information. If the
the cable.
bottom conditions are not uniform along the route,
more detailed bottom information should be obtained.
If poor thermal bottom characteristics or warmer
Serious problems with bottom conditions can warrant
waters present an ampacity constraint for only a portion
the consideration of alternate routes and, at the least,
of an underwater crossing, such as at either end
dramatically increase the cost for installation.
approaching landfall, an alternative is to use a larger
Surface and Subsurface Currents conductor size in only those areas to eliminate the ther-
Surface currents must be evaluated in determining the mal restriction.
method and equipment to be used to install the subma-
Man-made Facilities
rine cable or retrieve it. Fast surface currents might
Man-made facilities that may represent hazards to the
require special anchoring or active propulsion systems
cable system should also be evaluated when determining
for positioning a cable ship or barge, or might preclude
the suitability of a route. For example, submarine cable
the use of surface-ship cable installation methods alto-
installations near sanitary sewers or chemical discharges
gether. Subsurface currents can also cause a variety of
might increase corrosion problems with the armor. Pil-
problems. If the cable is laid on the bottom without
ings, bridge abutments, and other structures built in
embedment, and it becomes suspended (for example,
waterways often cause turbulence nearby, particularly
due to the sediment below the cable being transported
during high-water conditions. Turbulence can cause
downstream), the currents can cause the cable to
cable vibration or chafing. Ice jams at bridges, piers, and
vibrate. As noted above, this in turn causes chafing dam-
other man-made facilities can also cause scouring of a
age to the cable armor and jacket and fatigue to the lead
river bottom with related damage to cables. Thus, cable
sheath. In rivers and streams, it is common practice to
routes should avoid these structures if possible. Finally,
lay cable in an arc with the bow upstream. If the cable
areas involving construction of other facilities should be
does move due to the currents eroding the bottom, slack
avoided simply to reduce the possibility of damage to
is provided, so that the cable does not become sus-
the cable by dig-ins, etc.

12-36
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Ship Traffic and Commercial Fishing Activities
The greatest threat to the reliability of submarine cable
systems are people. Externally caused damage from
trawling, dredging, or ship anchors is the most common
problem for cables. Thus, commercially active water-
ways should be avoided if possible. If the cable route
must cross an active waterway, the risks to the cables
must be minimized. Embedding the cable to protect it is
one option to minimize risk of cable damage. Widely
separating the cable phases (with single-phase cables) to
minimize the possibility of damaging multiple cables
during a single incident should be considered to improve
circuit availability. Installing additional spare cables or
cable circuits is another alternative.
Underwater or Shore Environmental Sensitivity
Although submarine power cables have not been found
to present significant environmental problems in the
past, environmental sensitivity, both underwater and on
shore, must be considered carefully in selecting the
route, the installation method, and the cable system
itself. For example, installation can be scheduled during
seasons that are environmentally safer. Installation tech-
niques that minimize bottom soil disruption should be
evaluated. If cable fluid loss is a concern, for example,
flow limiters, special jacketing, or solid cable designs
could be evaluated. Environmentally sensitive areas
should simply be avoided if at all possible.
Tides, Weather, and Seasonal Constraints
Tides, weather, and seasonal constraints can limit the
time periods during which the cable can be installed and
when access to the cable for retrieval and repair is possi-
ble. Limited access to the cable for retrieval and repair is
the more serious of the two issues. Constraints with
regard to seasonal periods when a cable system can be
installed can be accommodated with good construction
planning in most cases. If the cable system is inaccessible
for repair for a few months each year (due to freezing,
severe sea conditions, ice, bitterly cold weather, etc.), the
system must be designed accordingly. For example, spare
cables or additional cable circuits could be installed, so
that power transmission can be maintained until the
damaged cable can be repaired when the weather will
allow repair procedures to begin. Underwater cable cir-
cuits should be rated to allow for the loss of a phase or
the total circuit for an extended period of time. Equip-
ment might also be installed to minimize the damage if
the cable must remain unrepaired on the bottom for an
extended period of time, such as flow-limiting devices on
a fluid-filled cable system or double-lead sheaths to pro-
vide additional protection for the cable core.
Tides represent a significant factor affecting the installa-
tion of submarine cables. Installation and repair are
Chapter 12: Installation Design
usually scheduled during neap tides, when the difference
between high and low tide is very small and tidal cur-
rents are at a minimum.
Regulatory Restrictions
Regulatory restrictions from both federal and local
authorities should be clearly understood. Blocking of
navigable waters is often an issue that directly affects
construction and repair. For example, a cable system
floated across a river, blocking shipping traffic for a
period of time, might be acceptable if the proper author-
ities are notified in advance, and if local weather and
recreation situations allow. Also, there are often con-
cerns and restrictions associated with trenching, bottom
disruption, and spoil removal, as well as maximum pos-
sible fluid-loss levels. In most cases where navigable
waterways are concerned, the U.S. Army Corps of Engi-
neers has the ultimate jurisdiction, and can be contacted
to assist in obtaining the proper permits and under-
standing the limiting factors.
Environmental Issues
A wide range of potential environment interactions are
evaluated for submarine cable installations. Typical top-
ics considered in an Environmental Impact Statement
(EIS) submittal are listed below.
• Terrestrial ecology
• Aquatic ecology
– Turbidity and sedimentation
– Spoil disposal
– Chemical quality
– Biological quality
• Land traffic
• Water traffic
• Noise
• Socioeconomics
• Aesthetics
• Recreation
Terrestrial ecology, land traffic, noise, socioeconomics,
and recreation are primarily associated with impacts at
the land connections and terminations. Aquatic ecology
has major relevance to submarine cable operation.
Many of the impact areas (land traffic, water traffic,
noise, socioeconomics, and recreation) are associated
with construction operations and are short term in
nature. This is not to say that the short-term construc-
tion impacts are not important. In fact, these typically
have more significance in obtaining construction per-
mits, Corps of Engineers’ approvals, and public accep-
tance than long-term operational aspects of the cable.
12-37
Chapter 12: Installation Design
Underwater Cable System Impacts on Aquatic Ecology
Turbidity, sedimentation, and spoil disposal receive sig-
nificant attention in environmental evaluations. They
are generally related to construction rather than opera-
tion, short term in duration, and moderate to insignifi-
cant in magnitude unless previously deposited toxic
substances are disturbed. Impacts related to these fac-
tors are likely to be higher in smaller, restricted bodies
of water (i.e., small river and lake crossings), where
marine life would be subjected to prolonged exposure to
high concentrations of suspended sediment.
The cable system operational impacts that are associ-
ated with the chemical and/or biological quality of the
water and would typically be evaluated for a site-specific
EIS include:
• Electric and magnetic field effects
• Cable heat dissipation
• Cable dielectric-fluid spills.
Although there is little data on the effects of electric and
magnetic fields on the aquatic environment and com-
passes, due to the rather low fields and the localized
impact area, these effects have been considered insignifi-
cant in magnitude (Dames and Moore 1981).
Heat dissipation from the power cables is low, as are
cable/seabed interface temperatures. The possibility of
cable heat dissipation increasing the overall temperature
of the water body is of interest because this could
decrease the dissolved oxygen level in the water. How-
ever, when cable designs have been evaluated in
restricted bodies of water, calculations have shown that
water temperature would not be elevated due to the
water’s high heat capacity, motion, and latent heat of
evaporation (Dames and Moore 1981). Any effects due
to cable heat dissipation are localized directly around
the cable.
Fluid-filled cables, either pipe-type or self-contained,
also require consideration of environmental impacts due
to possible release of the dielectric fluid. Although no
fluid would be released during normal operations, envi-
ronmental concerns relate to the possible release of
dielectric fluid during a fault or accident, a highly
unlikely event. Typically used cable impregnants include
highly refined napthenic mineral oils, synthetic poly-
butenes, and alkybenzenes. These fluids have been
found to be relatively nontoxic (Chern 1981; Dames and
Moore 1981; U.S. Army 1975; Leiboritz 1972), and, as
evaporation occurs rapidly and biodegradation occurs
within 30 to 60 days, long-term effects are not an issue.
Previous EIS documents prepared for restricted and
12-38
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
moderate-sized bodies of water have found the possibil-
ity of a cable fluid spill not to be of significant environ-
mental concern (Chern 1981; Dames and Moore 1981).
Environmental impacts in deeper open waters are even
lower, since the open waters should see higher fluid dilu-
tion rates due to winds and tidal mixing, and the dis-
solved oxygen levels of these waters are probably better
than the restricted waters.
12.4 CABLE SYSTEM DESIGN CALCULATIONS
Underground transmission cable design requires a series
of calculations that must be done by the utility, cable
manufacturer, or a consultant. Initial system calcula-
tions such as impedances, load sharing with other trans-
mission lines, insulation coordination, etc. are described
in Chapter 16. Detailed accessory calculations, such as
electrical stresses in splices, are performed by the manu-
facturers. Utilities may specify allowable levels, but they
seldom perform the calculations. Cable installation
design calculations typically done by utilities are sum-
marized below.
• Extruded-dielectric cables
– Steady-state and transient/emergency ampacity
– Cable-pulling tension and sidewall pressure
– Sheath voltages
• Pipe-type Cables
– Steady-state and transient/emergency ampacity
– Cable-pulling tension and sidewall pressure
– Hydraulic requirements
– Forced-cooling requirements
• Self-contained fluid-filled cables
– Steady-state and transient/emergency ampacity
– Cable-pulling tension and sidewall pressure
– Hydraulic requirements
– Sheath voltages
In some cases, the utility performs trench design
calculations for controlled backfill. The Underground
Transmission Workstation, developed by EPRI in the
early 1990s, to be upgraded in the near future, provides
applications programs for each of these calculations.
The calculation procedures are summarized on the fol-
lowing pages.
12.4.1 Steady-State, Transient, and Emergency
Ampacity
Steady-state ampacity refers to the maximum current
that a cable can carry for long times, for a defined load
shape. Transient ampacity refers to allowable currents
for very short periods where all heat is stored in the
cable system, and emergency ampacity refers to allow-
able currents for longer times when heat storage of the
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
earth enters into the calculations. These very detailed
calculations are at the heart of a cable system design.
Chapter 11 is devoted to ampacity calculations.
12.4.2 Cable-pulling Tension and Sidewall
Pressure
Although the maximum length between splices is some-
times limited by the length of cable that can fit on a reel,
for most routes it is governed by allowable tension on
the cable conductor as the cable is pulled into the duct
or pipe, or allowable sidewall pressure as the cable goes
around a bend. Allowable clearances between cable and
duct or pipe and jam ratio are also checked during pull-
ing-tension calculations. Route information necessary
to calculate pulling tensions and sidewall pressures is
summarized below:
• Section length
• Radius of bends and dips
• Arc length or angle of bends and dips
• Position of bends and dips
Required cable system information includes:
• Cable conductor material and size
• Cable outside diameter
• Cable weight
• Cable skid wire material, if present
• Pipe or duct material, size, and internal coating,
if any
• Pulling rope data, including diameter and weight
• COF (Coefficient of Friction) between cable and pipe
or duct
• COF between pulling rope and pipe or duct
Most of this discussion addresses three conductors in a
common pipe and follows the procedures published by
Rifenburg in 1953 (Rifenburg 1953). Single-conductor
pipe-type cables for riser sections and single-conductor
SCFF or extruded-dielectri c cables in duct are
addressed as well. Three SCFF or extruded-dielectric
cables in a common duct are seldom used at transmis-
sion voltage. If calculations need to be done for this
arrangement, the procedures for pipe-type cables may
be followed, and the user can refer to Reference (EPRI
1984) for additional information.
Clearances
A minimum clearance of about 0.5 in. (12.7 mm) should
be maintained between the top of a single-conductor
cable and the pipe or duct, or between the three cables
and the pipe for a pipe-type cable. Reference (Rifenburg
Chapter 12: Installation Design
1953) recommends a minimum 0.25-in. (6.4-mm) clear-
ance, but most utilities today use the larger number. The
minimum clearance for pipe-type cables occurs when
the cables are in a triangular configuration. This clear-
ance, C, is calculated from Equation 12-6.
2
D 1 ⎡ d ⎤
C = − 1.366d + ( D − d ) 1 − ⎢ ⎥ (in. [cm])
2 2 ⎣ (D − d ) ⎦
12-6
Where:
D = nominal pipe inside diameter, in. (cm)
d = nominal cable insulation shield outside
diameter + 1.5 times skid wire thickness,
in. (cm)
The clearance for three 2500-kcmil (1267-mm2), 345-kV
cables with a 3.654-in. (9.3-cm) shield diameter and a
0.10 in. (2.54 mm) skidwire in a 10.25 in. (26 cm) inside
diameter pipe is 2.53 in. (6.4 cm).
Jam Ratio
If the ratio of pipe inside diameter to cable diameter is
in the range of 2.9 to 3.1 (some designers use a smaller
range of 2.95 to 3.05, although the 1957 Underground
Systems Reference Book [Edison Electric Institute 1957]
uses 2.8), there is a chance that the cables can jam in the
pipe during pulling. This is a special problem as cables
are pulled through a bend in the pipe. Since the pipe
tends to flatten slightly when the bend is made, the
cables can cross, and then they can wedge as they enter
the circular cross section beyond the bend. If the jam
ratio is below about 2.9, the cables will not cross. If the
ratio is above about 3.1, they are unlikely to wedge
because of the loose fit. The jam ratio calculation is
given in Equation 12-7.
⎛D⎞
Jam Ratio = 1.05⎜ ⎟ (dimensionless) 12-7
⎝d⎠
The jam ratio is 2.82 for three 2500-kcmil (1267-mm2)
345-kV cables in a 10.25-in. (26-cm) ID pipe.
Pulling Tensions
Although the term “tension” is commonly used by cable
engineers, and is the term used in Reference (Rifenburg
1953), we actually calculate a force in pounds force, lbf
(kgf). This is the force required to pull the cables into the
pipe or duct. In keeping with common usage, this book
refers to pulling tensions.
The force to pull the cable is applied to the conductor,
and allowable pulling levels are based on the conductor
material and site conditions. Acceptable levels are
10 lbf/kcmil (8.9 kg f/mm 2) for copper conductors and
12-39
Chapter 12: Installation Design EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

6 lb f /kcmil (5.4 kg f /mm 2 ) for aluminum conductor values at varying installation temperatures, resulting
cables (EPRI 1983; Aabo et al. 1979). from EPRI-sponsored research (EPRI 1984) on distribu-
tion cables in the 1980s, is given in Tables 12-4 and 12-5.
Therefore, a 2500-kcmil (1267-mm2) copper conductor These figures assume a soap-and-water-based lubricant.
can accept a 25,000-lbf (11,400-kgf) tension. Experimen-
tal evidence from EPRI experiments has shown that a
conservative assumption is that two of the three cables Table 12-4 Basic Dynamic Coefficients of Friction for
in a pipe-type system carry the full tension (EPRI 1983). Straight Pulls and Bearing Pressures Less than 150 lbf/ft
The total allowable force on three 2500-kcmil conduc- (224 kgf/m) (Soap-and-Water-Based Lubricants)
tors is therefore 50,000 lbf (22,000 kgf).
COF
Duct Material Cable Sheath/Jacket 75°Fa 25°Fa
The Rifenburg paper addresses copper conductors only,
XLPE 0.40 0.40
and proposes a maximum stress of 10,000 lb f /sq.in. PE 0.40 0.35
(7850 lb f /kcmil; 7.0 kg f /mm 2 ) (Rifenburg 1953). All PVC 0.50 0.25
PVC
three conductors are assumed to share the tension, but Neoprene 0.90 0.55
CN 0.40 0.40
the 10,000 lb f /sq.in. is reduced by 15% to account Lead 0.25 0.25
for unbalance in tension. Working through these num- XLPE 0.45 0.35
bers gives the same 50,000-lbf (22,000-kgf) tension for PE 0.25 0.20
2500-kcmil cables as the EPRI results. PVC 0.30 0.20
PE
Neoprene 0.65 0.45
CN 0.20 0.20
The tension, T, for a single cable pulled into a straight Lead 0.20 0.25
pipe or duct is calculated from XLPE 0.30 0.20
PE 0.25 0.35
T = K0 wL lbf (kgf) 12-8 PVC 0.40 0.20
Fiber
Neoprene 0.40 0.30
Where: CN 0.40 0.35
Lead - -
K0 = basic coefficient of friction, dimensionless.
XLPE 0.30 -
w = total cable weight, lb/ft (kg/m). PE 0.35 -
L = length, ft (m). PVC 0.55 -
Concrete
Neoprene 0.50 -
Coefficient of Friction CN - -
The coefficient of friction (COF) between cable and pipe Lead 0.55 -
or duct is a very important parameter for pulling-ten- XLPE 0.70 -
PE 0.70 0.35
sion calculations. The addition of a lubricant can reduce PVC 0.70 0.35
the COF significantly for SCFF or extruded-dielectric Transite
Neoprene 1.00 0.35
cables in duct. For pipe-type cables, the lubricant is typi- CN - -
Lead - -
cally a small amount of the filling fluid that will be used
XLPE 0.60 0.45
in the pipe. Many commercial lubricants are available PE 0.50 0.50
for distribution-voltage extruded-dielectric cables, and PVC 0.65 0.40
Steel
most can be used for transmission cables. The user Neoprene 1.05 0.70
CN 0.50 0.50
should check with the cable manufacturer before using Lead - -
any lubricant. For pipe-type cables, Table 12-3 gives
COF values for different skid wire materials in steel line a. Installation temperatures.
pipe having an internal epoxy coating. A range of COF
Table 12-5 Basic Dynamic Coefficient of Friction at Bends
Table 12-3 Basic Dynamic Coefficient of Friction for Where Sidewall Pressure is 150 lbf/ft (224 kgf/m) or Greater
Different Skid Wire Materials in Coated Steel Pipe (Aabo et (All Lubricants)
al. 1979) Cable Outer Covering Duct Material COF
Skid Wire Material COF XLPE, PE, N PVC, PE, Concrete 0.15
Brass 0.17 PVC PVC, PE, Concrete 0.30
Stainless Steel, Bright 0.13 XLPE, PE, N Steel 0.25
Stainless Steel, Matte 0.11 PVC Steel 0.30
Zinc 0.15 Lead Steel 0.20

12-40
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 12: Installation Design

Better lubricants have recently become available. weight correction factor is a function of cable and pipe
Table 12-6 shows the anticipated COF for Polywater ® diameters. A triangular configuration is assumed for
“J” lubricants. This lubricant has been the mostly com- ratios of pipe inside diameter to cable outside diameter
monly used. Other lubricants with better or equal COF of 2.5 or lower, and many utilities use the triangular
values are also available. The lubricant manufacturers configuration for all calculations. Some users average
should be consulted for updated COF values when the the numbers for cradled and triangular configuration
utility is designing a specific installation. No COF val- when the ratio is greater than 2.5. WC for cables in trian-
ues are available for fiberglass duct. When performing gular configuration is given in Equation 12-9.
pulling calculation for fiberglass duct, the designer
1
should consult with the lubricant manufacturers. WC = (dimensionless) 12-9
2
Weight Correction Factor ⎛ d ⎞
1- ⎜ ⎟
The weight correction factor, WC, accounts for the ⎝ D-d ⎠
wedging and resulting increase in effective COF that
takes place when three cables are pulled into the pipe. The weight correction factor for cables in cradled con-
(Three cables are rarely installed in the same duct for figuration is given in Equation 12-10.
SCFF or extruded-dielectric transmission cables.) The
2
4⎛ d ⎞
Table 12-6 Basic Lubricated and Unlubricated Coefficient of Wc = 1 + ⎜ ⎟ (dimensionless) 12-10
Friction for Polywater® “J”
3⎝D−d ⎠
Lubricated Unlubricated For a 2500-kcmil (1067-mm 2 ), 345-kV cable with a
Conduit Jacket COF COF
3.804-in. (9.67-cm) diameter in a 10.25-in (26-cm) ID
CPE 0.12 0.58
HDPE 0.07 0.14 pipe, WC is 1.24 for triangular configuration and 1.46
Hypalon 0.06 0.75 for cradled configuration.
LLDPE 0.11 0.35
Aluminum
Nylon 0.13 0.38
PVC 0.08 0.48 The effective COF, K, equals WCKO, and the allowable
Polypropylene 0.08 0.42 pulling tension is shown in Equation 12-11.
XLPE 0.08 0.38.
CPE 0.42 0.65 T = WC K O wL or T = KwL lbf (kg f ) 12-11
HDPE 0.19 0.42
Hypalon 0.38 1.10
Where:
LLDPE 0.24 0.43 KO = basic coefficient of friction (dimension-
EMT
Nylon 0.28 0.33 less).
PVC 0.43 0.80
Polypropylene 0.24 0.45
w = total cable weight (lb/ft [kg/m]).
XLPE 0.25 0.42 L = length (ft[m]).
CPE 0.09 0.80
Hypalon 0.07 0.90 Dips and Bends
LLDPE 0.06 0.30 Equation 12-11 gives the pulling tension for straight
IMC Nylon 0.12 0.28 pipe sections. Longer equivalent lengths are calculated
PVC 0.07 0.60
Polypropylene 0.07 0.38 to account for dips and bends. Figure 12-33 shows a
XLPE 0.09 0.58 typical pull. The increase in length, L1, for major hori-
CPE 0.35 0.85
HDPE 0.09 0.15
Hypalon 0.15 0.58
LLDPE 0.17 0.30
PVC
Nylon 0.24 0.38
PVC 0.10 0.60
Polypropylene 0.09 0.33
XLPE 0.14 0.23
CPE 0.30 0.85
HDPE 0.21 0.35
Hypalon 0.18 0.90
RIGID LLDPE 0.33 0.68
STEEL Nylon 0.40 0.50
PVC 0.15 0.55
Polypropylene 0.13 0.50 Figure 12-33 Typical section for calculating equivalent length
XLPE 0.29 0.50 of horizontal bends (Rifenburg 1953) (courtesy AIEE).

12-41
Chapter 12: Installation Design
zontal bends such as Bend 1 in the figure, results in a
new length, L2, as calculated in Equation 12-12.
2
⎡R⎤
L 2 = L1 coshKθ + L21 + ⎢ ⎥ sinhKθ ft (m)
⎣K ⎦
12-12
Where:
L1 = equivalent length at entrance to bend,
ft (m).
L2 = equivalent length at exit from bend, ft (m).
K = effective COF, dimensionless.
R = radius of bend, ft (m).
θ = angle of bend or dip, in degrees.
No correction is needed if the radius of a dip is less than
the coefficient of friction times the length of the dip. The
increase in length, L2, for more severe vertical dips, as
shown in Figure 12-34, is given in Equation 12-13.
R 4Kθ
L 4 = L1e 4Kθ + ⎡⎣e - 2e3Kθ + 2e Kθ -1⎤⎦ ft (m)
K
12-13
The total equivalent length is the straight-line length,
plus increases due to major dips and bends. Also, an
equivalent length of about 50 ft (13 m) is added to
account for the force needed to pull the cables off the
reel; see Equation 12-14.
L tot =L1 +L 2 +L3 +...L n + 50 ft (13m) ft 12-14
Appendixes I–III of Reference (Rifenburg 1953) provide
a series of sketches and equations for calculating cable-
pulling tensions in many typical dips and bends.
Sidewall Pressure
Sidewall pressure (SWP) is the crushing action that
occurs when cables are pulled around bends. SWP is
defined as the tension, T, in lbf (kg), divided by the bend
radius, R, in feet (m) as shown in Equation 12-15.
T lbf ⎛ kg f ⎞
SWP = ⎜ ⎟ 12-15
R ft ⎝ m ⎠
Figure 12-34 Typical section for calculating equivalent
length of vertical dips (Rifenburg 1953) (courtesy AIEE).
12-42
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
SWP is affected by triangular or cradled cable configura-
tion and the ratio of cable to pipe diameter. SWP for tri-
angular configuration is divided equally between the two
bottom conductors, and is shown in Equation 12-16,
where WC is calculated from Equation 12-9.
⎛ W ⎞ T lbf ⎛ kg f ⎞
SWP = ⎜ 3 C ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ 12-16
⎝ 2 ⎠ 3R ft ⎝ m ⎠
The SWP calculation for cradled configuration is given
in Equation 12-17, where W c is calculated from Equa-
tion 12-10.
T lbf ⎛ kg f ⎞
SWP = ( 3 WC − 2 ) ⎜ ⎟ 12-17
3R ft ⎝ m ⎠
The cable manufacturer should be consulted before
sidewall pressure calculations are finalized. A range of
typical allowable values is given in Table 12-7.
As noted in the EPRI research (EPRI 1983), these side-
wall pressures assume a smooth pipe. Ripples on the
inside of a field bend can cause cable damage at a lower
SWP than the values listed in Table 12-7.
When the cable tensions and sidewall pressures are cal-
culated, the effect of the pulling rope should also be
evaluated. The tension measured during a pulling oper-
ation is the pulling-rope tension, so the rope tension
also needs to be estimated to use calculated values as a
criterion for evaluating the actual cable-pulling tension.
For pipe-type cable installation, a steel rope COF of
0.25–0.5 is often used. The effect of the rope on the pipe
or duct is discussed in Chapter 13.
Hydraulic Calculations
Fluid volume and pressure calculations are important
for HPFF and SCFF cable design and operation.
Proper fluid pressures must be maintained over the full
length of the circuit for a wide range of loading condi-
tions and rates of load changes. The fluid expelled from
the cable system during increasing-load periods must be
stored in a reservoir tank, and the tank capacity must be
sufficient to provide fluid during cable contraction as
Table 12-7 Range of Allowable Sidewall Pressures for
Different Cable Types
lbf/ft Kgf/m
Impregnated Paper 1000 1490
Laminated Paper-Polypropylene 1000 1490
Crosslinked Polythylenea,b 2000 2980
Ethylene-Proplylene Rubbera,b 2000 2980
a. With overall jacket.
b. Reduce to 1500 lbf/ft (2235 kgf/m) if jacket with a wire or
tape shield is not applied tightly.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
well as to supply a possible leak. Refer to Chapter 9 for
typical reservoir tank sizing as a function of fluid vol-
ume changes.
Fluid demand requirements, fluid flows, and pressure
changes are complex calculations, which require the use
of empirical data, usually in the form of curves. Detailed
calculation procedures for pipe-type cables are given in
a 1955 AIEE committee report (AIEE 1955), and those
for SCFF cable are given in a 1956 paper (Buller et al.
1956). This book reviews the general calculation proce-
dures, but the two referenced papers, and their back-
ground references, should be used for comprehensive
hydraulic calculations.
High-Pressure Fluid-Filled Cables
The fluid requirement for an HPFF cable pipe is calcu-
lated from Equation 12-18. Volume in liters may be
obtained by multiplying gallons by 3.785.
π 12
V=L (D 2 − 3d s 2 ) gal 12-18
4 231
Where:
L = line length, ft.
D = pipe inside diameter, in.
dS = cable shield diameter, in.
This volume is typically increased by 5–10% to account
for extra fluid in joint casings and piping, fluid absorp-
tion by the cable as pressure is increased, and tempera-
ture changes as the fluid leaves tank trucks and enters
the cable pipe. The amount to fill the reservoir tank to
the desired level, plus a buffer in the tank for possible
fluid leaks, must be added to this volume.
Equation 12-19 gives the volume change, ΔV, with tem-
perature changes for a pipe-type cable:
ΔV = Cdc2ΔTc + 0.012(ds2−dc2) ΔTi
+ 0.0070(D2−3ds2) ΔTo
− 0.0003D2ΔTp in3/ft 12-19
Where:
C = constant, 0.0060 for concentric stranded
conductors, or 0.0036 for compact seg-
mental conductors.
dc = conductor diameter, in.
ds = cable shield diameter, in.
D = pipe inside diameter, in.
ΔTc = conductor temperature change, °C.
ΔTi = insulation temperature change, °C.
ΔTo = fluid temperature change, °C.
ΔTp = pipe temperature change, °C.
The last term in Equation 12-19 is negative, since pipe
expansion with increasing temperatures offsets some of
Chapter 12: Installation Design
the fluid expansion. The temperature differences are
usually taken from the coldest ambient earth tempera-
ture to the maximum operating temperature for each
component. Calculation procedures in Chapter 11 may
be used to calculate conductor, insulation, fluid, and
pipe temperatures for a given load condition. The safest
approach is to use the highest emergency operating tem-
perature, which is a 105°C conductor temperature.
Dielectric losses do not enter into normal daily volume
changes since dielectric losses are present whenever the
line is energized. However, dielectric losses are taken
into account when sizing pumps, reservoirs, and pipe
sizes for pressure drop considerations, since the conser-
vative assumptions are either de-energizing a fully
loaded cable, or energizing a cold cable to full load.
Volume changes calculated from Equation 12-19 are
given in cubic inches per foot of cable length. For U.S.
units, total volume change is obtained from multiplying
by the length in feet. Number of gallons is obtained by
dividing cubic inches by 231, and number of liters is
obtained by multiplying gallons by 3.785.
Fluid demand, a, determines the required pump capac-
ity to ensure that fluid can be supplied during rapid
cool-down. Fluid demand also determines the required
free fluid area in the pipe to ensure that pressure
increases are not excessive during rapid heating. Fluid
demand is determined by differentiating Equation 12-19
with respect to time, as shown in Equation 12-20. Vol-
ume change in liters/meter-sec may be obtained by mul-
tiplying Equation 12-20 results by 0.054.
d
a= ΔV in.3 /ft-s 12-20
dt
Solving Equation 12-20 requires knowledge of tempera-
ture changes with time for each cable system compo-
nent. Reference (AIEE 1955) provides curves for several
cable and pipe sizes. Rigorous temperature change cal-
culations may be performed using procedures described
in Reference (Buller et al. 1956). Some commercial
ampacity programs are able to calculate fluid demand,
and the EPRI Underground Transmission Workstation
includes hydraulic calculations including fluid demand.
Maximum fluid demand values given in Reference
(AIEE 1955) range from 30 to 45 x 10-6 in.3/watt-sec per
foot (1.6–2.4 μl/watt-sec per meter) for HPFF cables up
to 230 kV. Fluid demand per mile is, therefore,
0.33 gal/min for a typical ohmic loss of 8 watts per con-
ductor foot (demand per km is 0.75 l/min for 26 W/m).
Pump capacity should be greater than the calculated
fluid demand. Some utilities standardize on
10–12 gal/min (38–45 l/min) pumps, since there is little
12-43
Chapter 12: Installation Design
disadvantage to oversizing pumps, and larger pumps
provide the opportunity for slow circulation to reduce
hot spots along the route.
The design engineer should also calculate fluid pres-
sures along the route for all loading conditions to ensure
that pressures are not too low during cooling transients,
or too high during heating transients. Most utilities
maintain a nominal 200 psi (1380 kPa) pressure at the
high point of the circuit. Pressure at any other point
must also include the hydrostatic head, Ph, due to eleva-
tion changes as calculated from Equation 12-21.
Ph = 0.434 γ Δh psi 12-21
Where:
γ = specific gravity, dimensionless.
Δh = elevation difference, ft.
Pressures in kPa may be obtained by multiplying psi
by 6.895.
Additional pressures arise from dielectric fluid motion
during fluid expansion and contraction. This friction
pressure, P f is a function of fluid viscosity, distance,
cable/pipe size, and cable position in the pipe, as shown
in Equation 12-22.
⎛ K ⎞
Pf = 35.5 x 2 aμ ⎜ 4 ⎟ x 10−6 psi 12-22
⎝D ⎠
Where:
x = distance from closed end, ft.
μ = fluid viscosity, centipoise.
a = fluid demand, from Equation 12-20,
in.3/ft-s.
K = constant, depending upon cable/pipe
diameter ratio.
D = pipe inside diameter, in.
Values for the constant, K, can be obtained from
Figure 12-35. Fluid viscosity should be taken from Fig-
ure 3-35, for the coldest temperature anticipated during
cable system operation. Note that frictional pressure
drop is much less of a concern with the low-viscosity
pipe-filling fluids used today, compared to the much
higher viscosity fluids used in the 1950s.
Pressure drop due to rapid dielectric fluid circulation
will be in addition to the values calculated above. It is
possible for a differential pressure of 200 psi (1380 kPa)
to be required to force a 300 gal/mm (1135 l/min) flow in
a cable pipe. Refer to Chapter 9 for these calculations.
12-44
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Self-Contained Fluid-Filled Cables
Calculation principles and procedures for SCFF cables
are quite similar to those for HPFF cables, and the pro-
cedures of Reference (Buller et al. 1956) closely parallel
those of (AIEE 1955). For single-conductor SCFF
cables, fluid expansion and contraction occur princi-
pally in the conductor core. The fluid requirement for
one phase of a SCFF cable is calculated from
Equation 12-23. Volume in liters may be obtained by
multiplying gallons by 3.785.
⎛ π ⎞ 12
V = L ⎜ d o2 ⎟ gal 12-23
⎝ 4 ⎠ 231
Where:
L = line length, ft.
dO = cable core diameter, in.
This calculated volume is typically increased by about
25% to account for fluid in joints, plus fluid in the insu-
lation and under the sheath. The amount required to fill
the reservoirs to the desired level and to provide a buffer
in the reservoir for possible fluid leaks must be added to
the calculated volume. The sum of these volumes is the
total fluid volume for one conductor in an operating
cable system. The total volume for three phases is three
times greater than that calculated for a single cable.
However, each conductor typically has its own oil reser-
voir. In addition to this amount, several times as much
fluid may be used during cable installation to provide
fluid flow during splicing and terminating. The cable
manufacturer should be consulted when determining
the fluid required during installation.
Figure 12-35 Factor K as a function of cable/pipe diameter
(From Figure 3, Reference [AIEE 1955]) (courtesy AIEE).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 12: Installation Design

w
Fluid demands and pressures are calculated using pro- Effective ρ = ρf + (ρo − ρf) ε- h 12-24
cedures similar to those described previously for HPFF
cables. Refer to Reference (AIEE 1955) for detailed Where:
equations and empirical curves. w = width of trench.
h = depth to the bottom of the structure.
Trench Design for Corrective Backfill
ε = natural log.
Because all soils do not have the same thermal resistiv-
ρf = of fill.
ity, an underground transmission line designer must
ρo = of original.
evaluate the effect that the native thermal resistivity will
have on the circuit ampacity. For example, if the native
Figure 12-36 shows the effect of changing the width of
soil has a thermal resistivity of 150 C°.cm/watt
the controlled backfill.
(1.5 K.m/W), the resulting ampacity for a given circuit
will be lower compared to an identical circuit placed in a
Additional calculation procedures for the design of a
native soil of 90 C°.cm/watt (0.9 K.m/W). The main way
trench with corrective backfill are given in References
to improve the overall effective thermal resistivity seen
(Brookes and McGrath 1960; Williams et al. 1993). An
by a cable system is to install a thermal backfill material
effective overall soil thermal resistivity is assumed, and
around the duct/pipe. Equation 12-24 can be used to
trench size is determined along the different sections of
calculate the effective thermal resistivity for various
the route having varying thermal resistivities of the
widths and depths of backfill (Edison Electric Institute
native soil.
1957, pp. 10–15). This equation is good for a trench
width-to-depth ratio of about 3 to 1.

Figure 12-36 Effect of changing the width of a trench (courtesy POWER Engineers, Inc.).

12-45
Chapter 12: Installation Design
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Barnes, C. C. 1977. Submarine Telecommunication and
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Bazzi, G. 1982. “Advanced Technologies in HVAC and
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Blau, D. 1975. Study of Environmental Impact of
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no. 7826.
Brookes, A. S., and M. H. McGrath. 1960. “Soil Ther-
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and Construction.” AIEE Transactions. No. 51. Decem-
ber. pp. 792–856.
Buller, F. H., J. H. Neher, and F. O. Wollaston. 1956.
“Oil Flow and Pressure Calculations for Self-Contained
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Chaaban, M. et al. 1991. “Evaluation of HVDC Cables
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Chamberlin, D. M. 1980. “Operating Experience with
The Norwalk, CT—Northport, NY 138 kV Submarine
Cable.” Presented at Transmission & Distribution Com-
mittee Meeting No. 57. Engineering Operations Divi-
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Chern, C. 1981. “Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
(OTEC) Project, Bottom Cable Protection Study, Envi-
ronmental Characteristics and Hazards Analysis.”
Washington, D.C. Ocean Engineering and Construction
Project Office. Chesapeake Division. Naval Facilities
Engineering Command. February 19.
CIGRE. 2002. Working Group 19 of CIGRE Study
Committee 21. “General Guidelines for the Integration
of a New Underground Cable System in the Network.”
March.
Dames and Moore. 1981. Draft-Study Documentation
Report Ashe-State Environmental Impact Statement—
Crow Butte Crossing. Prepared for Bonneville Power
Administration. March.
Edison Electric Institute. 1957. Underground Systems
Reference Book.
Eich, E. D. 1976. Installed Cost Comparison for Self-
Contained and Pipe-Type Cable. November. EPRI
Report no. EL-935.
Electrical World. 1971. “Underwater Cable Fault Due to
Thermal Runaway.” May 1. pp. 52–53.
Engelhardt, J. S., and D.W. Purnhagen. 1991. Dynamic
Rating and Underground Monitoring System. July. EPRI
Report no. EL-7341.
EPRI. 1977. Backfill Materials for Underground Power
Cables. Phase I, EPRI Report no. EL-0506.
EPRI. 1981. Thermal Property Analyzer. EPRI Report
no. EL-2128.
EPRI. 1983. Increasing Pipe Cable Section Lengths.
March. EPRI Report no. EL-2847.
EPRI. 1984. Maximum Safe Pulling Lengths for Solid
Dielectric Insulated Cables. February. EPRI Report no.
EL-3333.
EPRI. 1997. Soil Manual for Underground Transmission.
EPRI Report no. TR-108919.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Foxall, R. G., K. Bjorlow-Larsen, and G. Bazzi. 1984.
“Design, Manufacture and Installation of a 525-kV
Alternating Current Submarine Cable Link from
Mainland, Canada to Vancouver Island.” CIGRE
21-04. 10 p.
Gazzana-Priaroggia, P., J. H. Piscioneri, and S. W. Mar-
golin. 1971. “Long Island Sound Submarine Cable
Interconnection.” IEEE Spectrum. Vol. 8. No. 10. Octo-
ber. pp. 63–71.
Gazzana-Priaroggia, P., and C. Mascio. 1973. “Contin-
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Cables, The Present State of The Art.” IEEE Paper T-
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Ghafurian, A. R., H. Chu, et al. 1989. “Detection and
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Systems.” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. July.
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Gillette, R. W. 1959. “Installation of 69-kV High-pres-
sure Gas-filled Pipe-type Feeders on Queensboro
Bridge, New York City.” IEEE Insulated Conductors
Committee Minutes. Spring. Appendix F.
Hatcher, C. T., R.W. Gillette, and R.W. Burrell. 1966.
“345-kV Underground Transmission on the Consoli-
dated Edison Company of New York System.” IEEE
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No.4. April. pp. 353–360.
IEEE. 1981. IEEE Standard 422-1981. “IEEE Guide
for Soil Thermal Resistivity Measurements.” The Insti-
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IEEE. 1987. IEEE Standard 575-1988. “IEEE Guide
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Single-Conductor Cables and the Calculation of
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The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
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IPCEA. 1976. Insulated Power Cables Engineers
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Losses for Single-Conductor Solid-Dielectric Power
Cable, 15-kV through 69-kV.” IPCEA Publication
P-53-426. May.
Iwata, Z. et al. 1991. “Heat Pipe Local Cooling System
Applied for 145 kV Transmission Line in Copenhagen.”
Proceedings of the 1991 T&D Conference. Dallas, TX.
September 22–27. pp. 52–60.
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Kozak, S., J. T. Corbett, and F. J. Bender. 1965. “Fea-
tures of the New 138-kV Self-Contained Oil-Filled
Cable Systems.” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus
and Systems. Vol. 94. No. 3. May.
Luoni, C., and P. Anelli. 1976. “Armor Corrosion in
Single Core Submarine AC Cables.” IEEE Paper No. A
76 190-9. Presented at IEEE Power Engineering Society
Winter Meeting & Tesla Symposium. New York. Janu-
ary 25–30.
Marquez, R. D., et al. 1981. “230 kV Self-Contained
Oil-Filled Cable Line Installed Underneath a Bridge
Located in Maracaibo, Venezuela.” IEEE Transactions
on Power Apparatus and Systems. Vol. 100. No. 7. July.
pp. 3153–3165.
Martin, Jr., M. A., R. A. Bush, et al. 1981. “Practical
Aspects of Applying Soil Thermal Stability Measure-
ments to the Rating of Underground, Power Cables.”
IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems.
Vol. 100. No. 9. September. pp. 4236–4249.
Minemura, S., and Y. Maekawa. 1989. “500-kV Oil
filled Cable Installed on Bridges.” Proceedings of the
1989 IEEE T&D Conference. New Orleans. Paper 89TD
354-2-PWRD.
Moran, Jr., J. A., T. Aabo, and J. F. Shimshock. 1984.
“Thermo-Mechanical Bending Effects in EHV Pipe-
Type Cables.” Proceedings of the 1984 IEEE T&D Con-
ference. Kansas City. April 29–May 4.
Morgareidge, K. 1965. “Feeding Studies with Poly-
vis-SH in Rats and Dogs.” Food and Drug Research
Laboratories, Inc. March 12.
Nakagawa, H. et al. 1973. “Installation of 275-kV
XLPE Cables in the Long and Steep Slope Tunnel.”
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NASTT. 2004. “Horizontal Directional Drilling Con-
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“Monitoring and Rating of Underground Power
Cables.” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems. Vol. 98. No. 6. November/December.
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12-47
Chapter 12: Installation Design
Radhakrishna, H. S., and J. E. Steinmanis. 1981. “Ther-
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Underground Cable Thermal Backfill
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in Thermal Backfill.” IEEE Transactions on Power
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Sandiford, P. 1981. “Cable Backfill Materials—State-of-
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pp. 39–42.
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Soulsby, D. R., and A. J. Donovan. 1981. “The Effect of
Backfill of the Temperature Distribution in a Buried
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 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

CHAPTER 13 Cable System

Construction
Authors: John S. Rector, Black & Veatch
Frank Musick, WA Chester
Reviewer: Jay A. Williams, Power Delivery Consultants Inc. (PDC)

This chapter provides information on issues related to the construction of underground

transmission cable systems, including both the specifications and standards commonly
practiced in the industry. The engineering design principles and supporting calculations
are provided in Chapter 12.

The investment in underground cable systems is growing ever larger, requiring each
installation to be thoroughly understood, carefully planned, and executed by experienced
contractors. Construction remains the single most expensive cost item involved with the
development of an underground transmission cable system. As material prices rise, and
as cable technology continues to press the limits of voltage stress, the cost of the installa-
tion continues to drive the overall cost of these projects. Although materials and pro-
cesses are significantly improved from just a few years ago, the construction techniques
employed in this industry, with the exception of the advances in trenchless technologies,
have generally remained unchanged. The most technically advanced cable is still subject
to failure if the installation is faulty.

The information contained in this chapter is a collection of experience, standard prac-

tices, proven techniques, and manufacturer’s recommendations. Additional information
can be found through the IEEE, vendors and contractors, cable manufacturers, and a
multitude of websites.

John S. Rector is a Senior Project Manager with Black & Veatch Inc.
(B&V). He received a BSEE degree from Kansas State University
(1976). Mr. Rector joined B&V after graduating from KSU in 1977. He
began his career with B&V designing overhead transmission lines and
substations and later became the Section Leader for the overhead and
underground transmission line design groups. He then served as the
manager of the underground transmission line design activities for B&V.
Presently Mr. Rector is a Senior Project Manager in the power delivery
business line. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Power Engineering Society, and a Vot-
ing Member of the IEEE Insulated Conductors Committee (ICC). He is a registered pro-
fessional engineer in the states of Kansas, Michigan, Texas, Maryland, and Vermont. Mr.
Rector has published several papers on the subject of underground transmission.

13-1
Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
Frank Musick is a Senior Vice Presi-
dent with W. A. Chester, L. L. C.
(WAC). He received a BSEE degree
from Bluefield State College in 1985
and a Masters degree in engineering
c o n s t r u c t i o n m a n ag e m e n t f ro m
George Washington University in
1990. Mr. Musick began his career
with the Potomac Electric Power Company in 1985,
13-2
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
where he held various positions in underground and
overhead engineering and project management. Mr.
Musick joined WAC in 1996 as Manager of Operations.
His responsibilities have included being a Project Man-
ager for underground transmission projects throughout
the United States and estimating underground transmis-
sion projects. Mr. Musick is a Member of IEEE Power
Engineering Society.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
13.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter describes the installation of underground
transmission cable systems. The cable types to be
discussed include crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE),
ethylene propylene rubber (EPR), high-pressure fluid-
filled (HPFF) and high-pressure gas filled (HPGF)
pipe-type cables, and self-contained fluid-filled (SCFF)
cables. Included in the discussions are equipment
types, materials, installation methods, and necessary
personnel qualifications.
The chapter is generally organized in order of the steps
followed in installations. The chapter also has separate
sections on practices that are unique to specific kinds
of equipment. The first two sections cover two areas of
general practices; Section 13.2 describes trenching
and manholes, and Section 13.3 reviews tunneling, jack-
and-bore, and directional drilling. Sections 13.4 and
13.6 discuss pipe and conduit installations for HPFF
and extruded-dielectric cables. Section 13.5 describes
direct-buried installations, which are not typically used
in the United States but are more common in Europe.
S e c t i o n 1 3 . 7 c ov e r s b a c k fi l l i n g m e t h o d s, a n d
Section 13.8 reviews cable installation techniques for
extruded-dielectric, pipe-type, and SCFF cables. Sec-
tions 13.9 and 13.10 outline procedures for splicing and
terminations. Sections 13.11, 13.12, and 13.13 briefly
describe installation of dielectric fluid, nitrogen gas, and
pressurization plants. Section 13.14 reviews after instal-
lation tests. The last three sections, Sections 13.15
through 13.17, cover unique practices for installation of
pipe freezes, fiber optic cables, and submarine cable.
The majority of underground transmission system
installations are performed by contractors. Very few
utilities have their own installation crews or equipment
required to perform underground installations.
Additional information can be found in the Association
of Edison Illuminating Companies (AEIC) “Guide for
Installation of Pipe Type Cable Systems” (AEIC 2005)
and “Guide for Installation of Extruded Dielectric Insu-
lated Power Cable Systems Rated 69 kV Through
138 kV” (AEIC 1997), the 1992 Underground Transmis-
sion Systems Reference Book (EPRI 1992), and the 1957
Underground Systems Reference Book (EEI 1957).Chap-
ter 12 of the present book addresses installation design.
Also, additional information can be found in the IEEE
P1120, “Draft Guide for the Planning, Design, Installa-
tion, and Repair of Submarine Power Cable Systems”
(IEEE 2005).
Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
13.1.1 General
The installation of underground transmission cable sys-
tems requires not only specialized equipment but experi-
enced personnel trained in the handling of underground
transmission cables. Underground transmission cables
require precautions beyond those of underground distri-
bution cables to ensure that the bending radius is not
exceeded. The installation of these cables requires the
ability to monitor and record pulling tensions as well as
distance and installation speed. The increased size of the
reels necessary to accommodate the increase in the
bending radius of these cables necessitates the use of
larger reel-handling equipment and higher-capacity
winches (a 100,000-pound winch would be required for
pipe-type transmission cables).
13.1.2 Responsibility
Areas of responsibility need to be defined and agreed
upon by the project owner, design engineer, and installa-
tion contractor prior to beginning a project. Procedures
for identifying and reporting problems that could poten-
tially affect the design or completion date of the project
need to be established at this time.
13.1.3 Project Planning
A project schedule needs to be developed prior to the
start of any project. The project owner, design engineer,
and installation contractor should review the extent of
the project and define an expected timeline for the com-
pletion of the project. Areas of difficulty need to be
identified, and appropriate time and resources allocated
for these in the schedule. Possible difficulties that should
be taken into consideration include zoning issues and
work hours, community resistance, material lead time,
areas with restricted work space, heavily traveled areas,
and the necessity for a deep trench area.
13.1.4 Safety
Project safety is the primary concern in any project. On
large underground transmission projects, it is common
practice to require a dedicated project safety manager. It
would be the safety manager’s job to promote a culture
of safety for the project and to ensure that all estab-
lished safety rules and regulations are being adhered to
by the personnel.
It also is common practice for the owner to request
the contractor to have a safety manual, perform daily
tailgate sessions that relate to the project at hand,
and request a copy of the contractor’s experience modi-
fication rate (EMR) and Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) recordables for the last
three years.
13-3
Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
13.1.5 Quality Control/Inspection of Work
To ensure a finished product that will provide many
years of trouble-free service, it is essential that the con-
duits or pipes, cables, and accessories be installed in
accordance with the owner’s, the engineer’s, and the
manufacturer’s installation specification and guidelines.
The owner and the contractor should develop a quality
control checklist prior to starting any project. The
checklist can be provided to an inspector as an indica-
tion that all critical areas have been completed within
defined guidelines.
Many contractors who specialize in underground trans-
mission systems have a quality control manual. These
manuals are often used with the owner’s specification.
13.1.6 Contractor Licensing
Licensing requirements can vary from state to state, and
most states require that a contractor have a license in
the state where the work is to be performed. Frequently,
a state will require that a business and technical exami-
nation be completed by the contractor. Depending on
the state’s requirements, the licensing process can take
several months. Prior to starting any underground
installation project, the contractor needs to verify com-
pliance with state and local licensing requirements.
13.1.7 Permitting/Security
Permitting has become a major factor in the scheduling
and costs of a project. Concerns about traffic flow,
safety and health hazards, the environment, or the per-
ceived lack of necessity for a project may be expressed
by the surrounding neighbors. Consequently, permitting
agencies require assurance that the project under con-
struction will have the least possible negative impact on
the public and environment. The contractor must be
made aware of all permitting conditions and require-
ments prior to the start of the project. Generally, the
owner/engineer will coordinate and apply for the per-
mits, but it is the contractor who must deal with the
public and permitting agencies on a day-to-day basis.
Therefore, it is essential that the contractor be informed
of all permitting conditions and requirements prior to
bidding a project. This will not only help the project
flow smoother, but it also will help minimize project
costs and demonstrate goodwill to the public.
Most local authorities have noise restrictions placed on
worksites. The normal restrictions are typically mea-
sured at the property line. Usually the noise limit varies
based on the time of day. It is often very difficult to
restrict the noise generated by the equipment.
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
The contractor and/or the owner need to also address
the security on a project. This includes protection of the
public and personnel and securing the material on a
project. The project jobsite must have the proper sig-
nage and barriers that alert the public to the jobsite and
potential dangers.
Many projects are located in areas that may have prob-
lems with theft. Because of these potential dangers,
many contractors and/or owners hire full-time security
personnel. The contractor and/or owner needs to evalu-
ate each project individually.
13.1.8 Environment
Environmental requirements imposed on the construc-
tion activities are to minimize the impact of these activi-
ties on the existing natural resource base in the vicinity
of the project site. This includes minimizing distur-
bances to streams, wetlands, and natural drainage pat-
terns; vegetation; wildlife; archeological or historical
relics; and all current land uses.
13.2 TRENCHING AND MANHOLES
Excavating for a manhole or trench will often be the
most visible part of the construction project and,
because of its inherent danger, it will be of the most con-
cern to both the permitting authorities and the public. It
is important that the contractor confirm that the project
is being constructed from drawings that have been certi-
fied as “released for construction” and that the drawings
are the most current design.
Prior to the actual start of trenching, the owner or con-
tractor must perform the following preliminary tasks:
• Selecting a qualified civil excavation contractor. To
ensure a smooth project, it is critical to select a con-
tractor who has experience in excavation in city
streets, who understands shoring requirements, who
is aware of soil conditions in the area, and who is
capable of providing additional crews as necessary to
meet the project schedule. Experience in excavating
for duct or pipe installation for the relevant type of
cable system is important, and the civil contractor is
expected to work closely with the duct or pipe instal-
lation contractor.
• Permissions. Determine and acquire any private per-
mission or easements necessary.
• Approvals. The engineer and/or owner should iden-
tify all local, state, and/or federal governmental
approvals and easement for public right-of-way con-
struction in the planning stages of the project. The
lead time for permits can often range from weeks to
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
years. Projects have often been rerouted due to per-
mits. Manhole locations have often changed due to
approval issues, affecting the cable cut lengths.
• Permit Requirements. Acquire all environmental,
building, and/or excavating permits and exhibit in the
construction manager’s office.
• Police and Fire Department Notifications. If traffic is
to be affected, both the police and fire departments
need to be provided with names and contact numbers
for the construction manager and they need to be
kept current with construction progress so that traffic
patterns can be adjusted and emergency equipment
routed around the construction areas.
• Public Relations. Notify all property owners/tenants
along the cable route of the project and the proposed
start date. The notifications are normally handled by
the utility by either using door hangers or placing a
notice in the monthly utility invoice, however some-
times the contractor will perform this activity on
behalf of the utility.
All property owners must be provided with pedes-
trian and vehicular access to their property. Work
schedules should be planned to minimize inconve-
niences. Do not encroach on private property during
the installation process without written permission
and do not place material or equipment on private
property without either written permission or a wit-
nessed verbal approval.
Many utilities require that the entire alignment be vid-
eotaped prior to the start of construction, during con-
struction, and after construction is complete to
provide information on existing conditions and poten-
tial damage if there are claims by property owners.
• Call for Utility Locate Service. Prior to any excava-
tion, the contractor must request the local utility ser-
vice to locate all utilities in the impacted area. These
agencies have different names throughout the United
States. Utilities normally require 48 hours advanced
notice to perform the location service, and the
marked-out locations will only be valid for a specific
period of time. Should a requested “locate” be on
private property, the locating service may not
respond to the request. In these instances, the con-
tractor should notify the other utilities directly (for
example, gas, water, electric distribution, telephone,
sewer, transit systems, central heating, and fuel) of
the pending excavation and request that their services
be located and marked. If at all possible, the contrac-
tor should obtain historical data from the other
underground utility agencies about soil and obstruc-
tions encountered but not included on the drawings
for construction.
Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
• Drawings. All drawings necessary to locate the final
placement of the cable system should be provided to
the construction manager. The complete drawing
package typically includes plan and profile drawings
of the route, manhole placement drawings, typical
cross sections, and borings.
The construction manager should always verify that
they are constructing the project from the latest set
of revised drawings. On large projects, the
owner/engineer often has a person responsible for
document control.
• Project Review. The contractor and owner should
review the drawings prior to the start of construction
to identify sensitive utility crossings and the difficult
and/or easy areas so work schedules can be planned
accordingly. They also should review drawings
to determine if any special interaction or advance
notification will be required with the public
and/or environment.
• Traffic Control Plans. Most large underground trans-
mission projects require an approved traffic control
plan. These plans may be included as part of the per-
mit or design; however, the contractor may be
required to provide the traffic control plan for
approval prior to starting a project.
The traffic control plans typically show the require-
ments for the required signage and barricades, noting
changes in pedestrian walkways, speed limits for
vehicular traffic, and lane changes. At night, illumi-
nated flashing signs and light plants must be used to
guide vehicular traffic and identify the work area.
The workers should wear reflective vests when work-
ing in public space.
While construction crews are working, vehicles not in
constant use should be parked off site to minimize
the impact to traffic.
13.2.1 Survey of Route
The contractor should be responsible for contacting the
governing authorities for the locations of existing utili-
ties and for obtaining a survey of the route. The con-
tractor should also be responsible for marking the
centerline stationing and offset stationing along the pro-
posed cable route with either paint on streets and side-
walks or with stakes when in open field environments.
Offset stationing marked every 10–20 ft (3–6 m) is nec-
essary so that the trench location can be verified once
the centerline of the trench has been excavated.
The contractor and/or owner will often perform a visual
survey of the route prior to the start of construction.
The visual survey is usually videotaped and dated so
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Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
there is a record of the condition of the site before and
after construction.
13.2.2 Excavating the Trench
Once the previously mentioned tasks have been com-
pleted, the excavation and associated activities can
begin. At this time, the contractor should compare the
marked route with the most current certified drawing
and select the most logical location to permit the work-
ers to become familiar with the equipment and installa-
tion techniques while maintaining an acceptable
production rate.
Manhole placement is generally more difficult than
trench placement; therefore, it is common to spot and
install the manholes (or at least dig test pits to verify
acceptability of manhole location) prior to trenching in
the vicinity of the manhole locations.
After determining the starting point, the contractor will
sawcut pavement several hundred feet in advance of the
actual excavation to minimize disturbances to the road
surface. Depending on the resurfacing requirements
established by the local authorities, cut lines may need
to exceed the proposed trench width.
It is advantageous at this point in construction to have
an out-front or exploratory crew assigned to opening
street crossings and excavating manholes. This crew can
function as a “practical” survey crew, documenting on
the engineering drawings the locations of missing or
incorrectly located services that would require modifica-
tions to the location of the circuit or its route. This activ-
ity is commonly referred to as “potholing.” This crew
excavates crossings ahead of the main trenching crew in
Figure 13-1 Illustration of a duct bank installation in a city
street environment (with permission of ITCTransmission).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
an attempt to provide uninterrupted installation of the
piping. Street crossing excavations often require addi-
tional man-hours due to the high probability of encoun-
tering multiple underground services and the necessity
to hand excavate to avoid damaging these services.
Figure 13-1 shows a duct bank installation within a
city street.
The soil excavated from the trench should be inspected
to determine whether it is suitable to be used as backfill
material. The soil should be inspected for thermal char-
acteristics, compaction, and contamination.
If the soil is to be used as trench backfill, the material
will likely need to be hauled and stored off site. The soil
should be covered to prevent it from being saturated by
potential rain.
13.2.3 Water Removal/Well Pointing
When water is encountered during a trenching opera-
tion, a trash or ditch pump can be used to handle the
removal of the water and permit the work to continue.
However, in locations where the soil is sandy or has a
coral base or the presence of water is either constant or
cyclical (e.g., due to tidal action), the trench can be
maintained in at a relatively dry condition by well-
pointing. Well-pointing is the vertical insertion of 2-in.
(5-cm) diameter perforated steel or plastic pipes into the
earth to an average depth of 8 ft (2.4 m) and about 8 ft
(2.4 m) on centers. These well pipes are then connected
to a 6-in. (15-cm) or 8-in. (20-cm) header (manifold)
pipe that, in turn, is connected to a large, vacuum-
assisted centrifugal pump for water removal. The aver-
age assembly for a single pump is 1000 ft (300 m) in
length with sufficient assemblies installed to permit
uninterrupted trenching, pipe installation, or duct work
and backfilling operations. Once the well-point assem-
bly is installed, the pumping operation continues with-
out stopping until the trench backfilling operation is
approximately 60% complete. Prior to starting the exca-
vation, the well-point system should be operated for
about 24 hours or longer. As the trenching and backfill-
ing operation is completed, the well-point system is
advanced as required. Normally, the 1000-ft (300-m)
assembly is arranged in two 500-ft (150-m) sections for
advancing to prepare the next trench subsurface path
section, allowing continued excavation in a safe, dry,
and economical mode.
Not all sections of the trenching route (especially street
crossings and areas with numerous underground
services) can be completely dewatered by using well-
pointing if the installed system would be a hindrance to
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
traffic or could possibly cause subsidence and subse-
quent damage to existing underground services or even
building foundations. Pipes, ducts, and/or cables can be
installed under marginally dewatered conditions by
using large or numerous trash (ditch) pumps placed in
the trench as it is being excavated. However, in some
costal areas where strong tidal action is present, dewa-
tering of a trench may not be possible. In such cases, the
construction schedule should be planned around the
tidal influx.
Unless test hole data are provided in the bid package,
well-pointing will not normally be included in the con-
tractor's pricing for excavating, and the owner will need
to state in the request for proposal (RFP) that any well-
pointing is to be included in the trenching proposal.
In some states, a discharge permit may be required prior
to pumping water from a trench, and the owner/con-
tractor will have to make a formal submittal to the
appropriate agencies. The information required will
include but not be limited to (1) a sketch of the job site
location showing what area is to be dewatered, (2) the
location where the water is to be pumped, (3) the catch
basin, and (4) where the catch basin discharge will be.
Contaminated water generally must be collected in
holding tanks for proper disposal off-site.
When catch basins in tidal areas are drained into rivers
or canals that are tidal, the water may be forced back
into the trench during high tides and then spill over
onto the streets, becoming an unplanned traffic hazard.
Another problem that could occur during the dewater-
ing of a trench while using the well-point method is the
extraction of fine grains of sand from the ground adja-
cent to the trench. The contractor may begin to notice
sinkholes in locations adjacent to the well-point which
may cause damage to paving and structural foundations.
13.2.4 Shoring/Sheeting
“Shoring” and “sheeting” are terms used to describe the
type of protective system used to prevent the cave-in or
collapse of trenches. In general, the depth of a trench
should be equal to or greater than the width. The 2004
OSHA standards state that trenching need not require
shoring or sheeting if the excavation is less than 5 ft
(1.5 m) deep and shows no indication of a cave-in. How-
ever, excavation contractors will often shore a trench
that is less than 5 ft (1.5 m) deep if the trench is in a
public space that has exposure to vehicular traffic.
The need for shoring and sheeting can be debated when
excavating rock. OSHA will sometimes accept the find-
Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
ings or protective system recommendations of a regis-
tered professional soil engineer in place of shoring and
sheeting; but, regardless of the material being excavated,
if the trench is to be deeper than 5 ft (1.5 m), shoring
and sheeting must be implemented if the trench cannot
be benched as described below.
The terms “shoring” and “sheeting” are defined as
follows:
• Shoring (shoring system) refers to a structure such as
a hydraulic, mechanical, or timber shoring system
that supports the sides of an excavation and is
designed to prevent cave-ins. In short, shoring is a
simple framework of horizontal braces across the
width of the trench holding either vertical (uprights)
or horizontal (stringers) members against the wall of
the trench.
• Sheeting is that part of a shoring system that retains
the earth in position. Sheeting is a continuous wall of
wood or metal held in place by the horizontal braces
of the shoring system.
Pedestrian and vehicular traffic require protection from
a possible trench hazard. One method in use is to posi-
tion vertical shoring pieces or sheeting so that their top
elevation becomes a guardrail on which an applicable
safety sign can be prominently displayed. In the past, a
soil bank from the excavation would be used as a natu-
ral vehicle barrier. The extension of shoring pieces or
sheeting above the street surface has become more
widely accepted because most municipalities require
that excavated spoil be removed from the construction
area and stored at an off-street location. In suburban
and rural areas, a trench may be “benched,” (i.e.,
stepped back) to prevent collapse. Because benching
widens the trench at the ground line, it is seldom used in
urban areas.
13.2.5 Traffic Control/Protective Barriers and
Signs
As with all construction work, safety is of paramount
concern. As part of permitting conditions, most large
projects are required to submit a traffic control plan
along with the permit application. Traffic control plans
range from using “typicals” (i.e., typical plans) provided
by the highway department to having drawings prepared
by a certified traffic control consultant. A traffic control
consultant will normally be required on large projects
that involve either heavy traffic volume or when traffic
will be traveling at a high rate of speed.
The public needs to be protected from construction site
hazards at all times. In general, construction sites
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Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
require obvious barricades and numerous signs that
identify changes in pedestrian walkways or speed limits
for vehicular traffic. Without impeding traffic, construc-
tion vehicles that are not in constant use should be
parked at the trailing end of an open trench and along
the vehicular side of the trench. Unless required by
municipal regulations to be parked “off street,” digging
equipment should be strategically placed at the end of
the workday so as to ward off vehicles approaching too
close to an open trench or pit area. Steel plates are gen-
erally required to cover exposed trenches, and illumi-
nated flashing signs should be used to guide vehicular
traffic flow. At night, battery-operated flashing lamps
attached to standing barriers should be placed along
the trench.
On roads with high traffic volumes during commuter
periods, some jurisdictions require that the trench be
temporarily restored (with steel plates or temporary
pavement) during the high traffic periods. This leads to
a slower and more expensive installation.
13.2.6 Bed of Trench
The trenching depth and width dimensions should be
included on the route layout drawings created by the
design engineers and given to the contractor. The bases
for these dimensions (e.g., cable ampacity requirements
and number of circuits to be installed) can be found in
the previous chapters.
When excavating a trench, the depth and width may
need to be modified because actual locations of objects
vary from the locations indicated on the layout drawings
or because previously unknown subsurface obstacles
and/or soil with poor thermal conductivity are discov-
ered. Poor thermal conductivity can be due to soil that
contains such things as ashes, cinders, rubble, or other
materials containing large voids. When encountering
poor soil conditions, removal of soil for a distance of
2 ft (0.6 m) in all directions from the final position of
the pipe, cable, or ducts is common practice. Providing
that the design drawings do not indicate otherwise, the
minimum clearances (as shown in Table 13-1) should be
used to determine the trench plan and profile when sub-
surface obstacles are encountered. Measurements
should be from the installed pipe, cable, or duct-bank
surface. Effects on ampacity should be investigated for
any heat source within 10–12 ft (3–4 m) of the cable. The
excavator or inspector also should identify soils with
potentially high thermal resistivity (e.g. organic materi-
als) and notify the owner/engineer to determine if the
trench design should be modified.
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
In areas where a clearance is indicated as 1 ft (0.3 m),
additional reinforcing such as placing or pouring a bar-
rier wall of concrete should be incorporated to protect all
services involved. As a provision for future maintenance,
utilities will generally try to maintain a 3-ft (0.9-m) work-
space clearance when cables parallel other services.
In many instances, utilities will state in the bid specifica-
tions that the excavating contractor must have a small
exploratory excavating crew dig at certain locations
along the proposed cable route to determine question-
able subsurface conditions. As mentioned previously,
contractors normally have an out-front exploratory
trenching crew at work. When undesirable subsurface or
poor soil conditions are encountered, the responsible
utility engineer should be notified daily, or as required,
and a decision requested for a change in trench width or
depth and/or route. All changes must be incorporated
into “as-built” drawings for the utility and municipal
records. At a later date, these records can protect the
installed cable system from dig-in failures by providing
the exact cable route information to any utilities or exca-
vating contractors planning to dig in the area. Many
municipalities have established an information center
that can be contacted when excavation is planned any-
where within their jurisdiction.
After having determined the location, plan, and profile
of the trench, the excavator should complete the trench-
ing so that the bottom is smooth, uniform, and free of
loose rocks, dirt, stones, or other foreign matter. Also,
the trench walls should not have any protruding rocks
or foreign matter. Nothing should be left in the bottom
or walls of the trench that might damage the pipe coat-
ing, pipe, conduit, or cable during installation.
13.2.7 Backfilling the Trench
The engineer normally specifies the backfilling require-
ments around the pipe or conduit. The specification
usually states the required soil thermal resistivity (com-
monly called Thermal Rho or TR) value of the material
Table 13-1 Minimum Design Clearances for Trenching
Minimum Design Clearance
Parallel Crossing
Obstacle ft m ft m
Storm Sewer 1 0.3 1 0.3
Water Line 1.5 0.45 1.5 0.45
Gas Line 1 0.3 1 0.3
Electric Duct Bank 10 3 2 0.8
Telephone Duct Bank 1 0.3 1 0.3
Steam Line 10 3 4 1.2
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
and whether the backfill material is to be a select ther-
mal sand, concrete, or Fluidized Thermal Backfill™, or
FTB™ (similar to a weak concrete mix; see Chapter 12).
The envelope around the pipe is usually no more than
2 ft (0.6 m) over the top of the pipes, and the remaining
fill may be the soil that was removed from the trench if it
is suitable. As described later in this chapter, most duct
banks have a high-strength concrete envelope for
mechanical protection and to aid in heat dissipation.
The thermal resistivity of the backfill material defines
how well the soil dissipates heat away from the
pipes/conduits. Typical backfill thermal resistivity
requirements are discussed in more detail in Chapter 12,
Section 12.2.6.
When placing the backfill around the pipes, care should
be used not to damage the pipe coating. When using
FTB, it is preferred not to have the concrete trucks
dump directly onto the pipes. Using a sheet of plywood
to deflect the FTB is preferable. The plywood is
removed from the trench once the pipes are covered.
Before placing controlled backfill around cable pipe, the
pipe should be supported at least 6 in. (15 cm) off the
trench bottom. These supports can be sandbags. If more
than one pipe is being installed, the pipes should be
spaced in accordance with the design drawings so that
there will be sufficient controlled backfill between the
pipes and the trench wall.
When other subsurface services are encountered and
cannot be avoided, protective barriers should be used,
such as synthetic barrier boards or steel plates, to
mechanically and thermally protect the cable system.
Where steam lines can not be avoided, utilities have on
occasion wrapped the cable pipes with copper tubing
connected to a water source, creating a buried heat-
transfer mechanism to assure the proper pipe-surface
temperature. Also, utilities have built concrete boxes
around the pipes open to the street surface but covered
with latticed grating, allowing air ventilation in this
area. Table 13-1 lists minimum clearances between
transmission cable pipes and other utility services.
Another mechanical protection that has been used is
placing steel plates along the entire trench above the
backfill. This protective method has been used when the
pipes were installed near the street surface because
installation at deeper depths was impossible due to
obstructions such as a railroad tunnel.
The backfilling procedure for a pipe-type cable system is
a function generally performed during the last hours of
the workday. The equipment used in removing the exca-
Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
vated spoil earlier in the day is now used to place the
controlled backfill around the pipes and the balance of
the trench filled with good-quality excavated spoil. If
concrete or FTB is used for the controlled backfill, then
cement trucks deliver it, and the material is slumped into
the trench. When placing FTB around a duct bank, the
contractor needs to use a vibrator to prevent air pockets.
The contractor should also be aware that curing con-
crete has, upon occasion, softened PVC conduits.
On pipe-type cable systems, it is good practice for the
contractor to test the pipe coating for damage (com-
monly called jeeping the pipe) just prior to backfilling to
ensure there are no coating defects. See Section 13.6.3
for a discussion of electrical tests on pipe coatings.
13.2.8 Street and Highway Crossings
Almost all underground transmission cable system
routes encounter streets having numerous underground
utilities. These streets and the underground utilities
must be thoroughly researched to determine the best
way to cross them. Some street crossings have few or no
obstacles involved in the installation of a cable system,
but the majority, especially in urban areas, have numer-
ous obstacles, especially utility services, to avoid.
Figure 13-2 shows an example of subsurface obstruc-
tions that can be encountered in city streets.
The design engineer, in planning an installation through
these areas, must specify one or a combination of several
of the following techniques: open cutting, tunneling,
boring, or horizontal directional drilling. These tech-
niques are briefly described in the following paragraphs.
• Open Cut. Open cut excavation with a backhoe can
be used when all known services are below the trench
Figure 13-2 Subsurface obstructions (with permission of
Northeast Utilities).
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Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
bottom or below a manually excavated pathway
beneath the known, and at times unknown, services
to permit the installation of the pipe, cable, or duct
bank. An open cut trench requires a very strong,
solid shoring and sheeting system and, likewise, a
continuous bridging of the trench with 1-in. (2.5-cm)
steel plates to permit unimpeded vehicular and
pedestrian traffic. The steel plates must handle the
weight of heavy trucks and be anchored to prevent
any sliding or bouncing.
• Tunneling. When an open cut trench is not feasible
because of such factors as depth, number of subsur-
face services exposed, and municipal regulation, a
tunnel or bore must be installed. Tunnel installation
is basically a mining operation where manual labor is
used to dig and construct a tunnel that is lined with
either continuous oak or steel roofing and shoring to
prevent cave-ins. Tunnels can be installed to negotiate
a 90° turn in the cable routing. The steel tunnel men-
tioned is commonly known as a liner-plate tunnel
and is used more frequently than an oak tunnel. The
cross-section view of an oak tunnel is basically a
square, while that of the steel liner-plate tunnel is cir-
cular. Newer installation technologies use automated
tunneling devices in addition to the previously men-
tioned hand-dug procedures.
• Bores. Bores are an alternative to tunneling for the
installation of cable, pipe, or duct systems. Boring is
an auguring operation that, at the same time, pushes
(jacks) a casing (generally steel, HDPE, fiberglass,
or reinforced concrete pipe [RCP]) through the soft
ground beneath the street or highway crossing. The
boring/casing method is the most popular design
when installing pipe/conduits when no bends are
required in the route layout, and the total length does
not exceed 300 to 400 ft (90 to 120 m).
• Horizontal Directional Drill. As price and time
increases with additional distance of a crossing,
another alternative that is often more attractive is
horizontal directional drills (HDD). Over the last
several years, the advancements in HDD technology
have increased the accuracy and decreased the pricing
of this technology.
HDD, tunneling, and boring are discussed in further
detail in Section 13.3.
13.2.9 Manhole Installation
For underground transmission cable systems, manholes
are installed at the locations where it is necessary to pull
and splice cable. The factors contributing to the neces-
sity and placement of manholes along the circuit route
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
are the allowable pulling tension on the conductor(s),
sidewall pressure on the cable(s) in traversing a bend,
maximum cable footage on a reel that is sized to be
legally transported (height, width, and weight) over fed-
eral, state, and local roads, and access to the manhole at
the present and in the future. The typical manhole is
sized and designed for the type of cable system to be
installed and the equipment and the tools needed to pull
and splice the cable(s).
The contractor normally has a choice of either a precast
or cast-in-place manhole. In the earlier days of installa-
tion of underground transmission systems, cast-in-place
manholes were typically used. However, today nearly all
manholes are precast. The reasons for the change are
price, and the time required to install a cast-in-place man-
hole is usually much greater than for a precast manhole.
Precast manholes are typically shipped directly from the
factory to the installation site, and the contractor has
the hole excavated and shored prior to delivery.
Figure 13-3 shows a precast manhole section being off-
loaded at the location of the installation. The contractor
needs to ensure that there is an adequate-sized crane
available to set the manhole. Precast manholes typically
come in two sections, and, based on their size, each sec-
tion can weigh up to 60,000 pounds (27,200 kg).
The contractor needs to inspect the site to ensure that
there are sufficient overhead clearances to install the-
manhole. If overhead transmission/distribution circuits
are present, the contractor may need to schedule an out-
age with the local utility and, in some cases, even have
the lines temporarily moved for the manhole installation.
Figure 13-3 Precast manhole installation (with permission
of ITCTransmission).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
The contractor needs to ensure that adequate traffic
control plans are in use. The setting of manholes often
requires the closure of additional lanes of traffic.
It is a good idea to install the manholes at the beginning
of a project. This helps ensure that unknown utilities
will not necessitate moving manhole(s). Relocating
manholes will affect the cable cut lengths that have been
previously determined. If manholes are installed as the
pipe or conduit installation progresses, then sufficient
lead time for manhole installation should be planned to
allow continued installation of pipe through the man-
hole without disruption of the conduit installation.
In flood plains or tidal action areas, the manhole place-
ment area should be constantly dewatered. Dewatering
in this type of area should continue until the cable pull-
ing and splicing has been completed, since manholes
can float at times. After all work has been completed
within the manhole, the space can be backfilled with
sand or suitable backfill.
13.3 TUNNELING, JACK-AND-BORE, AND
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING
When new conduit systems are to be installed in estab-
lished neighborhoods or along existing streets and high-
ways, it becomes increasingly difficult to find adequate
space within the public utility right-of-way to accommo-
date the new system. Often it is necessary to install cas-
ings beneath existing facilities, either by tunneling,
microtunneling, directional drilling, or jack and bore
methods. This section discusses these methods in gen-
eral and provides some guidance for the designer who
may need to consider these alternatives.
The most common cases where a casing or tunnel might
be required on a typical underground construction
project are listed below:
• Major streets and highways cannot be open cut due
to (1) high volume of traffic, (2) the disruption to
traffic of open cutting and the ensuing traffic control,
(3) the potential safety hazard, and (4) a moratorium
on cutting newly installed pavement.
• Municipality does not allow major intersections to be
open cut, thereby requiring casings to be installed.
• Railroads require casings to be bored or drilled
beneath their right-of-way.
• Intersection is so crowded with underground utilities,
open cutting and installation of conduits from
the road surface is not practical or possible. In
these cases, boring or drilling would be the only fea-
sible recourse.
Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
• Crossings under waterways such as open drains or
across public spaces such as parks are best accom-
plished by either jack and bore casings or by using
directional drilling procedures to minimize impacts
to the surface and to the environment.
13.3.1 Tunneling and Microtunneling
Conventional tunneling is similar to pipe jacking. The
tunnel is excavated manually or mechanically, and the
spoil is removed using an auger system, carts, or con-
veyor. The difference is in how the pipe is installed. In
the case of tunneling, the pipe or tunnel liner is added at
the face of the tunnel. A temporary casing precedes the
liner plates, which are assembled at the face of the tun-
nel and added on. The temporary casing is then jacked
forward against the liner, as opposed to the entire length
being jacked forward. Additional pieces are added, and
the procedure continues. The diameters of the casings
are usually greater than 3.5 ft (1.2 m), with essentially
no upper limit. The driving distance also is unlimited.
Historically, there have been two main types of tunnels
used for underground cable systems: box tunneling that
uses oak wood and circular steel liner-plate tunneling. In
both cases, the excavation was done manually because
the size of the required earth cavity for cable systems
does not permit digging machines to be used. The mini-
mum dimension of an oak tunnel is a 3-ft (0.9-m) square
opening to facilitate digging, and the minimum for a
steel liner-plate tunnel has a diameter of 4 ft (1.2 m).
Basically, a box tunnel is a square or rectangular hole
that is dug approximately horizontally into the earth
and lined with oak slats that are 2 x 8 in. (5 x 20 cm) in
cross section that will support the roof and prevent the
sides from collapsing. A steel liner-plate tunnel is a cir-
cular hole that is dug horizontally into the earth and
supported from collapse by arc sections 16-in. wide x
38-in. long (0.4 x 1 m) of steel plates bolted together.
The tunnel was excavated only enough to permit the
immediate installation of the oak lumber supports or
the liner plates. If the earth was excavated too far in
front of the supported tunnel, the overhead earth could
begin to collapse. This is referred to as “exceeding the
stand-up time.” Normally, this type of tunnel construc-
tion is selected only for cohesive clay or clay/sand soils,
not a “running-ground” soil that flows into the exca-
vated area while the tunnel is being dug. The minimum-
size work pit to begin the tunnel construction was 5-ft
wide x 12-ft long (1.5 m x 3.7 m). Because street traffic
vibrations can reduce the “stand-up time” of the tunnel
overhead excavation, a suggested depth from street level
to top of tunnel roof of 6 ft (1.8 m) was desirable. This
dimension varied based on the soil surveys taken and
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Chapter 13: Cable System Construction EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

analyzed prior to any excavation, as well as the presence
of subsurface obstructions.
Although these types of tunnels are still used today,
newer technology and work practices have largely
replaced these processes.
Microtunneling is a horizontal boring technique that is
used in instances where the diameter of the final casing
is greater than what is customarily used in traditional
jack and bore operations. Microtunneling uses highly
sophisticated, laser-guided, remote-controlled equip-
ment. This enables the user to monitor its precise loca-
tion and to ensure accurate line and grade. This system
typically consists of a steerable tunneling machine that
is jacked from a shaft ahead of the permanent pipes or a
temporary casing. The spoil is removed by using either
the auger method or the slurry method. The auger
method uses a continuous flight of augers to remove the
spoil. The auger is surrounded by a casing placed inside
the permanent pipes or the temporary casing. The
slurry method uses a slurry mixture to pump the spoil
back to the surface.
13.3.2 Jack-and-Bore Installations
The jack-and-bore method is normally used to install a
casing for a cable system under roadway crossings, street
intersections, railroad crossings, and small waterways
where the cable system crosses in a straight and horizon-
tal line. Casings installed this way are usually limited to
between 300 and 400 ft (91 and 122 m) in length,
although occasionally longer lengths can be possible,
depending on soil conditions. Installations longer than
this distance are more difficult to steer accurately. Also,
the jacking forces applied to the casing on longer runs
may become too great for the casing material. Bores are
usually the least expensive of the three casing installa-
tion methods; however, each method has its own unique
applications. The boring operation usually takes less
time than tunneling or drilling and requires the simplest
and least amount of equipment.
casing material. This is accomplished by the use of a
trackhoe working from ground level reaching into the
pit to extract sections of casing. These two pits are usu-
ally deep enough to require sheeting and shoring per
OSHA rules. Soil samples should be taken at each bore
location to determine the sheeting/shoring needs and to
determine if dewatering will be expected.
The boring operation is performed by a machine that
jacks (pushes) the casing forward into an excavation
that is simultaneously being bored (augured) by a rotat-
ing auger within the casing. Figure 13-4 shows a typical
boring machine within the jacking pit. Directional accu-
racy is obtained by (1) careful alignment of the
machine’s rail-type guidance system, (2) carefully plac-
ing and welding or jointing each casing section, and (3)
applying the appropriate directional force on the casing
while being pushed forward into the augured hole. Nor-
mal boring operations have a variety of boring tips
available for use on the augers, dependant on the
soil/rock encountered. The rotating auger is located at
the casing/earth interface or slightly in front of the cas-
ing. When boring under existing aboveground facilities,
such as railroads and highways, it is necessary to keep
the boring tips inside the casing lip to prevent any earth
settlement that might adversely affect the integrity of
the railroad track system or highway pavement.

The jack-and-bore operation is begun by excavating two

pits; one for boring (auguring) and jacking and one for
receiving the casing. The jacking pit is approximately
40-ft (12.2-m) long by 10- to 15-ft (3- to 4.6-m) wide and
is set to the required depth of the bottom of the casing
to be installed. The receiving pit is usually smaller than
the jacking pit because no equipment needs to be set
into this pit. The only activity at the receiving pit is the
recovery of the casing pipe and, in some cases, removal Figure 13-4 Jack-and-bore operation (with
of a temporary steel casing that preceded the permanent permission of ITCTransmission).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Figure 13-5 shows the final casing pipe being jacked
into the bored hole, pushing the temporary steel casing
out into the receiving pit.
There are a variety of casing materials being used today
besides conventional steel. These materials are discussed
in Chapter 12, Section 12.3.3.
Figure 13-6 shows the PVC conduit package being
installed into the final casing. Notice the conduit spac-
ers holding the conduits in the required configuration.
13.3.3 Horizontal Directional Drill Installations
HDD technology has advanced significantly in the past
few years, and is becoming widely accepted. A detailed
discussion of HDD technology is provided in
Chapter 12, Section 12. 3.3. HDD requires a significant
Figure 13-5 Jacking final casing into place (with permission
of ITCTransmission).
Figure 13-6 Installing the conduit package in casing (with
permission of ITCTransmission).
Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
amount of ground area on each side of the crossing. In a
normal HDD operation, the drilling rig and approxi-
mately six to eight equipment trailers are located in an
area at the insertion side of the drill. Figure 13-7 shows
the HDD drilling rig, control trailer, and equipment
trailers at the insertion side. The trailers contain the
control room, auxiliary power units, the drilling mud
control and cleaning system, a construction office, drill
pipes, and spare parts and tools. The other side of the
crossing must have a suitably large space for the casing
or conduit string that is to be pulled back into the hole
to be assembled, an area to contain drilling mud, and an
assortment of tools and equipment to assemble the cas-
ing/conduits. Usually this can be accommodated in a
long, although relatively narrow, space.
As with jack-and-bore installations, casings—if used—
may be made of steel, plastic, polyethylene, or compos-
ite materials. It is possible to install the conduit or pipe
directly into the drilled hole without a casing, depend-
ing on the nature of the soils and the thermal perfor-
mance required from the cable system. When casings
are installed, the casing sections are welded together in
long sections on the pullback side of the crossing to
reduce the amount of welding during the pullback oper-
ation. Similarly, polyethylene casings are welded using
butt fusion, electro fusion, socket fusion, or compres-
sion couplings. Special care must be taken when choos-
ing the casing material and the wall thickness to ensure
that the casing is capable of sustaining the forces
encountered during the pullback operation. Consult-
ants or contractors who specialize in HDD installations
will recommend the appropriate casing material and size
required to accommodate the number of conduits
required in the crossing.
Figure 13-7 HDD drill rig (with permission of PG&E).
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Chapter 13: Cable System Construction EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

The HDD process begins by inserting the drill head/drill backfill is pumped into the filling tubes, the tubes are
pipe assembly into the ground at an entry angle of slowly withdrawn from the casing, allowing the annular
approximately 11 to 12º, relative to horizontal. A drill- space between the conduits and the casing to be com-
ing fluid conditioning system is set up to lubricate the pletely filled with backfill.
drill head, remove cuttings from the hole, and recycle
and clean the drilling fluid for reuse. The pipe string will Once the annular space between casings is completely
contain a control cable connecting multiple magnetome- filled, the ends of the casing are sealed to prohibit the
ters and accelerometers in the drill head to the control thermal fluid from escaping and to prevent the backfill
trailer. This is used for direction control and tracking of from drying out.
the drill head while the pilot hole is being drilled. The
drill begins from the point of entry moving toward the 13.4 CONDUIT INSTALLATION FOR SCFF AND
exit point on the other side of the crossing. As the drill is EXTRUDED-DIELECTRIC CABLES
advanced, more sections of drill pipe and more sections
Conduit installation for a transmission cable system is
of control cable are added to the drill string. Once the
much more critical than for a distribution cable system.
drill head reaches the intended exit point on the other
Transmission cables are heavier, have generally longer
side of the crossing, any drilling mud that escapes from
distances between manholes, are much more expensive,
the hole is contained in a pit and is recycled and condi-
have larger bending radii, and operate at higher voltage
tioned as necessary. The pilot hole is then enlarged with
stresses when compared to distribution cables. Addi-
a series of back reaming pulls until the diameter of the
tionally, the duct bank system for transmission cables
hole is of the required size to accept the casing (or the
needs to be stronger to resist the installation loads
conduit bundle).
required of longer pulls and heavier cable. It is impor-
tant that the duct alignment, including the joints, be as
The casing, if used, will be assembled on the other side
straight as possible to keep pulling tensions as low as
of the crossing and pulled from the exit point toward the
possible. Transmission cable systems have failed because
entry point once the final hole diameter has been
of cable damage resulting from improper conduit instal-
reached. As the pullback operation proceeds, sections of
lation. Refer to Chapter 12, Section 12.3.2, for a discus-
casing that were preassembled will be welded together
sion of designing conduit systems.
so that the pullback operation is not stopped, except for
brief periods. Because HDDs are typically long, the cas-
The installation procedure for a duct bank system has
ing that is being pulled back will be quite long. It is
been well documented by utilities, manufacturer’s asso-
advantageous to have as much of the casing preassem-
ciations, and the manufacturers of the materials and
bled prior to the start of pullback as possible. Therefore,
accessories used to construct a duct bank. A duct bank
a long continuous temporary right-of-way is preferred
is defined as a group of conduits that are installed in a
on the pull back side of the crossings.
common trench with spacers to arrange the ducts in a
defined alignment. Duct banks can be encased in struc-
The next operation is to install the pre-assembled con-
tural concrete, thermal concrete, or thermal sand.
duit string, which is held in proper alignment by cus-
Unless the conduits runs are restrained, they will have a
tom-made spacers at approximately every 5 ft (1.5 m),
tendency to float when covered with concrete. A fre-
although there have been many installations made with-
quently used procedure to address this concern is to
out spacers. Occasionally, if a casing is used, the conduit
restrain them by tying them off with wire to short stubs
string is inserted into the casing before the casing is
of rebar every 5 to 10 feet along the trench length. Fig-
pulled back into the hole. Overall drill length, number
ure 13-8 shows a PVC duct bank under construction in
and size of conduits, and overall weight usually dictate if
a paved highway. Refer to Chapter 12, Section 12.3.2,
this can be performed in a single operation or if they
for a discussion of conduit system design.
must be installed separately.
13.4.1 Joining Sections of Conduit
HDD casings, like jack-and-bore casings, sometimes
need to be backfilled with a suitable thermal fluid to Conduits normally come in lengths of 10 and 20 ft (3 m
allow the cable system to achieve the desired design and 6 m) and, depending on how the sections will be
ampacity. To facilitate the backfilling operation, it is connected together, can be purchased in two different
customary in long HDDs to install one or more fill end configurations. The two configurations are (1) bell
tubes in addition to the conduit string. As the thermal and spigot, and (2) straight.

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Bell and spigot conduits have two different end configu-
rations per conduit; the spigot end is straight and the
other end is belled. Because of this difference in the
ends, it is imperative that the conduit be installed in the
proper direction as shown on the construction drawings.
Failure to install the conduits in the appropriate direc-
tion will result in the cable being pulled against the edge
of the spigot end, possibly damaging the cable jacket.
The straight end of one conduit is inserted into the bell
end of another conduit, and the sections are glued
together using normal PVC glue techniques. Usually,
this type of conduit is readily available in sizes up to a
6-in. (15.2-cm) nominal diameter. As stated before, for
transmission cable systems it is imperative that the con-
duit runs are extremely straight, and all joints are
straight and in alignment. When bell and spigot conduit
is installed around a radius, care must be taken to
ensure that the spigot end does not partially remove
itself from the bell end and create an elevated and
exposed edge that could scrape the cable jacket during
pulling operations. One safeguard is to specify the use of
bells that are approximately 6-in. (15.2-cm) long (or
long bells) instead of normal length bells, which are only
3 in. (7.6 cm) long. The longer bell provides a greater
gluing surface, will hold the alignment of the conduits
around radii better, reduces the likelihood of a protrud-
ing edge developing, and provides greater protection
against leakage of backfill material, such as concrete or
flowable backfill, into the joint. Another good practice
is to bevel the inside edge of the straight end of each
conduit piece to 45º. In case a spigot end does slip out
of alignment with the bell end, the protruding edge will
be beveled off and should not protrude above the bot-
tom of the conduit.
Figure 13-8 Duct bank installation (with permission
of PG&E).
Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
The other type of conduit is simply referred to as
straight conduit. This type has two straight ends and is
joined together by the use of straight couplings. The
coupling has an inside diameter that is larger than the
outside diameter of the conduits being joined, and a
stop seam at the inside center of the coupling. Conduit
is inserted into the coupling until the end of the conduit
comes to rest at the stop seam in the center of the cou-
pling. This lets the installer know that the conduits have
been inserted fully into the coupling. The sections are
glued together with the couplings using normal PVC
glue techniques.
Similar to the bell ends found on bell and spigot con-
duits, couplings come in two lengths, regular and long.
The long line coupling is approximately 6 in. (15.2 cm)
long on each side of the center, and the regular coupling
is approximately 3 in. (7.6 cm) long on each side. The
advantage of the long coupling is that it provides a
greater gluing surface area, ensures the alignment of the
joint when installed around radii, and provides addi-
tional protection against backfill leakage into the joints
at bends.
13.4.2 Field Bends
Conduit will usually require some field bending to fit the
alignment of the trench. When this is required, it is
important to ensure that the conduit is not flattened
during bending. Flattening usually happens when con-
duit is either not preheated, an improper bending tool is
used, or the conduit is bent in a radius that is too small
for its diameter. These problems can be avoided by fol-
lowing the manufacturer’s recommended procedures for
field bending of conduit. It is imperative that the con-
duit remain circular in cross-section so that it will pass a
mandrel of predetermined length and diameter during
proof testing. Gradual bends can often be made with
long lengths of conduit by laying the conduit string into
the trench and bending it using the trench wall as the
fulcrum. Short radii bends that are near or at the cable
manufacturer’s minimum guidelines, should not be field
bent, but should be purchased from the factory as “fac-
tory bends.” It is always a good idea to mandrel each
factory bend before placing it into the duct bank.
13.4.3 Proof Testing
Proof testing is an important procedure carried out at
the completion of a duct run between manholes. It is a
repetitive process where a string of cleaning swabs,
disks, and mandrels are pulled through each conduit
run between manholes. The goal of proof testing is
three-fold; (1) clean construction debris such as dirt,
glue, and concrete from the duct system; (2) ensure the
duct system is continuous without breaks or blockages;
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Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
and (3) ensure the roundness of the conduits so that the
cable won’t become jammed in a bend that is out of
round. The designer should specify the size and length
of the mandrel based on the inside diameter of the con-
duit and the radius of the smallest bend. For example, it
is customary to allow one-half inch clearance between
the outside of the mandrel and the inside of the conduit.
A mandrel 5.5 in. (14 cm) in diameter and 16.5 in.
(42 cm) long—with a 4-in. (10-cm) taper on each end,
having a center straight section of 8.5 in. (21.6 cm) in
length—would be suitable for a 6-in. (15.2-cm) PVC
Schedule 40 conduit system with no bend smaller in
radius than 8 ft (2.4 m). Refer to AEIC G3-2005, Guide
for Installation of Pipe Type Cable Systems, for addi-
tional information regarding the proper sizing of man-
drels. The designer should work with the contractor to
make sure the mandrel dimensions are appropriate for
the specific project.
13.5 DIRECT-BURIED CABLE INSTALLATION
A direct-buried cable installation is where the cable is
laid or pulled directly into a suitably prepared open
trench rather than being pulled into a pipe or duct sys-
tem installed in the trench. The trench is backfilled
directly over the cables with native soils, granular ther-
mal backfill, or a flowable thermal backfill material. Pre-
formed concrete slabs or free-poured concrete caps are
placed over the cables to provide mechanical protection.
Although it is not commonly used for transmission
cables in the United States, a direct-buried cable instal-
lation has been the common installation method
throughout Europe. The most appropriate locations for
a direct-buried cable system are generally in open rural
areas where road improvement or other construction is
Figure 13-9 Trench for direct-buried cable (with permission
of SMECO).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
not anticipated, in or along areas that are restricted to
the general public. Examples of this might be along and
within a fenced railroad right-of-way, within a utility’s
fenced substation, along an overhead transmission line
right-of-way, or on commercial or industrial private
property. Direct-buried installations are not practical in
locations such as in existing road rights-of-way where
numerous utilities or local service laterals are being
crossed or under major roads or intersections where
open cutting is not allowed. Recently, it has been
reported by European manufacturers and utilities that
there is a trend of moving away from the direct-buried
installation in favor of the concrete-encased duct bank.
13.5.1 Trench Preparation
Figure 13-9 shows a cable trench suitable for direct bur-
ied cable. Notice the trench’s sloped sides which meet
OSHA requirements. The trench is excavated to design
depth, the bottom is cleaned of debris and smoothed,
and the trench side walls are smoothed and stabilized
sufficiently to keep loose soil from falling back into the
trench. A 4- to 6-in. (10.2- to 15.2-cm) bed of thermal
sand is then placed on the bottom of the trench, com-
pacted, and moistened to design specifications. The
sand bed is leveled so that the cable rollers, if used, will
sit solidly on the trench bottom.
13.5.2 Cable Installation
Cables can be installed in a trench by either placing
them on rollers and then pulling the cable within the
trench, or by transporting the cable along the top of the
trench while still on the reel, and placing the cable
directly into position in the trench. Normally, cables
installed in trench without conduit are placed on rollers
and then pulled into position. In this case, the cable roll-
ers are placed in the trench at intervals that average
between 5 and 10 ft (1.5 and 3.0 m) for the length of the
cable pull. Only heavy-duty rollers designed specifically
for large diameter and heavy transmission cables are to
be used. Rollers also must be positioned on all sides of
the trench wherever the cable could come in contact
with the side walls during pulling, especially around
bends. Where the trench crosses under existing facilities,
care must be taken to protect the existing facility and
the cable from possible damage during pulling.
Once the rollers are in place, a pulling line is pulled
across the rollers to begin the cable installation process.
The cable is pulled into the trench across the rollers until
the pulling end is completely through the trench. Inspec-
tors are stationed at intervals along the pull to maintain
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
watch on the cable as it moves through the trench. Fig-
ure 13-10 shows the cable on rollers in the trench. When
the cable pull has been completed, the pulling line is dis-
connected from the pulling eye on the cable, and the
rollers are repositioned to the next cable-phase location
in the trench. This process is repeated for the third
phase. Finally, the cable is raised off of the rollers using
either nylon slings or by hand, then gently placed into
their final position. The rollers are removed from the
trench, and the cables are repositioned on the bottom of
the trench, maintaining the specified separation between
phases. Backfilling is then begun using either granular
thermal material or native spoils that have been cleaned
of debris. If granular materials are used as the backfill
material, the material is placed in 6- to 8-in. (15.2- to
20.3-cm) lifts, moistened to the specified level, and com-
pacted by mechanical and manual means until the
trench is brought to the appropriate level.
13.5.3 Direct-Buried Cable Joints
Cable joints on direct-buried cable systems can be
located in either splicing vaults (manholes) or directly
buried. Direct-buried splices, like the cable itself, should
be located only where access to the general public is
restricted, and some means of protection from mechani-
cal protection can be provided, such as precast concrete
caps placed above the backfill over the splices. If direct-
buried splices are used where cross-bonding or open cir-
cuit sheath connections are required, an adjacent sepa-
Figure 13-10 Direct-buried cable installation
(with permission of SMECO).
Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
rate small vault is typically used to provide access to the
link box. Direct-buried cable systems in the United
States are more common on 69-kV through 138-kV
cable systems, although any voltage can be direct bur-
ied. It is common practice in the United States to install
230-kV and 345-kV splices in manholes.
13.6 HIGH-PRESSURE FLUID-FILLED (HPFF)
PIPE INSTALLATION
The pipe installation is the first construction phase of
building an underground transmission system. It also is
the phase of the project that will be the most visible to
the public and cause the most inconvenience. Therefore,
to help ensure that the project is completed successfully
with the least amount of impact, it is imperative that all
of the permit conditions are followed, the job site is kept
clean and orderly, and a safe work ethic is maintained.
It is imperative that the pipes are installed with the
utmost quality control. If the pipe is not properly
installed, then the cable also will be impacted during the
cable installation.
13.6.1 Pipe Installation
This section covers the transporting, storage, handling,
joining (welding), installation practices, and testing of
the pipe in preparation for the cable installation.
Although pipe is sometimes shipped by railroad from
the coating suppliers, the majority of pipe is shipped by
trailer for expediency and to minimize storage yard
rental and excessive handling costs. The trailers used
can be either the flatbed or pipe-carrier type. Regardless
of the type used, all pipe should be protected with bed-
ding and spacers to prevent shipping damage to the
coating or pipe flares. The pipe, in double random
lengths (43 ft [13 m] average) should be supported
approximately every 8 ft (2.4 m) on centers with padded
boards at least 2 x 6 in. (5 x 15 cm) to preclude any dam-
age to the pipe coating. The same size boards are used
to space the pipe horizontally to prevent any displace-
ment or shifting which could damage the pipe flares.
The stacking of pipe on the trailer should be limited to
five tiers or less, depending upon the pipe diameter and
weight, to protect the pipe coating.
Coating suppliers have recently begun to use a more
substantial type of truck bolster, in the form of rubber
rings placed on each length of pipe approximately 8 ft
(2.4 m) apart. In this manner the pipe is better pro-
tected, and it is easier to load for shipping and handling
in the field. This type of spacer is well suited for trans-
porting pipe with either a flatbed or pipe-carrier trailer.
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Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
Both the external corrosion coating and internal coating
of the pipe must be protected. When the coating sup-
plier finishes the internal coating procedure, an end cap
or plug is placed on both ends of the pipe to prevent
dust and debris from entering the pipe during shipment.
These caps or plugs should always be in place on the
pipe ends during storage or handling in the trench to
maintain a clean and dry pipe.
To store the pipe for any length of time at the construc-
tion yard, the suggested method for protection is to use
a bedding of sand or sand bags, with no more than five
tiers. If the pipe is stored in cold weather, the sand or
sand bags could freeze to the pipe coating. If this occurs,
a torch must be used to heat the area and free the pipe
before lifting.
Upon receiving the pipe at the storage yard, a thorough
inspection should be made for any damaged pipe ends
(flares) or pipe coating and missing caps or plugs. As the
pipe is being removed from the transport trailer, the
pipe corrosion coating should be tested for holidays
with a detector, and any coating damage should be
marked for immediate repair. One of the first activities
that the contractor should do before installing pipe on
HPFF systems is to submit a weld procedure to the
owner for approval. Once the weld procedure has been
approved, the contractor needs to have welders tested by
performing a weld and having it tested by an indepen-
dent testing agency. The weld needs to conform to API
Standard 1104.
The installation of pipe begins with the trench excava-
tion. Normally a contractor would like to have in the
range of 200–400 ft (61–122 m) of trench open prior to
starting the installation of the pipe. Most permitting
authorities limit the length of open trench (often
defined as a trench that has not been backfilled to
within 6–8 in. [15–20 cm] from the original surface)
allowed daily to minimize the impact on vehicular traf-
fic and protect pedestrians from harm. Of course, this
length limit is influenced by population and business
density and can vary along the cable route. However, in
most cases, and especially in urban areas, the rate of
installation of pipe or duct will be determined by the
rate of trench excavation.
The pipe installation work area is typically a 600- to
800-ft (182- to 244-m) moving work zone along the
route. The first 200 to 300 ft (61 to 91 m) is the excava-
tion of the trench, the following 200 to 300 ft is the
installation of the pipe, and the final 200 to 300 ft (61 to
91 m) is the backfilling of the trench. This work area
moves along the route at a rate of approximately 100–
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
300 ft (30–91 m) per day. The production will vary based
on the number of pipes being installed, number of utili-
ties encountered, the depth of the trench, and the traffic
and soil conditions.
Trench being installed in streets and sidewalks is nor-
mally secured each night by steel plating over the open
trench. In rare circumstances, the trench can be barri-
caded with either snow fence or jersey barricades. This is
usually only allowed where traffic is not a problem or
the trench is extremely wide or deep.
The pipe should be inspected prior to installation. The
inspection should include checking the coating for holi-
days, temporarily removing the protective caps, swab-
bing the pipe with clean dry rags, and checking for split
ends or damaged pipe ends (flares).
The pipes should be carefully offloaded from the trailer,
using either two nylon slings per section, or using a
spreader bar with nylon slings. When placing sections of
pipe into the trench, the contractor must be careful to
ensure the pipe coating is not damaged. Often a
spreader bar with nylon slings is used to lower lengths of
pipe into the trench.
There are different methods for installing the pipe. Con-
tractors often weld the pipe on top of the trench and
feed the pipe into the trench by means of a winch line.
This method allows the pipe to be fed underneath exist-
ing utilities and shoring. In preparing to pull the pipe,
the length needs to be determined from the point which
the pipe will be pulled to where there is easy access for
the continuation of pipe installation from the street
level. Once the pipe length is known, the crew can
assemble and weld as many double random pipe lengths
as needed, test and cover all welds, and install a proper
pipe pulling head. The assembly can take place above or
in the trench. If above, the pipe is laid on sand bags sup-
ported by timbers over the trench. If in the trench, the
pipe can be assembled and laid on the sand backfill
material over the previously installed pipe. Or if space
permits and the previously installed pipes have not yet
been covered with the thermal backfill, the assembly can
be made alongside the installed pipe and laid on sand-
bags in preparation for the pull.
The proper method to pull the pipe assembly is to use a
pulling head, designed to grasp the pipe so that the pull-
ing forces will be evenly distributed to prevent ovality
and damage to the flared end. Also, this pulling head
should act as a seal to prevent earth spoil or moisture
from entering the pipe. It is not advisable to pull a pipe
assembly with any type of nylon sling wrapped around
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
the pipe end unless the pipe is completely sealed to pre-
vent dirt and moisture entry. Quality control is still vital
at this point. Once the pulling head is applied and a
suitable and properly sized winch is in place down-
stream from the pipe assembly, the pull can proceed. As
the pipe assembly is pulled, constant inspection is neces-
sary to watch for any unforeseen obstacle that could
damage either the pipe coating or the pipe. Before start-
ing the pipe assembly pull, the trench should be thor-
oughly sanded with final backfill material and/or
sandbagged, especially along the trench walls to guide
the pipe around potentially damaging obstacles.
The other method used in areas with less congestion is
to install the pipe end to end within the trench. When
this method is used, the contractor may need to widen
the trench at the locations of pipe bell ends where the
sections of pipe are welded together. The widened
trench at these locations is necessary to give the welder
adequate clearance during the welding process. These
widened locations in the trench are called “bell holes.”
There are three types of weld connections that can be
made for joining the pipes together. Two require the
flaring of one or both pipe ends. The connections are
as follows.
Chill or Backer Ring
Both pipe ends are expanded on a 5º taper to an inside
diameter matching the pipe outside diameter. This facil-
itates the placement of a chill ring between the two
lengths of pipe being joined. The chill ring is a spacer to
provide the welder with an alignment template and to
help prevent weld beads on the inside of the butt weld
that could damage the cable during a pulling operation.
The chill ring, however, does not positively prevent weld
beads from occurring if inexperienced welders are used.
Qualified welders are the key to a quality pipe installa-
tion; therefore, all welders should be tested as previously
mentioned prior to performing any work.
A chill ring weld is used in the majority of installations
since this type of pipe connection allows cable pulls
from either direction.
Prior to welding the chill ring, the pipe ends are cleaned
and brushed. The welder will normally use power tools
to wire brush or grind the inside and outside of the pipe
end. In some cases, the welder might have to remove
excessive dents to the pipe end flares with a heavy-
toothed hand file. As the welder prepares the pipe end,
ovality is checked, and, if minor, the pipe can be turned
to match as closely as possible the pipe end it is being
joined to. If the flared end is damaged beyond repair,
then the flare can be replaced as described later.
Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
When preparing the pipe end, the chill ring is inserted in
the pipe end having the smallest diameter flare. This can
be judged by observing the smallest slot-opening dimen-
sion when the chill ring is inserted into each pipe end.
The chill ring should be inserted into the pipe(s) with
the slot opening on the horizontal and toward the out-
side of a pipe bend so that during a cable pull no dam-
age is incurred. Once positioned in the open end, the
chill ring should be tack- or spot-welded to prevent slip-
page. The final move butts both pipes together over the
chill rings’ raised triangular ridge spacer, which is used
as a template and positions each end properly for the
butt weld.
Bell and Spigot
This type of pipe weld connection requires that only one
end of each pipe length be flared. The flared (bell) end is
actually a swaging (expansion) of the pipe for a distance
of approximately 3 in. (8 cm) so that the inside diameter
of the flare (bell) is approximately 0.125 in. (0.3 cm)
larger than the outside pipe diameter. This pipe connec-
tion is made simply by inserting the unflared (spigot)
pipe end into the bell end and making a fillet weld.
Although weld beads do not occur with this type of con-
nection, the installation still warrants skilled and tested
welders. While cable pulls can be made in either direc-
tion with a bell and spigot pipe connection, provided
that the inside pipe edges are properly prepared, most
utilities prefer to pull so the cables exit the spigot end.
Sleeves
A sleeve connection is used when the pipe ends are not
flared. The sleeve has an inside diameter approximately
0.125-in. (0.3-cm) larger than the outside diameter of
the pipe and at least a 0.375-in. (0.95-cm) wall thickness.
The length is equal to or greater than the pipe diameter.
With this type of connection, the inside pipe edges are
beveled and rounded smoothly to allow the cable to pass
through freely and safely without damage during the
pulling operation. After centering the sleeve over the
pipe ends, fillet welds are then completed. This type of
connection is normally used in tunnel and bridge instal-
lations where the pipe could be pre-stressed and
anchored. It requires more welding than the chill ring or
bell and spigot approaches.
Welders should be qualified or certified by test in accor-
dance with API 1104 regardless of their previous experi-
ence. Likewise, all pipe, reducer, split-joint, riser,
and trifurcate welds should conform and be tested to
the same standard with the exception of the following
two paragraphs:
1. Radiographic inspection of all welds should be per-
formed by an experienced testing organization
approved by the utility. The testers will review and
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Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
make recommendations as to approval or rejection of
a weld, but the qualified utility field engineers make
the final decision.
2. If a weld is rejected for any defect exhibited during
welding, it should be repaired by grinding or chip-
ping the weld material down to the first pass or fur-
ther, then re-welding. Most utilities require the entire
pipe weld (including chill ring) to be replaced, and, if
rejections continue, the welder should be requested to
submit another test weld for continued qualification
and welding on the project.
All pipe welds should be tested by radiographic inspec-
tion as soon as the weld has cooled enough to allow for
the placement of the films so weld integrity can be
approved as soon as possible to permit production to
continue without undue interruption.
13.6.2 Corrosion Coatings and Repairs
After the welds have been radiographically tested and
approved, the weld area must be protected (as the pipe
is) from corrosion. Earlier pipe coatings such as Somas-
tic or enamel wraps used a weld coating material of hot-
applied enamel. Since these coatings are rarely used any-
more, the weld coatings used with today’s extruded
polyethylene or polypropylene pipe coatings are dis-
cussed, as follows.
A most popular and excellent pipe-weld covering, when
installed properly, is a polymeric heat-shrink sleeve. In
using this covering, a sleeve or possibly several sleeves
are slipped onto the pipe just prior to the joining and
welding process. After the weld has been completed and
radiographically tested, the weld and adjacent area
should be thoroughly cleaned with a wire brush to be
sure no short radius protrusions (such as weld beads)
could penetrate the heat-shrink sleeve when installing.
The sleeve is pulled into place and centered. Heat is then
applied to shrink the sleeve onto the weld area. Heat
should be applied to the center section first and slowly
worked outward toward both ends. Some users want
additional coverage and prefer that several sleeves be
installed, one overlapping the other. Another method of
providing additional coverage is to apply a polymeric
tape over the weld area and overlap it onto the pipe
coating. This is the same tape used to cover the splice
sleeves in manholes.
Should the pipe coating be cut, sliced, abraded, or oth-
erwise damaged after being placed and installed in the
trench, heat-shrink sleeves and/or tape can be used to
repair the damage. The damaged area must be wiped
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
clean to remove any dirt or sand from the damaged
area, then as much of the original pipe coating laid back
in place as possible. Having done this, the polymeric
corrosion protection tape should be wrapped around
the pipe (if there is sufficient space to allow taping), then
a “special” split heat-shrink sleeve, made especially for
repairing damaged pipe coating, should be applied.
To ensure that the pipe is adequately heated per the
sleeve manufacturer’s recommendations, it is recom-
mended that a “thermal gun” be used to verify the pre-
heat temperature.
13.6.3 Electrical Tests on Pipe Coatings
All pipe coatings, whether factory- or field-applied,
should be tested with a holiday detector for damage or
imperfections during pipe installation and just prior to
backfilling the trench. The test equipment suppliers sug-
gest voltage settings ranging from 8–15 kV depending
on the wall thickness for extruded or heat-shrink coat-
ing materials. The testing should be in accordance with
the NACE Standard RP 02 74—latest edition (NACE
2004). Any holidays found must be repaired and
retested, and all pipe coatings should then test positive
before being covered with backfill material. A discus-
sion of cathodic protection testing is provided in Chap-
ter 10, Section 10.3.8.
After the backfilling, trench coating-resistance tests
should be done on the pipe from manhole to manhole.
The measured resistance should not be less than the val-
ues shown in Table 13-2.
The values listed are for polyethylene and polypropylene
pipe coatings and are based on a unit resistance of
10 megohms per square foot. The required resistance (in
ohms) for any length of pipe installed is determined by
dividing the minimum coating resistance listed in ohms
per 1000 ft of pipe length by the total length of pipe
under test in thousands of feet.
Table 13-2 Minimum Electrical Resistance of Pipe Coatings
Minimum Coating
Surface Area Sq. Resistance in Ohms Per
Pipe O.D. (in.) Ft. Per 1000-Ft Pipe 1000-Ft Pipe Length
2.625–4.5 - 8500
5.5625 1460 7000
6.625 1740 5750
7.0 (tubing) 1840 5500
8.625 2260 4500
10.75 2820 3600
12.75 3000 3000
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Should the resistance values of any section of pipe
tested be less than as specified above, an over-the-
ground survey should be performed to locate any coat-
ing defects. This survey is easier and the pipe coating
repairs are less costly if accomplished before the finished
paving is put down. However, most local governments
require the finished paving be done as close to the trench
backfilling operation as possible. Therefore, the pipe
coating holiday detection testing should be quite thor-
ough—quality control at its utmost—to prevent costly
re-excavations of the pipe line.
13.6.4 Typical Work Area
The best way to describe a typical work area is to refer to
Figure 13-11. This sketch shows the typical excavation
crew setup, the pipe setup, and the backfilling operation.
13.6.5 Field Bends
Pipe can be field-bent by either using a portable bending
machine or by using air bags and trench jacks to con-
form the pipe to the trench. In many situations, the lay-
out of the trench and the number of utility crossings
prevent the use of factory bent bends.
One of the biggest problems with field bending a pipe is
the “egg” shaping of the pipe. Anytime a field bend is
made, the contractor should verify the roundness of the
pipe by mandrelling the bend prior to tying the pipe in.
The majority of horizontal pipe bends can be made by
pulling the pipe around the bend, using the entire trench
wall as the bending die. Most design engineers lay out
the cable route bends with the largest allowable practical
Figure 13-11 Typical work area.
Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
radii possible to permit this method of pipe installation.
Using this method gives a continuous radius without
local bending and a smooth surface for cable pulling.
This method of pipe bending requires bend radii of at
least 50 ft (15.2 m) for 8.625-in. (21.9 cm) pipe. The
larger the pipe diameter, the larger the radius required
to avoid kinking and ovality. For example, a 10.75-in.
(27.3-cm) pipe diameter requires a bend radius of at
least 100 ft (30 m).
If the bend radius is less than the acceptable radius for
pulling pipe around the bend, then suitable mechanical
pipe-bending machines can be used to pre-bend the pipe
lengths in the field. The minimum recommended radius
of curvature for field bending by mechanical equipment
is 40 times the outside diameter of the coated pipe.
However, even at this minimum radius, an experienced
pipe bender is still required to produce a bend without
kinking, flattening, or excessive ovality. The pipe-bend-
ing equipment was developed and used by the gas and
oil transmission companies and has proved quite suc-
cessful. If a utility does not own such equipment, it is
often possible to rent it from pipeline contractors.
Figure 13-12 illustrates a field bend made with a bend-
ing machine at a job site. This particular bend was a
120°, 50-ft radius bend.
Regardless of the method used to install pipe around
bends, it is imperative that an appropriate mandrel be
pulled through the bent pipe to check for ovality prior
to welding into the existing installed pipe system. If the
mandrel cannot pass freely, then the bent section should
be rejected and not welded into the existing system. The
Figure 13-12 Field bend on a 8- 5⁄8 O.D. steel pipe.
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Chapter 13: Cable System Construction EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

suggested mandrel to be used for various sized pipes is
given in Table 13-3.
For vertical grade changes, the pipe bend radii should
be limited to 500 ft (150 m) where possible. This is the
guide to be used during the excavation phase to avoid
obstacles when installing the pipe. For convenience in
making such bends, Table 13-4 is provided.
After placing and mandrelling the pipe bends, a tie-in
weld has to be made into the previously installed pipe.
Placing the pipe ends in the exact position to have the
proper spacing for chill-ring welding or any other type
of flare welding is practically impossible. Normal prac-
tice has the two ends overlapping, so one pipe end
(flare) will be cut a distance of approximately 6 in.
(15 cm) from the end of the other pipe. The pipe cut
should be done with a mechanical pipe cutter if space is
available. Otherwise, the pipe can be cut with a burning
torch, but only after extensive precautions, such as
inserting a pipe plug beyond the cutting location to pre-
vent metal dust and slag from entering the pipe interior.
Once the cut has been made, the cut end is cleaned and
beveled so a field flare or “pipe pup” can be butt-welded
to it. Once welded, the interior of the pipe weld is
ground smooth to prevent damage to the cable during
pulling. After flares are installed on both pipe ends, the
pipes can be joined with a chill-ring weld. Field flares
are provided with the pipe shipment by the coating sup-
plier upon request. Field flares also are installed when
the factory flares have been damaged beyond repair.
Remember, all welds must be radiographically tested
before acceptance.
13.6.6 Quality Control
The purpose of this section is to list some of the critical
quality control checkpoints for the installation of pipe.
However, the contractor and owner should always
ensure that the pipe is being installed in accordance with
the owners/engineers and industry standards/specifica-
tion as a minimum.
Some of the key quality control checkpoints that the
owner/contractor should ensure are being adhered to
are the following:
• Keep moisture out of the pipe. Pipe plugs should
always be installed and at least 5 psi of dry nitrogen
kept on the pipe.
• The bends are smooth and gradual. There should not
be any kinks or ovaling of the pipe.
• The pipe coating is not damaged during the installa-
tion. A jeeping test should be performed routinely to
ensure that the coating integrity will be maintained.
Many utilities and contractors also elect to perform a
coating resistance test at the end of each day to verify
the coating integrity.
• All welds are checked by an independent X-ray, prop-
erly coated, and the coating properly tested.

Table 13-3 Mandrel Dimensions for Typical Pipe Sizes for After the pipe installation crew has placed and welded
0.250-in. (6.35-mm) Wall Pipe the pipe in the trench, protecting the pipe against dirt,
Mandrel debris, and water becomes even more important. No
Length
Mandrel Mandrel without
longer will the temporary plastic pipe caps (or plugs)
Pipe O.D. Pipe l.D. O.D. Flat Length Eyes suffice to protect the pipe interior. A commercially avail-
6.625 in. 6.125 in. 5.78 in. 8.5 in. 16.5 in. able sealing plug is used to assure that no moisture or
(16.8 cm) (15.6 cm) (14.7 cm) (21.6 cm) (41.9 cm) free water enters the pipe. Personnel should not walk on
8.625 in. 8.125 in. 7.60 in. 10.5 in. 20.5 in. the coated pipe at any time.
(21.9 cm) (20.6 cm) (19.3 cm) (26.7 cm) (52.1 cm)
10.750 in. 10.250 in. 9.80 in. 12.5 in. 25.0 in.
(27.3 cm) (26.0 cm) (24.9 cm) (31.8 cm) (63.5 cm)
At the end of the workday, nitrogen gas should be used
to purge the pipe slowly for 5 minutes. The pipe ends
should be sealed and the nitrogen pressure increased to a
Table 13-4 Length of Pipe Required to Achieve minimum of 5 psi (34 kPa) above atmosphere. In loca-
Required Offset tions where the trench is deeper than the normal 5–6 ft
Offset Length (1.5–2 m), the pressure should be increased to offset
ft m ft m potentially higher hydrostatic heads. The use of nitrogen
1 0.3 45 13.7 must include a safety sign denoting “Caution—Danger.”
2 0.6 63 19.2 If nitrogen is being vented in a confined area, a person
3 0.9 77 23.5 could be asphyxiated from lack of oxygen. If the nitro-
4 1.2 90 27.4 gen gas is being vented in an open trench, the workers
5 1.5 110 33.5 should still remain a safe distance from the pipe being
10 3.0 140 42.7 vented. Venting, in this case, is defined as discharging a
15 4.6 170 51.8 large volume of the gas from the pipe. If working in a

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
manhole, hoses should be used and trained to discharge
the nitrogen above ground on the downwind side of the
manhole chimney. A number of utilities, because of this
possible danger, use dry air during the pipe installation
and then revert to nitrogen during the cabling phase of
the project. Still, caution should always prevail.
Physical protection for the pipe not yet buried is rather
difficult in some city areas because of vandalism, so the
installation crew might be required to repair and retest the
pipe coating each morning before backfilling continues.
13.6.7 Installing Pipe in Tunnels or Casings and
on Bridges
The installation of pipe in tunnels or casings (bores) and
on bridges is basically the same as given in the previous
sections. The following paragraphs present a few high-
lights for these special types of installations.
If a cable system is being installed in a tunnel—a con-
crete-box passageway construction—the pipe installa-
tion should begin at all bends and progress outward into
the straight sections. Normally all the pipe bends will be
provided pre-bent from the supplier, and sometimes the
pipe will be without end flares since sleeves are used in
some cases to connect each pipe length. Also, to con-
tend with pipe expansion when the cable is fully loaded,
the pipe should be pre-stressed under tension, at a pre-
determined value based on ambient temperature, and
welded to anchors embedded in the wall or floor.
When pipe is being installed in a casing, it is pulled into
the casing by the same method as pulling pipe in a
trench (i.e., with a pulling head attached to the pipe and
a winch handling the steel pulling rope). However, when
puffing the pipe into the casing, pipe casing spacers are
used to protect the pipe coating. A casing spacer is a
device molded in halves that is strapped to the pipe to
prevent the pipe from touching the casing wall. Spacers
can be supplied for any diameter pipe being installed,
and, if multiple pipes are to be installed within the same
casing, special spacers are available. The spacers are
normally installed at intervals of 6–8 ft (1.8–2.4 m).
When the casing (bore) is installed, a standpipe should
be welded to the end (or just inside the end) of the cas-
ing pipe for backfilling.
If pipe is being installed in a liner-plate tunnel, which is
a circular tunnel comprised of flanged steel plates
bolted together with a minimum diameter of 4 ft
(1.2 m), the pipe should be pulled after a bedding of
thermal backfill (sand) has been placed to protect the
coating while pulling the pipe. Normally, the sand bed-
ding will place the pipe at about the center of the tunnel,
Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
so the work area within the tunnel becomes rather con-
stricted, especially with smaller diameter tunnels.
Installing pipe or ducts on a bridge is somewhat similar
to the procedure for installing pipe in a tunnel. Support
arms with sliding clamps or hangers with rollers are
used to hold the pipe or ducts crossing the bridge.
Should the bridge be a short span, such as a span cross-
ing a six-lane express highway having thick heavy abut-
ments on each side, the pipe could be supported and
anchored at the abutments after tensioning the pipe. In
some cases, the pipe is anchored at the center of the
bridge and large radius offsets are placed in the pipe or
duct at either end to accommodate thermal expansion
and contraction. When installing a duct system across
any length of bridge, expansion couplings must always
be used. Regardless of whether a bridge crossing instal-
lation is short or long or done with pipe or ducts, the
installation must be in accordance with the design draw-
ings and as approved by the government agency owning
and maintaining the bridge.
13.6.8 Installing Pipe in Manholes
When there are two cable pipes in the trench, the trench
should be widened starting about 50 ft (15 m) from the
manhole, and the pipe spacing should be increased to
allow working room in the manhole for splicing.
This trenching and pipe spacing are to be handled the
same way on the egress side of the manhole. Before the
pipe crew begins installing the pipe through the man-
hole, the manhole should be tested for possible oxygen
deficiency and combustible gases. After the gas tests, an
air blower should be used to ventilate the manhole
whenever workers are inside the manhole.
When installing the pipe through the manhole, no welds
will be allowed within the manhole (other than the
splice joint reducers that are applied later) nor within
12 ft (3.7 m) of the manhole exterior wall. It is suggested
that the longest single length of pipe (48–50 ft [about
15 m]) available be installed through the manhole and
welded to the already installed pipe. Another method is
to join two pipe lengths and pull the pipe into the man-
hole, centering the pipe weld in the area that will be
removed later for splicing. After placing the pipe, center
the pipe in the sleeves in the manhole end walls and seal
the area between the pipe and the casing. Most utilities
are now using rubber sectionalized spacers designed to
support and seal the pipe. Also, in a very wet soil condi-
tion, utilities are augmenting the spacer seal with cylin-
drical neoprene boots that are strapped to the manhole
sleeve and cable pipe. With the pipe centered and in as
true a horizontal and vertical position as possible to
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Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
avoid bending and stressing it, the trench should be
backfilled on both sides of the manhole. When the pipe
is in a firm position, the section of pipe where the splice
is to be located can be cut using a mechanical pipe cut-
ter. The pipe end should be cleaned and beveled and the
pipe coating should be removed for approximately 10 in.
(25 cm) to allow the installation and welding of the
splice joint reducers. After the reducers are in place, the
bare metal should be primed to prevent rusting and test
caps rated for high pressure (500 psi [3500 kPa]) should
be installed. These test caps are designed to facilitate the
vacuum and pressure testing of each pipe section
between manholes.
13.6.9 Installing Termination Assemblies
At each end of a pipe cable system, the three single-con-
ductor cables within the pipe must be trifurcated into
single-phase, nonmagnetic pipes, each to be terminated
with a termination mounted on a steel structure. This
separating of the three phases of cable is defined as a
termination assembly, which consists of a spreaderhead
assembly, prefabricated stainless-steel riser pipes, and
termination base and mounting plates. A termination
assembly can be either an above- or below-grade design.
Although both assemblies serve the same function (to
separate the three phases), the cable industry uses the
term “spreaderhead” for an aboveground design and
the term “trifurcator” for a belowground design.
Trifurcating joints placed in manholes away from the
terminations can eliminate the need for placing large
cable reels in the substation. Regardless of the design,
the termination assembly in accordance with the layout
drawings should be prefitted, adjusted, and assembled
in a final position before the final welding is done.
The installation of the stainless-steel riser pipes requires
that after all welding has been completed and radio-
graphically tested, a layer of corrosion-protective tape
be applied half-lapped over all below-grade sections. It
is suggested that a second layer be applied at all weld
joints. This also should be done over the trifurcator
assembly after the cable has been installed and all welds
have been completed.
The aboveground spreaderhead assembly is much sim-
pler than the trifurcator since no temporary or perma-
nent manhole is needed. Accurate placement, in
accordance with the design drawings of the pre-bent 90°
termination pipe bend, is very important. This bend,
having a minimum radius of 6 ft (1.8 m), a pipe flare on
the lower end welded onto the line pipe, and a straight
length of approximately 4 ft (1.2 m) on the upper end for
final elevation adjustment, should be securely anchored
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
in place prior to the prefitting of the spreaderhead, pot-
head base plates, and riser pipes. Anchoring can be
accomplished by either enclosing the termination bend
in concrete or securing the bend to the pothead struc-
ture foundation with steel beams.
Quality control must be practiced during the installa-
tion of either type of termination assembly. All parts
must be cleaned and kept free of debris and water. The
stainless-steel riser pipes, as well as the 90° carbon-steel
termination pipe bend, must be mandrelled before final
assembly and welding.
13.6.10 Cleaning and Testing the Installed Pipe
System
To prove the integrity of the installed pipe prior to cable
pulling, all sections (manhole to manhole or termina-
tion) should be swabbed, mandrelled, and pressure- and
vacuum-tested. Swabbing cleans the pipe interior. Man-
drelling checks for ovality and dented pipe to assure a
proper passageway for cable pulling. Pressure testing
proves the structural integrity of the pipe and welds.
Vacuum testing dries the pipe and provides a negative
pressure test to assure a hermetically sound pressure
system when the cable installation is complete and ready
to be energized.
Normally, swabbing and mandrelling the pipe can be
done in the same operation. To start this operation, a
mouse or pig (a series of tight-fitting urethane cups
resembling pistons) is blown by sufficient nitrogen pres-
sure from one manhole to the next manhole or trifurca-
tor with a trailing 0.375-in. (0.95-cm) wire rope. At the
exiting manhole, a swab and mandrel are attached in
series to the wire rope and pulled back through the pipe.
The swab is a cylindrical wrapping of lint-free white rags
placed around a short (1- to 3-ft [0.3- to 0.9-m]) wire
rope sling and sized to fit tightly within the pipe to per-
mit a wiping action. The mandrel is sized and shaped
per the recommended AEIC pipe installation specifica-
tion described previously.
If the swab shows moisture after being pulled through
the pipe, another swab or a series of swabs must be
pulled through the pipe until the swabs emerge dry.
Also, if the swab shows a ripping action rather than a
wear action, then mandrelling is necessary again to
recheck, through close inspection of the mandrel sur-
face, for possible pipe or weld imperfections. Any imper-
fections must be located and repaired to avoid cable
damage during installation.
Pressure testing the pipe is done on a section-by-section
basis after the splice reducers have been welded into
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
place and a temporary sealing pressure plate has been
bolted onto the reducer. Most utilities use nitrogen for
the pressure test, but some prefer air to eliminate the
asphyxiation hazard of nitrogen. Today, most utilities
have and require the use of independent life-support
breathing apparatus for any personnel entering poten-
tially hazardous manholes. Because of the high quality
and low price of nitrogen and air supplied today, air
compressors with drying apparatus attached are seldom
used. The dew point of the gas provided by the manu-
facturers is -65°F (-54°C) or lower and is certified on the
required test reports. For circuits of 1 mile (1.6 km) or
more in length, the most economical delivery of nitro-
gen for pressure testing is by a liquid nitrogen tank
trailer with heater and compressor or tube trailers
(45,000 ft 3 @ 2200 psi [1275 m 3 @ 15,000 kPa]). All
hoses, valves, pipe fittings, pressure gauges, and other
equipment used for the test program must be rated at
600-psi (4140-kPa) working pressure—the utility should
purchase and accept nothing else. The test pressure can
be from 300–500 psi (2070–3450 kPa) with a minimum
one-hour time period after pressurizing to observe any
loss of pressure indicating a weld or a pipe structural
leak. Most utilities prefer a longer test period of
72 hours, observing any pressure change every 12 hours
while recording and correcting for temperature changes.
The quality of pipe today and the radiographic inspec-
tion of welds have reduced the probability of a leak to
very low levels.
The vacuum test essentially accomplishes the drying of
the pipe system. The procedure is to work section by
section (manhole to manhole). The equipment used is
normally a 150 ft3/min (4.3 m3/min) or larger vacuum
pump that is connected to the pipe end pressure plate
with a 2- or 3-in. (5.1- or 7.6-cm) vacuum hose. The
larger the hose, the faster the vacuum draw-down time.
However, when starting the vacuum procedure, the flow
of nitrogen from the pipe into the vacuum pump should
be controlled and throttled with valving. Although the
nitrogen has a low dew point, the pipe could contain a
slight amount of moisture. If the vacuum drops too rap-
idly, the moisture could freeze as hoarfrost, and test
equipment would not indicate its presence in the pipe.
When evacuating the pipe section, the vacuum pump
should be placed at one manhole, and the vacuum gauge
should be placed at the pipe end in the adjacent man-
hole. The suggested procedure for vacuum drying and
testing is to evacuate the pipe, and when a vacuum read-
ing of 150 μm is attained, to continue for an additional
4 hours of pumping. At this time, the pipe should be
valved off and the pump operation stopped. Upon shut-
down, a vacuum-rise test is performed by recording the
Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
vacuum reading at the far end as a function of time.
This pressure rise should not exceed 100 μm in one
hour. Most utilities accept a one-hour test, but some
prefer a longer test period of 4–24 hours where a pres-
sure rise of 10 μm per hour is allowed for each hour
beyond the first hour.
McLeod vacuum gauges are still in use by the installers
that have and maintain them. However, this gauge is
in disfavor because of the mercury it contains. The
present substitute for the ranges of vacuum readings
experienced in pipe-type cable systems is a thermocou-
ple vacuum gauge, which is readily available through
several suppliers.
During the pumping operation, vacuum leaks may
occur at any threaded or flanged and bolted pipe and
valve connection. To assure a reasonable vacuum pull-
down time, the work personnel should seal or cover
these connection surfaces with clay, duxseal, petroleum
jelly, petrolatum, or other appropriate material.
Once the vacuum test has been accepted by the respon-
sible utility engineer, the pipe vacuum should be broken
with dry nitrogen and a positive pressure of 5–10 psi
(34.5–69 kPa) maintained until the cable-pulling opera-
tion begins.
13.7 BACKFILLING
The selection and installation of backfill material are
critical to achieving the required, or designed ampacity
of the cable, and the expected life of the cable system.
Backfill material will be a part of any cable system that
is installed in the ground, regardless of whether it is a
pipe cable system, a duct bank cable system, or a direct
buried cable system. The effect of different backfill
materials on cable ampacity has previously been dis-
cussed in Chapter 12.
13.7.1 Placing of Backfill Material
Backfill material that is specially selected or designed
for its thermal characteristics is commonly referred to as
“thermal backfill.” Thermal backfill can be divided into
two main types: granular and flowable. Granular ther-
mal backfill generally consists of a specifically graded
material such as limestone screenings, bank-run sand,
or other similar material that has been tested to assure
that it contains the appropriate amount of moisture and
has the desired compaction properties. Providing that
larger stones, rock, and foreign debris have been
removed, and that it has the required thermal proper-
ties, native spoils from the trench excavation will some-
time be used as thermal backfill. Fluidized thermal
backfill is usually either a specially designed mixture of
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Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
locally available ingredients, including sand, cement,
aggregate, and fly ash, or a low-strength (weak mix)
concrete having the necessary thermal properties. What-
ever type of backfill material is selected, the material
must be installed properly for it to perform as expected.
This means it must have the proper compaction, mois-
ture content, and density. Figure 13-13 shows fluidized
thermal backfill being installed over the structural duct
bank concrete.
Should the backfill material be a type of sand or soil,
the backfill is placed in layers and compacted thor-
oughly using a vibratory compactor. Particular care
should be applied in compacting the sand or special soil
in and around the cables, pipes, or ducts to eliminate
voids and attain maximum density while not exposing
the cable to damage. For maximum compaction and
density, the best backfilling procedure is to place the
controlled backfill material with the balance of the
trench backfill material up to subsurface grade in 6-in.
(15-cm) layers, compacting each layer as added. The
earth backfill to subgrade level can be compacted with
large pneumatic or mechanical tampers. Compaction
density should be 95% as measured by the Proctor den-
sity test.
If weak-mix concrete is used around the pipe for the
controlled backfill material (a duct bank system would
normally be encased in concrete), an electrically driven
cylindrical vibrator (which is much like a pipe attached
to a hose) may be used to remove any air entrainment
and assure the density of the concrete. The strength of
the weak-mix concrete usually varies from 100 to 300 psi
(0.7 to 2.1 MPa). When encasing a duct bank, 3000 psi
(21 MPa) high-strength concrete should be used, but
when covering the pipes for HPFF cable systems,
a weaker strength of 1000 psi (6.9 MPa) or lower is pre-
Figure 13-13 Trench backfilling with flowable fill (with
permission of ITCTransmission).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
ferred to allow easier recovery of the pipe if needed
for repairs.
13.7.2 Surface Restoration
Surface restoration or paving is done in accordance with
local, state, or federal specifications, or if on private
easements, by mutual agreement with the property
owner. Usually, paving of urban and suburban streets
requires a layer of steel-reinforced concrete of between
6 and 9 in. (15 to 23 cm) in thickness, serving as either
the final surface or as a sub base to an asphalt overlay of
generally 2 to 4 in. (5 to 10 cm) in thickness.
Temporary surface restoration or temporary patching is
usually required by the municipalities as a means to
allow traffic along the affected streets as quickly as pos-
sible. The temporary patch can be either a thin quick-
setting concrete, (such as a 9 bag mix) or an asphalt
patch, depending on the local requirements or on the
contractor’s choice. Depending on the amount of per-
manent resurfacing required, the concrete patch may be
quicker and less costly, including the removal costs, than
the asphalt patch.
Generally, municipalities will require seam-to-seam
pavement replacement as a minimum restoration
requirement. The designer and the construction con-
tractor should take into consideration the location of
the trench within the pavement seams when laying out
the cable route and minimize the number of pavement
sections that are affected by the cable route. Pavement
restoration is a significant cost element for projects of
several miles or more in length that are installed in
urban and suburban streets. Additionally, since this is
usually the last activity performed by the installation
contractor, it can affect the project schedule since it is
somewhat weather dependant.
13.8 CABLE INSTALLATION
Once the pipes/conduits have been certified, the cable
installation phase can commence. Prior to starting the
cable installation phase of the project, a delivery sched-
ule of the cable lengths should be agreed upon with the
manufacturer. This enables the construction manager to
lay out the most advantageous and least costly cable
installation schedule.
If a direct buried cable is the type being installed, then
the optimum schedule would be for the cable to be deliv-
ered just when the trench preparation is completed. In a
pipe-type cable or a duct bank cable installation, select-
ing the sections to be pulled from manhole to manhole
will depend on the cable lengths that have been delivered
or are in storage, or possibly on other priorities such as
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
municipal restrictions or community schedules. Also,
the pulling schedule might consider starting with the
easiest setup area for the entire project to provide a
learning curve for the installation crew. A manhole-to-
manhole pull should be accomplished for training pur-
poses before a termination cable pull (which is consid-
ered the most difficult) is attempted.
Prior to the cable-pulling phase of the construction
project, all traffic conditions that influence cable trans-
portation from the warehouse or storage area to the
pulling location should be thoroughly investigated to
eliminate any delays and cost overruns. This investiga-
tion must include time restrictions on moving the
cable reels through city streets and possible weight and
height limitations.
In the cable equipment setup process at both manholes,
an area should be cordoned off by police or flagmen to
facilitate placing the equipment on arrival at the job site
and to warn pedestrian and vehicular traffic of an
impending obstruction or detour. On the arrival of the
rolling stock equipment (e.g., cable-pulling winch,
mousing winch, and cable trailer), the work area should
be defined and protected by the placement of this equip-
ment. In addition, large flashing signs indicating proper
vehicle traffic flow must be strategically placed at each
end of the work island, along with sufficient luminous
traffic cones defining the work area. As noted earlier in
this chapter, many municipalities require formal traffic
control plans as part of the permitting process.
Safety should be the foremost concern of the utilities.
When working on an underground cable system,
whether existing or new, all personnel must be taught
about the hazards of gases and liquids seeping into a
manhole. When preparing to remove a manhole cover,
the cable crew should first check for explosive and toxic
gases if the cover has a small opening hole. Gas detec-
tion equipment is quite portable and highly reliable and
is a standard tool without which a manhole cover should
not be lifted for further work. On removing the manhole
cover and storing it in a safe location, the manhole must
be ventilated with a blower that is placed on the down-
wind side of the open manhole chimney. Once the man-
hole has been opened and ventilated, it should be
checked for flooding. In most cases, a flooded manhole
is filled with water; however, if in doubt, the fluid should
be analyzed, and, if it is other than water, the cognizant
government agency should be informed and guidance
requested. If the fluid is water, then the crew can usually
pump it into the nearest storm sewer. Acid, oil, gasoline,
or other fluids must be discharged into a refuse tanker
for removal by a licensed carrier for proper disposal.
Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
All open manholes should have a manhole guard, a
highly visible folding steel fence, placed around the
opening to indicate a dangerous area that is to be
approached only with caution. Some manholes have
permanent steel ladders attached to the chimney and
wall, but most utilities prefer to use a portable wooden
or fiberglass extension ladder because the steel ladder
could be corroded and, therefore, dangerous to person-
nel. Also, extension ladders can be set to extend above
the street level 3 to 4 ft (0.9–1.2 m) to provide a safer
entrance and exit.
While personnel are in the manhole, there should always
be a person on the surface at the manhole opening to
maintain contact with personnel in the manhole. Also,
all personnel working in the manhole should be
equipped with a constantly operating gas detector unit
and wear a harness with a lifting tripod available at the
top of the manhole.
13.8.1 Storage of Cable
A portion of the cable is normally required to be stored
onsite to ensure that adequate cable is on hand during
the cable installation. On rare occasions, the cable can be
shipped from the factory to the site the day of the pull.
When cable is required to be stored onsite, a secure yard
is required. Based on the weather conditions existing
during the scheduled pull, a heated indoor storage facil-
ity may be required. The owner or contractor should
verify with the cable manufacturer the minimum tem-
perature the cable can be installed.
13.8.2 Extruded-Dielectric Cable Installation
Installing extruded-dielectric and self-contained fluid-
filled (SCFF) transmission cables in a duct system pri-
marily follows the same procedure as used when install-
ing a distribution cable system except that the
equipment is larger and quality control procedures are
much more stringent. All safety procedures practiced
for other types of cable systems are applicable in this
case and must also be practiced. This includes using air
blowers to ventilate the manholes being worked in, even
though nitrogen gas is not used in installing these cables.
Like pipe-type cable installations, the duct requires the
insertion of a fish line from manhole to manhole by
blowing a mouse through the duct using compressed air
for propulsion. Once the fish line has been inserted, a
circular wire brush, mandrel, and cotton cloth swab
should be attached along with the 0.375-in. (0.95-cm) or
larger wire rope and pulled back into the cable feed-in
manhole for attachment to the power cable for installa-
tion. The circular wire brush will scrape and remove any
duct joint material to permit a smoother cable pull.
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Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
In the interest of installation economics, the cleaning,
mandrelling, and swabbing of the ducts and the placing
of a fish line in each duct by a crew working several
weeks in advance of the cable-pulling operation could
prove beneficial. This crew would, after checking the
integrity of the duct, leave in each duct a synthetic rope
having sufficient strength to pull the steel pulling rope
into the duct. Steel rope is generally the preferred pull-
ing rope since the metal dissipates heat generated by the
frictional forces during pulling. Synthetic rope, which
does not dissipate the heat built up during pulling, will
either melt the duct, the pulling rope fibers, or both, and
damage the duct system. An inventory of long lengths
of fish line (pilot line) rope is required for insertion into
the ducts before the cable-pulling operation begins.
Some utilities require that the conduit be pre-lubricated
by placing a quantity of lubricant in front of the final
swab before it is pulled through the completed conduit.
The positioning of the cable-pulling machine and the
rigging of the manhole is done in the same fashion as
for pipe-type cable installations. The pulling line should
exit the duct, traveling as straight as possible to the
far wall to allow as much slack in the manhole for splic-
ing as possible, then it is routed up and out of the man-
hole chimney guided by a series of sheaves onto the
pulling machine.
Figure 13-14 shows a typical extruded-dielectric cable
installation set up at the feed-in manhole. At the feed-in
manhole, the cable reel is placed at the manhole chim-
Figure 13-14 Installation of extruded-dielectric
cable (with permission of PG&E).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
ney edge permitting the cable to leave the reel and enter
directly into a flexible steel cable-feed tube. Since these
are single-conductor cables, only one cable will be posi-
tioned and pulled at a time. It is always best to feed the
cable from the manhole chimney furthest from the
mouth of the duct being filled. All rigging for the cable-
feed guidance system should be well anchored and
devoid of any sharp protrusions that could damage the
cable during or after installation. The cable reel will be
supported by either jacks or a cable reel trailer, which
serves as a transporter and reel support platform for
cable pulling. A jacket integrity test should be per-
formed before the cable is pulled.
Since these cables are sheathed and jacketed, inclement
weather conditions, other than extremely cold tempera-
tures of less than 20°F (-7°C), do not impede the plan-
ning and pulling schedule. However, like pipe-type
cable, these cables should be protected and kept in warm
storage until the pulling date. To ease cable-pulling ten-
sions, which are much less than for pipe-type cable pulls,
a suitable pulling lubricant should be applied to the
cable jacket when entering the duct. The lubricant
should be carefully evaluated and selected to prevent
any sheath or jacket deterioration during aging in the
duct. The cable manufacturer should be consulted on
the proper lubricant to use, and the conduit may be pre-
lubricated as described above.
After the cable pull has been completed, another jacket
integrity test should be performed, the cable should be
cut to the necessary length to facilitate splicing, hermet-
ically capped to preclude the entrance of water, and
trained or placed in a position to protect the cable from
any additional work within the manhole. If the cable has
a lead sheath, a splicer or lead wiper should form and
wipe a lead cap over and onto the sheath for the greatest
protection. If no lead sheath is used, as on some
extruded-dielectric cables, then commercially available
heavy-wall heat-shrink caps should be installed.
13.8.3 Pipe-type Cable Installation
Since pipe-type cable has no cable sheath other than the
pipe into which the cables are pulled, weather condi-
tions are a major factor in the day-to-day pulling sched-
ule. Cable pulls must not be performed in inclement
weather. If the weather changes and becomes inclement
during the cable pull, both the pulling and cable feed
equipment must be covered with a large tent or canopy
to prevent any free water from falling onto the cable
and/or cable-pulling rope. Any cable pull already started
should continue nonstop until completion, regardless of
the hour of the day. Covered reel carriers are an option
that the contractor or owner may consider.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
The placement of the feed and pulling equipment is
determined by the direction of the pull. The direction of
pull must be followed unless specifically approved by the
design engineers.
To start a pipe-type cable pull, the pipe must be
“moused” (i.e., a light steel wire rope is installed into the
pipe, which in turn is attached to a larger wire rope for
attachment to the power cables). Observing all safety
precautions, this crew enters the manhole, attaches a
high-pressure hose to the valving on the pressure plate
bolted to the pipe reducer, and discharges the nitrogen
gas contained in the pipe to the atmosphere. During the
dumping of the nitrogen gas, all personnel must be out
and away from the manhole. Remember, nitrogen alone
can kill.
Once the gas is removed, another specially designed
pressure plate is placed onto the pipe to blow a mouse
(piston) from the feed-in manhole to the pull-out man-
hole. This plate permits the attachment of a nitrogen gas
hose to blow the mouse while trailing the 0.375-in.
(0.95-cm) wire rope. The pressure plate on the pipe in
the pull-out manhole must be removed before blowing
the mouse through the pipe. While blowing the mouse,
the internal pipe surface is lubricated with cable dielec-
tric fluid. This is accomplished by pouring the dielectric
fluid into the pipe in front of the piston (or in the case of
a series of pistons, between each) during insertion. The
basic purpose of lubricating the pipe wall is to reduce
the friction of the mousing wire rope while pulling the
large steel wire rope back to the feed-in manhole. The
mousing wire rope can do more damage to the pipe due
to the sawing action than the cable pulling rope would
ever do.
All personnel must exit both manholes before and dur-
ing the mousing operation. Both manholes must be ven-
tilated thoroughly and checked for oxygen content prior
to reentering after the mousing operation.
At the cable pull-out manhole, the pulling winch (or
machine) is placed in a position to allow personnel
access into the manhole for rigging and pulling control
and to permit sufficient cable to be pulled into the man-
hole for splicing. The pulling machine is normally
placed at the end of the manhole away from the pipe
being cabled. Once the pulling machine is in position
and safety barriers, signs, and cones have been placed
strategically, the pulling rope can be pulled into the pipe
by the mousing rope. At this time, one last quality-con-
trol check of the pipe is made by attaching a pipe man-
drel and clean, lint-free cloth swabs between the
mousing and pulling ropes. The swabs must be checked
Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
for possible moisture and excessive dirt, which would
indicate the need for additional swabbing. At this point
in the construction schedule, dirt and moisture should
not be present if quality control has been maintained
during pipe installation.
The next step is to rig both the feed-in and pull-out
manholes. The pull-out manhole requires the anchoring
and bracing of a sheave approximately 24 in. (0.6 m) in
diameter in the manhole to guide the steel pulling rope
exiting the pipe upward to the pulling machine. Also, to
protect both the wire rope and the power cables exiting
the pipe, a curved pipe shoe, similar in shape to a shoe-
horn, is installed on the pipe reducer to guide and sup-
port the cables.
The pulling winch (machine) used for pipe cable is sized
and rated for about 100,000 pounds (45,300 kg),
although the majority of cable pulls rarely exceed a
designed maximum pulling tension of 60,000 pounds
(27,200 kg) depending on conductor material and size.
The steel wire rope used for pulling is a compact-
stranded wire rope, which minimizes any cutting or saw-
ing action on the pipe wall while pulling the power
cables. To assure a proper cable installation, the pulling
winch (machine) is equipped with instrumentation to
provide a recorded log of length pulled, pulling speed,
and pulling tension at any given footage count.
At the feed-in manhole, the cable reels should be
arranged in tandem fashion (in line, one after the other)
and the three single-conductor cables pulled into the
pipe simultaneously. Figure 13-15 shows the arrange-
ment of cable reels and a guide wheel at the manhole
entrance. The cable reels are supported on cable jacks
(cradles) or, as in many cases today, either on a reel
Figure 13-15 Typical manhole-to-manhole HPFF cable pull
(with permission of Northeast Utilities).
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Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
trailer handling all three reels or on individual reel trail-
ers for each cable reel. The latter design is more eco-
n o m i c a l a n d ap p l i c abl e fo r b o t h m a n h o l e a n d
termination pulls. Once the cable reels are in position at
a feed-in manhole and the wood lagging has been
removed, each single-conductor cable is pulled from the
top of each reel to the front of the cable reel lineup so
the cable pulling bolts can be attached to a three-phase
cable pulling yoke. The three cables in triangular config-
uration will then be pulled over a minimum 6-ft (1.8-m)
diameter guide wheel (or feed chute) into a rigid pre-
bent or flexible steel tube having the same diameter as
the pipe in which the cable is being installed. The steel
tube is placed and rigged (supported and bolted to the
splice reducer) to provide a large-radius bend to feed
and install the cables into the pipe without damage.
Some manhole designs provide a sloping buried casing
extending out from the manhole end wall upward at
approximately a 15° angle terminating beneath the
street subsurface paving. This casing is an access hole
that allows the flexible steel feed-in tube to be inserted
and attached to the splice reducer, thus permitting a
shallow feed-angle cable pull into the pipe rather than
the normally designed and practiced 90° angle profile
cable feed. During the cable pull, cable pipe-filling
dielectric liquid is slowly poured onto the cable to lower
the pulling tension.
During the cable pull, there will be workers in the feed-
in and pull-out manholes performing inspection and
control functions. All personnel in manholes require
forced air ventilation, and if the blower equipment
ceases to function, the cable pull must be stopped, and
the workers must exit the manholes until the equipment
is functioning again.
When the pulling equipment is in position and the
cables are attached, the cable pull should proceed at a
pulling speed of approximately 30 ft/min (9 m/min).
This speed permits visual inspection of each single con-
ductor and permits a safe reel-braking operation if the
cable pull must be stopped. However, pulling speed may
be varied in an attempt to control the amount of surging
(start-stop movement of the cable). No cable should
touch the ground or be allowed to form short loops of
less than 3 ft. (0.9 m) in radius during the pull or while
braking or stopping.
The termination cable pull requires more setup time and
equipment than a manhole-to-manhole pull. Therefore,
these pulls are basically scheduled based on a weather
forecast of several dry days in a row. The trifurcator or
spreaderhead termination assembly for a pipe-type
cable system consists of a large 10- to 16-in. (25.4- to
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
40.6-cm) diameter carbon-steel pipe approximately 3 ft
(0.9 m) long welded to the cable pipe. Three smaller
stainless-steel pipes are welded to the other end of the
termination assembly. They progress upwards above
ground into a steel support structure designed to hold
the cable terminators (potheads). A typical termination
cable pull set (for upward movement) places the reels
side-by-side centered on each pothead position. Each
cable is then pulled upward onto and over a large sheave
(also called a bull-wheel) or, as an alternate, onto a
semicircular-shaped device with rollers and conveyor
belt, permitting a smooth directional guide for the cable
entering each stainless-steel riser pipe. The cables are
gathered at the trifurcator, attached to the cable-pulling
yoke, and pulled as previously described. Some utilities
use a belowground trifurcating joint to transition to the
three stainless steel pipes. The cables are pulled individ-
ually down the pothead stub into the trifurcating joint
or they may be pulled individually from the trifurcating
joint to the top of pothead elevation if there is not
enough room in the substation to set up the cable reels.
Figure 13-16 illustrates how the cable reels are stationed
at ground level, and the bull wheels direct the cables into
the risers.
When the cable pull is completed, the cable must be
inspected for possible damage, cut to a designated
length, identified and marked as to phasing, and, lastly,
night-capped. A night-cap is a slightly curved pipe with
the same diameter as the cable pipe. It is curved just
enough to avoid the next section’s night-cap, and it has a
flange on one end to attach to the cable pipe reducer
and a pipe fitting and valve on the other end. Its length
is approximately equal to or longer than that of the
designed splice length. Night-caps for the termination
ends are basically straight pipe lengths with flanging to
Figure 13-16 HPFF aboveground termination pull.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
fit the pothead base plates and valving for evacuating
and pressurizing the system after the cable pull. After
the cable pull and night-capping, the section should be
evacuated to a pressure of 250 μm or less of mercury as
indicated by the vacuum gauge attached to the night-
cap at the other end of the pipe section in the adjacent
manhole. On reaching the designated pressure, the vac-
uum pump should continue pumping for at least a one-
hour period, then stopped and isolated from the pipe
section by closing all valves. A pressure-drop test should
then be performed for one-half hour to assure the dry-
ness of the section. The allowable pressure rise should
not be more than 250 μm. If the pressure-drop test fails,
the vacuum should be reapplied and the testing repeated
until the requirements are met. When the pipe section
has successfully passed the pressure-drop test, the vac-
uum should be broken with dry nitrogen gas and main-
tained under a minimum positive pressure of 5 psi
(34 kPa) until splicing operations are started.
When excellent weather conditions prevail and the
cable pull has taken more time than usual, the vacuum
test may be postponed until the following day. In this
case, the pipe section is purged with dry nitrogen gas
displacing about 1.5 to 2 times the pipe volume, and
then pressurized. On the next day, the gas should be
exhausted, the pipe evacuated and drop-tested, and the
section repressurized.
The most efficient and portable vacuum pump sug-
gested for use in the field is a 130–150 ft 3 /min (3.68–
4.25 m3/min) rotary piston vacuum pump with a 1600
ft3/min (45.3 m3/min) booster (blower) driven with an
air-cooled engine. All hoses should be rated for vacuum
(50 μm) and pressure (100 psi [680 kPa]) and feature
snap-lock connectors for quick and easy assembly
and disassembly.
13.8.4 Self-Contained Fluid-Filled Cable
Installation
The installation of self-contained fluid-filled cables is
very similar to extruded-dielectric cable, with the excep-
tion that the cable has dielectric fluid installed under
pressure. After the cable is installed, the fluid reservoir is
removed from the tail end of the cable and installed on
the front end of the cable. This allows the cable to have
constant pressure/fluid flow when the tail end of the
cable is cut. After the cable is cut, a lead sleeve is wiped
onto the end of the cable to protect it until the splice
is started.
Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
13.9 SPLICING
Highly trained and skilled personnel are required to
properly splice and terminate transmission cables. All
splicers should be familiar with the design, technique,
required material, tools, and equipment to accomplish a
quality-controlled splice (or termination). If there is any
question as to the workers’ abilities, the utility should
require schooling, which can be provided by the cable or
accessory manufacturers or experienced consulting
companies. Whether trained splicers are on hand, for
the best quality work many utilities require splicer
schooling either every year or for each cable project
being installed. Many utilities require that factory splic-
ers or factory representatives be present to inspect the
cable splicing and terminating for 138-kV through
345-kV installations.
The splicing of any cable type should be performed in
accordance with the cable and/or accessory manufac-
turer’s drawings and procedural specifications. This
includes the use of all specified materials, tooling, and
equipment required for each type of splice.
To ensure a quality splice, the following setup and work
procedures should be practiced regardless of the type of
cable system:
• All splices in permanent or temporary manholes
should be protected from dirt, debris, inclement
weather, and humidity (e.g., all splicing work should
be done in a clean and dry controlled environment).
• The splicing area should be thoroughly cleaned and
all dirt and debris should be removed to prevent any
possible contamination of the splice regardless of
whether it is a taped or molded splice.
• If a temporary housing or manhole is used, the hous-
ing should be designed to prevent any free water from
entering the splice area and a water pump should be
on hand at all times.
• If permanent manholes are used, the manhole
entrances at street level should be provided with a
water barrier to prevent free water from flowing into
the manhole during the splicing operation.
• Although pipe-type cable specifications require that
splicing be done under a temperature-and humidity-
controlled atmosphere with proper dehumidifiers
and air-conditioning equipment, all other types of
cables would benefit from being spliced under well-
controlled conditions. The basic atmospheric man-
hole conditions for pipe-type cable splicing range
from 68–72°F (20–22°C) temperature and 10–35%
relative humidity, depending on the voltage rating
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Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
and splice design. A common practice to help main-
tain manhole atmospheric control is to paint the
manhole to retard moisture penetration through the
concrete and also to line the manhole with plastic
sheeting whether the manhole is permanent or tem-
porary so that, in essence, the splice is made in
a bubble.
• All standard tools and equipment should be on
hand before the start of the splice. In addition, any
special equipment required for a particular splice
design should be at the splice location along with
spare parts in case of wear or damage during the
splicing operation.
• For quality work on HPFF and HPGF cables, once
the splice construction has started, work should con-
tinue until the splice has been completed. However, if
the splicing work must be interrupted, a planned
emergency procedure should be instituted to protect
all exposed cables against possible damage.
• Since most splice locations are on public rights-of-
way (e.g., streets and sidewalks), all precautions
should be practiced to protect the workers, pedestri-
ans, and vehicular traffic. Barriers must be placed
around the work area to create a safety island. These
barriers should be illuminated at night. In addition to
the created safety island, police protection may be
required because of the location of the cable route
and manhole. If the cable route is through an unsafe
neighborhood, then permanent, rather than tempo-
rary, manholes should be used.
Regardless of the type of cable being installed, splicing
should be done in a clean and dry area. The easiest and
most economical way to provide these conditions is to
place a portable work housing over the top of the man-
hole entrances. Most contractors have designed a trailer
or truck just for this function. This vehicle may have its
own power supply and atmospheric control equipment.
In addition, the vehicle should have a complete inventory
of standard small tools, equipment, and material. It is
still necessary to provide water barriers to keep street sur-
face water from entering the manhole from the chimneys.
The cable and splice manufacturers have different splice
kits available for both paper and extruded-dielectric
cables. These kits include insulating tapes, factory- or
field-molded dielectric materials, or a combination of
molded material and tape. The splice designed for each
type of cable system should be thoroughly evaluated
and discussed with each cable or splice manufacturer
before a selection is made. Also, if special equipment is
required to construct the splices, then this equipment
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
and spares should be purchased for future cable installa-
tions and possible repairs.
Refer to Chapter 8 for a discussion of splice connectors.
The following paragraphs describe the principal differ-
ences in splicing among pipe-type, self-contained fluid-
filled, and extruded-dielectric cables. Refer to Chapter 8
for details of splice design for each cable type.
13.9.1 Extruded-Dielectric Cables
This type of cable must be trained and racked in the
manhole before starting the splice operation. Since this
cable is rather stiff, the bending and training can be
facilitated by warming the cable for an extended time.
One method is to wrap heat tapes around the cable,
perhaps after strapping the cable to a length of angle
iron. Once the cable is fully warmed and trained, the
heat is removed, and the cable is allowed to stiffen in its
final position. Be careful not to let the maximum tem-
perature exceed 212°F (100°C) or the manufacturers’
recommendation.
Since most extruded-dielectric cables have a metallic
sheath, a splice sleeve is applied over the splice as
with self-contained fluid-filled cables. With this type of
cable system, grounding and cross-bonding is important
and must be done in accordance with the cable system
layout design.
The extruded cable typically has substantial movement
with load changes. This movement requires that the
cable be adequately racked/supported in the manholes
and on the termination structures. Figure 13-18 shows
two phases of a 69-kV cable system. The center phase
splice has been completed, and the bottom phase splice
has just begun.
13.9.2 High-Pressure Pipe-Type Cable Splice
Prior to starting a HPFF or HPGF pipe-type cable
splice, the night caps (protective steel pipe sealing end
caps bolted to the pipe reducers) should be removed
after the nitrogen atmosphere has been vented and the
manhole atmosphere tested so it is safe for the workers
to enter and begin work. Before placing the cables into a
splicing position, the steel pipe sleeves are slid back over
the reducer and away from the splice area. Upon com-
pletion, the steel sleeves are pulled back over the splice
area and welded. Welding should be done intermittently
to minimize heat buildup in any one area so the cables
are not damaged. If the welder moves back and forth,
welding in different locations, the splice sleeves should
remain at a safe temperature to prevent cable damage.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Lastly, once the casing has been completed and sealed,
the welds are soap tested, and, if there are no leaks, all
bare metal is taped with an approved anticorrosion tape
and tested with a holiday detector to ensure the integrity
of the coating. Figure 13-17 shows pipe-type cables
being spliced.
13.9.3 Self-Contained Fluid-Filled Cables
This type of cable requires careful training and racking
in the manhole before splicing begins. Figure 13-18
shows cable splicing/racking in a manhole. The splice
sleeve is slid back over the cable before the actual
cable cutting and splicing is started. Since the single-
conductor cable used at transmission voltages has a hol-
low core in the conductor center to maintain a flow of
cable-filling fluid, the cable ends must be raised into a
vertical position for cutting after they are properly mea-
Figure 13-17 HPFF semi-stop splice (with permission
of ComEd).
Figure 13-18 Cable splicing/racking in manhole (with
permission of SMECO).
Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
sured and marked. Once both cable ends are cut and the
conductors prepared for joining, the cables are brought
into a horizontal position and a connector is pressed
onto the butted conductors. During this operation,
cable-filling liquid is made to flow slowly from remote
reservoirs to preclude any air from entering the hollow
core so that the core is completely filled with liquid at all
times. As the splice insulation is applied, this liquid flow
from the copper conductor strands will slow and eventu-
ally stop. On completing the splice insulation, the splice
sleeves are pulled into position over the splice and
sealed. This can be done by lead wiping, soldering,
or welding.
Once the splice sleeve is racked in place, a vacuum is
applied, and the sleeve is filled with insulating liquid. If
piping connections from fluid reservoirs are required,
they should be attached and checked for leaks, the
grounding and the cross-bonding system should be con-
nected, and the entire assembly should be wrapped with
corrosion tape. Some manufacturers use a premolded
corrosion cover over the splice, which is then filled with
a bitumastic compound.
13.9.4 Link/Grounding Box
The link/grounding box is typically provided by the
cable manufacturer. These boxes are normally water-
proof enclosures that are mounted on the manhole wall
or termination structures. When mounting the boxes in
manholes, the boxes should typically be installed as high
on the manhole wall as practical to keep the boxes
above the ground water level.
13.10 TERMINATIONS
Terminating practices for any cable system are basically
an extension of the splicing procedure. The same care
that is taken during the splicing activity should be taken
during termination installations. Terminations should
be constructed in a clean, dry, and dust-free atmosphere.
Many utilities will erect a temporary housing over the
terminations to prevent dust from flying into the work
area and for emergencies such as a sudden rain or snow
shower. Normally, utilities schedule the construction of
the cable terminations around a favorable weather fore-
cast so that the possibility of inclement weather is less
probable. In some areas of the country, where the
humidity is always rather high (above 50%), it is advis-
able to install air-conditioning units with heat-strip
resistors to lower the relative humidity to approximately
35–40%. A climate-controlled enclosure is normally
used for voltages of 345 kV and higher, regardless of
outside humidity
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Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
As with the splicing procedure, all tools, equipment, and
material should be at the job site in clean, operating
condition before any work proceeds. An inventory of all
parts, including even the smallest of items (nuts and
bolts), should be done before the scheduled workday.
Each splicer should have at hand drawings of the termi-
nation to be constructed; the unit must be constructed
in accordance with the drawings and specifications. If
the splicers are not familiar with the termination design,
training should be scheduled to review any new meth-
ods, tools, or materials to be installed. Most termination
suppliers provide a complete and detailed installation
specification for the construction of their terminations.
It is very important to ensure coordination between
cable and termination suppliers, beginning in the initial
thawing-approval stages.
13.10.1 Extruded-Dielectric Cables
The installation setup for extruded cables is very similar
to the HPFF cables in that a clean dry work area must
be maintained. However, the need for humidity control
is not as critical for extruded dielectric cables as it is for
paper insulated cables. Depending on the weather and
Figure 13-19 Installing terminators on a steel riser structure
(with permission of Platte River Power Authority).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
time of year, terminations are often performed outdoors
without erecting an enclosure around the work area.
This is especially true for the lower transmission cable
systems that are installed on tall riser structures. The
actual installation of the terminations, especially at
115 kV and above, should be performed by the cable
manufacturer, however at lower voltages some utilities
choose to perform the installation of the terminators
and splices themselves, under the supervision of the
cable/terminator/splice manufacturer’s representative. It
is common practice for the cable manufacturer to pro-
vide an inspector/representative during the construction
of the terminations. Although utility personnel are
sometimes trained by the cable manufacturer to install
or assist with the splicing and terminating activities,
they normally do not have the years of experience that
the manufacturer’s technicians have. This becomes
extremely important at the higher voltages, as tolerances
and dimensions become more and more critical. Most
cable manufacturers will not warrant a cable system
unless they have their technicians performing the splic-
ing and terminating.
The cable manufacturer should provide with their termi-
nations any specialized tools that are specified in the
installation instructions as being required to make the
terminations. Each manufacturer normally requires that
only their tools be used to make the terminations. These
tools are typically not readily available in the United
States unless they are ordered with the terminations.
Figure 13-19 shows a typical self-supporting steel riser
structure with two partially completed terminations
(without the porcelain installed yet). Notice how the
cable is supported below the terminator arms.
Extruded-dielectric-insulated cable terminations are
sometimes purged with dry nitrogen and filled with a
di electri c f lu id imm edi at ely on co mp leting the
installation.
13.10.2 Pipe-Type Termination
On completion and mounting of a high-pressure pipe-
type termination, a gentle purge of nitrogen gas should
be performed to maintain a dry atmosphere within the
termination until a vacuum can be applied and the ter-
mination filled with the insulating liquid. Some termina-
tion designs are pre-filled with dielectric liquid, some of
which is displaced as the termination is lowered over the
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
cable. Figure 13-20 illustrates a typical work enclosure
around a high-pressure pipe-type termination.
Figure 13-21 shows a high-pressure pipe-type cable
being terminated within an enclosure.
13.10.3 Self-Contained Fluid-Filled Termination
The construction of a self-contained fluid-filled termi-
nation is performed similar to that of a high-pressure
pipe-type termination. Upon completion of the stress
cone, a self-contained liquid-filled pothead is immedi-
ately put under vacuum and filled with liquid. A degas-
ifier is typically used to treat the dielectric fluid and fill
the terminations.
13.11 DIELECTRIC FLUID INSTALLATIONS
Dielectric fluid is typically installed in HPFF and SCFF
cable systems. The cable manufacturer will typically
Figure 13-20 High-pressure pipe-type cable termination
work enclosure (with permission of ComEd).
Figure 13-21 High-pressure pipe-type cable termination
(with permission of ComEd).
Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
specify the fluids that are required for the different
HPFF and SCFF cable systems.
13.11.1 HPFF Cables
After all of the cable has been installed and the splices
and terminations have been completed, the system is
ready for the final vacuum over the cable, and filling the
system with dielectric fluid. The engineer and/or the
contractor should review elevations of the pipes at each
of the manholes and the termination locations. The pre-
ferred setup is to install the fluid from the location with
the lowest elevation. The vacuum pumps should be set
up at the manhole locations where the pipes are at their
highest elevations. The number of vacuum pumps is
determined based on the length of the circuit and the
capacity of the pumps.
Based on the size of the project, the fluid can be shipped
from the manufacturer by either rail car or truck. Prior
to arranging shipment, the contractor should investigate
the fill and staging sites to make sure there is adequate
space available.
The fluid is normally tested after arriving on site
and prior to being installed in the pipe. The owner/engi-
neer typically requires a dielectric strength and power
factor test.
The fluid is typically pumped from the tanker at a
rate not to exceed 50 gallons per minute. The contrac-
tor must ensure that the pump being used for the instal-
lation has not been contaminated with fluid from
another application.
13.11.2 SCFF Cables
SCFF cable systems use substantially less fluid than
HPFF cable systems. Their reservoirs also are substan-
tially smaller than the HPFF systems. SCFF cables
are typically shipped from the factory or stored with
fluid in the core and under pressure. Therefore, when
filling SCFF cables, smaller volumes of fluid are han-
dled. The fluids are typically pumped by means of a
degasifier unit.
13.12 NITROGEN GAS INSTALLATION
The installation of ASTM Type III dry nitrogen gas on
HPGF systems is performed after all of the cable has
been installed and when the splices, terminations, and
vacuum over cable is completed. The nitrogen is deliv-
ered to the job site by a tanker. Since the nitrogen is nor-
mally delivered in the liquid state, a heat exchanger is
required to covert the nitrogen from the liquid state to a
gas state prior to being installed into the pipe.
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Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
13.13 INSTALLATION OF PRESSURIZATION
PLANTS
Pressurization plants, also referred to as pumping
plants, are manufactured by a relatively small number of
companies and are normally delivered to the site assem-
bled and ready for installation, or with a small number
of pieces to assemble. High-pressure fluid-filled pump-
ing plants generally consist of a large fluid reservoir
tank, pumps, motors, valves, nitrogen bottles, and a
control panel with alarms and gauges. These plants
come preassembled on a skid that can be off-loaded
from a flat bed trailer and installed directly on a founda-
tion. These pressurization systems are designed to be
highly reliable and have the ability to communicate the
cable system status to either a system operator at a
remote location or to a local operator. High-pressure
gas-filled pressurization plants also are preassembled as
self-contained units, requiring only the connection of
local power, the supply of nitrogen, and the piping to
the cable system.
13.13.1 High-Pressure Fluid-Filled Pressurization
Plants
Pressurization plants used for HPFF cable systems
come from the manufacturer preassembled, skid
mounted, and ready for setting on a concrete founda-
tion. Although the size of each plant varies according to
the size of the fluid tank and the associated equipment,
the dimensions for a commonly sized plant are roughly
13 ft (4.0 m) wide by 12 ft (3.7 m) high by 40 ft (12.2 m)
long. These units are shipped to the site on a flatbed
trailer and are off-loaded by crane onto the concrete
foundation. Figure 13-22 shows a pumping plant
being offloaded onto a foundation pad. The dry
weight of a typical pressurization plant is approximately
40,000 pounds (18,000 kg).
Figure 13-22 HPFF pressurized plant being installed
(courtesy W. A. Chester LLC).
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Typical pressurization plants contain a fluid tank,
control panel, motors and pumps, valves, piping,
and nitrogen bottles to provide the required operations
of the plant. Figure 13-23 shows the control panel
for an HPFF pumping plant. See Chapter 9 for addi-
tional information.
The foundation for an HPFF pressurization plant is
designed to support the plant on its skids, which run
lengthwise on each side of the unit, and sometimes pro-
vides a below-grade concrete well between the skids
designed to contain the volume of fluid in the event of a
tank rupture.
Because the pressurization plants are self-contained and
preassembled, the connections of the plant to the pipe
cable systems are very simple. Generally, three connec-
tions are required to connect the unit to the system:
(1) a 2-in. (5.08-cm) fluid line, (2) a 240-volt three-phase
power source, and (3) any supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA) or communications connections
from a terminal unit in the pressurization plant to an
outside fiber-optic cable or other means of communica-
tion source. Normally, the fluid is connected to the cable
pipe by a 2-in. (5.08-cm) pipe run from the underside of
the pressurization plant underground to the spreader-
head. Because of pressure loss, it is generally preferred
to limit the length of 2-in. pipe to no more than 300 ft
(90 m).
The manufacturer’s technical representative should
be contracted to provide onsite services during off-
loading, setting, tank filling, systems checkout, and star-
tup activities.
Figure 13-23 Typical HPFF control panel (courtesy W. A.
Chester LLC).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
13.13.2 Gas Cabinets for High-Pressure Gas-Filled
Systems
Pressurization plants for HPGF cable systems, also
called gas cabinets, are significantly less complicated,
much smaller, and significantly less expensive than pres-
surization plants for HPFF cable systems.
The main components of a gas cabinet are the control
panel, piping and valving, and two or more nitrogen
bottles connected together through a header system. All
are attached to a supporting structure that is free-stand-
ing and requires a space of approximately 6 ft (1.8 m)
long by 3 ft (0.9 m) deep. Because the gas cabinets are
physically small and simple, they can easily be installed
inside a substation control building or a separate enclo-
sure; however; it is not uncommon for them to be
designed for installation outside. Occasionally, a small
roof will be added to the support structure to shelter the
control panel from direct exposure to the elements.
Connecting the gas cabinet to the cable system requires
an ac power source (assuming the cabinet will contain
alarms), a 1-in. (2.5-cm) x 1.5-in. (3.8-cm) gas line from
the gas cabinet to the spreaderhead, and any additional
communications connections desired.
As with the HPFF pressurization plant, the manufac-
turer’s technical representative should be onsite to over-
see the installation and connection of the gas cabinet to
the pipe system.
13.13.3 Self-Contained Fluid-Filled Pressurization
Cabinet
Pressurization systems for SCFF cables can be either
low- or medium-pressure systems. The pressurization
units are typically located at or on the termination
structures and in manholes along the route. Small 25- to
30-gallon (95- to 114-liter) reservoirs, one for each
phase, are used to supply the fluid under gravity pres-
sure or under a nitrogen blanket to the cable system.
Depending on the length and size of the cable system,
larger reservoirs may be needed. Fluid level is easily
checked at the termination locations through a sight
glass. The reservoirs are usually mounted directly to one
of the support beams of the termination structure, one
next to each termination. The fluid piping system is
connected to each phase through a header system and
valves. Aside from SCADA requirements and area light-
ing, no local power supply is required. The equipment at
each termination location is assembled onsite. Reservoir
tanks located in manholes are mounted on the walls of
the manhole.
Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
13.14 AFTER INSTALLATION TESTS
This section addresses only the installation require-
ments of the after-installation tests. Chapter14, Testing,
provides a full discussion of cable testing and standards
for testing.
After installation, tests (commonly referred to as field
acceptance tests) are performed to prove the condition
of the cable circuit prior to energization. Specifically,
these tests look for defects or damage in the cable,
splices or terminations that may have resulted from the
installation process. It is generally assumed that the rou-
tine factory tests would have identified any defects or
damage as a result of the manufacturing process. Suc-
cessful completion of the after-installation tests are
required before the cable system can be connected to the
utility’s electrical grid and operated commercially.
In the past, the common industry practice was to per-
form a high-voltage dc test on the installed cable and
accessories prior to energization, whether the cable was
extruded or paper-insulated. After many years of investi-
gation, the detrimental effects of high-voltage dc testing
on high voltage extruded-dielectric cables have been rec-
ognized. Research has shown that a 24-hr ac soak test at
rated voltage is much more effective in revealing incipi-
ent faults in accessories without the potentially damag-
ing effects of dc testing. As a result, dc testing on
extruded cables as an after installation test is no longer
considered an accepted practice. However, it is still con-
sidered common industry practice to perform high-volt-
age dc testing on paper-insulated cables. Recently,
variable frequency resonant testing is being considered
as a viable alternative test in some applications. Field test
sets, capable of providing the required over-voltages, are
available for the lower to mid transmission voltages, but
are in limited supply at the higher transmission voltages.
13.14.1 Extruded-Dielectric Cable Tests
Generally, two tests are performed prior to energization
of a high-voltage extruded-dielectric cable system. These
tests are the jacket integrity test and 24-hour soak test.
The jacket integrity test confirms that the cable sheath is
fully insulated from the jacket and that the jacket has no
punctures or scrapes that would weaken the manufac-
tured electrical isolation between the jacket and the
cable sheath. This test requires that the jacket have
either a graphite coating applied in the factory or that
the jacket is manufactured with a semiconductive coat-
ing. This test is performed by applying a dc voltage of
10 kV between the cable sheath and the outer jacket for
a specified period of time (frequently performed for
10 minutes; however, required only for 1 minute) and is
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Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
specified by IEC standards. The applied voltage is pro-
vided by a field-portable high-voltage dc test set, which
is readily available for this purpose.
This test is normally performed one or more times dur-
ing the course of cable installation and splicing and ter-
minating. For instance, it is frequently performed before
and after the cable is installed, prior to installation of
the accessories. This has the benefit of ensuring at each
stage of cable installation that the cable was not dam-
aged in the process of pulling in. Many utilities require
the cable jacket to be tested again as a complete system,
including the splices and terminations. It will be neces-
sary to disconnect sheath voltage limiters in the link
boxes and reconnect links to provide a continuous
sheath path and avoid grounds.
Preparation of the cable for this test consists of strip-
ping the jacket away from one end of the cable for
approximately 6 to 12 in. (15 to 30 cm). The graphite
coating or semiconducting coating is removed from the
jacket for a distance of 6 in. (15 cm) from the exposed
shield. One lead from the test set is attached to the
sheath, and one end is connected to the jacket and is
grounded. The setup and teardown time for this test is
typically less than an hour. Care should be taken to
ensure a safety zone is clearly identified around the
cable ends during this test. The test is successful if no
voltage breakdown or flashover is observed. If a break-
down occurs, the cable manufacturer should be con-
sulted to recommend an appropriate repair to the
jacket. Frequently, depending upon the magnitude of
the damage, a heat-shrink repair sleeve will be applied
over the damaged jacket area after it is exposed, and the
test will be performed again.
The soak test is performed by connecting only one end
of the completed cable system to line voltage for a speci-
fied time, usually 24 hours. The utility connects jumpers
to the terminators on one end of the line and leaves the
jumpers at the terminators at the other end off. Safety
zones are established at each end of the cable to protect
personnel from dangerous open-circuit voltages at the
cable end. Some utilities require longer soak periods,
such as 48 or 72 hours. During this test, the cable manu-
facturer and the installation contractor are either onsite
or nearby in case of a fault on the system. After success-
ful completion of this test, the cable system is ready for
commercial operation.
An optional test being considered by some utilities prior
to energization is the partial discharge (PD) measure-
ment test. The purpose of this test is to make a determi-
nation of the “goodness” of the installed splices and
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
terminations by measuring the PD that is produced by
imperfections in the accessories as a result of workman-
ship. (Manufacturing defects are assumed to have been
identified by testing in the manufacturing facility).
These small imperfections, such as small particles, dust,
droplets, and moisture could possibly cause a defect in
accessories to reduce the lifetime of the cable system or
potentially lead to a system breakdown. The PD mea-
surement can be performed while the cable system is
connected to the electrical grid using the system voltage
or while the cable system is de-energized by using sepa-
rate testing equipment. The actual procedure used to
measure the PD level should be agreed upon between
the purchaser and the installer.
Ideally, it is preferred to use an increased system-rated
voltage for the PD measurement. However, measure-
ments while the cable is de-energized can be made using
a variable frequency resonant test system, which is made
up of an exciter transformer, a resonant reactor, and a
control unit. There are limitations on what cable sys-
tems can be tested using PD measurement. For instance,
at extra-high voltage (EHV) levels or on long cable sys-
tems, a resonant test set having the required capacity
may not be available, or a system may require two or
more resonant test sets in parallel. Availability of test
sets with this high capacity are limited.
13.14.2 High-Pressure Pipe-Type and SCFF Tests
Pipe-type cable systems and SCFF cable systems typi-
cally have two after-installation tests that are per-
formed: the dc HiPOT test and the 24-hour soak test.
Although the 24-hour soak test is not specified by the
AEIC, it is commonly performed on pipe-type systems.
Unlike extruded cables, the paper-insulated cables that
are used in pipe-type and SCFF cable systems are not
damaged by conventional high-voltage dc testing.
Therefore, for pipe-type cable systems, the dc HiPOT is
an accepted after-installation test. The specifications for
this test are clearly spelled out in the AEIC standards
with regard to time and voltage requirements. When
testing pipe-type cables, however, this test is performed
only after the cable system is spliced, terminated, and
pressurized. This test is performed by connecting one
lead of the test set to the conductor at the terminator
and the other lead to ground. The voltage is effectively
applied between the conductor and the shield. This test
is successful if no flashover or insulation punctures
occur. Setup and teardown for this test is normally 8 to
10 hours.
After successful completion of the dc HiPOT test, the
24-hour soak test is performed, similar to the process
described for extruded-dielectric cables.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
13.15 INSTALLATION OF PIPE FREEZES
On HPFF systems, it is often required to either tie a new
circuit into an existing circuit or make a repair to an
existing HPFF circuit. Under these circumstances, the
fluid in the existing pipes has to be solidified or, as
known in the industry, a “freeze” has to be made.
A freeze is made by either wrapping the pipe with coils
of copper tubing or installing freeze jackets around the
pipe. After the coil tubing is wrapped around the pipe,
liquid nitrogen is pumped through the copper tubes.
Thermocouples are installed on the outside of the pipe
adjacent to the copper coils. Once the desired tempera-
ture is obtained, a valve is opened to determine whether
the freeze is “holding.”
If the freeze is only needed for a short time, then dewars
(nitrogen bottles) can be used to make the “freeze”
instead of liquid nitrogen tube trailers. Typically, two to
four dewars are used in a 24-hour duration. If the
cutover will take more than a couple of days, the con-
tractor will arrange for a liquid nitrogen tube trailer to
be dropped at the site.
Making a freeze and handling liquid nitrogen should
only be performed by experienced personnel since certain
safety precautions are required handling the nitrogen.
13.16 INSTALLATION OF FIBER-OPTIC CABLES
Sophisticated digital temperature-monitoring systems
and fault location systems being used on transmission
cable systems often require a fiber-optic cable installed
as part of the project design. The installation of fiber-
optic cables is, therefore, becoming increasingly more
common. This section discusses the installation of fiber-
optic cables that are not an integral part of the power
cable but are installed in a separate conduit within the
duct bank system or pipe-type cable trench or alongside
the direct buried power cable.
The requirement to include fiber-optic cables in the
same trench with the power cables requires the designer
to consider (1) how the fiber-optic cable will be installed
and (2) whether the fiber cable will be routed through
the power cable manholes or installed in separate adja-
cent handholes.
Fiber-optic cables used with power cable systems gener-
ally have a 600-lb maximum pulling tension limit.
Although this is a low threshold, it is sufficient for these
cables to be pulled through many of the power cable
manholes without needing to be spliced, thus reducing
the number of splices and, hence, losses in the fiber
cable circuit. Wherever possible, the designer should
Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
look for opportunities to maximize pulling lengths,
using the “Figure-8” technique of pulling in opposite
directions from a central manhole.
When the fiber-optic cable is to be installed in a duct
system, a common procedure is to install the fiber-optic
cable in either a 2-in. (5-cm) PVC conduit or in a 3-in.
(7.6-cm) PVC conduit containing two or three inner
ducts. Fiber cable that is to be used for temperature
monitoring purposes needs to be installed in between
two of the power cable ducts to provide accurate tem-
perature results. Fiber cable ducts that are intended only
for communications purposes can be installed anywhere
within the duct run but are usually located on the out-
side of the power cable ducts.
Many utilities prohibit communications-/temperature-
monitoring cables from being spliced or even run
through the same manhole with the power cables
because of the requirement to de-energize the power
cables before allowing personnel into the manhole to
perform any work. When this is the case, utilities often
require the fiber cables to be separated from the power
cable ductbank at the manhole locations. In this case,
the fiber cable duct will be diverted away from the main
run, routed around the manhole, and then routed back
into the duct run after passing by the manhole. A shal-
low hand hole is often installed in a convenient location
adjacent to the manhole to be used for pulling and/or
splicing operations. Some utilities also include a small
local terminal station for connecting a portable device
to read local temperatures. These are small waterproof
enclosures commonly seen for communications fiber-
optic splices.
An alternative to separating the fiber cable ducts from
the power cable ducts is to route the fiber cables through
the manhole in a conduit attached to one wall of
the manhole.
13.17 SUBMARINE CABLE INSTALLATION
This section addresses submarine cable installations of
relatively short length and relatively shallow water. Typ-
ical installations falling into this category would be
crossings of rivers, lakes, channels, or bays, having
lengths of between several hundred feet at the short end
to several thousand feet, or a few miles, at the longer
end of the range. Longer crossings of many miles in
length and significantly deeper water are addressed in
Chapter 7, Section 7.3.
The design of various types of submarine cables is dis-
cussed in Chapter 12.
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Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
The information presented in this section applies to the
installation of extruded-dielectric, high-pressure pipe-
type, and self-contained fluid-filled submarine cables.
Direct current (dc) cables are normally not installed in
short lengths and, thus, are discussed in Chapter 7.
Submarine cables are required to operate in both wet
and dry environments. Most submarine cable installa-
tions transition through five different environments:
(1) an underground section beginning at the riser struc-
ture (in air), (2) a land/water interface, also referred to
as the shore fall, (3) the underwater section, (4) another
shore fall section on the other side of the water crossing,
and (5) another underground section terminating at the
riser structure (in air). Different installation techniques
are applicable to various environments. The designer
must fully understand the nature of each of the environ-
ments in which the submarine cable will have to operate.
Submarine cable installation is a highly specialized con-
struction activity that should only be performed by
qualified and experienced marine contractors. The con-
tractors that perform this work must have specialized
equipment and experienced crews to address the various
unexpected conditions that frequently accompany most
submarine cable installation projects. Submarine cable
installation can require a significant crew size, a signifi-
cant amount of equipment, and a marine vessel, typi-
cally a barge for short water crossings.
A cable-laying ship is typically required for large lake
crossings, as well as for the longer crossings described in
Chapter 7. All of this means that daily standby charges
for delays in the work resulting from either unexpected
site conditions, weather, or design changes will be signif-
icant. Therefore, it is prudent for the designer to become
familiar with the process of submarine cable installation
to be well educated as to the potential risks and costs of
this work.
Various methods are available for the installation of
submarine cables. These methods employ different types
of specialized equipment specifically designed for sub-
marine cable installation. The selection of the appropri-
ate installation method for any given project depends on
many factors, but primarily on the length and depth of
the underwater route and whether the cables are to be
embedded into the bottom sediments or just laid on the
bottom. Normally, regardless of the installation method
chosen, a barge or boat will be required.
Short crossings of streams and rivers can usually be
accomplished without the need for a specialized cable-
laying ship. Sometimes the water depth is too shallow to
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
allow even a barge to operate, in which case the cables
may have to be installed using a marsh buggy. Short
submarine cable projects described in this section that
are to be buried will most likely be installed from a
barge, using either jetting, plowing, or trenching proce-
dures. Figure 13-24 shows a typical arrangement of
equipment and cable reels on a spud barge. Alterna-
tively, if burial is not required, the cables are laid directly
on the bottom.
Horizontal directional drilling (HDD) is becoming
more common for cable crossings of rivers and small
lakes. As of 2006, the longest extruded-dielectric trans-
mission cable crossing is approximately 4000 ft
(1200 m), and the longest pipe-type cable crossing is
about 8000 ft (25,000 m).
13.17.1 Installing Extruded-Dielectric and Self-
Contained Fluid-Filled Cables
Extruded-dielectric cables and SCFF cables can be
installed using similar methods, although SCFF cables
require more specialized handling and care during the
process so as not to damage the fluid containment
within the cable.
One common technique for installing submarine cables
is the jetting process. Jetting is a process that can simul-
taneously trench, lay, and embed the cable with one
device. This method is used where the sediments are suf-
ficiently soft, without significant rocky material, and
local environmental regulations permit the disturbed
material to be naturally re-deposited into the trench. In
this method, a rubber-tired or skid-mounted plow is
Figure 13-24 Typical arrangement of equipment,
cable reels, and jet plow on a spud barge (courtesy
Caldwell Marine).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
pulled along the bottom behind the barge. Figure 13-25
shows a skid-mounted jet plow being lowered into
the water.
High-pressure water from barge mounted pumps is
injected into the sediments through nozzles situated
along the plow, causing the sediments to momentarily
fluidize, creating an open trench. As the plow is pulled
along the route behind the barge, the cable is laid into
the opened trench through the back of the plow.
Depending on the nature of the soils, the trench is back-
filled by the water current and the natural settlement of
the suspended material. Depth of burial is controlled by
adjusting the angle of the plow relative to the bottom.
Figure 13-26 shows a tire-mounted jet plow installing
cable near the shore. The high pressure water line for the
jet nozzles can be seen at the black hose at the rear of
the jet plow.
Figure 13-25 Skid-mounted jet plow being lowered
into water (courtesy Caldwell Marine).
Figure 13-26 Rubber-tired jet plow (with permission
of SMECO).
Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
The speed of the cable as it is being payed out over the
back of the barge is controlled by a device called a linear
tractor, also called a caterpillar. This device has a series
of grippers that squeeze the cable as it is passed though
the caterpillar, from the cable reel. The grippers are on a
hydraulically driven track that moves the cable forward
or back, as the control operator deems necessary to con-
trol the cable installation. The amount of gripping
length for a particular installation is based on the maxi-
mum cable tension expected, the allowable sidewall
pressure, and its tension shear limit. These devices were
once used only on deeper submarine cable installations,
but are now used on most installations.
Various umbilical cords connect the submerged jet plow
to the barge control equipment to allow the operators to
monitor and control the installation process and make
adjustments to speed and alignment as the installation
proceeds across the water. In the proper soils, this
method is quick, and any turbidity created is generally
short-lived. The speed of cable installation using this
method is slower, as several simultaneous activities are
occurring at once. Although the cable is immediately
protected, once it is in the water, this process is slow and
subjects the barge and crew to the potential for bad
weather longer.
Another installation method used frequently involves
laying the cables on the bottom first, then jetting them in
place afterwards. This post-embedding process is limited
to soft bottom materials and requires either divers using
hand-held water jets or special embedding machines.
Another method of submarine cable installation is called
plowing. Plowing is similar to the jetting method in that
it simultaneously opens a trench and lays the cable.
However, high-pressure water is not used to fluidize the
sediments. Instead, the plow is lowered into the sediment
to the appropriate depth, and the trench is opened as the
plow arm is pulled through the material, much like an
aboveground plow. This process is used where the sedi-
ments are too hard and compacted for jetting, but are
not hard enough to require trenching. This method
tends to reduce the amount of sediments that are tempo-
rarily suspended in the water at the insertion point.
When the bottom sediments are too hard for jetting or
plowing, trenching may be required. In this method, it is
customary for the trench to be opened first, using con-
ventional marine trenching equipment, and the cable is
laid directly in the trench in a second operation using
divers or submersibles to direct the cable into its final
position. Sometimes a small metallic guide wire is
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Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
placed in the trench and used for guidance purposes,
with the guide wire being removed as the power cable is
installed. Sometimes the spoils from the trenching pro-
cess must be removed and taken to a disposal site,
depending on environmental regulations. Trenching is
usually a slower and more costly technique compared to
jetting and plowing.
13.17.2 Installing Pipe-Type Cables
In the case of a new submarine installation, the pipe sec-
tions are usually welded on shore or on a barge, then
floated to the desired location. The ends of the pipe are
always sealed to keep water out of the pipe during
installation. If the pipes are to be embedded in a trench,
the trench would be opened first using methods
described previously, then the pipe either pulled directly
into the trench or floated to a position over and then
submerged into the trench. Due to buoyancy concerns
when installing an empty pipe, the pipes are frequently
coated with a heavy concrete coating, called heavy coat.
This heavy coat is in addition to the normal corrosion
protection coating applied to pipe-type cable systems.
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
13.17.3 Repair of Damaged Cables
Repairing a damaged submarine cable is an expensive
and lengthy process. The time required to repair an
underwater cable must be realistically considered in the
system design in terms of required cable system reliabil-
ity and availability (e.g., how many spare circuits or
phases, what spacing is required between phases, and
what embedment depth). The outage time due to a fail-
ure frequently requires that a spare phase or spare cir-
cuit be installed.
The first step is to locate the damage, which requires
boats, divers, and fault location equipment to be mobi-
lized to the site. Mobilizing the specialized contractor(s)
and equipment to the site often takes several days to
several weeks. After the location is determined, the
retrieval and repair process can be evaluated and appro-
priate equipment mobilized to the site. If the failure
occurs during bad weather, weather conditions could
delay repairs for extensive periods of time. The depth of
the cable and whether the cable was embedded or just
laid on the bottom have a significant impact on the cost
and schedule of the repair. The designer should work
with the appropriate authorities and contractors spe-
cialized in submarine cable repair to develop a proce-
dure to follow in the event of a cable failure.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
REFERENCES
AEIC. 2005. Association of Edison Illuminating Com-
panies. AEIC CG3-05. “Guide for Installation of Pipe
Type Cable Systems.” Second Edition. Alabama.
AEIC. 1997. Association of Edison Illuminating
Companies. AEIC CG4-97. “Guide for Installation of
Extruded Dielectric Insulated Power Cable Systems
Rated 69 kV Through 138 kV.” Second Edition.
Alabama.
API. 1994. American Petroleum Institute. Standard
No. 1104. “Standard for Welding Pipe Lines and
Related Facilities.” Eighth Edition. March.
EEI. 1957. Edison Electric Institute. Underground Sys-
tems Reference Book.
Chapter 13: Cable System Construction
EPRI. 1992. Electric Power Research Institute.
Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book.
Palo Alto, CA. TR-101670.
IEEE. 2005. Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers. Std. P1120. IEEE Guide for the Planning,
Design, Installation, and Repair of Submarine Power
Cable Systems. IEEE PES-ICC Committee. March.
NACE. 2004. National Association of Corrosion Engi-
neers. Standard RP 02 74. “High Voltage Electrical
Inspection of Pipeline Coatings Prior to Installation.”
Revision 4.
NASTT. North American Society for Trenchless
Technology. Website address: http://trenchless-
technology.org/replace.html#Anchor-Mic-11377.
13-43
 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

CHAPTER 14 Testing
Author: John H. Cooper, Power Delivery Consultants, Inc.
Reviewer: Ernesto Zaccone, Prysmian Cables and Systems

Testing transmission cables and accessories is vitally important in designing new compo-
nents, qualifying components for utility acceptance, and installing, operating, and main-
taining them once they are supplied to the user.

Various test standards and procedures have evolved to accommodate the unique charac-
teristics of different cable systems. Many were developed by utility/industry organiza-
tions, such as the Association of Edison Illuminating Companies (AEIC), the Insulated
Conductors Committee (ICC) of the IEEE, the International Electrotechnical Commis-
sion (IEC), and the Insulated Cable Engineers Association (ICEA). Others originated
from research organizations, individual utilities, consultants, or manufacturers to address
specific concerns with individual cable components.

Although the electrical tests required for cables are similar to those for other types of
electrical equipment, few high-voltage laboratories other than at cable factories are prop-
erly equipped to perform most of the tests required for transmission cables. This is
because of the relatively high capacitance of the cable samples, the non-self-healing fail-
ure mechanisms, the very high ratios of impulse to ac breakdown voltage, and the need
for specially skilled technicians for jointing and terminating cable samples.

This chapter describes the overall principles of cable and accessory testing, defines gen-
eral categories of testing, and summarizes the applicable standards, guides, and proce-
dures that are commonly accepted by the cable industry. It addresses specific test
procedures, laboratories, and equipment for ac, impulse, dc, and thermomechanical tests,
and describes diagnostic procedures employed in the laboratory and in the field.

John Cooper is a principal engineer with Power Delivery Consultants,

Inc. (PDC). He received a BSEE degree from Texas A&M University
(1967) and an MSEE degree from the University of Pittsburgh (1968).
He joined Westinghouse Electric in 1967, where he initially performed
power systems planning studies. He later held various engineering and
technical management positions at the Waltz Mill Underground Trans-
mission Test Facility. Mr. Cooper then worked for Power Technologies,
Inc. (PTI) from 1988 to 1991 as a consultant to electric utilities on the
design, specification, and installation of transmission cable systems. He has worked at
PDC since it was founded in 1991. Mr. Cooper is a Fellow of the IEEE Power Engineer-
ing Society, a Voting Member of the IEEE Insulated Conductors Committee (ICC), and
a member of CIGRE. He is a past Chairman of the ICC Cable Systems Subcommittee.
He is a registered professional engineer in the states of Pennsylvania, Georgia, New Mex-
ico, and Texas.

14-1
Chapter 14: Testing
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Many tests, covering the various aspects of cable design,
quality control, and maintenance, have been devised
over the years for cables and their accessories. These
tests can be grouped into the following general catego-
ries for discussion purposes:
• Development Tests
• Long-term Prequalification Tests
• Type or Qualification Tests
• Factory Production (Routine) Tests
• After-installation Tests
Figure 14-1 Tests during cable system life cycle.
14-2
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
• Maintenance or Proof Tests
• Special-purpose Tests
These test categories sometimes overlap and sometimes
are referred to by different names. To add to the confu-
sion, there are several organizations that write transmis-
sion cable test standards, specifications, and guides, and
a number of these overlap as well.
Test procedures for each category can consist of ac,
hot impulse, switching surge, dc, and load-cycle tests,
as well as mechanical tests that can be applied to any
test category.
Section 14.2 describes typical high-voltage electrical
tests including ac voltage withstand and breakdown
tests, dc hi-potential tests, impulse and switching surge
tests, insulation dissipation factor tests, and factory par-
tial discharge measurements. Section 14.3 reviews type
or qualification tests and factory production tests for
different types of cables, joints and terminations. Sec-
tion 14.4 discusses after-installation tests. Section 14.5
outlines maintenance or proof tests. Section 14.6
describes special-purpose tests, including long-term
accelerated life tests, mechanical bending tests, thermo-
mechanical bending tests, and longitudinal water pene-
tration tests.
Figure 14-1 illustrates the relationship between recom-
mended tests and the stages of cable development, pro-
duction, installation, and operation.
14.1.1 General Testing Categories
Development Tests
Development tests, sometimes called design tests, refer
to the electrical and mechanical tests conducted during
the development of new cables or cable accessories.
They usually consist of the basic laboratory test proce-
dures, described in Section 14.2, which allow the results
of the tests to be compared to those for similar equip-
ment or industry standards. However, they may also
include unique tests specific to the type of equipment
being developed and technical issues that must be
resolved. The reader is encouraged to review the docu-
ments cited in the references (Allam 1986; Bolin 1982;
Blais 1972; Auerbach 1980) for specific examples of
design tests. Typical design tests are ac breakdown tests,
mechanical bending tests, impulse breakdown tests, dis-
sipation factor measurement, partial-discharge mea-
surements, etc.
Development tests are, in principle, carried out privately
by the cable system manufacturer before all the other
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
tests. These tests may be recommended by some stan-
dards or specifications. Their details and procedures are
generally left to the discretion of the manufacturer, but
should preferably include the following:
• Evaluation of materials and processes
• Evaluation of Weibull parameters (CIGRE 1989)
• Determination of the voltage versus time breakdown
exponent “n” (see Section 14.6.1).
Long-term Prequalification Tests
The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
defines prequalification (PQ) tests as “a test made
before supplying of a general commercial basis of a
cable system in order to demonstrate satisfactory long
term performance of the complete cable system. The PQ
test need only be carried out once unless there is a sub-
stantial change in the cable system with respect to mate-
rial, manufacturing process, design and design levels.”
Generally, the cable system, or at least part of the cable
system, is installed in an environment that duplicates the
installation conditions where the cable will be applied.
For example, if the cable is to be installed in a concrete-
encased duct bank, then the prequalification tests are
performed with the cable in a duct bank. In many cases,
the prequalification test facility includes multiple instal-
lation conditions (i.e., duct bank, direct-buried, and tun-
nel installation segments). Figures 14-2 and 14-3 show
the CESI (Centro Elettrotecnico Sperimentale Italiano)
prequalification test facility used for 400-kV XLPE cable
system tests and a schematic of the test facility.
The requirement for long-term PQ tests is generally lim-
ited to recently developed cable systems that have little
or no commercial operating experience. For example,
IEC 62067 requires PQ tests for EHV XLPE cable sys-
tems, whereas IEC 60840 does not require PQ tests for
Figure 14-2 CESI prequalification test area (courtesy CESI).
Chapter 14: Testing
XLPE cable systems with rated voltages of 150 kV and
less. A recent CIGRE working group (CIGRE 2006)
recommended that PQ tests be performed on extruded-
dielectric cables systems with voltages up to 150 kV for
electrical gradients higher than 8 kV/mm at conductor
screen and 4 kV/mm at the insulation screen.
Type or Qualification Tests
Type tests or qualification tests are performed to dem-
onstrate the adequacy of designs, manufacturing, and
materials of a cable system or component to achieve the
desired performance characteristics. The term “qualifi-
cation test” is commonly used in Association of Edison
Illuminating Companies (AEIC) and Insulated Cable
Engineers Association (ICEA) cable specifications and
standards. IEC cable standards contain similar tests, but
they are called “type tests” in IEC documents. The qual-
ification test series—consisting of mechanical, electrical,
and load cycle tests—is typically performed to qualify a
cable design, materials, and manufacturing process of a
particular manufacturer. A type or qualification test is
generally required when there is any significant change
in materials or manufacturing process even when there
is a history of successful operating experience with a
cable of similar design. These tests are described more
fully in Section 14.3.
Factory Production (Routine) Tests
Two categories of tests are performed on each manufac-
turing order for transmission cable. The first category,
sample tests, consists of destructive tests that are per-
formed on short samples of the cables that were manu-
factured for the order. The sample tests typically include
dimension checks, material property tests, and electrical
property tests. The second category of tests, called tests
on shipping lengths, are nondestructive tests performed
on each shipping reel of cable and prefabricated acces-
sories, which serves as a final quality control check.
These tests typically include a high-voltage withstand
test, partial discharge or insulation dissipation factor
measurement, conductor resistance measurement,
jacket integrity test, etc. These tests are described more
fully in Section 14.3.
Figure 14-3 Schematic of CESI prequalification test area.
14-3
Chapter 14: Testing
After-installation or Commissioning Tests
After-installation tests, also called commissioning tests
or acceptance tests, are tests that the cable system must
pass after installation and before it is placed in service.
This type of test is intended to detect shipping or instal-
lation damage, and to show any defects or errors in
workmanship on splicing and terminating the cable. A
document was issued by CIGRE based on the present
utility practice regarding the maintenance and failure
modes for the usual cable systems and the related diag-
nostic methods. The document is also recommending
the right procedures for effective and efficient mainte-
nance (CIGRE 2005). These tests are described more
fully in Section 14.4.
Maintenance or Proof Tests
Maintenance tests are defined (IEEE 2001) as a field
test made during the operating life of a cable system. It
is intended to detect deterioration of the system and to
check the serviceability so that suitable maintenance
procedures can be initiated. The term proof test is not
defined in IEEE Std. 400, but it is commonly used to
mean the same as maintenance test. Maintenance tests
are less severe than after-installation tests. Guidance for
performing maintenance tests is provided by the IEEE,
the ICEA, and the AEIC. These tests are described
more fully in Section 14.5.
Special-purpose Tests
As indicated by the name, special-purpose tests include
a variety of special tests that have been devised to
address certain cable system problems or to obtain spe-
cific information not covered by the categories of tests
described above.
Many mechanical bending tests are commonly classified
as special-purpose tests. These tests are seldom per-
formed routinely, but are included with other tests as
specifically agreed upon in advance by the purchaser
and manufacturer. An example of this type of test is the
thermomechanical bending (TMB) testing of pipe-type
cables and joint restraint systems. TMB tests were
devised and refined in the late 1970s and 1980s
(Bankoske et al. 1977; Aabo 1988) to learn more about
damage that may occur to HPFF cables as a result of
bending from load cycling. An extensive series of
mechanical tests was developed by CIGRE Study Com-
mittee 21 (CIGRE 1972) for submarine cables to deter-
mine if a cable design will withstand the bending that
occurs during cable laying and retrieval, and by ocean
currents. Additional details of submarine cable tests are
given in Chapter 7.
Short-circuit tests are performed at a high-power testing
laboratory to determine if the cable shield/sheath and
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
cable accessories are capable of withstanding the joule
heating from fault currents and to determine if mechan-
ical restraints are capable of withstanding the mechani-
cal forces produced by fault currents.
Materials compatibility tests are often performed dur-
ing the development test phase or when materials in an
existing design are replaced with new materials. These
tests are to determine that the different materials in a
cable system component do not significantly affect the
electrical or mechanical properties of components fabri-
cated from other materials. Special-purpose tests are
described more fully in Section 14.6.
14.1.2 Test Standards and Guides
Several levels of guides or standards may determine how
a specific test is performed. For example, the AEIC
qualification tests commonly require a hot impulse test.
The AEIC specification, in turn, refers to IEEE Stan-
dard 82, “Test Procedure for Impulse Voltage Tests on
Insulated Conductors” (IEEE 2002). This standard
refers to another IEEE/ANSI (American National Stan-
dards Institute) standard, “IEEE Standard Techniques
for High Voltage Testing” (IEEE 1995), to describe basic
test terminology and standard impulse waveforms. In
general, a standard is a document that describes specific
mandatory procedures for testing certain equipment,
while a guide provides suggestions or recommendations
for approaches to good testing practices.
14.1.3 Standards Organizations
The organizations responsible for most of the cable test
standards and guides used in North America are AEIC,
IEEE, and ICEA. These standards and guides com-
monly refer to basic test standards written by the Amer-
ican Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). The
AEIC is an organization composed of electric utilities,
generating companies, transmitting companies, distrib-
uting companies (including investor-owned, federal,
state, cooperative, and municipal systems from both
within as well as outside the United States), and entities
responsible for technical research and for promoting,
coordinating, and ensuring the reliability, integrity, and
efficient use and operation of the bulk power supply sys-
tem. The AEIC has a cable engineering section that
writes and updates cable industry specifications with
consultation from cable manufacturers and technical
advisers. AEIC cable specifications include qualification
tests and routine tests on cable components and com-
pleted cables. The IEEE standards relating to transmis-
sion cables are written by working groups in the IEEE
Insulated Conductors Committee (ICC). The ICC stan-
dards are consensus standards and guides, because
agreement must be reached among ICC members con-
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 14: Testing

sisting of manufacturers, users, and independent con- tests and the special requirements that may apply to
sultants before they are accepted. cable testing.

The ICEA prepares specifications for cable measure- 14.2.1 AC Voltage Withstand and Step-Breakdown
ments and test procedures that are commonly refer- Tests
enced in the AEIC specifications. IEC standards are The most common types of ac tests performed on cable
specified if bids are solicited internationally or if no samples are ac-withstand tests and ac step-breakdown
applicable national standard is available from AEIC or tests. The allowable range of frequency for ac tests is 49
IEEE. to 61 Hz, because the frequency in the testing labora-
tory may be different from the power frequency in the
The IEC standards are consensus standards based on country where the cable will be installed. The ac-with-
the studies developed by working groups of the CIGRE stand, or high-voltage-time, test is a pass/fail test per-
study committee B1 (formerly 21) and must be approved formed by applying a specified ac withstand voltage to
by the national technical committees of the countries the cable for a specified time period, usually with the
that actively participate in IEC. cable at ambient temperature. The specified ac test volt-
age is generally a compromise between stressing the
14.2 HIGH-VOLTAGE TESTS AND cable insulation hard enough to detect defects while not
MEASUREMENT PROCEDURES doing damage to good insulation. The specified ac test
High-voltage tests for transmission cables and cable voltage for a particular cable type is chosen, based on
accessories are similar to those for other types of power previous test experience. Ac-withstand voltages required
system equipments in that ac, lightning impulse, switch- for AEIC/ICEA qualification tests and IEC type tests
ing surge, and sometimes HVdc sources provide the
basic electrical stresses that are used to perform the tests
required in the applicable test standards. The primary
difference between transmission cable tests and those
for other types of power system components is that the
cable tests generally require more time and are more
expensive to prepare for testing. It is common for a
transmission cable system type test to cost more than
$100,000. Since it is often not economically feasible to
perform the numerous, repetitive tests with the statisti-
cal confidence that is possible with self-restoring insula-
tion or distribution-class equipment, special non-
destructive measurements, such as partial-discharge and
insulation dissipation factor measurements, have been
devised to measure insulation characteristics before
electrical breakdown occurs.

Due to the special skills and equipment required to

prepare transmission cables for testing, and the rela-
tively high capacitance of transmission cables, few high-
voltage laboratories are capable of performing these
tests. These tests are most frequently performed in a
cable manufacturer’s laboratory or, in some cases, at an
independent testing laboratory such as KEMA, CESI,
CREEPI, etc. Figure 14-4 shows the interior of a cable
manufacturing laboratory during type testing of a
345-kV XLPE transmission cable system.

The following subsections describe the high-voltage

tests and measurements that are normally used for cable Figure 14-4 Test setup for 345-kV XLPE cable type test
(courtesy SILEC, Northeast Utilities).

14-5
Chapter 14: Testing EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

are given in Table 14-1. The AEIC/ICEA qualification
test ac-withstand voltages are from AEIC CS2 (HPFF),
CS4 (SCFF), CS9 (XLPE), and ICEA S-108-720
(extruded insulation). The IEC type test ac withstand
voltages for SCFF cables are from IEC 141-1. IEC
60840 and 62067 (extruded insulation) type test proce-
dures do not include an ac-withstand test other than a
15-minute withstand test after the hot impulse test.
two requirements often lead to the use of resonant ac
test sets for cable tests rather than conventional step-up
transformers. Figure 14-5 shows such an ac resonant
test set. In this type of circuit, the fault causes loss of
circuit resonance, and the test voltage collapses almost
immediately after a cable breakdown. The adjustable
inductors (shown as X S1 and X S2 in Figure 14-6) also
limit the fault current to several amperes or less.

The ac step-breakdown test is, in principle, a develop- Numerous methods have been used to reduce the time
ment test and consists of applying increasing voltage and cost of terminating cables for ac high-voltage tests.
levels to the cable sample until a breakdown occurs. The This is especially true for extruded-dielectric cables,
increases in the test voltages are typically fixed percent- because they commonly have very high ac breakdown
ages of the preceding test voltage. Because of the dielec- voltages when they are new, and it is not economically
tric losses, heating may cause thermal runaway for some practical to design commercial terminations for such
cable types. The duration of the test at each voltage high breakdown voltages. A special test termination for
level, in this case, may decrease as the voltage is raised. extruded-dielectric cables, called a water termination, is
The primary objectives of ac step-breakdown tests are
to obtain relative ac strengths for variations in cable
construction and/or to estimate the amount of deterio-
ration in breakdown strength. The collection of the ac
step-breakdown tests, together with the long-duration
voltage tests, is used to determine the statistical Weibull
parameters and the evaluation of the expected life of a
relative process or material.

The major test equipment considerations with ac high-

voltage transmission cable tests are the relatively high
reactive power requirement, which is a result of the large
cable capacitance, and the desire to limit destructive
energy in the vicinity of a cable breakdown. Minimizing
energy to the fault greatly increases the possibility of
determining the cause of an electrical breakdown. These
Figure 14-5 Ac resonant test set (center), voltage divider
(left) and standard capacitor (right) (courtesy Southwire).
Table 14-1 AEIC/ICEA and IEC Ac High-Voltage Test
Requirements for Transmission Cables (Phase-to-Ground)
Rated Voltage Cable Test Duration and Voltage
(L-L kV) Type AEIC/ICEA IEC
138 HPFF 24 hr 200 kV --
138 Extruded 2 hr 200 kV --
138 SCFF 6 hr 217 kV 24 hr 190 kV
161 Extruded 2 hr 232 kV --
230 HPFF 24 hr 332 kV --
230 Extruded 2 hr 332 kV --
230 SCFF 6 hr 327 kV 24 hr 320 kV
345 HPFF 24 hr 500 kV --
345 Extruded 2 hr 500 kV --
345 SCFF 6 hr 445 kV 24 hr 430 kV
500 HPFF 24 hr 600 kV --
500 Extruded -- --
500 SCFF 2 hr 577 kV (24 hr 600 kV)a
Figure 14-6 Schematic of a cascade series resonant ac
a. For information only. high-voltage test set.

14-6
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
shown schematically in Figure 14-7. In this test termina-
tion, the cable sample is prepared by removing the
jacket and insulation shield to a prescribed length. The
water, which surrounds the cable insulation, is continu-
ously deionized to give a high resistivity to provide
stress relief by resistively dividing the test voltage along
the length of the termination. Even with continuous
deionization of the water in the termination, heat from
resistive losses in the termination must be removed by
circulating the water through an external cooling unit.
Water terminations are commercially available with
rated ac voltages up to approximately 800 kV.
Test terminations for impregnated-paper-insulated cables
are typically commercial terminations with a higher volt-
age rating than that of the cable to be tested. Special ter-
minating procedures have also been devised for research
projects; however, they are justified only where a large
number of cable breakdown tests are performed.
Test terminations for compressed-gas-insulated cables
normally utilize special test fixtures that, in most cases,
are available only at the manufacturer’s laboratories.
14.2.2 Dc Hi-Potential Tests
Dc testing of ac transmission cables is more commonly
employed as an installation or maintenance test, rather
than as a production test, because other test methods
have been found to be more suitable in detecting manu-
facturing imperfections that may occur in ac transmis-
sion cables. In addition, space charges can take as long
as one day to dissipate in low-loss insulations such as
XLPE or compressed-gas-insulated systems, which
would cause overstressing of portions of the insulation
during subsequent ac or impulse tests. With rare excep-
Figure 14-7 Cable water termination for extruded-dielectric
cables.
Chapter 14: Testing
tions, dc high-potential (Hi-Pot) tests are only used for
after-installation testing of laminated dielectric trans-
mission cable systems.
14.2.3 Impulse and Switching Surge Tests
Cable lightning impulse tests are performed to confirm
the impulse-withstand capability of a particular cable as
well as to measure the intrinsic dielectric strength of the
cable. At transmission voltage levels, impulse tests have
been used for a long time as design tests, and have been
included in U.S. qualification tests only recently. (The
hot impulse test was included in the AEIC pipe-type
cable specifications [AEIC 1997] for the first time in
1982.) This is partially because of the belief that the
impulse-breakdown level of a well-made, impregnated-
paper-insulated cable is predictable. Further, it is expen-
sive to conduct impulse-breakdown tests for transmis-
sion cables, and many cable engineers thought that the
ac high-voltage-time tests gave a satisfactory indication
of the quality of a cable.
Switching-surge tests have not been included in the cable
industry testing specifications in the United States, pri-
marily because many power systems engineers now hold
the opinion that lightning impulses are more severe than
the switching surges that cables experience. This opinion
may change with the improved lightning overvoltage
protective levels afforded by modern surge arresters at
cable system voltages at and above 500 kV. A switching-
surge withstand test has been included in purchase
specifications by at least one major utility, and others
may follow.
Impulse test procedures for cables are specified in IEEE
Standard No. 82 and IEC Standard 60230. These
standards call for 10 voltage impulses at each polarity.
Basically the impulse-withstand and breakdown tests
differ only by stopping the withstand test before a
breakdown occurs followed by a short-time (15-minute)
ac-withstand test to demonstrate withstand at a given
impulse level. The additional ac-withstand test is to
demonstrate that there is no incipient failure produced
by the application of impulses up to the required with-
stand level. Most cable impulse tests must be performed
with the cable conductor at maximum normal operating
temperature, because breakdown strength decreases
with temperature, and lightning overvoltages may occur
when the cable is at its maximum temperature.
A more recent variation of the impulse tests is the
dc-biased impulse test recommended for testing dc cable
(CIGRE 1980). In this type of test, some form of
dc-blocking impedance is required to isolate the
14-7
Chapter 14: Testing EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

impulse generator from the dc voltage source until the 14.2.4 Insulation Dissipation Factor Test
impulse is applied. In addition to the high-voltage tests described above,
two types of measurements are used to determine the
As in the case of ac step-breakdown tests, one of the condition of the cable insulation. The first of these non-
most difficult tasks in performing cable impulse-break- destructive measurements is called the insulation dissi-
down tests is to terminate the cable so that the termina- pation factor, or tan δ, measurement. This measurement
tion will not break down before the cable does. is sometimes called an insulation power factor measure-
ment, but this is not technically correct, as described
This is particularly true for extruded cables, for which below. The quantity measured by this test is the tangent
the impulse breakdown voltage may be as much as three of the angle between the actual cable charging current
times its Basic Impulse Insulation Level (BIL). With that is flowing through the cable insulation and the
impregnated-paper-insulated transmission cables, quadrature current that would flow in a perfect or loss-
impulse breakdowns can usually be obtained with the free dielectric (see Figure 14-8). Tan δ is almost numeri-
same type of terminations as for ac tests. With extruded- cally equal to the cosine of the angle (power factor)
dielectric cables, one of two types of test terminations is between the voltage across the insulation and the cur-
commonly used. If the resistivity of the insulation semi- rent flowing through the insulation for practical cable
conducting screen is sufficiently low, an impulse termi- dielectrics. The dissipation factor is important, because
nation may be obtained by simply removing the metallic it is proportional to the total amount of loss in the cable
insulation shield and using the insulation semiconduct- insulation. Dipole losses normally constitute the major-
ing layer for resistive voltage grading. A second, simple ity of these losses, but conduction and ionization losses
termination is similar to the ac water termination, but are measured as well. The magnitude of the dissipation
when terminating for impulse tests, the resistivity of the factor is important, as well as the changes of the magni-
water should be much lower than for the ac tests; in tude at specific temperatures and test voltages. An
many cases, tap water is sufficient. The primary draw- increase in the dissipation factor at the same test condi-
back of both of these simple impulse terminations is tions is one indication of cable insulation aging. This
that they may not be used for the subsequent, short- increase in dissipation factor for impregnated-paper
term, ac-withstand test. insulation is believed to be caused by an increase in the
moisture in the insulation. This occurs because water is
For compressed-gas-insulated cables, the same termina- a high-temperature decomposition product of paper.
tion is almost always used for impulse and ac-withstand Figure 5-9 in Chapter 5 shows a typical variation of
tests; the peak impulse strength of compressed-gas-insu- insulation dissipation-factor with moisture and with
lated cables is not much greater than the peak voltage of temperature for oil-impregnated paper.
the sine wave for ac-withstand tests. Table 14-2 desig-
nates typical impulse test requirements. In summary, the tan δ measurement has been found to
give the best indication of the quality of cables with
impregnated-paper insulation. These cables must be
Table 14-2 AEIC, ICEA, and IEC Impulse Test Requirements made with high-quality paper, and correctly taped in a
for HPFF, SCFF, and Extruded-Dielectric Cables (10 shots low-humidity environment to meet the dissipation-factor
both polarities unless otherwise noted) requirement of industry specifications. However, it is not
Switching necessarily the best measurement for extruded-dielectric
Rated Cable Lightning Impulse (kV) Impulse (kV)
Voltage Type AEIC ICEA IEC IEC
138 kV HPFF ± 650 ± 650 ± 520 N/A
138 kV Extruded ± 650 ± 650 ± 650 N/A
138 kV SCFF N/A N/A ± 650 N/A
230 kV HPFF ± 1050 N/A ± 1050, 950 N/A
230 kV Extruded ± 1050 ± 1050 ± 1050 N/A
230 kV SCFF ± 1050 N/A ± 1050, 950 N/A
345 kV HPFF ± 1300 N/A ± 1050, 950 N/A
345 kV Extruded ± 1300 ± 1300 ± 1175 ± 950
345 kV SCFF ± 1300 N/A ± 1125, 1050 N/A
500 kV Extruded N/A N/A ± 1550 ± 1175
500 kV HPFF ± 1500 N/A N/A N/A
Figure 14-8 Dissipation factor in ideal and practical
500 kV SCFF ± 1500 N/A
dielectric insulations.

14-8
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
cables such as XLPE, because it gives the average condi-
tion or losses in a length of cable and does not detect
localized imperfections. Partial discharge measurements
are generally considered to give a better indication of
insulation defects for extruded-dielectric cables.
Two similar bridge-type circuits used to measure dissi-
pation factor are shown in Figures 14-9 and 14-10. The
first circuit, called a Schering bridge, was developed
approximately 80 years ago to measure cable dielectric
losses. The second circuit is called a transformer ratio
arm bridge. Both of these circuits require a high-voltage,
standard capacitor (see Figures 14-9 and 14-10) with a
voltage rating equal to the highest ac test voltage that is
specified for tan δ measurements. This very stable stan-
dard capacitor has a loss-free, gas dielectric.
In both circuits, the phase angle of the quadrature cur-
rent from the standard capacitor is shifted by a measur-
able amount until it has the same phase angle with
respect to the test voltage as that flowing through the
cable insulation. The Schering bridge is the recognized
Figure 14-9 Schematic diagram of Schering bridge.
Chapter 14: Testing
standard for making tan δ measurements, although the
more modern transformer ratio-arm bridge is com-
monly used in high-voltage laboratories because it is
easier to balance and is less susceptible to certain mea-
surement errors.
14.2.5 Factory Partial-discharge Measurements
A second, frequently used, cable insulation measure-
ment is called a partial-discharge or PD measurement.
This measurement was devised to detect the current
pulses in picocoulombs (pC) that are generated when
there is a partial breakdown or discharge in high-volt-
age insulation. It is important to detect the presence of
these discharges because they cause deterioration of the
insulation in the location of the void, which can cause a
cable failure.
Figure 14-10 Schematic diagram of transformer ratio-
arm bridge.
14-9
Chapter 14: Testing EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Partial-discharge Measurement Circuits
Figure 14-11 shows an extruded-dielectric cable with a
void in the high-voltage insulation and an equivalent
circuit used to describe the partial-discharge phenome-
non (CIGRE 2006).
If a gas-filled void occurs in the high-voltage insulation,
there will be electrical breakdowns across the void at
twice the power frequency (i.e., once each for the posi-
tive and negative polarity of the sine wave), if the
applied voltage is high enough. When the void breaks
down, it effectively shorts out the small capacitance, C1,
that is in series with the solid cable insulation. This par-
tial discharge causes the following results.

Figure 14-11 Partial discharge in cable insulation void.

Figure 14-12 Schematic diagrams for straight-type, partial-discharge detectors.

14-10
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
1. The insulation capacitance increases in the area of
the partial discharge because part of the dielectric is
shorted out.
2. A pulse of current flows into the faulty section of
insulation to charge the increased capacitance.
3. Traveling-wave current pulses travel in opposite direc-
tions to the ends of the cable.
4. There is a small step decrease in the voltage across
the insulation because of charge redistribution until
there is enough time for current to flow into the cable
from the external voltage source.
All of the above changes take place in a very short
period of time, less than a microsecond. The reference
An Introduction to High-Voltage Experimental Technique
gives an excellent description of the partial-discharge
process and relates the measured or apparent discharge
to the discharge at the insulation voids (Kind 1978).
Test experience (EPRI 1975) has shown that partial-
discharge measurements give a better indication of
incipient faults in extruded-dielectric cables than dissi-
pation-factor measurements. This is because the partial-
discharge measurements detect local imperfections, such
as voids, which are the most common failure mechanism
in extruded-dielectric cable. Dissipation-factor measure-
ments, on the other hand, give an indication of the aver-
age condition of the insulation. Unfortunately, partial-
discharge measurements are difficult to make because of
the minute amount of electrical charge in the individual
discharges as well as the electrical interference that
occurs from many extraneous sources.
Field measurements are difficult because of the interfer-
ence present in outdoor substation environments.
Partial-discharge measurements with the required sensi-
tivity level (typically 5 pC or less) are also difficult in a
factory environment because of interference caused by
manufacturing equipment.
Many types of partial-discharge measurement circuits
have been devised (Tanaka 1993; Nattrass 1988); how-
ever, two types of circuits, called straight detectors and
balanced-bridge detectors, are commonly used for labo-
ratory or factory production tests. Schematic diagrams
of two variations of the straight detector circuits are
shown in Figure 14-12. The circuit shown in Schematic
A detects the presence of partial discharges in the cable
insulation by detecting the high-frequency current
pulses that flow through the cable sample to ground.
The current pulses cause small oscillating voltages (frac-
tions of a millivolt) to appear across the detection
impedance. These voltage pulses are amplified by a
frequency-selective amplifier in the discharge detector.
The circuit in Schematic B works on a similar principle,
Chapter 14: Testing
except that it detects the current pulses in a discharge-
free coupling capacitor. This second circuit is used when
it is inconvenient or impossible to isolate the cable
sheath from ground.
In both of these circuits, it is difficult to relate the mag-
nitude of the voltage pulses across the detection imped-
ance directly to the magnitude of the partial discharges
occurring in the cable insulation. For this reason, a low-
voltage calibration signal is connected across the cable
sample terminals prior to each measurement. The cali-
brator injects pulses with known charge into the cable,
and the gain of an amplifier in the partial-discharge
detector is adjusted until the meter on the instrument
indicates the magnitude of the calibration pulse. The
primary drawback of these straight detector circuits is
that they are very susceptible to interference signals
from many sources.
Some of the methods used to reduce the effects of the
interference signals are:
• A partial-discharge filter may be used to block
corona signals that originate in the voltage supply or
the high-voltage connection.
• The measurements can be made in a shielded room
or laboratory to reduce radiated signals such as
radio-frequency transmissions.
• The center frequency of the detector amplifier can be
changed to a frequency where there is less noise from
external sources.
Even using these methods to reduce noise levels, it is
often difficult to measure discharges with a sensitivity of
less than 5 pC, which is required by test standards for
extruded-dielectric cables. This difficulty led to the
development of the balanced-bridge, or differential par-
tial-discharge, detector shown schematically in
Figure 14-13. This type of circuit reduces the effects of
interference signals by using two test samples to cancel
out common-mode noise. If an external noise source is
Figure 14-13 Differential partial-discharge detector.
14-11
Chapter 14: Testing
present, and the two high-voltage samples are of similar
capacitance, similar noise-voltage signals will appear at
points A and B on either side of the bridge. The input
stage of the discharge detector is a differential amplifier,
which removes common-mode noise signals. If dis-
charges occur in one of the two cables, there is no simul-
taneous canceling signal at the opposite side of the
bridge; therefore, there is an amplified output signal
from the differential amplifier in the discharge detector
indicating that discharges are present. In practical situa-
tions, this type of bridge yields a noise-rejection ratio of
somewhere from ten to one up to as much as several
hundred to one.
A number of electronic signal-enhancing techniques
have been applied to both types of discharge detectors
in an effort to improve the noise-rejection performance
of the instruments. Some of these enhancement tech-
niques that have been employed in commercially avail-
able, partial-discharge detectors are signal-averaging,
digitally activated shutters that block noise signals syn-
chronous with the power frequency, and circuits that
distinguish the direction of current pulses.
Even if noise-rejection problems are solved, the inter-
pretation of partial-discharge measurements is not
always straightforward. First, it is difficult to relate the
magnitude of the measured charge pulses and the
amount of potential damage to the cable insulation. For
example, discharges of several hundred picocoulombs
can occur under certain circumstances in the insulation
semiconducting layer, producing minor, short-term con-
sequences. Failure may occur in a short period of time if
the same level of discharges is present in the insulation
wall. Oscilloscopes are typically used with discharge
detectors to display the phase relationship of the current
pulses in relation to the applied voltage. This helps to
determine the source and location of the discharges
(Nattrass 1988).
14.2.6 Field Partial-discharge Measurements
During the past decade a number of significant develop-
ments have occurred in the equipment and methods for
performing partial-discharge measurements in the field.
Field PD measurements are frequently used to perform
measurements on distribution cables, and to a lesser
extent, on transmission cables. The IEEE ICC Cable
Systems Subcommittee has developed a guide (Std.
400.3) to assist users in understanding the many com-
mercial equipment and measurement services currently
available (IEEE 2001). The following different types of
measurements are currently being used. Some of the
more significant factors addressed in this guide are sum-
marized in the following sections.
14-12
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
On-line vs. Off-line PD Measurements
PD measurements can be performed when the cables are
energized from the power system (on-line measure-
ments) or when they are energized by a separate voltage
source (off-line). On-line PD measurements are the sim-
plest and lower-cost method of making PD measure-
ments, because there is less setup (preparation) time
required to perform the measurements and no addi-
tional equipment to energize the cable. The primary
advantage of off-line PD measurements is that the cable
and accessories can be stressed with a higher-than-rated
voltage, which, in general, makes it possible to detect
smaller defects compared to the on-line measurements.
A number of different types of voltage sources have
been used to perform off-line PD measurements. The
different types of excitation voltage sources that have
been used for commissioning tests are:
1. Power Frequency Series Resonant Test Equipment. In
this case, an adjustable high-voltage reactor is placed
in series with one phase of the cable system. The
series inductor is then adjusted so that the series L-C
circuit resonates at power frequency (i.e., 50 or
60 Hz). In this case, the reactive vars to energize the
cable are supplied by the high-voltage reactor rather
than the power supply to the test equipment. The
input power to the test equipment is just the real
power losses in the high-voltage reactor and the cable
capacitance. For commercially available series reso-
nant test equipment and XLPE cables, the input volt-
amps (VA) to the test equipment is typically less than
2% of the VA required to energize the cable system.
Additional details of this test equipment are con-
tained in Section 14.2.1 (“AC Voltage Withstand and
Step-Breakdown Tests”).
2. Variable Frequency Resonant (VFR) Test Equipment.
In this case, a high-voltage reactor is placed in series
with one phase of the cable system, and the frequency
of the voltage supplied to the series L-C circuit is
adjusted until the capacitance of the cable resonates
with the series reactor (see Figure 14-14). The reso-
nant frequency, given by Equation 14-1, is typically
in the range of 30 to 300 Hz. The variable frequency
Figure 14-14 Schematic of variable frequency resonant
test equipment.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 14: Testing

voltage source is supplied by power electronics equip-
ment. Figure 14-15 shows VFR test equipment for
conducting commissioning tests on a 400-kV XLPE
cable system. Example 14-1 illustrates the fundamen-
tal calculations for VFR after-installation tests for a
230-kV XLPE cable system.
1
f =
2π L C 14-1
Where:
f = frequency of resonance, Hz.
L = inductance of series reactor, Henrys.
C = capacitance of cable between high voltage
conductor and sheath, Farads.
This circuit requires the same test equipment as for
high-pot tests, with the exception of the inductor, L1,
and sphere gap. The cable is charged with dc voltage
until a breakdown of the sphere gap occurs. The
series cable and inductor circuit produce an oscilla-
tory test voltage with a frequency (Equation 14-2) of
approximately 1 to 10 kHz. The OW tests have pri-
marily been used for distribution class cables due to
test equipment limitations, but testing of transmis-
sion cables up to 150 kV have been performed in the
Netherlands (Gulski 2003).
1
f =
2 π L1 C 2 14-2

3. Very Low Frequency (VLF) Test Equipment. VLF test Where:

equipment applies a 0.1 Hz test voltage to the cable
system. The primary advantage of this type of test
equipment is that the reactive MVA required to ener-
gize the cable system is much lower at 0.1 Hz com-
pared to power frequency. Although VLF testing is
relatively common for distribution cables, it has been
used on a limited basis for lower-voltage transmission
cables due to the maximum-voltage test equipment
that is currently available.
4. Oscillatory Wave (OW) Test System. A damped oscil-
latory test voltage is produced with the test circuit
shown schematically in Figure 14-16 (Gulski 2003).
f = frequency of resonance, Hz.
L1 = inductance of series air core reactor,
Henrys.
C2 = capacitance of cable between high voltage
conductor and sheath, Farads.
Example 14-1—Variable-frequency Resonant Test
Requirements
The VFR test equipment shown in Figure 14-15 uses a
250-kV high-voltage reactor with a 1-hour current rat-
ing of 83 A. The inductance of the reactor is 16.2 H.
Determine if it is capable of testing a 5-mile (8-km)-long
230-kV XLPE transmission line for 1 hour at 140% of
rated voltage. The 230-kV XLPE transmission cable
parameters are given in Example 11-1 of Chapter 11
(Ampacity).

The cable capacitance per unit of length is given by

Equation 14-3:

16.95 ε 10 −12 16.95 ∗ 2.3

C′ = =
⎛ Di ⎞ ⎛ 3.464 ⎞
ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ln ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Dcs ⎠ ⎝ 1.652 ⎠
Figure 14-15 Variable frequency resonant test equipment
(courtesy HV Technologies, Inc.). = 52.65 × 10−12 F / ft (172.7 F / m) 14-3

The total capacitance of the 5-mile (8-km) line is:

ft
C = 52.65 × 10 −12 F × 5 mi × 5280
mi
= 1.39 × 10 −6 F 14-4

The resonant frequency of the high-voltage reactor and

the cable capacitance is:
1
f = = 33.54 Hz
2 π 16.2 H × 1.39 × 10 −6 F
Figure 14-16 Schematic diagram of oscillatory wave
test system. 14-5

14-13
Chapter 14: Testing EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

The cable charging current at 140% of rated voltage and Termination discharges can be identified by time-
33.54 Hz is: domain location methods and by means of special
probes, although some instruments have been developed
I c = 1.4 × El − g ω C = to isolate these discharges by means of very-high-
frequency amplifiers/filters. These would detect signals
emanating only from within short distances, since cables
230 kV
= 1.4 × × 2 × π × 33.54 × 1.39 × 10 −6 rapidly attenuate very-high-frequency signals.
3 Frequency-domain PD Measurements
Frequency-domain testing is based on measuring the
= 54.5 A 14-6
frequency components of the PD pulses and can be per-
formed either off-line or on-line. The frequency spec-
The above calculations indicate that the VFR test equip-
trum of the PD pulses can be obtained either by
ment will be able to provide the required test voltage
computation (e.g., Fast Fourier Transform method) or
(186 kV) without exceeding the 1-hour maximum cur-
through the use of analog swept filters as in a spectrum
rent rating of the high-voltage reactor.
analyzer. For both methods, the measurement result
depends on the setting of the measuring device used
The test equipment will supply 10.1 MVAR (186 kV *
(parameters such as sample rate in the case of digital
54.5 A) to the cable during the test. If the quality factor,
conversion, filter bandwidth and sweep rate in the case
Q, of the high-voltage reactor is 80, then the three-phase
of analog conversion).
480-V supply to the test equipment must be capable of
supplying 126 kVAR (10.1 x 106/80).
In general, the detected frequency components of a PD
Time-domain vs. Frequency-domain PD signal are in the range of a few hundred kHz up to
Measurements 1 GHz, depending on the location of the PD with
Two significantly different methods have been used to per- respect to the measuring point. However, a frequency
form field PD measurements. These are the time domain range of a few hundred kHz to 300 MHz is more practi-
and the frequency domain measurement approaches. cal due to limitations imposed by the frequency band-
width of the PD detection sensors. Frequency-domain
Time-domain PD Measurements
testing normally is conducted in both full- and zero-
Time-domain PD tests are usually performed off-line;
span modes. In the full-span mode, the frequency range
although on-line measurements with multiple sensors
scanned can be adjusted to examine signals in narrow-
are also possible. Individual pulses can be measured if a
frequency bands as well as wide-frequency bands. Mea-
wide bandwidth detector of at least several tens of mega-
surements made using narrow-frequency bands signifi-
hertz is used. Lower-bandwidth detectors may result in
cantly enhance the resolution in locating the PD sites.
the superposition of pulses. When using low-bandwidth
PD energy vs. frequency is a strong function of distance
detectors, for example, as per IEC 60270, the superposi-
from the PD source. The zero-span mode is used to
tion of pulses can be checked by using a double-pulse
examine PD pulses in a time domain as measured in a
calibrator with an adjustable-pulse sequence from 1 μs
relatively narrow bandwidth at a center frequency,
to 100 μs according to IEC 60885-3. The phase posi-
which provides good detection sensitivity (i.e., within a
tions, magnitudes, and repetition rates of the pulses can
frequency range where little interference occurs). The
be measured.
zero-span mode is used to find PD pulses occurring at
one or more cycles of the operating voltage of a specific
A common method of estimating the location of a PD
frequency. The signal from the zero-span mode is often
in a cable uses the principle of reflectometry, as illus-
coupled to a pulse-phase analyzer. The pulse-phase ana-
trated in Figure 14-17. The excitation and measurement
lyzer is capable of recording PD pulses sorted by their
are implemented from one cable end (near end). Each
partial-discharge creates current pulses that travel in
opposite directions. The direct signal traveling toward
the near end is recorded first as pulse 1. The signal trav-
eling in the opposite direction is reflected at the remote
end and travels back to the near end, where it is
recorded as pulse 2. Using the difference, Δt, between
the arrival times of these two pulses and the velocity of
pulse propagation, the PD location can be estimated.
Figure 14-17 Time-domain reflectometry method of
PD location.

14-14
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 14: Testing

phase angle and magnitude relative to the power fre-

quency excitation.

The frequency-domain technique does not provide a

direct basis for calibration of the resulting data in terms
of apparent charge (pC). PD sources are recognized on
the basis of their spectral characteristics and through
the use of the zero-span mode of the spectrum analyzer
to provide a correlation between the signal in the
selected spectral region and power frequency. The rela-
tionship between the measured signal and the “severity”
of PD source is based on experience and information
from laboratory testing.

PD location is estimated by measuring the energy vs.

frequency of the PD pulses. The accuracy of the loca-
tion depends on two factors: Figure 14-18 High-frequency current transformers for PD
measurements (courtesy author).
• The frequency range of the pickup sensors
• The distance between two consecutive test points

PD location is often judged from the frequency content

o f t h e P D - i n d u c e d s i g n a l i n c o m b i n at i o n wi t h
knowledge of the cable type (i.e., the high-frequency
attenuation of the cable). If the PD-induced signal is suf-
ficiently large, the location can be determined using
time-domain methods.
Cable System vs. Cable Accessory PD
Measurements
Most field PD measurements detect the partial dis-
charges in splices or terminations where the instrumen-
tation is attached to the cable system (i.e., splice vaults or
cable termination structures). In this case, one of the fol-
lowing types of sensors are connected to the cable system
where the PD measurements are being performed.
• High-frequency current transformers are connected
to the cable system bonding leads (Figure 14-18). Figure 14-19 Temporary capacitive electrodes for PD
measurements (courtesy author).
• Temporary capacitively-coupled electrodes are
attached to the outside of the cable (Figure 14-19).
• Factory-installed and calibrated capacitive taps are
installed in the cable splices and terminations
(Figure 14-20).

Some commercial field PD testing services have devel-

oped equipment to perform field PD measurements of
complete cable systems using high-voltage coupling
capacitors in series with detection impedances that are
attached to the cable system at one or both ends of the
cable circuit. In this case, maximum circuit length is typ-
ically limited to several miles because of attenuation of
the partial-discharge pulses as they travel to the ends of
the cable circuit. Figure 14-20 400-kV XLPE joint with integral PD sensor
(Kaumanns 2003).

14-15
Chapter 14: Testing
14.3 TYPE/QUALIFICATION TESTS AND
FACTORY PRODUCTION TESTS
The most commonly used qualification tests for trans-
mission cables in North America are those written by
the AEIC and ICEA. The standards used for cable ter-
mination and joint qualification tests are those written
by the Insulated Conductors Committee of the IEEE.
IEC testing standards for transmission cable systems are
commonly used outside of North America; however, a
number of countries have developed national standards
(i.e., JEA [Japan Electric Association], VDE [Associa-
tion of German Electric Engineers], etc.).
North American qualification tests evolved as separate
tests for cables, terminations, and joints; in other
words, components are tested rather than systems.
However, the recently released AEIC CS9-06 addresses
the complete cable system. International qualification
or type tests, such as those provided by the IEC, are
typically written for complete cable systems. There are
obviously advantages and disadvantages associated
with these two different approaches.
The primary difference between the two is in breakdown
tests. To ensure a cable breakdown rather than a termi-
Figure 14-21 Flowchart for ICEA qualification tests
of extruded-dielectric cables.
14-16
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
nation breakdown or flashover, a special test termina-
tion is used to terminate the cable. The advantage is that
the cable breakdown voltage indicates how much mar-
gin there is in the cable design; the disadvantage is that
there is no indication of how well commercial termina-
tions and joints will work with the cable being tested.
Production tests are tests that are performed on every
manufacturing order before the material is shipped to
the purchaser. These tests vary with cable types but gen-
erally include conductor resistance, ac high-voltage, and
ionization or partial-discharge measurements. Qualifi-
cation, sample, and production tests for the different
cable types are summarized in the following sections.
Only sample and production tests are described for
SCFF cables, because AEIC specifications for this cable
type currently do not include qualification tests.
Submarine cable electrical and mechanical tests are
described in Chapter 7 (DC and Submarine Cables)
14.3.1 Qualification/Type Tests for Extruded-
Dielectric Cables (ICEA S-108-720-2004)
The testing requirements for AEIC CS9-93 and ICEA
S-108-720-2004 are summarized in this section for
extruded-dielectric cables for the following reasons.
ICEA S-108-720-2004 covers XLPE and EPR transmis-
sion cable systems up to 345 and 138 kV, respectively.
Qualification tests for extruded-dielectric cables (ICEA
S-108-720) differ significantly from those for pipe-type
c able s ( A E I C C S2 ). T h e q u a l i fi c at i o n t e s t ( s e e
Figure 14-21) consists of electrical tests as preceded by
mechanical bending and load-cycle-precondition condi-
tioning procedures. Cable samples are conditioned
by cable bending and 20 thermal cycles. Electrical
tests include an ac voltage withstand test and a hot
impulse test with dissipation-factor (tan δ) and partial-
discharge measurements. Semiconducting shield (con-
ductor and insulation) volume resistivity-stability tests
are also required.
Load-Cycle Tests
Load-cycle tests are performed on two cable samples
that are subsequently subjected to the high-voltage-time
tests and hot impulse tests. The load-cycle tests are spec-
ified primarily because extruded-dielectric cables have a
much greater expansion than oil-paper insulation and
are therefore subject to significant mechanical stress
during cyclic loading up to the cable emergency conduc-
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 14: Testing

tor temperature. Each of the 24-hr load cycles must
comply with the requirements in Table 14-3.
Ac-withstand Test
The ac-withstand test, or high-voltage-time test, is con-
ducted at room temperature with the cable energized at
2.5 times rated voltage for a duration of 2 hr.
Partial-discharge Test
A partial-discharge test is performed on the cable sam-
ple at room temperature after it has completed the load
cycle and ac-withstand test. The cable sample must have
less than 5 pC of partial discharge at test voltages up to
twice rated voltage.
Insulation Dissipation Factor Test
Dissipation factor measurements are performed after
completion of the partial-discharge tests at the cable
emergency operating temperature. The maximum allow-
able dissipation factor values are 0.1% and 1.5% for
XLPE and EPR insulations, respectively.
Hot Impulse Test
Hot impulse tests for extruded-dielectric cables are
included for the same reasons as they are for taped-
insulation cables—i.e., to demonstrate that the cable will
withstand standard lightning impulses at the required
BIL and maximum conductor temperature. The tests
are similar to those for pipe-type cables, except that the
cable sample must withstand three negative impulses
approximately 25% above the nominal BIL. The
impulses are applied with the cable operating at its
emergency operating temperature (105 to 130°C).
cable’s impulse-withstand capability after it has been
subjected to normal aging conditions for several years.
The hot impulse test is not necessarily the most difficult
part of the qualification test for extruded-dielectric
cables, because new extruded-dielectric cables tend to
have a very high impulse breakdown level in relation to
the cable BIL requirements.
Resistivity-stability Test
Volume resistivity measurements are required on sam-
ples of the conductor and insulation shields to demon-
strate that the resistivity does not increase significantly
at high temperatures.
14.3.2 Production Tests for Extruded-Dielectric
Cables (AEIC CS9-06 and ICEA S-108-
720-2004)
Shipping Length Tests
Shipping tests for XLPE transmission cables consist of
electrical-withstand tests, shown in Table 14-4, and par-
tial-discharge measurements. The full-reel, ac-withstand
tests may be conducted using the 15-, 30-, or 60-minute
test shown in this table.
The partial-discharge test requires that each shipping
length of cable have a partial-discharge level of 5 pC or
l e s s at vo l t ag e s u p t o t wi c e t h e r at e d vo l t ag e.
Figure 14-22 shows the equipment for performing par-
tial-discharge measurements in a shield room to attenu-
ate electrical noise from cable manufacturing equipment.

This requirement was included because test experience

indicates that there may be a significant decrease in the

Table 14-3 Heating Cycle Requirements

Requirement Condition
Duration of heating cycle 8 hr
Time at emergency temperature 2 hr
Duration of cooling cycle At least 16 hr
Test voltage Twice phase-to-ground

Table 14-4 Ac Voltage Withstand Tests for Extruded-

dielectric Transmission Cables (Phase-to-Ground, kV)
System 15-Minute 30-Minute
Voltage 60-Minute Ac Ac Voltage Ac Voltage
(kV) Voltage (kV) (kV) (kV)
69 80 120 100
115 135 200 160
138 160 240 200
161 185 280 230
230 265 N/A 330
Figure 14-22 PD tests on a 138-kV XLPE
345 400 N/A N/A
cable in shielded room (courtesy Southwire).

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Chapter 14: Testing EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

The dc conductor resistance of each reel of cable is mea-
sured, and temperature corrections are applied to give
the resistance per 1000 ft at 25°C. The dc resistance at
25°C cannot exceed the nominal conductor resistance
by more than 2%.
A jacket integrity test is performed on each reel of cable
to determine if any significant imperfections occurred
during manufacturing or handling of the cable. A dc test
voltage ranging from 10 kV to a maximum of 25 kV is
applied to the jacket for 1 minute. The jacket integrity
test is a pass/fail test.
A sample of cable approximately 1 ft (0.305 m) is cut
f ro m b o t h e n d s o f e a c h s h i p p i n g re e l t o c h e c k
the dimensions of the various cable layers and to check
for moisture.
Sample Tests
Table 14-5 summarizes some of the production sample
tests required by AEIC CS9 specifications and ICEA S-
108-720 for extruded-dielectric transmission cable. This
table also contains a brief explanation about the pur-
pose of the tests.
14.3.3 Routine, Special, Type, and
Prequalification Tests for Extruded Cable
Systems (IEC 60840 and IEC 62067)
The IEC 60840 standards for extruded cable systems
having rated voltage >30 up to 150 kV and the IEC
62067 standards for extruded cable systems having rated
voltage >150 up to 500 kV have common or similar test
procedure but with different requirements and test val-
ues and the following major differences:
• IEC 60840 includes requirements for testing the
complete cable systems (i.e., cable, terminations,
and joints) as well as the cable alone and the acces-
sory alone.
• IEC 62067 includes requirements for testing the com-
plete cable system. It also includes a requirement for
switching impulse tests for cable systems with rated
voltages above 230 kV.
• IEC 62067 includes a long-term prequalification test
for the cable system.
• The IEC documents do not include a short-term
emergency temperature rating for extruded-dielectric
transmission cable and, therefore, do not include any
test requirements for operation of the cable system at
conductor temperatures higher than 5 to 10°C above
the maximum continuous conductor temperature rat-
ing (90°C).
Routine Tests
Routine tests are the tests made by the manufacturer on
each manufactured component (length of cable or pre-
fabricated accessory) to check that the component
meets the specified requirements. Uo in the IEC specifi-
cations is defined as the rated line-to-ground voltage of
the cable system.

Table 14-5 AEIC CS9 and ICEA S-108-720 Sample Tests on Extruded-dielectric Transmission Cables
Test Description Purpose of Test
Required at least each extrusion run
Hot creep Measure elongation and set of insulation at 150°C and Determine if insulation crosslinking is adequate
ambient temperature
Wafer boil Wafer of insulation and semiconducting shields boiled Determine if crosslinking of semiconducting material
in solvent is adequate
Min. required at least each 50 K ft
Dimensional stability Measure insulation shrink-back for a cable sample Determine that the cable insulation will not have
(not required by heated for 20 hr at 121°C ±2 C excessive shrink-back, which may cause problems at
ICEA S-108-720) accessories
Shrink-back Measure insulation shrink-back on five cable samples Additional test to quantify insulation shrink-back
that have been temperature-cycled between ambient
and 50°C
Conductor and Measure the volume resistivity of the semiconducting Check that the volume resistivity does not increase
insulation shield layers at 90C and emergency temperature above acceptable limits at high operating temperatures
volume resistivity
Require on each length (reel) or at least 10 K ft
Void and contamination Measure the size and number of voids, foreign material, Determine that insulation is free of voids, foreign mate-
determination and and shield protrusions from wafers of cable core rial, and semiconducting shield protrusions that would
shield protrusion lead to failure
Insulation eccentricity Measure maximum deviation in insulation thickness as Check centering of conductor in cable high-voltage
a percentage of maximum insulation thickness insulation
Cable core dimension Check that the minimum point and average thicknesses Check for compliance with specified values
checks of the cable shields, insulation, sheath, and jacket are
within specified tolerances

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
The following tests are required:
• Partial-discharge test. The partial-discharge test shall
be carried out in accordance with IEC 60885-3 for
cables, except that the sensitivity, as defined in IEC
60885-3, is 10 pC or better. The test voltage is raised
gradually to and held at 1.75 Uo for 10s and then
slowly reduced to 1.5 Uo. No detectable discharge is
allowed above the declared test sensitivity level from
the test object at 1.5 Uo.
• Voltage test. The voltage test is made at ambient tem-
perature using an alternating test voltage at power
frequency. The test voltage is raised gradually to the
specified value and held for the specified time
between the conductor and metallic screen/sheath
according to the tables given in relevant IEC stan-
dard for the specific class of voltage.
• Cable jacket integrity test. A cable jacket integrity test
is required. The test procedure is specified in
IEC 60229.
Sample Tests
These are tests made by the manufacturer on samples of
completed cable or components taken from a completed
cable, at a specified frequency, to verify that the finished
product meets the specified requirements.
The following tests are carried out on samples which,
for the tests in items 2 and 7, may be complete reel
lengths of cable, taken to represent batches:
1. Conductor examination for compliance with the
cable manufacturer’s drawing of the cable (i.e., num-
ber of strands, etc.).
2. Measurement of electrical resistance of conductor.
3. Measurement of thickness of insulation and over-
sheath.
4. Measurement of thickness of metallic sheath.
5. Measurement of diameters, if required.
6. Hot set test for XLPE and EPR insulations.
7. Measurement of capacitance.
8. Measurement of density of PE insulation.
9. Lightning impulse voltage test followed by a power
frequency voltage test (for IEC 62067 only).
10. Water penetration test, if applicable.
11. Tests on components of cables with longitudinally-
applied metal foil.
The sample tests in items 1 to 8 shall be carried out on
one length from each batch of the same type and cross
section of cable, but shall be limited to not more than
10% of the number of lengths in any contract.
Chapter 14: Testing
The frequency of the tests in items 9 and 11 shall be
according to the agreed quality control procedures indi-
cated in the relevant standard.
Type Tests
Type tests are tests made before supplying, on a general
commercial basis, a type of cable system covered by the
IEC standard, in order to demonstrate satisfactory per-
formance characteristics to meet the intended applica-
tion. Once successfully completed, these tests do not
need to be repeated, unless changes are made in the
cable or accessory materials, or design or manufacturing
process, which might change the performance character-
istics. The relevant IEC standards also specify the range
of type approval for the cable and the accessories (joints
and terminations). This is necessary in order to clarify
the cases where the previous performed type tests shall
be considered applicable or shall be repeated.
The type test sequence consists of electrical tests on the
cable system and nonelectrical tests on cable compo-
nents.
Electrical-type Tests
The electrical-type tests are carried out on a cable sam-
ple at least 10 m long out of terminations. The test cir-
cuit, cable and accessories, are arranged according the
requirements of the relevant standard. The test sequence
is the following:
1. Bending test followed by installation of the accesso-
ries and a partial-discharge test at ambient tempera-
ture.
2. Insulation Tan δ measurement.
3. Heating cycle voltage test (20 cycles at 2Uo, temper-
ature from 5 to 10°C above maximum normal oper-
ating temperature).
4. Partial-discharge tests (with a sensitivity as defined
in IEC 60885-3, 5 pC or better) at ambient tempera-
ture, and at high temperature. No detectable dis-
charge is allowed above the declared test sensitivity.
The tests are carried out after the final cycle of
step 3 above or, alternatively, after the lightning
impulse voltage test in step 6 below.
5. Switching impulse voltage test (required for
Um ≥ 300 kV).
6. Lightning impulse voltage test, followed by a power
frequency voltage test.
7. Partial-discharge tests, if not previously carried out
in step 4 above.
8. Tests of outer protection for direct-buried joints.
9. Examination of the cable system with cable and
accessories shall be carried out after completion of
the tests above.
14-19
Chapter 14: Testing
10. Resistivity of semiconducting screens (measured on
a separate sample).
Nonelectrical-type Tests
The nonelectrical-type tests shall be carried out on sam-
ples of cable or components and are the following:
1. Check of cable construction.
2. Tests for determining the mechanical properties of
insulation before and after aging.
3. Tests for determining the mechanical properties of
oversheaths before and after aging.
4. Aging tests on pieces of complete cable to check
compatibility of materials.
5. Loss of mass test on PVC oversheaths.
6. Pressure test at high temperature on oversheaths.
7. Tests on PVC oversheaths at low temperature.
8. Heat shock test for PVC oversheaths.
9. Ozone resistance test for EPR and HEPR insula-
tions.
10. Hot set test for EPR, HEPR, and XLPE insulations.
11. Measurement of density of PE insulation.
12. Measurement of carbon black content of black PE
oversheaths.
13. Shrinkage test for PE, HDPE, and XLPE insulations.
14. Shrinkage test for PE oversheaths.
15. Determination of hardness of HEPR insulation.
16. Determination of the elastic modulus of HEPR
insulation.
17. Test under fire conditions.
18. Water penetration test.
19. Tests on components of cables with a longitudinally
applied metal foil.
The test requirements are given in the relevant IEC
60840 or 62067 standards. The test methods and proce-
dures are given in the IEC 60811 standards series.
Prequalification Test
The prequalification test is a test made before supplying,
on a general commercial basis, a type of cable system
covered by the IEC 62067 standard, in order to demon-
strate satisfactory long-term performance of the com-
plete cable system.
The prequalification test consists of electrical tests on
the complete cable system with approximately 100 m of
full-sized cable including accessories. The normal
sequence of tests is:
1. Heating cycle voltage test: a voltage of 1.7 Uo and
heating cycles are applied to the assembly during the
14-20
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
complete test period of 8760 hr (1 year). The cycles of
heating (temperature from 0 to 5°C above the maxi-
mum normal operating temperature), and cooling is
carried out at least 180 times.
2. Lightning impulse voltage test on cable samples.
3. Examination of the cable system after completion of
the tests above of the cable system.
The test arrangement must be representative of
the installation design conditions—e.g., rigidly fixed,
flexible, and transition arrangements, underground and
in air. In particular, special attention is given to thermo-
mechanical aspects of accessories.
The prequalification test needs only to be carried out
once unless there is a substantial change in the cable sys-
tem with respect to materials, manufacturing process,
design, and design stress levels. A “substantial change”
is defined as a change that might adversely affect the
performance of the cable system.
14.3.4 Qualification Tests for Pipe-type Cables
(AEIC CS2-97)
The more salient parts of the AEIC qualification tests
and the objective for including each test as part of the
qualification test series are summarized below. Current
specifications should be consulted for the exact test
requirements for each voltage class and conductor size.
The qualification test series consists of mechanical
conditioning of the cable sample, dielectric measure-
ments, an ac high-voltage withstand test, and a hot
impulse test.
Mechanical Conditioning
The mechanical conditioning test is specified to demon-
strate that the cable has adequate electrical strength
after it goes through the mechanical-bending process
necessary to install the cable. This portion of the test
consists of three reverse bends of the cable on a reel with
a diameter 25 times that of the cable core plus the con-
ductor diameter.
Following the mechanical conditioning, the cable sam-
ple is pulled into a pipe, terminated, and pressurized to
rated pressure (200 psig) before any of the following
tests are performed.
Dissipation-Factor and Ionization-Factor
Measurements
The dielectric measurements consist of ionization-factor
and dissipation-factor (tan δ) measurements at three
different temperatures. The dissipation-factor measure-
ments indicate if the cable insulation is relatively free of
contamination or other gross defects. The ionization-
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
factor measurement indicates if the cable is free from
partial discharges at its normal operating voltage; it is
actually the change in dissipation factor between two
different levels of voltage stress. A high ionization factor
combined with a normal dissipation factor at the low
stress indicates that there is some form of ionization
occurring in the cable insulation.
Ac-withstand Test
The ac-withstand test, also referred to as a high-voltage-
time test, requires that the cable withstand approxi-
mately 2.5 times the rated line-to-ground voltage for a
period of 24 hr for system voltages up to 345 kV. Cables
with system voltages greater than 345 kV are tested at
1.73 times the rated phase-to-ground voltage plus
100 kV. The cable is tested at rated dielectric-fluid pres-
sure and at ambient temperature plus rise due to dielec-
tric heating only. Test experience has shown that
localized manufacturing defects, such as conductor or
shield defects, may result in cable failure under the high-
voltage-time test.
Hot Impulse Test
The objective of the hot impulse test is to demonstrate
that the cable will withstand standard lightning impulses
at the required BIL while it is operating at maximum-
rated conductor temperature. This is an important test
for impregnated-paper-insulated cables, because it is
usually the most difficult part of the qualification test
for the cable to pass. The hot impulse test specifies that
the cable withstand 10 positive and 10 negative lightning
impulses while the conductor is maintained at a temper-
ature of 85ºC. The hot impulse test is passed if the cable
withstands the applied impulses at rated BIL followed
by an ac-withstand test for 15 minutes at 1.67 times
rated voltage-to-ground plus 10 kV. The AEIC qualifi-
cation test also specifies continuing the hot impulse tests
up to cable breakdown for information purposes only.
The next higher voltage class of termination is often
used to terminate the cable for these tests in an attempt
to reach cable breakdown before a termination flash-
over or breakdown occurs.
14.3.5 Production Tests for Pipe-type Cables
(AEIC CS2-97)
Shipping-length Tests
Shipping-length tests for pipe-type cable consist of a
conductor-resistance measurement, an ionization test,
and an ac high-voltage test. The conductor-resistance
measurement is made to determine that the resistance of
the cable conductor, corrected to 25°C, does not exceed
the limits in the AEIC specification.
The full-reel, ac high-voltage tests requires that a volt-
age corresponding to a stress ranging from 150 V/mil
Chapter 14: Testing
(5.9 kV/mm) for 69-kV to 100 V/mil (3.9 kV/mm) for
500-kV system voltage be applied to the cable for
15 minutes with the cable at atmospheric pressure and
room temperature. The ac test voltages are approxi-
mately one-half of those for other cable types, because
the cable cannot be pressurized on the reel at its normal
operating pressure.
The ionization factor, which must be less than 0.1% for
HPFF and medium-viscosity HPGF cables, and 2.0%
for high-viscosity HPGF cables, is determined by the
difference in the cable dissipation factor at low- and
high-voltage stress levels.
Sample Tests
The sample tests required by AEIC specifications for
pipe-type cables consist of mechanical integrity, delami-
nation (for laminated paper-polypropylene, LPP, cable
only), bending, and electrical tests.
The objective of the mechanical integrity checks are to
determine that the cable was manufactured with the
proper insulation and shielding thicknesses, that the
conductor is not out of round, and that there are no
tears or excessive wrinkles in the insulating tapes. Dur-
ing this inspection, the shield, insulation, and binder
tapes are removed from samples of the cable and
inspected for any abnormalities.
The objective of the delamination test is to determine if
the kraft paper and polypropylene layers of the insulat-
ing tapes are adequately bonded together. The insulat-
ing tapes are removed from an 18-in. (0.46 m) length of
cable, inspected for delamination, coiled in a roll, reap-
plied to the cable core, and inspected a second time for
delamination after removal from the cable core.
The cold bend test is intended to demonstrate that the
cable will not be damaged by bending during installa-
tion even at very low ambient temperatures. Basically,
this test consists of taking approximately 15 ft (5 m) of
cable, subjecting it to a temperature of minus 10°C for a
period of at least 2 hr and bending the cable four times
with reverse bends around a cylinder whose diameter is
12 to 20 times the diameter of the cable, depending on
the insulation thickness. The cable sample is then dis-
sected to determine if there has been any damage to the
cable that would affect its electrical performance or
cause cable installation problems.
The electrical tests consist of dissipation-factor tests and
ionization tests with a sample of the cable pressurized at
normal working pressure and a high-voltage-time test
with the cable sample operating substantially below its
rated gas or fluid pressure (100 psig). The cable’s dissi-
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Chapter 14: Testing EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

pation factor must be below limits specified for the volt- tion of the specified ac withstand voltage for 1 minute
age class of the cable and insulation type (paper or on shipping sections.
LPP), at temperatures of 25, 80, and 90°C. The cable
sample must also have an ionization factor of no more 14.3.7 Tests for Cable Joints
than 0.1% for cables rated at 161 kV and below. The IEEE Standard 404, “IEEE Standard for Extruded and
ionization factor must be no more than 0.05% for cables Laminated Dielectric Shielded Cable Joints Rated
rated above 161 kV. 2500 V–500000 V” (IEEE 2000) is a comprehensive doc-
ument that establishes electrical ratings and test require-
The high-voltage-time test is performed with HPFF and ments of cable joints used with extruded and laminated
medium-viscosity HPGF cables pressurized at 100 psig dielectric shielded cables. IEEE 404 includes short-time,
(700 kPa) or at 150 psig (1050 kPa) for high-viscosity high-current tests, joint shield conductivity tests, and
HPGF cables. Cable samples must withstand an ac test connector thermal and mechanical tests in addition to
voltage corresponding to an average voltage stress of high-voltage dielectric tests. IEC requirements for trans-
430 V/mil (16.93 kV/mm) for 6 hr to pass the test. A sub- mission cable joints are included in the same standards
sequent 3-hr test is also specified with the cable energized as for the same type of transmission cable.
at an average stress of 520 V/mil (20.47 kV/mm), but this
part of the test is for informational purposes only. The electrical test requirements for joints are generally
similar to test requirements for the cable that they are
14.3.6 Qualification Tests for Compressed-Gas- designed to join. The test levels or number of impulse
Insulated Cables repetitions vary between joint and cable test standards,
The only domestic standard applicable to this type of primarily because the standards were written indepen-
cable is IEEE/ANSI document C37.122, “Gas Insulated dently. The major difference in the test requirements for
Substation—Standards, Recommended Practices, and joints compared to those for cable is that joints must be
Guides,” which was prepared by the Substation Com- tested for connector problems or problems due to
mittee of the IEEE (IEEE/ANSI 1993). Since this docu- mechanical shifting of components during thermal
ment pertains to substation switchgear as well as gas- expansion and contraction. These potential problem
insulated bus (or cable), some of the tests do not apply areas led to the inclusion of high-voltage, cyclic-load
to cables. The standards section of this document con- tests for all joint types and connector thermal and
tains what are referred to as “design tests” and “produc- mechanical tests.
tion tests.”
Tables 14-6 and 14-7 summarize the test requirements
The design tests that are applicable to cables are: specified by IEEE 404 for extruded-dielectric and lami-
• Tests to demonstrate that the cable will carry nated-dielectric cable joints.
rated current without the components exceeding
The IEEE 404 design tests for extruded-dielectric cable
specified temperatures.
joints are considerably more complex than those speci-
• Dielectric-withstand tests to demonstrate the power fied for the laminated-dielectric cable joints. The design
frequency, impulse, and switching-surge dielectric- tests include requirements for multiple samples, wet-and
withstand levels of the cable. Partial-discharge tests dry-load cycle tests, and short-time current tests. Chap-
are also required to demonstrate that the insulation ter 8 provides additional information on testing require-
system is free of partial discharges at 150% of the ments for cable joints and terminations.
maximum rated ac voltage.
• Short-circuit tests to demonstrate that the device will
not be damaged by specified short-circuit currents. Table 14-6 Summary of IEEE Std. 404 Cable Joint
Test Requirements for Extruded-dielectric Transmission
• Insulator tests to demonstrate that the enclosure will Cable Joints
operate satisfactorily during thermal cycling. AC Voltage AC HV
• Pressure tests to demonstrate that the enclosure will Withstand Time Test DC 15 min
withstand gas pressures up 1.5 times maximum oper- System BIL Time Voltage Time Voltage Withstand
Voltage (kV) (min) (kV) (h) (kV) (kV)
ating pressures.
138 650 5 200 6 200 325
161 750 5 230 6 232 375
The primary production or routine test that applies to
230 1050 5 330 6 332 525
compressed-gas-insulated cables consists of the applica-
345 1300 5 500 6 500 650
500 1550 5 720 6 725 775

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 14: Testing

Design Tests Production Tests

Extruded dielectric joints must complete the following All premolded transmission cable joints must pass the
sequence of design tests to be in compliance with following production tests.
IEEE 404. 1. Partial-discharge. Less than 5 pC at 150% of rated
1. Partial-discharge voltage level phase-to-ground voltage.
2. Ac-withstand voltage 2. Ac-withstand or full-wave impulse-withstand volt-
3. Dc-withstand voltage age. At voltages shown in Table 14-6 or 14-7.
4. Impulse-withstand voltage at 25°C
14.3.8 Tests for Cable Terminations
5. Impulse-withstand voltage at emergency tempera-
Test requirements for cable terminations are more com-
ture
plex than for any other component of a cable system. It
6. Partial-discharge voltage level is necessary to demonstrate that a termination meets the
7. Cyclic aging in-air, 30 cycles requirements of open-air substation equipment or riser
8. Cyclic aging in-water, 30 cycles termination and performs its cable-sealing and voltage-
grading functions. Additionally, cable terminations have
9. Partial-discharge voltage level
a wider variety of constructions than the cables that
10. High-voltage time they terminate. As a result, cable-termination test
11. Impulse-withstand voltage at 25°C requirements combine cable tests with termination insu-
12. Partial-discharge voltage level lator-air insulation tests.
13. Sectionalizer test (if applicable)
Cable-termination test requirements differ from cable or
14. Shield restoration: two short-time current tests joint tests in the following ways:
(if applicable)
• Adjustments must be made to some of the electrical
15. Jacket restoration: cyclic aging in-water, 10 cycles
test values to compensate for variations in air temper-
16. Short-time current ature, barometric pressure, and humidity.
17. Ac withstand voltage • Some of the tests must be performed with water spray
18. Shielding to simulate rain.
19. Connector thermal and mechanical • Radio influence voltage (RIV) is a design consider-
ation.
IEEE 404 requires the following sequence of design tests • Some electrical breakdowns on the outside of the ter-
for laminated-dielectric cable joints.
mination are allowed.
1. Ac-withstand voltage
2. Dc-withstand voltage The primary standard for testing transmission cable ter-
minations in North America is IEEE Standard 48-1996,
3. Impulse-withstand voltage at emergency tempera-
“IEEE Standard Test Procedures and Requirements for
ture
Alternating-Current Cable Terminations 2.5 kV Through
4. Ionization 765 kV” (IEEE 1996). The standard covers test require-
5. Cyclic aging in-air ments for extruded-dielectric terminations up to 230 kV
and laminar-dielectric terminations up to 765-kV system
voltage. Tables 14-8 and 14-9 summarize the test require-
ments specified by IEEE 48 for extruded-dielectric and
Table 14-7 Summary of IEEE Std. 404 Cable Joint laminar-dielectric transmission cable terminations.
Test Requirements for Laminar-dielectric Transmission
Cable Joints Design Tests
AC Voltage Withstand Extruded- and laminar-dielectric cable terminations
System BIL DC 15 min
Voltage (kV) Time (h) Voltage (kV) Withstand (kV) must pass the following sequence of tests to comply with
138 650 24 200 325 IEEE 48 design test requirements.
161 750 24 230 375 1. Power frequency voltage dry withstand test—
230 1050 24 330 525 1-min duration
345 1300 24 500 650 2. Power frequency voltage wet withstand test—
500 1550 24 720 775 10-sec duration

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Chapter 14: Testing EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

3. Power frequency voltage dry withstand test— 14.4 AFTER-INSTALLATION TESTS

6-hr duration
4. Partial-discharge (extruded-dielectric) or ionization
factor test (laminated-dielectric)
5. RIV test
6. Lightning impulse withstand test
7. Switching impulse wet withstand test (EHV voltages
only)
8. Direct voltage dry withstand test—15-min duration
9. Cyclic aging test
Pressurized laminar-dielectric cable terminations must
pass a pressure leak test in addition to the above dielec-
tric tests.
Production Tests
All cable terminations must pass an ac voltage-withstand
test for 1 min under dry conditions. Tables 14-8 and 14-9
show the required ac withstand voltage test requirements.
Extruded-dielectric cable terminations with premolded
stress cones must pass the partial-discharge require-
ments shown in Table 14-9.
Pressurized laminar-dielectric cable terminations must
pass a pressure leak test in addition to the ac voltage
withstand test.
After-installation or commissioning tests have been a
part of cable industry standards for many years. These
tests are included to determine if there has been any
damage or defect created in a cable circuit as a result of
installing, terminating, and splicing the cable. It is
assumed that routine factory tests have detected and
eliminated any manufacturing defects.
The ideal after-installation test would reveal defects in
the cable system but not cause damage to the cable insu-
lation. Unfortunately, the severity of the after-installa-
tion test requires a trade-off between these two
requirements. With the possible exception of the
impulse test, it is generally acknowledged that the most
suitable after-installation tests would be a power fre-
quency voltage somewhat higher than the normal oper-
ating voltage. In fact, the SCFF cable test specification
includes ac test voltages as the primary or preferred
acceptance test. Until recently, it was not economically
feasible to test transmission cable circuits with any mag-
nitude of power frequency voltage other than rated volt-
age. This was because of the large size and weight of ac
field test equipment that could supply the high charg-
ing-current requirements of most transmission cables.
A practical compromise to this problem has been the
use of dc voltage rather than ac voltage for the after-

Table 14-8 Summary of IEEE Std. 48 Extruded-dielectric Cable Termination Test Requirements
Ac Voltage Withstand Cyclic Aging Radio PD Extinction Lightning 15 min Dc
System 1 min Dry 10 s Wet 6 hr Dry Dry Influence Dry Voltage Impulse Dry Voltage
Voltage (kV) (kV) (kV) (kV) (μV) (kV) (kV) Withstand (kV)
69 175 145 120 80 300 60 350 245
115 205 190 160 133 400 80 450 275
138 310 275 210 160 500 120 650 355
161 365 315 250 186 500 140 750 395
230 460 445 330 265 -- 200 1050 510

Table 14-9 IEEE Std. 48 Laminar-dielectric Cable Termination Test Requirements

Ac Voltage Withstand Switching
Cyclic Aging Radio Lightning Impulse Wet 15 min Dc
System 1 min Dry 10 s Wet 6 hr Dry Dry Influence Dry Impulse Dry (Dry) Voltage
Voltage (kV) (kV) (kV) (kV) (μV) (kV) (kV) Withstand (kV)
138 310 275 210 160 500 650 -- 355
161 365 315 250 186 500 750 -- 395
230 390 380 320 265 500 900 -- 450
230 460 445 320 265 500 1050 -- 510
345 520 -- 440 300 500 1175 (900) 555
345 575 -- 440 300 500 1300 825 600
345 575 -- 440 300 500 1300 900 600
500 575 -- 440 435 500 1300 (1100) 600
500 690 -- 440 435 500 1550 1050 700
500 750 -- 575 435 500 1675 1110 745
500 750 -- 575 435 500 1675 1175 745

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
installation test. If the dc test voltage is raised slowly to
the desired test level, a portable dc test set with a current
rating of 20 to 100 milliamperes can be used to energize
a cable up to several times its rated voltage. The cable
conduction, or leakage, current varies significantly with
temperature but is fractions of a milliampere per thou-
sand feet (300 m) at 25°C. Unfortunately, dc Hi-Pot
tests are not very effective in detecting many installation
defects, and there is evidence that high dc voltage can
damage extruded-dielectric cable systems under some
circumstances. The high dc voltage injects an electric
charge into the extruded-dielectric insulation, which is
trapped in the insulation for some period of time after
the dc voltage is removed. This space charge will
increase local electrical stress concentrations if the cable
is energized with ac voltage before the trapped space
charge dissipates.
During the past five to ten years, significant advances
have been achieved in the commercialization of ac field
test equipment for transmission cables. The commercial
development of high-voltage, transportable variable-
frequency-resonant test equipment has changed commis-
sioning test practices in Europe and other parts of the
world and is starting to be utilized in North America.
After-installation or commissioning test practices vary
significantly around the world. The following sections
summarize commissioning test practices for the differ-
ent types of transmission cables.
14.4.1 Extruded-dielectric Cable After-installation
Tests
After-installation tests for extruded-dielectric transmis-
sion cables vary significantly around the world (CIGRE
2002). The most common approach in most countries is
to perform a jacket integrity test with dc voltage to
detect cable damage during installation, followed by an
ac voltage test of the cable system. However, several
countries in Asia still perform a dc Hi-Pot on the cable
system high-voltage insulation.
Jacket Integrity Tests
A 1-min dc Hi-Pot test is normally performed with a
test voltage of 10 to 25 kV. ICEA S-108-720 recom-
mends a dc test voltage of 150 V/mil (6 kV/mm) of the
average thickness of the cable jacket with a maximum of
24 kV between the metallic shield/sheath and the semi-
conducting outer coating. IEC 60229 standard has simi-
lar requirements.
Ac Voltage Withstand Tests
The AEIC, ICEA, and IEC recommendations for the
after-installation ac withstand test are:
Chapter 14: Testing
• AEIC CS9-06 (69 to 345 kV). This EPR and XLPE
cable specification does not provide any specific after-
installation tests. Rather, the recommendation is for
the purchaser and manufacturer to decide upon a
mutually acceptable after-installation test.
• ICEA S-108-720-2004 (69 to 345 kV). The standard
for XLPE and EPR transmission cables recommends
one of two ac voltage withstand tests. The first option
is to perform a 1-hr ac withstand test of 1.4 to 1.7
times rated phase-to-ground voltage. The specified
frequency of the ac test voltage must be in the range
from 20 to 300 Hz, which includes the most common
range for variable-frequency series resonance tests.
The second option is to energize the cable system for
at least 24-hr. This second option is normally called a
24-hr rated voltage “soak test.”
• IEC 62067 (161 to 500 kV). This standard for XLPE
transmission cables provides three alternatives for the
after-installation ac withstand test. The first option is
to perform a 1-hr test with an applied voltage of 1.7
times nominal phase-to-ground voltage.
The second option is to perform a 1-hr test with an
applied voltage shown in Table 14-10.
The third option is to perform a 24-hr rated voltage
“soak test.”
The most common practice in North America has been
to perform a 24-hr rated voltage soak test. However, one
of the first major 230-kV XLPE transmission cable cir-
cuits in the United States (Cooper 2002) performed a
1-hr ac voltage withstand test using a variable-frequency
series resonant test set at a voltage of 1.4 times rated
phase-to-ground test voltage (186 kV).
Diagnostic Tests after Installation
A number of countries perform partial-discharge
measurements on the joints and terminations using
either an on-line test (rated voltage) or off-line testing
with an ac test voltage ranging from 1.25 to 1.7 times
rated line-to-ground voltage. In North America, PD
testing of XLPE transmission cables has generally been
limited to EHV cable systems. IEEE Standard 400.3
(IEEE 2006) provides guidance in performing field
PD measurements.
Table 14-10 IEC 62067 Ac Test Voltages After Installation
Test Voltage
Nominal System Voltage (kV) (phase-to-ground kV)
220 to 230 180
275 to 287 210
330 to 345 250
380 to 500 260
500 320
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Chapter 14: Testing EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Other After-installation Tests and HPGF cable systems in service. The results of these
One or more of the following tests are frequently per- tests provide a baseline for future diagnostic tests. The
formed prior to the ac voltage withstand test. fluid quality tests generally consist of the following
• Baseline distributed temperature sensor (DTS) mea- diagnostic tests:
surements using multimode optical fibers built into • Fluid dielectric strength (ASTM D-877)
the cable or a separate fiber optic cable. This test is • Fluid dissipation factor at 100°C (ASTM D-924)
performed to locate and identify any external heat
sources before the cable system is loaded. Chapter 12 • Moisture content (ASTM D-1533)
(Operation and Installation Design) provides addi-
tional details of DTS temperature monitoring. 14.4.3 SCFF Cable System After-installation Tests
• Measurement of bonding lead currents with a hand- After-installation tests for SCFF cable systems are simi-
lar to those for XLPE transmission cable systems,
held clamp-on current transformer. This measure-
except that a dc voltage Hi-Pot test is performed in place
ment is made to determine if the cable system bond-
of an ac voltage withstand test.
ing is functioning correctly.
Jacket Integrity Tests
14.4.2 HPFF and HPGF Cable After-installation The jacket integrity test is performed with a dc voltage
Tests Hi-Pot test of 10 to 25 kV for 1 min. This is a pass/fail
type of test.
The after-installation test procedures of HPFF and
HPGF transmission cables are well established because DC Hi-Pot Tests
of their long service history in North America. The Table 14-12 shows the recommended dc test voltages
after-installation test procedures are in AEIC CS2, recommended by IEEE Standard 400.1 for laminated-
AIEC CG3, and IEEE Standard 400.1. dielectric cables. The cable system should be at ambient
ground temperature before the Hi-Pot test is started.
Pipe Corrosion Protection
Making sure that the pipe corrosion protection is in
good condition before placing HPFF and HPGF cable Table 14-11 AEIC CS2 Hi-Pot Test Voltages for HPFF and
systems in service is imperative for long-term reliability HPGF Cables
of pipe-type cable systems. This generally consists of Dc Test Voltage (kV)
checking the pipe potential with respect to a copper- System 4-Hr 15-Min
copper sulfate cell and checking the pipe-coating resis- Voltage BIL Acceptance Acceptance
tance is within acceptable limits. Chapter 10 (Grounding (kV) (kV) Test Test Proof Test
and Cathodic Protection) covers the details of these 69 350 125 165 145
after-installation tests. 115 550 190 255 225
120 550 200 265 235
Dc Hi-Pot Tests 138 650 225 300 265
Dc Hi-Pot tests have historically been the most accepted 161 750 260 350 310
after-installation test for HPFF and HPGF transmis- 230 1050 340 455 400
sion cables. The dc voltage hi-potential (Hi-Pot) test is 345 1300 465 625 550
performed with the cable pressurized at nominal work- 500 1550 500 670 595
ing pressure. It is also important that the pipe pressure 765 2050 720 965 850
has been maintained at nominal pressure for at least
24 hr prior to conducting the Hi-Pot test. Experience Table 14-12 IEEE 400.1 Hi-Pot Test Voltages for Laminated-
has shown that approximately 24 hr at full pressure is dielectric Cables
required to make sure that any voids in the cable insula- System BIL 15-min Acceptance 15-min Maintenance
tion have been eliminated by the pipe fluid pressure. Voltage (kV) (kV) Test (kV) Test (kV)
Table 14-11 contains AEIC CS2-97 recommendations 69 350 175 130
for after-installation (or acceptance test) and proof test 115 550 275 205
dc test voltages. 138 650 325 245
161 750 375 280
Diagnostic Tests during Commissioning
230 1050 525 395
Many utilities also collect pipe fluid samples from all
345 1300 650 490
sampling ports and perform dissolved gas analysis
500 1550 775 580
(DGA) and fluid quality tests prior to placing HPFF

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
14.4.4 Sheath-bonding Verification Tests
Some utilities perform tests on single-conductor cable
systems with cross-bonded or single-point-bonded cable
sheaths to verify that they are functioning as intended
(i.e., to minimize induced sheath currents). These sheath-
bonding verification tests are performed as follows.
Cross-bonded Systems
Once the installation of the cross-bonded system is com-
plete, the correctness of the bonding connections shall
be demonstrated by applying a three-phase current of
approximately 100 amperes to the phase conductors by
shorting the three cable terminations together at one
end of the cable circuit and applying adjustable three-
phase low voltage at the opposite end. The resulting
sheath currents and voltages with respect to the local
ground are then recorded for the following conditions.
1. The bonding links in their correct position.
2. The bonding leads repositioned to simulate errone-
ous bonding.
3. The bonding links returned to their correct position.
The sheath currents and voltages are then compared
against the values from design calculations to determine
if the cross-bonding system and connections are func-
tioning as expected.
Single-Point-Bonded Systems
Sheath-bonding verification tests for single-point or
multiple, single-point-bonded cable systems may be con-
ducted in a similar manner as for cross-bonded cable
systems. The sheath currents should be less than 1 A
with 100 A of balanced three-phase currents flowing in
the cable high-voltage conductors.
The sheath-bonding verification tests can also be per-
formed after the cable system has been placed in service
by installing split-core current transformers around the
cable-bonding leads and measuring the magnitude of
the currents.
Contact Resistances
The contact resistance of all earthing and sheath-
bonding connections are measured using a calibrated
digital micro-ohmmeter. The contact resistance between
each lug attached to the joint sleeve of a sectionalized
joint and the corresponding bonding lead connector
should be measured prior to installation of the outer
protective covering.
The contact resistance shall not exceed the levels shown
in Table 14-13.
Chapter 14: Testing
14.4.5 Series Impedance Measurements
Cable system positive- and zero-sequence series imped-
ances (see Chapter 16) are measured in some cases
(Kaumanns 2003) prior to cable system energization to
verify calculated impedance values for relay settings and
for system planning studies. In general, the procedure
for impedance measurements is to short the three cable
terminations together at one end of the cable circuit and
then apply balanced three-phase currents from a low-
voltage source for positive-sequence impedance mea-
surements (see Figure 14-23).
The zero-sequence impedance measurements are per-
formed by connecting the three cable terminations to
ground and applying a single-phase voltage from a low
voltage source to the three cable terminations at the
opposite end of the circuit (see Figure 14-24).
The test equipment used to apply the positive- and zero-
sequence voltages and currents depends on the length of
the transmission cable circuit, but it is generally
designed to produce 25 to 100 A RMS of current in the
cable system. The following types of instruments can be
used to perform the impedance measurements.
Table 14-13 Maximum Contact Resistance
Maximum Contact
Contact Resistance (μΩ)
Link contact 20
SVL terminal connection 50
Joint lug and bonding connector 20
Earth connection 50
Figure 14-23 Schematic diagram of circuit for positive-
sequence impedance measurement.
Figure 14-24 Schematic diagram of circuit for zero-
sequence impedance measurement.
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Chapter 14: Testing EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

1. Voltmeters, ammeters, and phase-angle meters Zero Sequence Impedance (Zo)

2. Voltmeters, ammeters, and wattmeters Single-phase currents are injected into the cables con-
nected in parallel, with the test current returning
3. Three-phase power analyzer. This type of instrument
through the cable sheaths, earth, and ground continuity
contains analog-to-digital converters for digitizing
conductors, if present.
the three-phase voltages and currents and accurately
calculating three-phase power and phase angles from
Measurements of current, voltage, and either power or
these digitized signals.
phase angle are used to calculate the zero-sequence
impedance as follows:
All sheath bonding and earthing connections are con-
nected as for normal operation. When there is more than Wattmeter Measurements Phase-Angle Measurements
one cable per phase, the conductors and sheaths are also 3V 3V
connected as for normal operation and the measure- Zo = Zo =
ments described below carried out on the total circuit. I I
3W 3V
Particular care is taken to ensure that contact resis- Ro = Ro = cos θ
tances are small compared with the resistance of the I2 I
conductor. At the time of the tests, an estimate of the 3V
sin θ
2 2
cable temperature is noted so that allowance can be Xo = Zo - R o Xo =
made for the temperature dependence of the resistances. I
Positive Sequence Impedance (Z1) Where:
The positive-sequence impedance measurements are V = measured conductor to earth voltage (V).
performed with the magnitudes of the three phase cur- I = measured total current (A).
rents as close to equal as possible. Measurements of W = measured total power (W).
current, voltage, and either power or phase angle are θ = measured phase angle (degrees).
made on each of the single-core cables. From these mea-
surements, the positive-sequence impedance is calcu- 14.5 FIELD MAINTENANCE/PROOF TESTS
lated as follows. Field maintenance test practices for transmission cables
Wattmeter Measurements Phase-Angle Measurements are not well defined. They generally consist of the fol-
Vρ Vρ lowing types of tests.
Zρ = Zρ =
Iρ Iρ 14.5.1 Electrical Tests
Wρ Vρ Electrical maintenance tests, in turn, consist of the fol-
Rρ = 2
Rρ = cos θ lowing tests.
Iρ Iρ
Hi-Pot Tests
Vρ
X ρ = Zρ 2 - R ρ 2 Xρ = sin θ Dc voltage Hi-Pot tests are generally performed on
Iρ laminated-dielectric cables after repairs or major main-
tenance have been completed and prior to returning the
Σ Zρ cable circuit to normal operation. See Tables 14-11 and
Z1 = ohms/phase
3 14-12 for the maintenance or proof test voltage levels.
Variable-frequency series resonant ac voltage mainte-
Σ Rρ nance tests have been performed in a few cases
R1 = ohms/phase
3 (Motallebi 2005), but there are no industry guidelines
for performing ac voltage maintenance tests on
Σ Xρ laminated-dielectric transmission cables.
X1 = ohms/phase
3
Dc voltage Hi-Pot tests are not recommended for
Where: extruded-dielectric transmission cables because of the
Vρ = measured phase voltage (V). reasons that are summarized in Section 14.2.2. Series
Iρ = measured phase current (A). resonant ac voltage tests have been performed as a post-
Wρ = measured phase power (W). repair maintenance test in some cases for extruded-
θ = measured phase angle (degrees). dielectric cables after repairs. However, a 24-hr soak test

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 14: Testing

is the most common procedure prior to returning a 14.6.1 Long-Term Accelerated Life Test
repaired extruded-dielectric cable system to service. The long-term accelerated life test, or Waltz Mill-type
Jacket Integrity Tests test, is a test procedure that was started at the Cornell
Most cable manufacturers recommend a jacket integrity 345-kV cable test project (Bertolett and Schifreen 1962;
test on extruded-dielectric and SCFF cable circuits at Rosson 1962) and continued on subsequent prototype
least every five years to determine if there has been any cable systems at EPRI’s Waltz Mill Underground Cable
jacket damage. The jacket integrity test is performed on Test Facility (Burrell and Young 1971). Basically, this
an out-of-service cable system by removing jumpers in two-year test on relatively long cable systems subjects
the appropriate link boxes and applying a dc voltage of the cable system components to higher-than-normal
5 to 10 kV for 1 min. voltages and temperatures to simulate a 40-year operat-
ing life. The objective of this type of test is to gain confi-
PD Tests dence before a new type of cable system is installed in
Some utilities have performed either on-line of off-line electric utility systems that it will operate reliably for
PD testing of the joints and terminations of extruded- long periods of time. Important considerations in meet-
dielectric cable systems after repairs. ing this objective are the following:
Dissipation Factor Tests • The cable system should be complete with accessories
Field dissipation factor measurements have been per- and should be long enough to represent initial utility
formed at rated system voltage as a maintenance test on installations.
some laminated-dielectric transmission cables to assess • The installation should reflect typical field condi-
the condition of the cable insulation or after major tions, and the installation personnel should possess
repairs (Motallebi 2005). The rated voltage dissipation qualifications similar to those required for commer-
factor measurements have been made using instrumen- cial installations.
tation developed by EPRI research (Cooper 1993).
• The test program should reflect conditions that are
14.5.2 Other Maintenance Tests considered to be the primary modes of aging for
potential causes of degradation.
Other maintenance tests on laminated-dielectric trans-
mission cables consist of fluid quality measurements Similar types of test facilities and programs have been
and DGA testing. Chapter 15 provides additional implemented in several European countries and Japan.
details concerning diagnostic tests performed during An example of the accelerated life test program devised
transmission cable maintenance. for 500-kV pipe-type cables is shown in Table 14-14.
The underlying basis for specifying this test program
14.6 SPECIAL-PURPOSE TESTS was to subject the cables to conditions that would be
Numerous special-purpose tests have been devised to representative of at least 40 years of service on a typical
address concerns for unusual applications of conven- utility system.
tional cable systems, to evaluate the performance of
cables with changes in construction, or to evaluate new Table 14-14 Test Program for 500-kV HPFF Transmission
cable systems. These special-purpose tests are not nor- Cable Samples at Waltz Mill
mally applied on a routine basis, but some are included Test Voltage Cond.
Test
in test standards, while others are not utilized frequently Period % L-L/L-G kV Temp. °C Operating Mode
enough to be included in industry standards. The former 1 110 550/317 75 Continuous
case includes special mechanical tests for submarine 2 110 550/317 75 Cyclic
cables that are part of IEC standards. An example of the 3 125 625/360 75 Continuous
latter type of special-purpose test is the thermomechani- 4 125 625/360 90 Continuous
cal bending (TMB) test devised to analyze the mechani- 5 125 625/360 90 Cyclic
cal performance of 345-kV pipe-type cables. Some of 6 125 625/360 90 Continuous
these special-purpose tests were developed by a particu- 7 125 625/360 100 Continuous
lar manufacturer, utility, or research organization to 8 125 625/360 100 Cyclic
address specific problems and have evolved into de facto 9 125 625/360 100 Continuous
test standards. The EPRI Waltz Mill accelerated life test 10 138 690/400 75 Continuous
is an example of this type of test. Some of the more com- 11 138 690/400 90 Continuous
mon special-purpose tests are described below. 12 138 690/400 100 Continuous

14-29
Chapter 14: Testing
The following empirical equation (Equation 14-7), relat-
ing the test voltage and conductor temperature to loss
of life for laminar impregnated-paper insulation, was
used to specify the test voltages and current (Allam et
al. 1986).
n during load cycling. This test procedure was used during
⎡E ⎤
T = ⎢ p ⎥ Tp e α (t −85) yr
⎣ Eo ⎦ 14-7
Where:
Eo = rated test voltage, V.
Ep = applied test voltage, V.
Tp = length of a test period, yr.
t = temperature of a test period, °C.
T = total equivalent service, yr.
α = temperature aging exponent.
Exponent n is assumed to be in the range of 10 to 12
for impregnated paper. The temperature aging expo-
nent, alpha, is assumed to be in the range of 0.07 to
0.087. This range of temperature exponents is equiva-
lent to assuming that the rate of aging is doubled for
each 8–10°C increase of the insulation temperature
above its maximum continuous operating temperature,
85°C. If Equation 14-7 is summed for the 12 test peri-
ods, the total equivalent test time is in excess of 50 years.
The cyclic test periods were included to simulate
mechanical cycling of the cable system components, and
the continuous load periods were included to provide
thermal aging of the insulation.
Cable systems subjected to the two-year test program
consist of approximately 1000 ft (300 m) of single-phase
cable, two field-installed joints, and two commercial ter-
minations. The condition of the cable system compo-
nents is monitored during the test program by making
insulation dissipation-factor measurements as a func-
tion of voltage and conductor temperature several times
during the test periods. This type of test has been used
for pipe-type, compressed gas insulated, and extruded-
dielectric cable systems.
14.6.2 Mechanical Bending Tests
Several types of mechanical bending tests have been
included in test standards, ranging from relatively sim-
ple cable sample preconditioning to elaborate, long-
term tests devised for submarine cables (see Chapter 7).
14.6.3 Thermomechanical Bending Tests
One of two TMB tests may be specified to further
ensure that pipe-type cables will withstand thermal
cycling over the life of the cable.
14-30
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
One of the tests is a three-conductor test using three
20-ft (6-m) long cables installed in the size of pipe to be
used in the field. The cable sections are subjected to
20,000–30,000 cycles, causing them to bend and slide
against the pipe wall, simulating the forces developed
an EPRI-sponsored project (Aabo et al. 1984).
The other test, also developed during the EPRI project,
subjects one 10-ft (3-m) section of cable to the motions
that it will experience during load cycling. This test is
simple and reproducible, and will cause deterioration in
inferior cables.
14.6.4 Longitudinal Water Penetration Tests
(ICEA T-34-664)
Many XLPE transmission cables have been manufac-
tured with water-blocking materials in the high-voltage
conductor and/or between the cable core and the metal-
lic sheath. Several industry standards have been devel-
oped to test the effectiveness of conductor and cable
core longitudinal water blocking. ICEA publication
T-34-664 (Guide for Conducting Longitudinal Water
Penetration Resistance Tests on Longitudinal Water
Blocked Cables) is an example of this type of test proce-
dure (ICEA 1996).
The ICEA water penetration resistance testing guide
contains both qualification test procedures as well as
production test procedures for extruded-dielectric
cables.
The qualification test procedure consists of the follow-
ing two parts:
• Part A. Requires testing of two samples of cable that
have been preconditioned with mechanical bending.
One of the 36-in. (914 mm) long cable samples is
further preconditioned by placing the sample in a
100°C oven for 4 hr. The second sample is precondi-
tioned by placing the sample in a cold chamber
(-10°C) for 4 hr. Both of these cable samples are then
subjected to a water pressure of 5 psig for 1 hr at
room temperature.
• Part B. Also preconditions a 10-ft (3 m) sample of the
cable with three reverse bends. The cable sample is
then load-cycled 20 times with the peak conductor
temperature reaching the cable emergency operating.
The exposed cable core and cable conductor (if appli-
cable) are subjected to water at 5 psig pressure during
the load cycling.
No water leakage at the cable ends opposite from the
pressurized water source is allowed in Part A or Part B.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
The production test procedure is similar to Part A of the
qualification test procedure, except that the sample is
not preconditioned at the high/low temperatures, and
the duration of the test is 15 min.
It should be noted that the water-swellable materials
that are used for water blocking in most transmission
cables are not as effective when exposed to saltwater
(compared to freshwater). Therefore, the ICEA water-
blocking test procedures should use saltwater if
Chapter 14: Testing
the transmission cables will be installed in a location
where they will be exposed to water with an appreciable
salt content.
IEC 60840 and 62067 both contain a longitudinal
water-blocking test that is similar to the ICEA T-34-664
test procedure. The ICEA standards for extruded-
dielectric transmission cables require that the water-
blocking test be performed as part of the type test, if
applicable to the cable design.
14-31
Chapter 14: Testing
REFERENCES
Aabo, T., J. A. Moran, and J. F. Shimshock. 1984.
“Thermo-Mechanical Bending Effects in EHV Pipe-
Type Cables.” IEEE/PES 1984 T & D Conference.
Kansas City, Missouri. April 29–May 4.
Aabo, T., and J. A. Moran. 1988. Thermomechanical
Bending Effects on Extra-High Voltage Pipe-Type
Cables. EPRI Report EL-5880.
AEIC. 1993. AEIC Specification CS4-93. Specifications
for Impregnated-Paper-Insulated Low and Medium
Pressure Self-Contained Liquid Filled Cable. 8th Edi-
tion. Association of Edison Illuminating Companies.
Alabama.
AEIC. 1997. AEIC Standard CS2-97. Specification
for Impregnated Paper and Laminated Paper Polypropy-
lene Insulated Cables, High-Pressure Pipe-Type.
6th Edition. Association of Edison Illuminating Com-
panies. Alabama.
AEIC. 2005. AEIC Guide CG3-05. Guide for Installa-
tion of Pipe-Type Cable Systems. 2nd Edition. Associa-
tion of Edison Illuminating Companies. Alabama.
AEIC. 2006. AEIC Specification CS9-06. Specification
for Extruded Insulation Power Cables and Their
Accessories Rated Above 46 kV through 345 kVac.
1st Edition. Association of Edison Illuminating Com-
panies. Alabama.
Allam, E. M., J. H. Cooper, and J. F. Shimshock. 1986.
Development and Long-Term Testing of a Low-Loss
765-kV High Pressure Oil-Filled Pipe Cable.
Report 21-06, CIGRE Paris Meeting.
Auerbach, R. H., et al. 1980. “525 kV Self-Contained
Oil Filled Cable Systems for Grand Coulee Third Power
Plant—Design, Test Manufacture, and Installation.”
IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems.
Vol. PAS 99. No. 5. pp. 1722–1733.
Bankoske, J. W., et al. 1977. “Mechanical Effects of
Load Cycling On Pipe-Type Cable.” IEEE PES Summer
Meeting F77. pp. 559–8.
Bertolett, A. D., and C. S. Schifreen. 1962. “Cornell
EHV Cable Testing Station: Equipment and Design.”
Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engi-
neers. Vol. 81. pp. 496–508.
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Blais, L. D. 1972. “Development and Installation of
138-kV Cable for Tests at EEl Waltz Mill Station—
Cable 22.” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus
and Systems, Vol. PAS 91. No. 4, July/August.
pp. 1448–1456.
Bolin, P. C. 1982. “Mechanical Design and Test of 1200-
kV Semi-Flexible SF6 Insulated Transmission Line.”
IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems.
Vol. PAS 101. No. 7. pp. 2194–2202.
Burrell, R. W., and F. S. Young. 1971. “EEl—Manufac-
turers 500/550 kV Cable Research Project, Waltz Mill
Tests.” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems. Vol. PAS-90. No. 1. January/February.
pp. 180–190.
CIGRE. 1972. CIGRE Study Committee 21 WG 06.
“Recommendations for Mechanical Tests on Subma-
rine Cables.”
CIGRE. 1980. CIGRE Study Committee 21 WG 01.
“Recommendations for Tests of Power Transmission
DC Cables for a Rated Voltage Up to 600 kV.”
ELECTRA. No. 72. pp. 105–114.
CIGRE. 1989. CIGRE Study Committee 21 WG 09.
“Application of Weibull Distribution to the Study of
Power Cable Insulation.” ELECTRA. No. 127.
CIGRE. 2002. CIGRE TF 21.05. “Experiences with
AC Tests after Installation on the Main Insulation of
Polymeric (E)HV Cable Systems.” ELECTRA. No. 205.
CIGRE. 2005. CIGRE WG B1.04. “Technical
Brochure 279 Maintenance for HV Cables and Accesso-
ries.”
CIGRE. 2006. CIGRE Study Committee D1 WG 2.05.
“Practical Aspects of the Detection and Location of
Partial Discharges in Power Cables.” ELECTRA.
No. 226.
CIGRE. 2006. CIGRE WG B1.06. “Technical Brochure
303—Revision of Qualification Procedures for High
Voltage and Extra High Voltage AC Extruded Under-
ground Cable Systems.” Technical Brochure 303.
Cooper, J. H. 1993. Field Measurement of Cable Dissipa-
tion Factor. EPRI Report TR-102449.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Cooper, J. H. 2002. Demonstration of Commissioning
Tests for Extra-High Voltage Cross-Linked Polyethylene
Cable Systems at Los Angeles Department of Water and
Power. EPRI report 1001856.
Gulski, E., F. J. Wester, et al. 2003. “Transmission
Power Cables PD Detection at Damped AC Voltages.”
JICABLE ’03—International Conference on Insulated
Power Cables.
ICEA. 1996. Insulated Cable Engineers Association.
Publication T-34-664. Guide for Conducting Longitudi-
nal Water Penetration Resistance Tests on Longitudinal
Water Blocked Cables.
ICEA. 2004. Insulated Cable Engineers Association.
Publication S-108-420-2004. Standard For Extruded
Insulation Power Cables Rated Above 46 Through
345 kV.
IEC. 1966. International Electrotechnical Commission.
“Standard 60230 Impulse Tests on Cables and Their
Accessories.”
IEC. 1982. International Electrotechnical Commission.
“Standard 60229 Tests on Cable Oversheaths Which
Have a Special Protective Function and are Applied
by Extrusion.”
IEC. 1985. International Electrotechnical Commission.
“Standard 60811 Common Test Methods for Insulating
and Sheathing Materials of Electric Cables.”
IEC. 1988. International Electrotechnical Commission.
“Standard 60885-3 Electrical Test Methods for Electric
Cables—Part 3: Test Methods for Partial Discharge
Measurements on Lengths of Extruded Power Cables.”
IEC. 1989. International Electrotechnical Commission.
“Standard 60060 High Voltage Test Techniques.”
IEC. 1999. International Electrotechnical Commission.
“Standard 60840 Power Cables with Extruded Insula-
tion and Their Accessories for Rated Voltages above
30 kV (Um = 36 kV) up to 150 kV (Um = 170 kV)—
Test methods and Requirements.”
IEC. 2001. International Electrotechnical Commission.
“Standard 62067 Power Cables with Extruded Insula-
tion and Their Accessories for Rated Voltages above
150 kV (Um = 170 kV) up to 500 kV (Um = 550 kV)—
Test Methods and Requirements.”
Chapter 14: Testing
IEEE. 1975. EPRI High-Voltage Solid Dielectric Oper-
ating Committee. “Status of 138-kV Solid Dielectric
Cables Being Evaluated at Waltz Mill.” IEEE Confer-
ence Paper. C75 007-0. Winter Power Meeting.
IEEE/ANSI. 1993. Institute of Electrical and Electron-
ics Engineers/American National Standards Institute.
Substation Committee of IEEE. Document C37.122.
Gas Insulated Substation—Standards, Recommended
Practices, and Guides.
IEEE. 1995. Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers. Standard 4-1995. Standard Techniques for
High-Voltage Testing.
IEEE. 1996. Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers. Standard 48-1996. IEEE Standard Test Pro-
cedures and Requirements for Alternating-Current Cable
Terminations 2.5 kV Through 765 kV.
IEEE. 2000. Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers. Standard 404-2000. Standard for Extruded
and Laminated Dielectric Shielded Cable Joints Rated
2500 V–500000 V.
IEEE. 2001. Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers. Standard 400-2001. IEEE Guide for Field
Testing and Evaluation of the Insulation of Shielded
Power Cable Systems.
IEEE. 2002. Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers. Standard 82-2002. Standard Test Procedure
for Impulse Voltage Tests on Insulated Conductors.
IEEE. 2006. Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers. Standard 400.1-2006. IEEE Guide for Partial
Discharge Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems in a
Field Environment.
Kaumanns, J., E. Plieth, and R. Plath. 2003. “On-Site
AC Testing and PD Measurements of 345 kV/2500
mm2 XLPE Cable Systems for Bulk Power Transmis-
sion.” JICABLE International Conference on Insulated
Power Cables.
Kind, D. 1978. An Introduction to High-Voltage Experi-
mental Technique. Braunschweig/Wiesbaden: Friedrich
Vieweg & Sohn. pp. 60-64.
Motallebi, H. 2005. “Toluca-Van Nuys Cable C, 230-kV
HP Pipe-Type Restraint Installation.” ICC Subcommit-
tee C Minutes. November 1.
14-33
Chapter 14: Testing
Nattrass, D. A. 1988. “Partial Discharge Measurement
and Interpretation.” IEEE Electrical Insulation. Vol. 4.
No. 3. May/June.
Rosson, J. L. 1962. “Extra-High-Voltage Research Sta-
tion at Cornell—Techniques and Procedures of Mea-
surements.” Transactions of the American Institute of
Electrical Engineers. Vol. 81. December. pp. 508-512.
14-34
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Steennis, E. F., and A. M. F. J. Van De Laar. 1989.
“Characterization Test and Classification Procedure for
Water-Tree Aged Medium Voltage Cables.” ELECTRA.
No. 125. July. pp. 90–97.
Tanaka, T., and A. Greenwood. 1983. Advanced Power
Cable Technology: Basic Concepts and Testing. Vol. 1.
Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 173–180.
 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

CHAPTER 15 Operation and

Maintenance
Authors: Stephen E. Turner, Underground Systems Inc. (USi)
Reza Ghafurian, Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc.
Thomas B. Welles, Advanced Testing Systems Inc.
Reviewers: Frank L. Kuchta, Prysmian Cables and Systems
Reza Ghafurian, Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc.

Proper system operations and maintenance procedures are vital to long-term, trouble-
free operation of underground cable systems. Cable systems can operate satisfactorily for
many years without any maintenance, and will show no obvious signs of deterioration.
When trouble does occur, however, the repairs can be very expensive and time consum-
ing, and the availability of the circuit may be adversely affected.

Although it is not possible to provide specific procedures suitable for all utilities, this
chapter does present routine operations and maintenance procedures for all types of
cable systems, and it describes procedures for locating and repairing electrical faults and
fluid leaks. Individual utilities are encouraged to prepare and follow procedures specific
to their cable systems.

Stephen E. Turner is Vice President of Underground Systems, Inc.

(USi). His responsibilities center on engineering and consulting in the
field of medium- and high-voltage underground power transmission
systems, with special emphasis in the area of accessory material for
those systems. Prior to joining USi in 1979, Mr. Turner spent 20+ years
with The Pirelli Cable Corporation (formerly General Cable Corpora-
tion), where as Chief Engineer, he was responsible for design, engineer-
ing, and installation of laminar-insulated transmission cable systems.
Over the years he has presented numerous talks on cable system installation, conducted
“hands-on” cable splicing schools for installation contractors and utility companies, and
has been in charge of cable system design and installation for more than 30 utility compa-
nies, the U.S. government, and private contractors. Mr. Turner has authored a number of
publications on underground transmission and is a member of the Institute of Electrical
Engineers, the Insulated Conductors Committee (IEEE), and CIGRE. He was past
Chairman of the ICC Working Group that developed submarine power cable design and
construction standard IEEE STD 1120.

Reza Ghafurian received his MSEE and Ph.D. degrees from the Univer-
sity of London, Imperial College of Science and Technology in the United
Kingdom. He joined the R&D Department of the Consolidated Edison
Company of New York in 1985. Prior to that, he was Associate Professor
of Electrical Engineering at the Iowa State University, in Ames, Iowa.
From 1985 to 1999, he held positions of Principal Research Engineer and
Manager of Transmission Research Program. In 1999, he joined the Elec-
trical Engineering Department of Con Edison as Project Manager, and in
2002, he became Section Manager, Transmission Feeders Engineering. In October 2005,
he was assigned as Project Leader for the development of new designs of the future substa-
tion and distribution systems. In March 2006, he was recognized as the company’s Techni-
cal Leader for Underground Transmission. Dr. Ghafurian is an IEEE Fellow and Con
Edison’s representative on the Cable Engineering Committee of the AEIC. From 1999 to
2004, he served as Chairman of the EPRI Underground Transmission Task Force.

15-1
Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance
15.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides a general overview on issues
related to the operation and maintenance (O&M) of
underground transmission systems. It includes routine
O&M procedures for all types of cables. Section 15.2
identifies the aspects of system operation that should be
covered by written procedures. Section 15.3 describes
routine maintenance for the different areas of the cable
system and for the different cable components—includ-
ing the cable, dielectric fluid, joints, terminations, and
pressurization systems. Sections 15.4 through 15.6 dis-
cuss procedures for electrical fault location, electrical
failure repair, and fault repair material. Section 15.7
describes techniques and tools for fluid leak detection,
location, and prevention.
15.2 SYSTEM OPERATIONS
Individuals responsible for overseeing the reliable opera-
tion of underground cable systems should have available
written procedure covering all operating aspects of each
cable system within their jurisdiction. Procedures should
cover the following areas:
• Ampacity Rating: For paper-insulated cables, the rat-
ings should cover the normal 85°C conductor tem-
perature rating, and emergency ratings including
both the 100-hour 105°C and 300-hour 100°C rat-
ings, based upon reasonable knowledge of the overall
thermal characteristics of the cable environment in
both summer and winter operation. A more detailed
description of cable rating is presented in Chapter 11.
• De-energizing and Energizing Circuits: Procedures for
de-energizing and energizing circuits under emer-
gency or fault conditions and for routine system
maintenance should be established and executed,
when needed.
• Fluid Pressurized Systems: Procedures should be
established and available to quickly respond to circuit
fluid pressurizing problems. An increasing number of
new installations have provisions for remotely moni-
toring the status of these pressurizing systems,
whether they are fluid pumping plants or gas pres-
sure control cabinets used on pipe-type cable systems
or reservoirs used on self-contained fluid-filled
(SCFF) cable systems.
Solid dielectric circuits may include fluid-filled termi-
nations, which may or may not be connected to reser-
voir systems that may also be monitored and
alarmed. Procedures should be established to
respond to low fluid pressures in the termination
fluid system.
• Reclosing Procedures: Overhead transmission cir-
cuits, which incorporate underground cable sections,
15-2
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
especially submarine sections, should not be reclosed
due to the possibility that the problem may be in the
submarine portion of the circuit. Such circuits should
incorporate Distance to Fault Relay protection.
15.3 ROUTINE MAINTENANCE
Reliable operation of any underground transmission
system is a function of the maintenance programs devel-
oped and implemented for each type of system. Earlier
installed pipe-type (high-pressure fluid-filled [HPFF]
and high-pressure gas-filled [HPGF]) and self-contained
fluid-filled (SCFF) cable circuits were normally
equipped with remote alarms designed to provide
advanced warning of impending problems. However,
due to the importance of the ancillary fluid support sys-
tems, only HPFF pipe-type cable systems traditionally
invoked a disciplined maintenance program at least for
the pressurizing end of the circuit. For HPFF cable sys-
tems, utility personnel were required to visit the pressur-
ization units to change charts on the pressure recorders.
Such visits, though not considered maintenance in the
true sense of the word, did afford the operator the
opportunity to inspect the pressure profiles and fre-
quency of pump operations over the previous week. Fre-
quent, unexplainable pump operations may indicate a
leak in the circuit or a malfunctioning component
within the pressurization unit. At the same time, the ter-
minations and all exposed piping could be inspected for
fluid leaks or signs of damage, which could indicate
impending problems. The cathodic-protection rectifiers
using independent anode beds could be checked and
compared with previous levels, provided that the units
indicated leakage current and not impressed current
across a dropping resistor. Excessive leakage current
may indicate damage to the pipe coating. Cursory
inspections of this type, though important to the opera-
tion of the circuit, are considered part of system opera-
tion, rather than maintenance.
Recently installed pipe cable circuits incorporate remote
monitoring systems, which monitor the operating
parameters of the pressurization plant, including system
pressures, fluid storage tank levels, pump operations,
and cathodic-protection rectifier current and voltage.
Cable circuits consist of cables installed in pipe or duct
or directly buried in the ground. Fluid-filled systems
require pressurization units or reservoirs to maintain
positive system pressures. Nitrogen gas-pressurized cir-
cuits normally have gas cabinets, which need to be
inspected and pressure alarms tested (see Figure 15-5).
In addition, circuits include manholes containing splices
and splice casings, terminations at the cable end points,
cathodic protection units, and cross-bonding and
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
grounding systems, etc. All require periodic inspection,
testing, and, when required, repair or replacement, if the
circuit is to provide reliable, uninterrupted service. The
following sections outline recommended maintenance
procedures for cable system components.
15.3.1 Cable Installed in Pipe or Duct
Pipe-type Cables (HPFF and HPGF)
The pipe portion of a pipe-type cable system permits
minimal pipe maintenance because the amount of
exposed pipe is small and is normally limited to the
manholes. Those areas observed to be rusted or cor-
roded during routine inspections should be scheduled
for immediate reparation/maintenance. The pipe must
be cleaned and wire-brushed to bare metal before apply-
ing new protective material. Pipe that is installed in tun-
nels, on bridges and or in manholes, which cannot be
cathodically protected, are susceptible to periodic flood-
ing or seepage, and therefore require more frequent
inspections than pipe in relatively dry environments.
Failure to properly inspect and maintain pipes in such
locations can lead to extensive repair operations at a
later date and may result in fluid loss and a substantial
cleanup operation.
The choice of materials used to repair deteriorated pipe
coatings depends on the pipe location and environment.
Pipes installed above grade and exposed to weather are
normally painted or covered with a material resistant to
the sun’s ultraviolet rays such as epoxy enamel paints.
Taped coatings tend to have poor weathering character-
istic and are normally not used. In wet or humid envi-
ronments such as tunnels and manholes, moisture tends
to permeate most repair coatings. Wax-impregnated
fabric tape has proven to provide good protection in
these environments.
Cables in Duct
Cabled duct systems require little, if any, maintenance
unless the ducts are intended to operate in a sealed con-
dition. In that case, the duct mouth seals must be
inspected periodically to ensure that cable load cycling
has not disrupted or damaged the seals, which would
permit manhole water to enter the duct. Maintenance of
this type is normally done in conjunction with routine
manhole inspection, cleaning, and repair operations.
Seldom are ducts inspected or cleaned unless a new
cable installation is scheduled or the ducts have become
contaminated with materials that may damage the cable
or cable jacketing material. When bonding/grounding
conductors or ribbon anodes used for cathodic protec-
tion must be replaced, the ducts may require cleaning
before installing the new components.
Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance
As an active part of a maintenance program, frequent
observation of construction activities over or adjacent
to pipe or duct systems can greatly reduce emergency
repairs resulting from external damage caused by such
projects. Monitoring the One Call system for areas/loca-
tions where buried circuits are located may provide the
utility with the opportunity to work with the construc-
tion company to avoid underground circuits.
15.3.2 Pipe Coating Damage
Of all the components of a pipe cable system, the pipe
and pipe coatings are most susceptible to undetected
damage. The pressurization unit or remote pressure-
monitoring system readily detects moderate to major
damage resulting in the loss of pressurizing medium.
However, minor damage to the pipe coating only may go
undetected for months or even years, if the circuit is not
equipped with a remote monitoring system or the opera-
tor does not periodically monitor the cathodic protec-
tion system. Left unprotected, the exposed metal will
eventually corrode to the point where the pressurizing
fluid or gas begins to leak through pinholes in the pipe.
Initially, the leak rate is small, making detection
extremely difficult without the aid of a leak detection
program as outlined in Section 15.7, “Leak Manage-
ment Techniques for Fluid-Filled Feeders.” The presence
of coating damage of this type can sometimes be
detected before leaks develop by periodically performing
overall coating resistance checks or close interval poten-
tial surveys on the circuit pipes. Schedules for pipe coat-
ing inspections of this type are generally based on
operating experience, the extent of the system, and avail-
able manpower. However, inspections should be per-
formed, at a minimum, at least once every two years.
More frequent inspections are recommended when there
is active construction in the area.
Coating-Resistance Tests
Under normal circumstances, the pipe is isolated from
ground by either polarization cells or electronic isola-
tors. A dc potential can be intermittently applied
between the coated pipe and ground, as shown schemat-
ically in Figure 15-1. The change in voltage, V, of the
pipe, as referenced to a remote ground electrode, divided
by the current, I, gives an average resistance to earth of
the pipe. Where an appreciable voltage drop is indicated,
the voltage and current change should be measured at
several locations, and the average value should be used
to calculate the coating resistance. This resistance, when
multiplied by the total surface area of the pipe section
under test, gives an indication of the effective coating
resistance in ohms per unit area of pipe surface. The
value of pipe coating resistance obtained depends on the
type of pipe coating, the resistance of the surrounding
earth, the moisture content of the coating, and the
15-3
Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Figure 15-1 Coating resistance test.

amount of bare pipe exposed to the earth (see
Table 15-1). Changes from earlier coating resistance
measurements should be used to determine the status of
the coating.
Refer to AEIC CG3-2005, Guide for Installation of
Pipe Type Cable Systems (2nd Edition), January 2005.
When lower-than-expected values of coating resistance
are encountered, an over-the-ground survey may be use-
ful to identify the area of concern. An intermittent dc
voltage is applied between the coated pipe and a suitable
low-resistance ground, as shown in Figure 15-2. Using a
high-resistance voltmeter, the local pipe-to-soil poten-
tial difference between two reference electrodes is mea-
sured at spaced intervals along the pipe route. An
intermittently applied voltage is used (rather than a con-
stant voltage) to identify the test signal from other stray
current sources. When a defect is approached, the mag-
nitude of the deflection increases and peaks directly
over the defect. This method is often modified to reflect
the change in potential along the cable route.
Pipe to soil potential surveys are further discussed in
Chapter 10, Grounding and Cathodic Protection.
Pipe Coating Repairs
Methods used to repair defective or damaged pipe
coating depend on the original coating material. Gener-
ally, repairs are made by exposing and cleaning the
defect area. All disbonded coating is removed, and the
edges of the sound coating feathered. In the past,
asphalt and coal-tar enamel wrap-type coatings were
repaired by hot-molding pieces of asphalt material over
the primed pipe surface or covering the primed area
with a field jointer filled with hot coal-tar enamel.
Today split heat-shrinkable sleeves or self-bonding tapes
are used for making most coating repairs for all pipe-
coating materials.
Note: Older coal-tar enamel wrap-type coatings con-
tained a layer of asbestos pipeline felt, which must be
carefully removed and disposed of as hazardous material.
When the pipe has sustained severe corrosion or minor
physical damage, it may be necessary to weld steel
patches over the damaged areas before reconstituting
the coating. All coating repairs must be electrically
tested at the appropriate voltage levels before backfilling
the repair areas.
15.3.3 Manhole and Joint Casings
Manholes are considered Confined Space. As a result,
all individuals that will be associated with any work in
and around manholes must have completed a Confined
Space Training Course prior to entering manholes. At
the very least, an indicating device for oxygen deficiency
and combustible gas must be present and in working
order in the manhole, at all times, when individuals are

Table 15-1 Pipe Coating Resistance Measurement Values

Coating Resistance
Pipe Coating Material (MΩ-ft2 [MΩ−m2])
Coal-tar Enamel Wrap-type 2
Asphalt Somastic 10
Polyethylene Polypropylene Type 10
Figure 15-2 Over-the-ground survey.

15-4
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
in the manhole. In congested areas, it has been recom-
mended that manholes be monitored for carbon dioxide
and carbon monoxide in addition to oxygen.
Inspection of transmission cable manholes should be
performed on a yearly basis, unless prior inspections dic-
tate either more or less frequent inspection intervals.
Manholes that tend to flood should be scheduled for
routine pumping. Fluids removed from the manholes
must be disposed of in accordance with local regulations.
Manhole inspections should cover the physical condition
of all components. These include covers, entrance chim-
neys, ladders, ceiling, walls, floor, cables, cable accesso-
ries (e.g., link boxes), and the internal environment, all of
which may affect the safety of personnel, continuity of
service, and the life of the cable system. The area around
the manhole should be checked for settling, which may
indicate pending soil instability problems.
On pipe-type cable circuits, the condition of the pipe,
end-wall seals, joint casings, and associated hardware,
such as valves and data-access ports, should be exam-
ined with repairs scheduled as required. If test stations
are present, the continuity of all leads should be
checked, including reference anodes. On SCFF or
extruded-dielectric cable circuits, inspections should
include corrosion on all exposed surfaces, the degree of
deterioration of the corrosion protective jackets, cable
sheaths and joint casings, arc proofing, cable neutrals,
and bonding systems including the condition of the
sheath voltage limiters (if present). The cable-support-
ing devices should be inspected for missing or broken
support insulators. In addition, cables should be exam-
ined for movement in and out of the ducts, which can
result in kinked or damaged areas that may have
occurred due to unexpected lateral movement of the
cables. Based on the findings, remediation may be
required and should be scheduled for repair at a time
that is consistent with the associated risk.
Manholes must be inspected for unsafe conditions.
When necessary, corrective steps should be taken to
ensure the safety of personnel before any maintenance
work is started. This includes removing and properly dis-
posing of any hazardous fluids or materials found within
the manhole. Materials that are deleterious to the cable
or cable jacketing material must be removed, and the
manhole and ducts cleaned. In some areas where man-
holes are located, bees and spiders are a potential risk.
As part of normal maintenance procedures, many utili-
ties schedule regular manhole cleaning programs in
which the interiors are hosed down and the accumulated
material and debris removed using suction pumps and
Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance
buckets. The removed materials are deposited in tankers
for proper disposal. Such cleanings are normally recom-
mended before major manhole maintenance or repairs
are undertaken. Manholes that consistently flood should
have the seals on all penetrations carefully examined.
Some utilities have incorporated the EPRI or other
manhole cover restraint system. If present, the compo-
nents of this system should also be inspected.
15.3.4 Cable
Cable maintenance varies with the type of system
installed and the method of installation (e.g., directly
buried, installed in duct and manholes or, in the case of
pipe-type cable, installed in pipe). Problems, such as
cable movement resulting from load cycling, are com-
mon in duct installations, but historically they were not
considered when designing early pipe cable systems.
Today, pipe-type cable movement, and the problems
associated with that movement, is well known to cable
engineers as Thermomechanical Bending (TMB).
Pipe-Type Cable
The cable portion of HPFF and HPGF pipe-type cable
systems is basically maintenance-free due to the cable’s
confinement in a continuous, welded steel pipe. Experi-
ence has shown that cable movement resulting from
expansion and contraction appears to be the main cause
of cable-related problems. TMB has occurred in the
pipe adjacent to splices that were not properly sup-
ported. The flexing or bird caging of the cables nor-
mally controls cable expansion rather than axial
movement along the pipe. The degree of cable bending
associated with bird-caging is controlled by the pipe
diameter and was thought to be well within the design
constraints of the cable. However, where circuits are
installed on inclines, the cable will tend to move down
the incline due to load cycle ratcheting and traffic flow,
unless proper restraining methods are implemented to
anchor the cable at splice locations. Recently, several
cases of TMB have occurred in flat cable sections
between manholes; the reason for this phenomenon is
not fully understood.
At joint locations, where the pipe no longer confines the
cables, excessive cable slack may develop, which is free
to bend and twist, if the cables are not properly
restrained and supported. This uncontrolled thermome-
chanical bending results in soft spots developing within
the insulation structure adjacent to the splice. If left
uncorrected, this can lead to cable failure. Similar cable
movement and resulting TMB can be experienced on
cable circuits installed under roadways or along rail-
roads as a result of traveling ground vibrations, caused
by traffic, in conjunction with load cycling. The cables
15-5
Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance
tend to move in the direction of traffic flow. As part of
any cable maintenance program, joints susceptible to
movement should be periodically x-rayed for signs of
cable distortion resulting from TMB or joint movement.
Cases have been found where the joints were wedged
into the joint reducer, representing movement of more
than 1 ft (30 cm).
When TMB or excessive cable movement is encountered
within joint enclosures, repair procedures are based on
the degree of total movement and the amount of dam-
age to the cable or joint. Where excessive joint move-
ment without adjacent cable damage is encountered, the
joint reducer can be moved back to provide clearance
between the joint and the reducer face. In addition,
tapered joint restrictors can be installed to limit future
joint movement, as shown in Figure 15-3. Intermediate
cable supports must be added to the original support
system, and the entire assembly should be bound at
intervals from reducer face to reducer face to prevent
future flexing within the joint enclosure. The enlarged
opening is closed using a split coupling and sleeve
assembly in combination with the original sleeves.
Where minor cable damage is present, it may be possible
to disassemble the splice and re-lay the cable insulation
in the damage area. If this approach cannot be used, the
damaged section of the cable must be replaced using a
section of new cable and two joints, as discussed in Sec-
tion 15.5.
Duct Installations
Cable maintenance on duct-installed extruded-dielectric
and self-contained cable circuits is minimal; it is nor-
mally performed in conjunction with routine manhole
inspections. Components that must be maintained in
proper condition to ensure reliable cable service include
the cable’s outer protective jacket, cable fireproofing,
Figure 15-3 Tapered joint restrictor (courtesy USi).
15-6
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
supporting hardware and insulators, joint sheath insula-
tors, connections for cross-bonding and grounding, and
associated sheath voltage limiters.
Cables and joints should be properly anchored in the
manhole to accommodate mechanical forces generated
by load cycling. Cables that are prone to movement due
to the circuit profile should be anchored using split bas-
ket grips located near the duct mouth, or in the duct,
when possible. Movement is only a problem if the cable
is not racked appropriately. Cables must be examined
for possible damage at the duct mouth, resulting from
cable movement due to load cycling. Where damage is
present, repairs must be made and protective devices
must be installed to prevent further damage.
Directly Buried Installations
Directly buried cable systems do not lend themselves to
an inspection and maintenance program due to the
nature of the installation. Circuits that are cross-
bonded may have surface-mounted link boxes, which
are accessible for routine inspection in the manhole or
on above grade structures. In this case, bonding connec-
tions and associated sheath voltage limiters should be
checked periodically.
15.3.5 Dielectric Fluid
Until the early 1970s, maintaining dielectric fluids used
in cable systems consisted of periodically sampling the
fluid for laboratory measurements of dissipation factor,
dielectric strength, and color. With the development of
DGA (Dissolved Gas Analysis) in the 1970s to deter-
mine the condition of transformer fluids, cable engi-
neers are now, on a regular basis, using the same
technology to examine the condition of impregnated-
paper HPFF, HPGF, and SCFF cable circuits. Under
elevated temperatures, the cable insulation paper tends
to decompose, generating carbon monoxide (CO), car-
bon dioxide (CO2), and water (H2O). Dielectric fluids,
on the other hand, emit hydrogen (H2) and methane
(CH4) at moderate temperatures, and ethane (C2H6),
ethylene (C2H4), and propane (C3H8) at higher tempera-
tures. Under arcing conditions, acetylene gas (C2H2)
is formed.
A “fingerprint” for the circuit can be established by
using a gas chromatograph to measure the relative con-
centrations of the above gases contained in samples of
fluid removed from terminations and joint locations.
Future changes in concentrations or ratios of concen-
trations of these gases may provide insight into pending
problems or may indicate accelerated aging of circuit
components. Investigations of circuits with high com-
bustible-gas contents have resulted in findings of arcing
and incipient cable failures within those circuits, indicat-
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance

ing that dissolved gas analysis is an important mainte-
nance tool for determining the status of fluid-filled and
gas-pressurized cable circuits.
Fluid samples should be taken using glass tubes or
syringes terminated with a luer lock fitting to which is
attached a three-way stopcock. Fluid flow control and
pressure regulation are accomplished by adapting a
small needle valve to the joint or termination valve
assembly. About one quart of the fluid should be care-
fully flushed out to clear the valve assembly. The syringe
is attached to the valve using a section of clear tygon
tubing. All components involved in sampling must
be thoroughly flushed to remove all air bubbles before
taking a final sample for test. However, gas bubbles that
appear after extracting the sample must not be removed.
The bubbles represent dissolved gas that has come
out of solution, which is critical for accurate analysis of
the sample.
Explicit instructions for taking DGA samples are con-
tained in the ASTM Specification D-3613-98 (ASTM
2000). Guidance on interpreting the results of the dis-
solved gas analysis can be found in IEEE Std. 1406
(IEEE 1998).
An extracted sample should be carefully packaged for
shipment to the testing laboratory, avoiding exposure to
sunlight when possible.
tions. Where surge voltage limiters form a part of the
cross-bonding scheme, the units should be checked for
proper operation, and components should be replaced,
when necessary. The same is true for the open end of
single-point-grounded sections of a circuit.
Neutral and bonding conductors must be checked for
corrosion and loose connections. Where carbon track-
ing of sheath insulators is suspected based on manhole
observations, the insulators must be cleaned and
inspected, and necessary repairs must be made before
recovering the insulator with an insulating, protective
tape. Problems with the shield interrupts on extruded-
dielectric cable joints most likely require replacing the
entire joint. The joints on buried cable circuits seldom
required maintenance, with the exception of bonding
connections, and then, only when such connections are
accessible. It is recommended that joint locations be
inspected periodically to avoid problems from external
sources, such as construction activities adjacent to
the easement.
15.3.7 Terminations
Terminations on underground transmission cable sys-
tems require little maintenance. After the initial installa-
tion, bolt torque values should be checked once during
the yearly maintenance inspection to ensure proper seat-

Figure 15-4 shows cable fluid sampling for DGA by the

EPOSS (EPRI Pressurized Oil Sampling) method devel-
oped by Detroit Edison Co. under EPRI sponsorship
and the syringe method.

15.3.6 Joints
Maintenance of underground transmission system joints
is performed in conjunction with cable and manhole
maintenance based on scheduled system inspections.
Maintenance of pipe cable joints, as covered in Section
15.3.3, involves repairing deteriorated or damaged cor-
rosion-protective coatings and repairing leaking or dam-
aged valves and access ports. Based on the joint location
and circuit loading, periodic x-rays and DGA sampling
are recommended to assess the condition of the cable
and joint for potential problems resulting from move-
ment or TMB damage associated with movement. Duct-
installed, self-contained, and extruded-dielectric cable
joints require periodic testing of the bonding and ground
systems, in addition to the maintenance of the corrosion-
protective coverings. DGA sampling should also be done
on any fluid-filled components. Single-conductor cir-
cuits operated in a cross-bonded configuration must
remain insulated from ground at the cross-bonding loca- Figure 15-4 Field sampling for dissolved gas
analysis tests (courtesy USi).

15-7
Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance
ing of components with gaskets. At other times, the
bolts should be retorqued only when found to be loose.
Over-torquing, in the case of flat gaskets, results in con-
tact between mating parts, which will lead to weeptype
leaks that cannot be stopped by tightening. The same
applies to O-ring-type seals, where metal-to-metal con-
tact is initially made during installation. Further tight-
ening is not possible, and the leak can only be
eliminated by replacing the O-rings. Leaks developing
after years of service that cannot be stopped by tighten-
ing require gasket and/or termination replacement, if
the leak is located at the cemented joint between the
metal flange and the porcelain. For HPFF cable termi-
nations, replacement is accomplished by “freezing” the
riser pipe or, when the terminations are located at the
high point of the circuit, reducing the termination pres-
sure to zero and draining the fluid below the level of the
termination base plate. The termination can then be
lifted and all gaskets replaced.
On three-conductor, self-contained cables where the
spreaderhead contains a semi-stop in each of the riser
tubes, the bypass valves in the piping around the semi-
stop can be closed and the termination drained without
affecting the system pressure. To change gaskets on a
single-conductor cable, the fluid feed to the termination
must be closed and a section of the cable below the ter-
mination frozen. The same procedure is followed to
repair leaking lead wipes at the base of the terminations.
A repaired termination is filled only after the termina-
tion has been vacuum-treated and drop-tested to ensure
the integrity of the repair. HPFF terminations can be
filled separately from a fluid treatment unit, by melting
the freeze or raising the pressure on the circuit. SCFF
terminations can be filled separately from a fluid treat-
ment unit, by opening the bypass valve on the spreader-
head semi-stop or melting the freeze on the riser cable.
Fluid should be flushed from the termination top until
acceptable electrical characteristics are met (i.e., dielec-
tric strength and/or dissipation factor). Section 15.5.2
provides more detail on the freezing procedure.
Dielectric fluid samples should be taken from sampling
valves on the top of the termination, provided the valve
is accessible without disconnecting from the overhead
bus or from the bottom valve, if so equipped, at the
same time that samples are taken from splices, following
the same procedures.
Leaks of filling compound on extruded-dielectric
terminations are not easily repaired in the field. When
problems develop on these terminations, the entire
termination must be removed and a new one installed.
15-8
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
A removed termination can be refurbished for use as
a spare by replacing the seals and refilling with the rec-
ommended compound. Many solid dielectric termina-
tions are equipped with monitoring systems and
fluid reservoirs.
During yearly inspections, the terminations should be
examined for damaged or broken sheds. If the damage is
extensive, the termination should be scheduled for
replacement. The porcelain surface should also be exam-
ined for signs of surface tracking. Replacing the termi-
nations should be considered depending on the degree
of tracking.
Terminations in highly contaminated locations that
have been coated with silicon grease to improve flash-
over resistance should be scheduled for cleaning and
recoating based on the degree of contamination in the
area. In such areas, terminations of the next higher rat-
ing are often used, and silicone coating is not required.
Periodic high-pressure washing is normally sufficient to
maintain the integrity of the porcelain surface. Some
utilities report that longer-lasting coatings such as sili-
cone room temperature vulcanizing (RTV) coatings
reduce flashovers and also reduce washing and grease-
replacement work.
15.3.8 Pressurization System
Pipe-type and self-contained cable systems are designed
to operate under positive fluid pressure at all times. On
pipe-type circuits, pumping plants are used to maintain
the fluid pressure within a preset operating range. When
the system pressure drops below or rises above the preset
range, fluid is introduced into or withdrawn from the cir-
cuit. Though the pressurization unit is designed for auto-
matic operation, periodic maintenance and testing are
required to ensure that all components are operating
properly. Older pressurization units were equipped with
pressure recorders, which may require chart changes
once a week. During these regular visits, the operator
should not only examine the charts for unusual pump or
relief valve operations but also visually inspect the area
for potential problems and arrange for necessary repairs.
Such inspections will only note the more obvious prob-
lems. Units having fluid-filtering systems not equipped
with differential pressure alarms to indicate when filters
are clogged should have their filters changed periodi-
cally, based on experience. Once a year, each unit on the
system should be scheduled for routine inspection and
component testing. Specific maintenance requirements
and testing procedures are detailed in the operating
instructions for each unit, and these instructions should
be adhered to for proper testing of all unit components.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance

Newer pressurizations units are equipped with remote for proper operation. Remote monitoring systems are
monitoring systems, which monitor most, if not all, of also available for HPGF circuits. GA (Gas Analysis)
the critical components of the pressurizing system. sampling should also be done on these circuits.
However, these systems do not provide visual inspec-
tions, which still need to be done periodically. SCFF cable circuits operate at pressure levels based on
the hoop stress of the cable’s sheath or the design of the
The following areas should be addressed during any sheath reinforcement. Maintenance procedures for these
pressurization unit inspection and testing program: systems vary depending on the type and location of the
• Exterior and interior portions of the unit should be pressurizing units. Most cable circuits rely on reservoirs
connected at the termination ends and at intermediate
visually inspected for damage or fluid leaks, and
locations as required to maintain positive fluid pressure
repairs made as required.
throughout the entire circuit under all operating condi-
• Pressure gauges, recorders, and switches should be tions. Nonreinforced, lead-sheathed constructions have
checked against a standard gauge for proper calibra- a maximum pressure rating on the order of 15–19 psi
tion, and switch trip points should be checked for (103–131 kPa).
proper pressure settings.
• All annunciator alarm points and remote alarms Reservoir types used include the gravity feed (Type CC),
should be functionally tested. which provides constant pressure based on the elevation
• Fluid pressurizing and circulation pumps should be of the reservoir with respect to the cable. Also, pressure
reservoirs (Type AC) maintain the pressure between 1
tested, including checking settings of weep relief,
and 15 psi (7 and 103 kPa) above atmospheric pressure
normal relief, and safety relief valves. Older units
depending on fluid content of the reservoir. The bal-
that use solenoid valves for pressure control should
anced-pressure reservoir (Type DC) gives a reservoir
be tested for proper, leak-free operation and hold-in
pressure that is relatively flat, with a pressure range and
timer settings that maintain desired pump-on times.
profile based on the auxiliary gas pressure and volume,
• Fluid storage fluid level should be checked and com- and is used where the pressure normally does not exceed
pared with the level-indicating device and previously 15 psi (103 kPa). Reinforced sheath constructions can be
recorded levels. The high-low fluid-level alarms, operated at pressures on the order of 220 psi (1510 kPa),
along with the nitrogen pressure alarms, should be but normally operate below 100 psi (690 kPa). Reser-
tested. On units where the fluid tank is maintained voirs used on these cables are of the pre-pressurized type,
under vacuum, as is the case for units associated with with factory-set pressure levels based on circuit length
SCFF submarine cable circuits and some older pipe-
type cable circuits, the vacuum and alarm systems
should be tested.
• Strainers should be cleaned, and where fluid-filtering
units are installed, the filters changed.
• Heating, ventilating, and dehumidifying equipment
should be checked for proper operation.
• Emergency power source and automatic transfer
switches, including loss-of-power alarms, should
be checked.
• Circuits incorporating forced-cooling equipment
should be tested following the manufacturer’s recom-
mended procedures.

Most high-pressure, gas-pressurized pipe-type cable cir-

cuits incorporate gas supply cabinets (see Figure 15-5)
for maintaining proper pressure levels. The cabinets
contain a pressure gauge (1), high-low pressure alarm
switches, nitrogen bottles (5), and a pressure regulator
(2). The bottles are not normally connected to the cir-
cuit (3), but are there in the event of a low-pressure
alarm. Once a year, the alarm circuits should be tested Figure 15-5 Nitrogen supply cabinet for HPGF cable
system (courtesy USi).

15-9
Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance
and profile. Of these reservoirs, only the Type CC reser-
voir has the outer shell vented to the atmosphere—a
condition that, in time, may lead to contamination of the
immersion fluid. This requires flushing the shell, filling it
with new f luid, and recalibrating the reservoir.
Section 9.4.3 provides additional details on reservoir
construction.
Yearly maintenance includes inspecting reservoirs and
piping for corrosion, checking piping and valve panels
for leaks, testing fluid-line insulators, and checking res-
ervoir fluid/pressure levels. High-low fluid or pressure
alarm contacts should be tested electrically and checked
for accuracy of calibration. Reservoir fluid/pressure lev-
els can be calculated knowing the reservoir, air, and
ground or sheath temperatures. In addition, the cable
current loading must be known. It is also recommended
that both temperatures and current loadings be rela-
tively constant for a number of hours prior to taking
readings to avoid errors resulting from transient condi-
tions. The ideal condition is when the circuit has been
out of service for several days and the cable is at ambi-
ent temperature. Most manufacturers furnish graphs
from which reservoir fluid and pressure levels can be
read directly, knowing the above temperatures and cur-
rent loadings.
15.4 ELECTRICAL FAULT LOCATION
15.4.1 Electrical Faults on Underground
Transmission Circuits
Electrical faults on underground transmission circuits
are infrequent, as are failures in other elements of the
bulk power system. Even though most bulk power sys-
tems are redundant, an underground failure seems to cause
unusual concern until the fault is pinpointed and repair
schedules can be made. This is due, in part, to the fact that
location of the failure in the overhead and station equipment
is soon known, which allows repair schedules to be initiated
quickly. Fault location usually takes much longer for
underground cable circuits.
An experienced and well equipped fault-location crew is
necessary for promptly locating electrical faults on
underground transmission circuits. Major transmission-
cable-using utilities have the required crews, expertise,
and equipment. Several of these utilities, as well as pri-
vate contractors, now offer fault-location service. If a
utility has underground transmission, but does not have
the expertise and equipment to find faults, arrange-
ments should be made before trouble occurs so that
working relationships are well established and the fault-
locating utility or contractor knows the cable system.
15-10
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Fault location can generally be accomplished in about
one working day. However, in some instances, particularly
with pipe-type cable, several days can be required to pin-
point the failure. The equipment used is a matter of
choice, but a suggested complement includes:
• DC Insulation Tester and AC or DC Hi-Potential Test
Set. VLF test sets, at present, are used only on distribu-
tion circuits
• Digital Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) with
high-voltage coupling unit for measurement
• Arc Reflection
• Impulse Current
• Low voltage TDR
• High-Voltage Bridge
• High-Voltage Impulse Fault Locator with fault burn-
ing capability
• Directional Acoustic/Magnetic Detector
• Cable tracing equipment and cable phase tracing
equipment
These functions may all be incorporated in one truck or
trailer-mounted test system.
Proper preparations can greatly reduce fault location
time. Therefore, it is important to have all pertinent
information readily available. This includes cable char-
acteristics (conductor size, insulation type, voltage rat-
ing, etc.), and accurate cable maps showing manholes,
splices, and cable lengths. All protective relay operations
at the time of the fault and digital recordings, if avail-
able, should be provided. Previous TDR traces can be
useful for comparative purposes. Anecdotal information
is usually not reliable, but, nonetheless, should be pro-
vided. After an analysis of this information, actual fault
locating can commence utilizing the recommended
methods as discussed below.
15.4.2 General Location
After normal safety procedures have been completed
and the circuit is ready for fault location, personnel and
equipment should be available at both the test end and
far end of the circuit to ensure that:
• All aerial connections are removed from the termina-
tions.
• Cathodic protection, if any, is disconnected.
• Pipes are directly grounded with polarization cells out
of the ground path.
• Forced-cooling or fluid circulation pumps are off (but
pressure should not be reduced).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
• Any special bonding insulators are shorted and bond-
ing transformers disconnected.
Personnel should be available at both ends to make con-
nections as necessary for testing.
The circuit is now ready for prelocation of the fault.
Proper prelocation is essential to minimize not only the
time to pin-point the fault but also the potential stress
to the cables. The following procedure should be used:
1. Perform an insulation resistance or hi-potential test
(excluding extruded-dielectric cables) on all phases,
and identify the faulted phase(s) and breakdown volt-
ages.
2. If necessary, reduce the breakdown voltage of the fault
to levels within the range of your equipment by utiliz-
ing the fault burn mode of the test equipment (not for
use with extruded-dielectric cables).
3. Connect a faulted phase to a good phase on the far end
with a suitable “jumper test lead,” and perform a high-
voltage bridge measurement. Repeat with the other
phases as necessary.
4. Utilizing low-voltage TDR, compare a faulted phase to
a good phase and to previous TDR traces, if available.
If necessary, perform TDR measurements with the far
end of the cable open circuit and grounded to accu-
rately verify the end of the cable.
5. Utilize the TDR equipment in conjunction with the
high-voltage coupling unit to perform arc reflection,
surge pulse, or impulse current measurements on the
faulted phase(s).
6. Analyze the results of these measurements, and if
there is a significant uncertainty in the results, repeat
these measurements from the far end of the feeder.
Figure 15-6 shows the configuration for performing a
high-voltage bridge measurement on a faulted cable.
Figure 15-7 shows the configuration for performing
TDR measurements by arc reflection, surge pulse, or
impulse current.
Figure 15-6 Bridge measurement configuration (courtesy
Advanced Testing Systems Inc.).
Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance
15.4.3 Pinpointing
Once prelocation has been completed, the fault can be
pinpointed utilizing a capacitor discharge (“thumper”)
fault locator at the test end and a field crew(s) with
directional acoustical/magnetic detector. In areas where
the pipe or cable sheath is available, the sheath-drop
method can also be utilized to pinpoint the fault. It is
important that clear communication is available
between the field crew(s) and personnel at both ends of
the feeder.
Typically, the fault can be located with good accuracy
from the surface. However, excavation is necessary to
precisely pinpoint faults on many installations, particu-
larly pipe-type cable.
15.4.4 Variations
Sections 15.4.2 and 15.4.3 apply to all transmission sys-
tems, although some precautions should be noted for
systems other than HPFF.
With HPGF systems, the initial TDR reading (Step 4
above) is usually not productive, since less carbonized
material stays in the fault than with fluid-filled systems.
However, the high-voltage TDR (Step 5 above) should
produce results.
SCFF cable is treated like any other lead-covered cable.
Extruded-dielectric cable systems require a modified pro-
cedure. DC hi-potential testing should not be employed
because it can degrade otherwise healthy insulation.
Faults on SF 6, systems cannot be located in the usual
way, because the breakdown voltage remains high, and
the fault impedance cannot be reduced; therefore, the
user should proceed directly to the thumper and acous-
tic pickup with several listeners stationed along the cir-
cuit. This is truly “hunt-and-peck” fault location.
Figure 15-7 Configuration for TDR measurements by arc
reflection, surge pulse, or impulse current. (courtesy
Advanced Testing Systems Inc.)
15-11
Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance
15.5 ELECTRICAL FAILURE REPAIR
Repair procedures for electrical failures on transmission
cables depend to a great extent on cable type, failure
location, and, in the case of pipe cable, the number of
phases damaged. Since repair methods are cable-type
dependent, each cable type is addressed individually.
Repair times can range from a few days to many months
(if new cable must be manufactured or replacement ter-
minations ordered). Typical repair time is 2–4 weeks,
provided repair components consisting of cable, splicing
material, joint casings and, terminations, if required, are
available from stock. If cable having the same or larger
conductor size and voltage rating or higher is not avail-
able from stock or another utility, the cable has to be
ordered from a manufacturer, which can take weeks or
months if the manufacturer is not making similar cable
of equal or higher voltage. New terminations can take
up to 6 months if not available from another utility.
Figure 15.8 shows a single-phase failure in a 345-kV
HPFF pipe-type cable. Note the damage on the adja-
cent phase.
A fluid-filled cable failure near or adjacent to the sub-
station can result in internal damage to the terminations
due to high-pressure waves. Figure 15-9 shows damage
to a termination semi-stop gland at the base of a termi-
nation that was located 1000 ft from the cable failure.
15.5.1 Extruded-Dielectric
Extruded-dielectric cables are installed in ducts or
directly buried. Repair procedures are, therefore, a func-
tion of the installation method and failure location.
With a multiple cable duct bank with installed circuits,
where the ducts are not accessible, a cable failure
between manholes is repaired by removing the failed
section and installing a replacement cable, provided the
damaged cable can be removed from the duct. There
have been cases where faulted cables have fused to the
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or polyethylene ducts, making
removal extremely difficult. The alternative is to open
the duct bank at the fault location and make the neces-
sary repairs. Depending on the duct size, this method of
Figure 15-8 Pipe-type cable electrical failures
(courtesy USi).
15-12
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
repair may preclude future removal of the cable without
reopening the duct. As with all cable faults, the repair
method depends on the extent of cable damage and,
most importantly, the condition of the cable and cable
shielding adjacent to the fault and the economics of the
repair options. Cable shield damage has occurred
remote from the cable failure location. Unless the cable
is of a water-block construction, water present at the
time of failure may enter the conductor as the cable
cools, migrating back along the conductor strands. The
water must either be removed or the cable must be cut
back until dry cable is located before a repair is made.
Even by cutting back to what appears to be dry conduc-
tor, there is no guarantee that all traces of moisture have
been removed. A piece-out is then installed, or the cable
may even have to be replaced manhole-to-manhole.
Unlike joints on laminar-dielectric cables, which can be
disassembled in the event of a failure and the cable
reused using a normal or extended length connector,
pre-molded or hand-taped joints, where the tapes have
amalgamated, may be difficult to re-enter.
With taped or premolded slip-on joints, it may be possi-
ble to break down the joint and incorporate a portion of
the remaining cable in the replacement joint. The
removal of all or a portion of the joint in the manhole
may not leave sufficient cable remaining to make a joint.
In such cases, it will be necessary to reshape the remain-
ing cable or extend the manhole. Some utilities loop the
cable around the manhole on the original installation to
provide spare cable for future repairs.
The types of repair joints for extruded-dielectric cable
can be hand-taped, hand-taped and molded, molded
using preformed sections, or premolded slip-on. Where
Figure 15-9 Failure of termination semistop assembly
(courtesy USi).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
traces of moisture may be present, the field-molded
design should be avoided to prevent porosity from
developing in the insulation adjacent to the conductor
during high-temperature curing of the insulating mate-
rial. For repair joints, the hand-taped splice can be
designed to include an elongated connector or two con-
nectors and a section of conductor when the fault dam-
age is minimal. Two joints and a section of cable are
required when using molded or premolded designs.
Cable or joint failures within the confines of the man-
holes are repaired based on the amount of remaining
undamaged cable. If failure damage is minimal, a hand-
taped joint using either an elongated connector or two
connectors and a piece of conductor is used. Otherwise,
a two-joint repair, with the replacement cable looping
the manhole, is used.
Repair procedures for directly buried cables depend on
the extent of damage; normally a two-joint repair is
required. The exception with buried cables occurs when
the cable route has been overbuilt and the cables are no
longer accessible. In this situation, the entire circuit may
have to be replaced along a different route.
Termination Failures
Depending on the type of termination failure, it may be
possible to remove the termination, clear the failure,
and install a new termination. Termination failures that
result in cable damage require replacing the termination
and the termination riser cable back to a convenient
jointing location, such as a manhole or a buried splice at
the base of the structure. The termination is constructed
in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions, and
the joint is based on the user’s standard practices.
15.5.2 Pipe-Type
Fluid loss resulting from either electrical failure or
mechanical damage mandates immediate attention with
the urgency dictated by the rate of fluid loss. Where the
loss rate is severe (greater than 10 gal/hr (38 l/hr), the
system pressure may be lowered, if the feeder can be
taken out of service, to reduce the leak rate while main-
taining positive pressure throughout the entire circuit,
including terminations, to exclude water entrance. Pres-
surization units are normally equipped with reduced-
pressure provisions specifically designed for operation
under leak situations or repair process. Units not so
equipped require that the relief valves be reset manually
to reduced-pressure levels and the pump operating
mode be changed from “Auto” to “Manual.” The oper-
ating instructions for the particular unit should be
referred to for reduced-pressure operation.
Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance
With the fault location pinpointed through the use of
fault-locating equipment, or the discovery of a fluid
leak resulting from pipe burn-through or external
mechanical damage, the pipe must be exposed and
opened for inspection. The extent of the damage must
be assessed before repair procedures can be established
and material requirements determined. Where a fluid
leak is present, the leak must first be stopped or the rate
reduced before proceeding with repairs. This is normally
accomplished using a split repair clamp. Before opening
the pipe, the fluid in the fault area must be isolated from
the remainder of the circuit by freezing on one or both
sides of the fault. Freezing the fluid requires reducing its
temperature to a level low enough to solidify a fluid slug
capable of withstanding a pressure differential in the
order of 60 psi (414 kPa) depending on the elevation of
the circuit. Higher differential pressures may require
multiple freezes. Low-viscosity fluids like DF 100
require temperatures on the order of -240°F (-151°C).
Faults located near the termination end of a circuit may
be frozen on the line side of the fault and the fluid
drained from the termination back to the fault. Faults
located at or adjacent to the highest point of a circuit
can normally be repaired without freezing, provided the
hydraulic fluid head throughout the remainder of the
circuit is adequate to maintain positive pressure at all
locations to exclude water ingress. Where this is the case,
the fluid is drained from the fault area and repairs are
made. Normally, however, a freeze is required on both
sides of the fault. On single circuits pressurized from one
end only, a temporary fluid source is required on the
nonpressurized side. This source must be capable of pro-
viding adequate fluid for flushing as well as maintaining
positive pressure for the duration of the repair and
allowing for expansion and contraction of the fluid. One
method that has been used is to install a temporary
bypass around the proposed freeze location. This can be
accomplished by installing a Mueller-type fitting com-
plete with the valve on the pipe at a location that is away
from the cables. An X-ray of the pipe may be required to
determine the location of the cables. The bypass can also
be used to flush fluid from the failure area and maintain
fluid pressure on the nonpressurized side during the
repair after the freeze has been established. It is recom-
mended that, prior to establishing the freezes, an attempt
be made to remove any contaminated fluid from the
fault area by flushing from both ends of the circuit.
Pipe Freezing
Freeze pits, located approximately 50 ft (15 m) from the
work area, are dimensioned on the basis of fluid viscos-
ity. Higher-viscosity fluids such as the old Sun #6 (no
longer available) required a relatively short freeze
length, on the order of at least 3 ft (0.9 m). Low-
15-13
Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance
viscosity fluids such as alkylbenzene/polybutenes used
in forced-cooled systems require longer freeze lengths of
up to 10 ft (3 m) depending on circuit profile. Although
freezes had been made using dry ice and acetone in the
past on Sun #6 fluid, liquid nitrogen is used exclusively
for freezes today and is the only medium that will freeze
low-viscosity fluids. The fluid can be frozen using cop-
per tubing or specially made freeze jackets. When using
copper tubing to freeze pipe-filling fluids, two freeze
coils are normally recommended on each side of the
fault. Each coil is approximately 15 in. (38 cm) in
length, formed from closely spaced turns of soft copper
tubing placed on the pipe after all pipe-coating material
has been removed. A bedding of copper mesh braid can
be applied over the pipe before the coil is applied to pro-
vide better heat transfer. A 6-in. (15-cm) spacing is nor-
mally used between coils. Thermocouples, placed at the
center of the freeze between the coils and at either end
of the freeze, are used to monitor freeze temperatures
and determine flow rates for the liquid nitrogen. Several
layers of urethane foam or fiberglass insulation cover
the entire freeze coil area. An overall covering of a mois-
ture-impervious material is recommended to prevent
moisture from condensing and freezing in the insula-
tion, a condition that will lower the insulating value of
the insulation. Figure 15-10 depicts a typical fluid-freez-
ing arrangement using copper tubing.
Figure 15-10 Typical fluid freezing arrangement using copper tubing (courtesy USi).
15-14
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Two coils are recommended so that, on completion of
the repair, the freeze coils closest to the repair can be
melted, and any moisture that has collected on the
freeze face removed during the vacuum treatment of the
repair area prior to fluid filling.
When rag barriers are used to seal the pipe ends, along
with a dry air feed into the pipe instead of sealing the
pipe with neoprene barriers with a dry air feed, small
amounts of moisture may penetrate through the rag
barrier into the pipe ends and freeze on the freeze face.
The two-coil freeze approach has greatly reduced vac-
uum time in case moisture has entered the pipe during
the repair operation.
Liquid nitrogen is permitted to completely fill the coils
or jackets until droplets of liquid are discharged from
the vent along with vapor. Nitrogen flow is then reduced
until only vapor is discharged. This condition is main-
tained until the temperature at the outer edges of
the freeze reaches -50°C for high-viscosity fluid or
-150°C for low-viscosity fluid. This is typically a period
of 3–6 hours, but longer periods are required when fluid
is flowing due to circuit-cooling or eddy-current fluid
flow resulting from pipe elevation changes and fluid
temperature differences in the pipe section being frozen
or due to a leak. The preferred method of checking the
integrity of the freeze is by increasing the pressure on
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
one side of the freeze and monitoring the pressure on
the other side. If the pressure does not change, the freeze
has been established. An alternate procedure is to install
a valve and pressure gauge between the two freezes. A
freeze is normally achieved when the pressure begins to
drop below the initial level. If this method cannot be
used, a small hole (1/8 in., 3 mm diameter) can be drilled
in the top of the pipe. Even though a freeze has been
achieved on both sides, there may be a momentary spurt
of fluid from the hole before all flow stops. It is
recommended to wait at least 15 minutes before testing
the freeze.
With the integrity of the freeze confirmed, fluid is
drained from the area and a 120° window, 12–18 in. (30–
45 cm) long, is removed from the top of the pipe by
grinding or cutting with a circular saw. This provides an
opening through which the failure location can be
confirmed and the extent of damage assessed. Based on
the information obtained, a repair procedure is estab-
lished, the repair pit is completed, and repair materials
are procured. When making the window, care must be
taken to minimize the amount of metal shavings that
enter the pipe. Any material that falls into the pipe must
be removed.
Repair Procedures
Cable failures resulting from external mechanical dam-
age seldom result in extensive cable damage. Depending
on the extent of damage, the cable can be repaired with
a splice using an elongated connector or two standard
connectors and a section of conductor. The splice is
constructed with crepe paper, hard paper, or LPP tape,
depending on the cable type used on the circuit. When
the failure is of unknown origin or cable damage is
extensive, a section of cable containing the failure or
damaged area is normally removed for failure analysis.
The repair is made using two normal joints and a sec-
tion of replacement cable. The completed repair is
closed using either split reducers and split repair sleeves
and couplings (single cable repair), or when all three
phases have been removed or cut, standard reducers and
repair sleeves.
Joint failures or cable damage within joint enclosures
resulting from thermomechanical bending (TMB),
which cannot be repaired due to space limitations
within the manhole, are repaired by constructing tempo-
rary splice pits adjacent to the manhole and replacing
the section of cable through the manhole. When damage
is restricted to one side of the joint, only the cable on the
damaged side needs to be replaced. The existing splice is
torn down, and the connector is shifted by half its
length toward the good end, to permit pressing the new
connector on undisturbed conductor. Depending on the
Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance
joint opening, shifting the connector may necessitate
moving the joint reducer. Otherwise, the joint is con-
structed in accordance with the original design.
Valves must be installed on the top and bottom of repair
sleeves for pressure testing and evacuation of the section
between freezes after repairs are completed. If more
than one freeze coil has been used, the flow of nitrogen
to the freeze coils closest to the repair is stopped to per-
mit the front face of the freeze to melt, which releases
any moisture that became trapped on the freeze face,
along with a portion of the contaminated fluid. This
material is drained from the pipe, when possible, before
vacuum is applied.
The repaired section should be evacuated to 150
microns and evacuation continued for an additional 8
hours before conducting a 1-hour vacuum drop test.
Maximum pressure rise is not to exceed 100 microns
above the starting value. Using this procedure, accept-
able vacuum levels can be achieved prior to filling. The
evacuated section can be filled from an external fluid
source, from the bypass if used, or by permitting one of
the freezes to melt. In the latter case, the fluid pressure
on the backside of the freeze being melted should be
reduced to a minimum to prevent the freeze plug from
moving and damaging the cables when it breaks free of
the pipe. Fluid is drained from the repaired section until
the dielectric strength of the drained fluid is acceptable.
The second freeze is then melted and fluid flushed from
the opposite direction until acceptable dielectric
strength and power factor values are obtained. To facili-
tate a rapid thaw, all insulation should be removed from
the freeze coils. An external heat source may be used,
provided that it is gradually applied.
With the repair completed, the repair sleeves and
exposed pipe in the freeze pits are coated with a corro-
sion-protective material, which is compatible with the
existing pipe coating.
In all cases where the pressure has been reduced to 50
psi (345 kPa) or lower for more than a day, it is recom-
mended that the line be repressurized slowly at a rate on
the order of 25 psi/hour (173 kPa/hour) and held at full
pressure for at least 24 hours before testing or voltage is
applied. It is also recommended that the terminations
and joints be checked for gas and bled, if needed, before
applying the 24-hour soak test.
In the event that a section of new cable has been
installed, it is recommended that the line be repressur-
ized in steps of 25 psi (173 kPa) and held for a minimum
of 8 hours between steps. The circuit should be at rated
15-15
Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance
pressure for at least 24 hours before testing or voltage
is applied.
(Note: It is recommended that the cable manufacturer
be consulted regarding pressurization steps and soak
periods.)
Termination Failure
Termination failures on pipe-type cable circuits normally
require replacing the cable back to the trifurcator, where
a single-phase joint is made. If the trifurcator is not large
enough to accept a joint, either the enclosure must be
enlarged to permit a splice to be made, or a buried joint
using split reducers and sleeves must be installed adja-
cent to the trifurcator enclosure. In the case of an above-
ground spreaderhead, a buried joint is required at the
bottom of the 90° pipe bend, and only the failed phase
needs to be replaced, provided the failed cable can be
removed. Otherwise all three terminations and cable
have to be replaced. The spreaderhead has to be opened
to assist in removing and replacing the failed cable.
In some cases a new joint can be avoided. If the cable in
the termination is not too badly damaged, a few layers
of cable tape can be removed, new layers applied, and
the termination rebuilt.
15.5.3 Self-Contained Fluid-Filled
SCFF cables have traditionally been installed in duct
banks to provide ease of access in the event of problems,
and because duct systems are more practical to install in
congested areas. As a result, electrical failures or
mechanical damage occurring between manholes may
require replacing an entire manhole-to-manhole cable
section. This is not to say that repairs cannot be made
by opening the duct bank at the failure location, repair-
ing the cable, and reconstructing the duct bank over the
repair. However, depending on the diameter of the
repair in relation to the inside diameter of the duct sys-
tem, this method may prevent future cable removal.
Fluid loss should be stopped or the flow rate reduced to
conserve reservoir fluid until repair operations can be
undertaken. In accessible areas, temporary repair clamps
can be applied over the failure area after first removing
any protective covering applied over the metallic sheath.
Where damage is extensive, preventing the use of a repair
clamp, the cable should be cut clear of the fault area and
temporary caps applied. For fluid loss originating from a
failure within the duct where access to the cable is not
possible, control is best accomplished by cutting and
capping the cable in adjacent manholes. However, with
this procedure, the faulted section is no longer protected
against moisture ingress, and the section most likely has
15-16
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
to be replaced. In lieu of cutting the cable, the cable
could be frozen until the fault can be exposed and the
loss of fluid stopped. Here also the unpressurized section
may be lost due to moisture entrance.
Failures between manholes are repaired either by
replacing the entire manhole-to-manhole section with
new cable, or by opening the duct bank in the fault area
and making the necessary repairs. The latter method is
seldom used due to the difficulty of the repair, especially
when the cable occupies an inside duct. When a spare
duct is available, restoration time can be greatly reduced
by installing the replacement cable in the spare duct and
splicing the cable before removing the damaged section.
Without a spare duct, the cable must be removed, the
duct must be inspected, and the necessary repairs must
be made before installing the replacement cable.
Replacement cable is spliced-in by disassembling the
existing joint and splicing-in the new cable. Depending
on the connector type (soldered or indented), it may be
necessary to shift the connector centerline to expose
undisturbed conductor to install the new connector. On
three-conductor stop-joints, only one side of the joint
needs to be disassembled. However, depending on the
joint design, it may be necessary to hydraulically isolate
the opposite side at the joint semistop and drain the
joint casing.
Repair methods for failures occurring within a manhole
depend on cable type (single- or three-conductor), joint
design (normal or full-stop), failure location, and cable
and space availability. If sufficient undamaged cable is
available, and space permits, it may be possible to
replace a failed joint with an elongated joint. On three-
conductor cable, repairs can be made using elongated
connectors and an extended splice of a design similar to
the existing design. Where conductor damage is more
extensive, two connectors and a short piece of conduc-
tor can be used to repair each phase conductor. In either
case, an elongated repair requires the use of special
sleeves. The alternative is to use two joints and a section
of connecting cable, which loops the manhole. On sin-
gle-conductor cables, where fluid flows through the core
of the conductor, special connectors containing fluid-
control valves have to be constructed if an elongated
connector was used for repair. For this reason, the two-
joint repair method is preferable to an elongated splice.
Where damage is extensive, a section of spare cable,
which loops the manhole, can be inserted using the
appropriate joints, one of which will be a normal joint.
The procedure of looping the manhole requires modify-
ing the supporting structure within the manhole. In
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
addition, temporary reservoirs are required to maintain
pressure on the spare cable while making the first joint.
Directly buried cables are considerably easier to repair
once the fault is located. Cables are exposed over a suffi-
cient distance to properly space them for repair. The
repair is made by splicing-in a section of spare cable
using two normal joints. When cutting back the failed
or damaged cable, it is recommended that the conductor
shield and insulation immediately surrounding the fluid
channel on single-conductor cable, or the filler material
and surrounding insulation on three-conductor cable, be
tested for moisture using a petroleum-based compound
heated to approximately 150°C. “Sizzling” indicates
moisture. If moisture is present, the cable must be cut
back until dry cable is located. A review of the plan and
profile drawings for low points in the failure area pro-
vide an indication of how far water may have traveled.
A termination failure on self-contained cable normally
requires replacing the termination riser cable as well as
the termination. On three-conductor, duct-installed
cable, this generally means replacing the cable back to
the first joint or installing a new manhole and replacing
the cable back to that location. All three terminations
have to be reconstructed. With buried cable, a buried
joint can normally be installed near the termination
structure. On single-conductor cable, only the cable
associated with the termination failure needs to be
replaced; this can be accomplished with a joint near the
base of the structure.
Unlike pipe-type cables, where an adequate supply of
reserve fluid is available from the pressurization unit,
the liquid for self-contained cables is supplied by reser-
voirs having limited reserves. In the event of a leak, res-
ervoirs must be continuously refilled until repairs are
made or the cable is sealed. Where a portable treating
unit is available, the unit can be used to supply fluid
directly to the damaged cable until repairs are com-
pleted. Reservoirs that have either lost all fluid or have
become contaminated with gas from the cable core must
be re-treated and calibrated before being placed back in
service. Also, sections of undamaged cable that are con-
taminated with gas from the failure must be flushed
until the fluid meets the required electrical characteris-
tics. The gas content of the section must also be checked
before splicing-in replacement cable or reconnecting res-
ervoirs. The section under test must be isolated from all
pressure sources, and the absolute pressure change must
be noted when a measured quantity of fluid is with-
drawn. With this data and knowledge of the total fluid
content of the section, including joints and termina-
tions, the gas content of the section can be calculated.
Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance
An equilibrium gas content of 0.05% or lower is consid-
ered acceptable for service.
15.6 FAULT REPAIR MATERIAL
15.6.1 Extruded-Dielectric Cable
In North America, extruded-dielectric cables are gener-
ally either duct installed or directly buried. With duct
installed cables, spare replacement cable must be equal
to the longest manhole section length in the circuit.
Spare splice materials may have a limited shelf life, and
as a result, records must be kept and periodically
reviewed to prevent a problem when the material is
needed. With transmission-class XLPE cables, when at
all possible, the spare material should be from the same
manufacturer as the originally installed cable system.
Fault repair materials include:
• Cable of required conductor sizes and voltages
• Splice kits of required conductor sizes and voltages
• Terminations for each voltage class
• Fluid for terminations, if fluid filled
15.6.2 Pipe-type Cable
In the past, when utilities had few high-voltage under-
ground transmission cable systems, fault repair material
was limited to reels of cable for the longest manhole sec-
tion length, several splice kits complete with joint cas-
ings, and several spare terminations complete with paper
rolls for the voltage and conductor size of the circuits.
The spare cable, normally having a temporary lead
sheath for protection during storage, was based on the
longest section length. Due to drainage of the impreg-
nating fluid, the reels should be periodically rotated
one-half turn, reversing rotation direction each time to
prevent the fluid from traveling under the temporary
lead sheath towards the cable ends. In addition, the
cables should be stored indoors, out of the weather, to
limit temperature excursions.
Splice kits, containing fluid-impregnated insulating tape
in sealed cans, should be good for many years, provided
the cans do not rust and develop leaks—in which case,
the tape should not be used.
Today, utilities have many circuits with different con-
ductor sizes and voltage ratings. This becomes a major
problem when addressing repair material requirements.
Recently, utilities have started substituting other cable
sizes and, in some cases voltage levels, to make repairs,
provided the replacement cable fits into the existing pipe
and the conductor size is equal or larger than the cable
15-17
Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance
being repaired. For example, a 2500 kcmil (1267 mm2)
138-kV full-wall, kraft paper-insulated cable installed in
an 8-5/8 in. (21.9 cm) diameter pipe could be repaired
using the same conductor size 345-kV cable insulated
with 0.600 in. (15.24 mm) of LPP insulation. If the
replacement cable had a larger conductor but would fit
into the pipe, only transition connectors would be
required, along with a revised splice design for the
respective cables.
Substituting cable sizes and voltages could greatly
reduce the spare cable requirements. Fault repair materi-
als include:
• Cable of required conductor sizes and voltages
• Splice kits
• Reducers and joint sleeves
• Normal and Transition connectors, Indent and FM
type depending on voltage
• Terminations for each voltage class
• Dielectric fluid. Large quantities may have to be pur-
chased. Fluid is shipped from the supplier in tank
trucks under a blanket of nitrogen and does not
require treatment prior to filling the circuit.
• Fluid-treating equipment, if fluid is not purchased.
Batch-type units for small quantities or trailer-
mounted units capable of treating and filtering on the
order of 10 gal (37.58 l) per minute under a vacuum
of less than 300 microns. The treated fluid is pumped
directly into the circuit.
15.6.3 Self-Contained Fluid-Filled Cable
SCFF cables are generally duct installed with splices
located in manholes. As a result, the reel lengths of
spare replacement cable must be equal to the longest
manhole section in the circuit. If the circuit consists of
one three-conductor cable, it is possible to replace only
the failed portion of the cable by breaking into the duct
at two locations, one on either side of the fault and
removing the failed section. Before any repairs are
made, the dielectric fluid must be flushed from both
cable ends; the fluid tested for acceptable levels of power
factor, dielectric strength, and moisture; and DGA con-
ducted on the removed fluid. This repair method
requires only a short piece of cable and two repair
splices. In addition, dielectric fluid and equipment for
treating the fluid are required.
Spare cable must be maintained under a small positive
fluid pressure at all times to prevent moisture or air
ingress. Fluid is supplied to the cable by pressurized res-
ervoirs mounted within the reel. The reservoirs are
equipped with pressure gauges, which must be periodi-
15-18
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
cally read and compared with pressure/temperature
charts for that specific reel to determine if there is a leak
in the cable or reservoir system. Indoor storage of the
reels greatly reduces pressure excursion.
As with pipe-type cable splice kits, the insulating mate-
rial is contained in fluid-filled cans and, provided that
the cans remain leak-free, should be good for many
years. Fault repair materials include:
• Cable of required conductor sizes and voltages
• Splice kits
• Terminations for each voltage class
• Reservoirs
• Dielectric fluid
• Fluid treatment equipment, batch-type unit
15.7 LEAK MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES FOR
FLUID-FILLED FEEDERS
15.7.1 Background
Dielectric fluid is the main component of high-pressure,
fluid-filled, pipe-type, and self-contained feeders. Leaks
have been a major concern since widespread use of these
feeders began in the 1940s. The utility experience to date
indicates that the cable itself, which was originally con-
sidered to have a lifetime of 40 years, generally does not
show significant signs of aging. On the other hand,
localized deterioration of the steel pipe, which houses
the cables, has resulted in dielectric fluid leaks. Dielec-
tric fluid leaks, as well as being an environmental con-
cern, could also affect the integrity and useful life of the
cable system. In case of a large leak, the pumping plant
may not be able to maintain the required operating pres-
sure. Loss of pressure may result in gas evolution in the
terminations and elsewhere along the feeder, causing
electrical breakdown and failure. Loss of pressure may
also result in the intrusion of water into the dielectric
fluid at a leak site, which otherwise should be free of
moisture. Moisture accelerates the aging process and
reduces the dielectric strength of the fluid.
In general, feeder leaks may result in feeder outages,
and are costly to pinpoint and repair. To address these
concerns, fluid-filled feeders should include a leak man-
agement system consisting of the following elements:
• Leak Detection
• Leak Location
• Leak Prevention
These methods are described in the following sections.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
15.7.2 Causes of Leaks
The main causes of pipe leaks are corrosion, contractor
damage, and water impingement. The water impinge-
ment occurs when a water main, in proximity to the
feeder pipe, develops a leak and causes the sand to act
as a sand-blasting agent and to drill a hole in the feeder
pipe. A number of feeder leaks associated with water
impingement have been experienced by utilities. In such
cases, the feeder fluid should be tested for moisture or
free water before proceeding with the repair process.
Corrosion leaks usually start at a low rate, and over
time, if not repaired, could become larger. However,
leaks caused by the contractor damage or water
impingement are usually large and could adversely
affect the feeder pressure.
15.7.3 Leak Detection Techniques
Rapid detection of a fluid leak reduces the amount of
fluid loss. Leak detection is especially important for
HPFF cables because of the large quantity of fluid
involved. A number of leak detection methods are com-
mercially available or are being developed. Some of
these techniques, applicable to fluid-filled feeders, are
described in the following section. The leak detection
system for HPGF feeders relies on the monitoring and
alarming of the gas pressure. A low-pressure alarm
could be set and monitored as part of the nitrogen cabi-
nets, which are installed at both ends of the feeder. The
termination low-pressure alarm could also complement
this and provide a backup alarm.
Conventional Leak Detection
Conventional leak detection is based on one or all of the
following indications:
• Low-reservoir-level alarm
• Frequent-pumping alarm
• Low-pressure alarm
These alarms are only sensitive to gross leaks. A large
fluid loss may be required to set off a low-reservoir-level
alarm. A typical frequent-pumping alarm installed on a
system containing 100,000 gal (378,500 l) may require a
leak of about 100 gal/hr (379 l/hr) to trigger it. A low-
pressure alarm could require a leak in excess of the
pump flow rate to be activated. Furthermore, if the
cable is in a heating cycle due to loading or earth ambi-
ent changes, then the leak tends to be masked and sensi-
tivities could be reduced. Leaks of lower rates are
usually detected by inspecting the pumping plant charts
weekly, or more frequently if warranted. Experienced
personnel can often flag suspicious behavior on a cable
system. This is followed by more frequent chart obser-
Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance
vations and, if warranted, leaks may be verified by pres-
sure-drop or other applicable tests. Detecting leaks by
this method depends largely on the experience of the
observer. To help the process, utilities can install pump-
ing plants that are equipped with a leak warning system
that monitors the tank level and pump operation and
compares it to the historical performance of the system
and alarms abnormal conditions. More sophisticated
systems are described in the following section.
On-Line Leak Detection
In 1986, EPRI funded the Dynamic Rating and Under-
ground Monitoring System (DRUMS) program, which
was designed to improve HPFF cable system operation
and solve cable problems through a distributed system
of data acquisition equipment monitoring a variety of
cable system parameters in real time and communicat-
ing data to a central processor (Engelhardt and Purn-
hagen 1991).
Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc. (Con
Edison) continued the funding of this project by focus-
ing the research on the development and demonstration
of an on-line leak detection system for force-cooled
feeders. Results of this work successfully culminated in
the development of a system with sensitivity for detect-
ing leaks down to 0.05% of total feeder volume, with a
minimum leak rate of 1 gal/hr (3.8 l/hr). The system has
subsequently been installed on several major transmis-
sion feeders and successfully detected leaks under actual
field conditions. The on-line leak detection system con-
tinuously performs a dynamic mass balance everywhere
along the cable system. Leak detection is accomplished
when there is a deficit between predicted fluid entering
the cable system and the corresponding measured quan-
tity. Figure 15-11 represents an actual leak alarm on a
345-kV feeder. As shown, the separation between the
Figure 15-11 Online leak detection alarm (courtesy of USi).
15-19
Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance
two graphs, which represents the total volume of fluid
leaked, becomes larger as the leak continues.
The basic hardware components of an on-line leak
detection system consist of the central processing unit
(CPU), the remote telemetry units (RTUs), and the
flow-metering unit (FMU). The CPU gathers analog
data from local inputs and remote data from the RTUs
distributed throughout the system. The CPU performs
dynamic modeling and leak detection/location func-
tions, stores this information, and provides an interface
to a remote user access workstation. RTUs located
throughout the system gather analog data, which is
made available to the CPU upon request. Local and
remote leak alarms are initiated by the CPU. An FMU
is located between the pumping plant and the cable sys-
tem. Its principal purpose is to accurately meter the flow
in and out of the cable system, but it also supplies tem-
perature and pressure information to the CPU. Its main
component is a precision bidirectional positive displace-
ment flow meter, which has been extensively calibrated.
A current metering system provides an analog signal
proportional to cable load current to the CPU.
A PC-based workstation can be used to access and pro-
cess information available on the CPU by calling it over
dial-up lines, leased lines, fiber optic, or any other com-
munication link. Its various functions are monitoring in
real time, and consist of unloading data, database man-
agement, graphic and text displays, and graphic and text
printout. To accomplish the accuracy and reliability of
the system, extensive and accurate data must be gath-
ered in real time and processed. This requires an exten-
sive investment in reliable communication systems,
precision instrumentation, and maintenance.
Development of an alternative, on-line leak detection
system that may rely on limited instrumentation and
data requirement is being pursued by EPRI and Con
Edison. In addition, references (Anders et al. 1999;
Anders et al. 2006) describe a novel, neural-network-
based method. This method uses three different markers
for leak detection to characterize the operation of a
pipe-type cable system. These are: (1) temperature-
pressure marker that relates the changes in the liquid
pressure to the temperature changes, (2) pump opera-
tion marker that counts the number of the pressurizing
pump operations, and (3) valve operation marker that
monitors the operation of the pressure relief valve. The
main algorithm uses a neural network model that learns
the relationship between the four measured quantities:
15-20
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
pipe and soil temperatures, fluid pressure, and conduc-
tor current. The remaining two algorithms mimic opera-
tion of the pressurizing pump and the pressure relief
valve that keep the dielectric fluid pressure within pre-
scribed limits. All three algorithms use the same data
obtained from the sensors. Since real-life data is very
“noisy,” it requires extensive preprocessing. Systems
installed at Con Edison on a static-pressure feeder and
at Hydro One have shown that, under actual field opera-
tion, the system is capable of continuously monitoring
the feeder without creating false alarms. Simulated leak
tests have been successfully carried out. However, more
data, in particular detection of actual leaks, is needed to
establish the true reliability and accuracy of the system.
15.7.4 Leak Location Techniques
Following the confirmation of a leak on a feeder, the
location of the leak needs to be rapidly pinpointed and
repairs carried out. Considering that a feeder can be as
long as 20 miles (32 km), there are two types of tech-
niques that can be employed to pinpoint the location of
a leak: sectionalizing and pinpointing. The sectionaliz-
ing methods can be employed to narrow the leak
location between two points along the feeder length.
The pinpointing methods are used to accurately locate
the leak.
Sectionalizing Methods
Routine Inspection
In the event of a leak (especially a large leak), the crew
should drive along the route in search of new construc-
tion, lift manhole covers at joints, and also lift the cov-
ers of neighboring utilities. A review of cathodic
protection surveys may also provide useful location
information by flagging areas where the pipe coating is
suspected to be poor.
Freezing
Leaks not located by obvious inspection techniques
have historically been located by freezing, using a binary
search technique. First, a freeze is applied at the center
point of the de-energized cable, and then a pressure-
drop test is performed on either side of the freeze to
determine which section is leaking. Then a freeze is
applied at the midpoint of the leaking section, and so
on, until the leak has been isolated to a small enough
section that can be bar-holed, excavated, or pinpointed
using techniques described in the following subsection.
The freeze method requires a feeder outage, is very time-
consuming, and requires multiple excavations to install
the freeze jacket on the pipe. A picture of a freeze site is
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
shown in Figure 15-12. If full stop joints are installed on
the feeder, they can be used in a similar fashion to a
freeze point in the leak search.
Thermal Probes
In the 1950s, Con Edison developed a thermal probe
that could sectionalize leaks without freezing by deter-
mining flow direction at manholes. The instrument con-
sists of a heater and temperature sensor, which can be
inserted in the flow stream, as shown in Figure 15-13.
When power is applied to the heater, the downstream
temperature sensor responds, indicating the direction of
fluid flow, which is presumed to be toward the leak.
Local thermal flows could result in an erroneous read-
ing. This technique requires that the feeder be de-ener-
gized for a significant period of time. In general, the
probe method may be successful for leaks larger than
15 gal/hr (57 l/hr).
Figure 15-12 Freeze jacket (courtesy Consolidated Edison
Company of New York, Inc.).
Figure 15-13 Thermal probe (courtesy Consolidated
Edison Company of New York, Inc.).
Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance
15.7.5 Pinpointing Methods
During the past decade, an extensive research effort by
EPRI and Con Edison has been carried out to develop a
reliable method for pinpointing leaks. References (Will-
iams et al. 1983; Williams 1982) provide a summary of
the work performed by EPRI. Some of these techniques
were further pursued by Con Edison (Ghafurian et al.
1999b). A brief summary of these techniques is pre-
sented below.
Subsurface Radar
Use of subsurface radar for leak location has been
addressed by EPRI and others (ESEERCO 1996)).
These studies have produced marginal results. This is
due to the fact that various conditions—such as when a
leak has not created a pool or if the leak is masked under
the pipe, or if ground is saturated with moisture—would
inhibit the process. If improvements are made in the
future, subsurface radar could be a complementary tool
to be used with other techniques for pinpointing leaks.
Acoustic Method
An acoustic method, based on the detection of sounds
generated by the pressurized liquid escaping from the
pipe, has been tried in actual field conditions. Due
mainly to the low signal level, signal attenuation, and
effect of background noise, the method has not pro-
duced successful results.
Scent -Trained Dogs
EPRI and Con Edison pursued this approach with lim-
ited success. Among the parameters adversely affecting
this method are the presence of noisy traffic, which is a
distraction to the dogs, weather conditions of high
humidity and heat, which fatigue the dogs, and difficulty
with distinguishing between vapors of an old leak and a
new one.
Hydrocarbon Sensor Wire
Several types of sensor wires have been developed that
can be laid parallel to the cable and react to the presence
of hydrocarbons. The basic principle involves a swelling
or dissolution of the plastic insulating material when
exposed to hydrocarbons, which then causes contact
between internal metallic sensor wires. Locating the leak
is accomplished by using a method to determine the
point of contact, such as a resistance bridge measure-
ment. The concept is mainly applicable to new construc-
tion or in areas where the cable is readily accessible,
such as in tunnels. As indicated in reference (Ghafurian
et al. 1989), the method was applied in a limited demon-
stration project.
15.7.6 PFT Leak Location Method
Based on a technology developed at the Brookhaven
National Laboratory (BNL), Con Edison and EPRI
15-21
Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

have successfully developed a method for pinpointing are extremely sensitive to measurement and, due to
leaks. This new technique is called the perfluorocarbon extremely low ambient background levels, can be
tracer (PFT) method, which relies on the injection of detected with the PFT analyzer. With this, a general
PFT, which is a nonpolluting and safe fluid, into the location of the leak, within a few blocks, is identified.
pipe and subsequent measurement of the tracer above • Bar-hole sampling: After the general area of the leak
ground. A detailed description of the method is pre- is localized, within a few blocks, that area is narrowed
sented in references (Ghafurian et al. 1999a; Garcia down by making about seven or eight bar-holes at
1993; Dietz 1987). about 40-ft intervals in the surface of the street, and
air samples from the soil are tested. Further bar-hol-
The following is a detailed description of the steps ing at shorter intervals will finally pinpoint the loca-
involved in this technique. tion of the leak. The bar-hole with the highest
• Preparation of tagging fluid: Since PFT dielectric liq- concentration is over the leak site. Figures 15-14 and
uid is heavier than conventional dielectric fluid, with 15-15 show the PFT Leak Location/Bar-Hole Con-
only limited solubility, it does not easily mix with centration Map and Leakmobile.
dielectric fluid. Care is taken during the mixing to
preclude gases; this is especially important for self- 15.7.7 Field Trial Results
contained systems. A small mixer is used to produce The PFT method has been successfully employed by
a uniform mixture of primary tagging fluid in the utilities in pinpointing leaks on pipe-type as well as self-
dielectric fluid to around the 1% range. The mixture contained feeders. The leak rates have ranged from a
is called the “tagging fluid.” Subsequently this is small one-gallon per day (3.8 l/day) rate up to very large
extensively diluted to the final concentration required leaks. The method has proven to be very accurate and
in the feeder. extremely reliable in pinpointing the location of leaks.
• Injection and circulation: The tagging fluid is diluted Recently PFT has been successfully used to locate leaks
into the pipe using an appropriate injection system. on HPGF pipe-type circuits.
Injection is made at one or more points along the
feeder having access via valves. Online dilution is
readily achievable for feeders with high-rate circula-
tion (force-cooled feeders). However, for static feed-
ers, other methods—such as removing the dielectric
fluid from the far end to create circulation or return-
ing dielectric fluid along a parallel feeder—need to be
implemented to ascertain that tagged fluid has
reached the point of the leak and diffuses through the
soil. The PFT is then transported by conventional
driving forces (barometric pumping, wind-induced
pressure gradients, etc.), ultimately venting into the
air above the street. This venting generally occurs not
too far from the subsurface leak location. Usually the
Figure 15-14 PFT leak location. (courtesy Consolidated
emissions of PFT vapors into the air reach steady Edison Company of New York, Inc.)
state in less than 24 hours.
• Survey of feeder route: After allowing time for the
PFT tagged fluid to reach to the leak area and diffuse
through the soil to the surface, the route of the feeder
is traversed with the Leakmobile (i.e., a vehicle
equipped with PFT-sensing equipment) and air sam-
ples are automatically tested for traces of PFT. Based
on the tagging levels used, the magnitude of the leak,
the prevailing meteorology, and a number of other
site conditions (e.g., depth to the feeder and the
street/above-ground interface conditions), the typical
PFT concentrations in the air above the street at a
leak site are in the few to several hundred parts-per-
Figure 15-15 PFT Leakmobile (courtesy Consolidated
quadrillion (10-15) range. The resulting PFT vapors Edison Company of New York, Inc.).

15-22
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
15.7.8 Leak Prevention Methods
The following techniques may be employed to mitigate
the impact of dielectric fluid leaks or to prevent the
occurrence of a leak.
Cathodic Protection System
The most effective way of preventing a leak is to main-
tain adequate cathodic protection system on the pipe.
This is discussed in Chapter 10.
Termination Rupture
If a transmission feeder has a very high elevation
difference between the two station ends, a rupture of a
termination at the low end of such a feeder could result
in the loss of a large amount of dielectric fluid. To pre-
vent such a condition, the following two methods may
be implemented:
• Full-Stop Joint. A full-stop joint provides for com-
plete hydraulic isolation, when the bypass valve,
across the joint, is manually or automatically closed.
• Riser Crusher. A riser crusher may be installed on
each riser. It consists of a pair of dies and two
hydraulic cylinders. The hydraulic cylinders push the
dies into the riser pipe and squeeze the pipe shut
around the cable in the event of a termination rup-
ture. This method, if applied, results in the destruc-
tion of the cable and the riser pipe.
Section Replacement
A transition joint, which provides for splicing a
solid dielectric cable to a HPFF cable, can be used to
Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance
replace a section of an HPFF feeder that experiences
high leaks. Detail of the joint is described in reference
(Chu et al. 1992).
Manhole Inspection
Since cathodic protection current cannot reach the pipe
in the manhole, corrosion could occur. Routine inspec-
tion of the manhole, including testing of the coating,
could prevent future leaks.
Detection of Corrosion and Coating Disbonding
When coating is not adhered to the surface of the pipe,
water can penetrate under it and support galvanic cor-
rosion of the pipe surface. This condition can occur on
both buried pipes as well as on above-ground pipes such
as pipes in manholes. Disbonded coating on buried
pipes cannot be mitigated by the application of cathodic
protection because the coating prevents cathodic protec-
tion current from reaching the pipe surface, resulting in
galvanic corrosion. The only way to address the prob-
lem is to be able to find the area(s) of disbondment,
remove the old coating, repair the pipe surface, if neces-
sary, and reapply new coating.
At present, no known methods have been shown effec-
tive in finding disbonded coating. However, R&D
projects, such as the use of thermography and spectros-
copy to inspect pipes inside manholes, are being pur-
sued to develop a possible solution.
15-23
Chapter 15: Operation and Maintenance
REFERENCES
Aabo, T. and J. A. Moran, Jr. 1988. Thermomechanical
Bending Effects on Extra-High Voltage Pipe-Type
Cables. July. EPRI Research Project 7873-1. Report No.
EL-5880.
Anders, G., J. M. Braun, S. Rizzetto, M. Vainberg,
R. Ghafurian, and L. Tang. 1999. “Leak Detection in
High Pressure Pipe-Type Cables Using Artificial Neural
Network.” 5th Annual Conference on Insulated Paper
Cables (JICABLE). June. Paris, France.
Anders, G., R. Ghafurian, and W. Tylman. 2006.“A
Novel Leak Detection System for Pipe-Type Cable
Installations.” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery.
Vol. 21. July.
ASTM. 2000. ASTM Specification D-3613-98. Stan-
dard Practice for Sampling Insulating Liquids for Gas
Analysis and Determination of Water Content. May.
Chu, H., R. Ghafurian, K. Maguire, B. Parmiagiani,
and J. Walker. 1992. “Development of 138 kV Transi-
tion Joint Between HPPT Cable and Extruded Cable.”
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. Vol. 7. October.
Dietz, R. N. 1987. “Perfluorocarbon Tracer Technol-
ogy”. In Regional and Long Range Transport of Air Pol-
lution. Sandroni, S., Ed. pp. 215-247. Elsevier Science
Publishers B. V. Amsterdam. The Netherlands.
EEI. 1957. Edison Electric Institute. Underground Sys-
tems Reference Book.
Engelhardt, J. S. and D. W. Purnhagen. 1991. Dynamic
Rating and Underground Monitoring System, Feasibility
Study. Underground Systems, Inc. July. EPRI Report
No. EL-7341.
ESEERCO. 1996. Empire State Electric Energy
Research Corporation. Improved Dielectric Fluid Leak
Detection. ESEERCO Final Report. March.
15-24
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Garcia. F. 1993. Perfluorocarbon Tracers for HPOF
Leak Location. Brookhaven National Laboratory. EPRI
Project RP 7905.
Ghafurian, R., H. Chu, J. Holmes, and H. Elbadaly.
1989. “Detection and Location of Dielectric Fluid
Leaks on Pipe-Type Cables.” IEEE Transactions on
Power Delivery. Vol. 4. July. pp. 1499-1506.
Ghafurian, R. and R. Mauro. 1994. “Locating Leaks
and Faults on Pipe-type Cables: Challenges/New Meth-
ods.” International Electric Research Exchange Work-
shop. June 13-16. Toronto, Ontario.
Ghafurian, R., R. N. Dietz, J. Dominguez, N. Tai, and
T. Rodenbaugh. 1999a. “Leak Location in Fluid-Filled
Cables Using the PFT Method.” IEEE Transactions on
Power Delivery. January. Vol. 14. pp. 18-23.
Ghafurian, R., J. Dominguez, A. Santini, and C. Sobel.
1999b. “New Advances in Mitigating the Environmental
Impact of Pipe-Type Cables.” IEEE Transactions on
Power Delivery. April. Vol. 14. pp. 314-319.
IEEE. 1998. IEEE Std. 1406. Guide to the Use of Gas-
in-Fluid Analysis for Electric Power Cable Systems.
Nigel, O. 1970. “Hydraulic Methods for Locating Oil
Leaks in Underground Cables.” IEEE Transactions on
Power Apparatus and Systems. Vol. PAS-89. No. 7. Sep-
tember/October. pp. 1434-1439.
Williams, J. A. 1982. Development of a Leak Location
System for Use on Underground Electric Power Trans-
mission Cable. October. EPRI Research Project
EL-2679. Report No. EL-2679.
Williams, J. A., S. Kozak, and T. J. Rodenbaugh. 1983.
“Leak Location Methods for HV Underground
Cables.” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems. Vol. PAS-102. No. 7. July. pp. 2029-2037.
 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

CHAPTER 16 Cable System Considerations

Author: John H. Cooper, Power Delivery Consultants, Inc.
Reviewers: Allen MacPhail, BC Hydro
Dennis Johnson, POWER Engineers, Inc.

Underground transmission cables have significantly different electrical characteristics

than overhead lines, and these differences must be taken into account during cable system
planning, design, and operation. The higher shunt capacitance of underground cables
generates significant charging currents and higher inrush currents during energization,
affects the system voltage profile, and results in high surge arrester energy dissipation
requirements. Shunt reactors may be required to mitigate these effects. The lower series
reactance can result in higher-than-desired power flow on a cable installed in an overhead
transmission network. This chapter presents the equations and procedures for calculation
of cable system symmetrical component series impedances and shunt admittances
required for system planning studies. Cables generally have a lower forced-outage rate,
but outage duration can be much longer than for an overhead line. Restoration proce-
dures for a system containing underground cables can be more difficult than for an all-
overhead system.

A detailed evaluation of the effects of underground cables on a specific utility system

requires sophisticated load-flow, transient-stability, short-circuit, and transient-overvolt-
age calculations, all of which need advanced computer programs. This chapter describes
the general theories and potential difficulties arising from cable integration on a utility
system. The chapter also presents a summary of inductive coordination guides and stan-
dards that are applicable to underground transmission lines. The calculation of above-
ground magnetic fields produced by underground cable systems and management meth-
ods is also covered.

John Cooper is a principal engineer with Power Delivery Consultants,

Inc. (PDC). He received a BSEE degree from Texas A&M University
(1967) and an MSEE degree from the University of Pittsburgh (1968).
He joined Westinghouse Electric in 1967, where he initially performed
power systems planning studies. He later held various engineering and
technical management positions at the Waltz Mill Underground Trans-
mission Test Facility. Mr. Cooper then worked for Power Technologies,
Inc. (PTI) from 1988 to 1991 as a consultant to electric utilities on the
design, specification, and installation of transmission cable systems. He has worked at
PDC since it was founded in 1991. Mr. Cooper is a Fellow of the IEEE Power Engineer-
ing Society, a Voting Member of the IEEE Insulated Conductors Committee (ICC), and
a member of CIGRE. He is a past Chairman of the ICC Cable Systems Subcommittee.
He is a registered professional engineer in the states of Pennsylvania, Georgia, New Mex-
ico, and Texas.

16-1
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
16.1 INTRODUCTION
The characteristics of transmission cables are signifi-
cantly different from those of overhead lines, and these
differences must be taken into account when integrating
cables into a transmission system composed primarily
of overhead lines (Stewart et al. 1986). The following is
a list of some of the most important effects and special
requirements that should be considered from a systems
point of view when integrating transmission cables into
a utility system or calculating their relationships with
other components of the system.
• Cable reactive-compensation requirements
• Effects on power flows
• Effects on switching devices
• Effects on surge-protective devices
• Steady-state voltage effects
• Impact on system parallel harmonic resonance fre-
quency
• System restoration procedures
• System reliability
• Short-term overload characteristics
• Losses
• Special requirements for hybrid lines
• System fault protection (i.e., relaying) considerations
• Environmental considerations (inductive coordina-
tion and magnetic fields)
An in-depth analysis of these topics requires sophisti-
cated load-flow, transient-stability, short-circuit, and
transient overvoltage calculation computer programs.
General theory and potential problem areas that should
be investigated are discussed below.
The majority of the systems planning considerations are
a consequence of the two characteristics of underground
cables that differ most significantly from overhead lines:
the lower series inductance and the much higher shunt
capacitance of underground cables. The series induc-
tance of cable circuits is typically one-half to one-third
that of overhead lines, primarily because the phase con-
ductors are much closer. The difference in shunt capaci-
tance is even more dramatic, typically 30 to 40 times
higher than that of an overhead transmission line. This is
because the high-voltage conductor is much closer to the
ground-potential conductors (i.e., insulation metallic
shield), and the relative permittivity (also called dielec-
tric constant or SIC) of the electrical insulation is, in
most cases, several times that of air.
16-2
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
To illustrate the difference in electrical constants for
overhead and underground transmission lines, Table
16-1 lists a number of the parameters for typical 230-kV
overhead and underground transmission lines and indi-
cates the related system planning considerations.
The following sections of this chapter summarize the
major items that should be considered when evaluating
the design and operational effects of an underground
cable system. Procedures for calculating the electrical
parameters of the most common types of cable circuits
are also summarized. Section 16.2 explains impedance
calculations and provides worked examples for them.
Section 16.3 identifies considerations for integration of
cables into the utility system. Section 16.4 describes cal-
culations and planning for magnetic fields. Section 16.5
describes design considerations for inductive coordina-
tion and provides worked examples for them. Section
16.6 lists the nomenclature relevant to this chapter.
16.2 IMPEDANCE CALCULATIONS
A cable circuit appears as series and shunt impedances
to the rest of the utility system, as shown in the π-equiv-
alent circuit of a single cable in Figure 16-1. The series
impedance portion consists of the conductor resistance
and inductive reactance, while the shunt portion con-
sists of the capacitive reactance and the resistance that
represents dielectric losses. Although dielectric losses
are important in evaluating cable system losses, the
shunt resistance is insignificant from a system stand-
point when compared to the system loads. However, the
series impedances can have an effect on system voltages
and angles and are normally included to represent
cables in load-flow and transient-stability studies.
Since the phases of a three-phase transmission line nor-
mally interact through magnetic coupling, the cables
must be represented on a three-phase basis rather than
the simple equivalent circuit of a single cable shown in
Figure 16-1. This interaction is usually represented in
system planning studies by using symmetrical compo-
nent circuit analysis techniques. This chapter assumes
that the cable engineer or system planner has a basic
understanding of these techniques, which are covered in
detail in numerous references (Glover and Sarma 2002;
Westinghouse 1964). This chapter summarizes the pro-
cedures to calculate the symmetrical component imped-
ances for transmission cables.
Positive-sequence impedance is the ratio of the normal
fundamental frequency sinusoidal voltages (equal in
magnitude and 120° out of phase) across power system
components to the positive-sequence currents flowing
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations

Table 16-1 Comparison of Typical Electrical Characteristics for 230-kV Overhead and Underground HPFF/XLPE
Transmission Lines (60 Hz)
Underground Effects and
Parameter Overhead HPFF XLPE Units Consideration
Shunt Capacitance 0.015 0.43 0.259 μF/mi Inrush current, charging current
0.009 0.27 0.162 μF/km
Series Inductance 2.0 0.7 1.0 mH/mi Inrush current
1.24 0.43 0.61 mH/km
Series Reactance 0.77 0.26 0.37 ohm/mi Load sharing
0.48 0.16 0.23 ohm/km
Charging Current 1.4 21.7 12.8 A/mi Losses, maximum power transfer
0.87 13.5 8.0 A/km
Dielectric Loss – 21.4 0.5 kW/mi Losses, ampacity
– 13.3 0.32 kW/km
Reactive Charging 0.3 8.6 5.1 MVA/mi Voltage profile
0.19 5.34 3.2 MVA/km
Capacitive Energy 0.26 7.6 4.6 kJ/mi Surge arrester energy dissipation
0.16 4.72 2.86 kJ/km
Surge Impedance 375 40 52 ohms Transient overvoltages
Surge Impedance Loading 141 1300 1020 MW Transient stability

Note: Reactive charging and surge impedance loading are three-phase quantities. The remaining quantities are single-phase
quantities.

through the components. Positive-sequence impedances
are of primary importance in calculating normal steady-
state conditions in a power system.
Zero-sequence impedance is the ratio of the equal and
in-phase voltages applied to all three phases of a power
system component to the in-phase currents that flow
through the components. This quantity is of primary
importance in calculating the currents or voltages in a
power system during an abnormal condition such as a
line-to-ground fault.
The negative-sequence impedance is calculated the same
way as the positive sequence, except that the phase
Figure 16-1 Simplified cable equivalent circuit.
sequence is reversed. The negative-sequence impedance
equals the positive sequence for a cable or overhead line.
A cable’s positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence imped-
ances are calculated using methods similar to proce-
dures used for calculating the sequence impedances for
overhead transmission lines. The following sections
summarize the calculation procedures for positive- and
zero-sequence impedances.
16.2.1 Shunt Impedance
As with overhead lines, the resistive part of the shunt
impedance, the resistance, is so high compared to the
capacitive reactance that it is assumed to be infinite.
Thus the calculation of shunt impedances for cables is
usually just the calculation of the shunt capacitance.
Calculating the shunt capacitance for transmission
cables is straightforward, because each of the high-volt-
age conductors is completely surrounded by a conduct-
ing material (the insulation shield), which is at ground
potential. There is, therefore, no coupling between the
voltages of the three phases, and the capacitive reac-
tance for each of the sequence shunt capacitances is
equal.

16-3
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

The following equation may be used for calculating the E0 = operating voltage, line-to-ground, kV.
capacitance between each high-voltage conductor and IC = charging current, A/1000 ft (or A/km).
the grounded insulation shield. kVAR = reactive power per phase.

7.354 ε 16.2.2 Series Symmetrical Component

C= x10−3 μF /1000 ft
log10 Di / Dc Impedances
Since there is magnetic coupling among the phase cur-
24.13 ε
= x10−3 μF / km rents, and in some cases among currents in the cable
log10 Di / Dc sheaths or shields, calculating the series symmetrical
16-1
Where: component impedances for cable circuits is not as sim-
ε = insulation dielectric constant, dimension- ple as calculating the shunt impedance quantities. In
less. general, a set of simultaneous equations must be solved
Di = diameter over cable insulation, in. for the voltage drop in each of the current-carrying con-
(or mm). ductors, including metallic shields and ground continu-
DC = diameter over conductor shield, in. ity conductors, to calculate each of the series sequence
(or mm). impedances. Fortunately, single-conductor, three-phase
cable circuits (excluding pipe-type cable) impedances
The numerator and the denominator of the log10 argu- may be calculated with good accuracy using approxi-
ments must have the same units (i.e., inches or millime- mate formulas for some installation conditions. For
ters). cable systems with multiple cables per phase, the more
complex method of solving simultaneous equations
Table 16-2 shows typical values for the dielectric con- must be used to accurately calculate the sequence
stant (specific inductive capacitance, or SIC, in IEEE impedances when the circuits are close enough to have a
Standard 835), for each of the insulating materials com- significant amount of magnetic coupling. Calculating
monly used in transmission cables. series impedances for pipe-type cables are even more
complex, because the set of equations that relates the
Both the positive- and zero-sequence shunt reactances, series voltage drop along the cable to the currents flow-
per unit of length, are then calculated by the following ing in each of the conductors becomes a set of nonlinear
equation. simultaneous equations due to the nonlinear magnetic
characteristics of the steel pipe. Because of this diffi-
1 culty, the series impedances of pipe-type cables are usu-
X1 = X0 = x l06 Ω/l000 ft (or Ω/km) 16-2 ally estimated from semiempirical equations derived
2π f C
from measurements that were performed by Neher
(Neher 1964).
Frequently-used equations for the cable charging cur-
rent, IC, and reactive charging power, kVAR, which are
16.2.3 Single-Conductor Cable Symmetrical
direct applications of the above equations, are:
Component Series Impedance Formulas
IC = 2πf C E0 x 10-3 A/1000 ft (or A/km) 16-3
Impedance formulas have been developed for the sym-
2
kVAR = 2πf C E o x 10-3 kVA/1000
ft (per phase) 16-4 metrical component sequence impedances of several rel-
Where: atively simple single-conductor cable systems. Typically,
f = frequency, Hz. these formulas for single-conductor cable systems are
C = cable capacitance, μF/1000 ft (or μF/km). based on the assumption that the three cables are
located at the vertices of an equilateral triangle. How-
Table 16-2 Dielectric Constants for Insulation Materials
ever, calculations have shown that the simplified formu-
Dielectric Constant las give accurate results when the cables are installed in
Insulation Material Range Typicala configuration other than an equilateral triangle by using
Impregnated Paper 3.5-3.7 3.5 the geometric mean distance (GMD) between the cables
Laminated Paper-Polypropylene 2.7-2.9 2.8 as the equivalent spacing between cables.
Crosslinked Polyethylene 2.3-2.4 2.3
The concept for these calculations and the nomencla-
Ethylene-Propylene Rubber 2.5-4.0 3.0
ture for the formulas for the sequence impedances are
Electronegative Gas/Spacer 1+ 1 shown in Figure 16-2.
a. IEEE Standard 835.

16-4
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations

Single-Point Bonded Cable Sheaths without Where:

Ground Conductor dij = Distance Between the Center of Conduc-
For cables with the metallic sheaths grounded at a single tors i and j, in. (mm).
point (Figure 16-2 A), the positive-sequence inductive dii = Geometric Mean Radius for Strand i, in.
reactance at 60 Hz is calculated using Equation 16-5. (mm).
= 0.779 x the Radius of Strand i, in. (mm).
GMDφ
X1 = 0.0529 log10 Ω /1000 ft
GMR φ The GMR for a cylindrical conductor (e.g., GIS cables)
with outside and inside diameters of r1 and r2, respec-
⎛ GMDφ ⎞
= ( 60 ) ( 2 π ) ( 2 ×10−7 ) (1000 ) Ln ⎜
⎜ GMR ⎟⎟
⎝ φ ⎠

⎛ GMDφ ⎞
= 0.0754 Ln ⎜ Ω / km
⎜ GMR ⎟⎟
⎝ φ ⎠
16-5

Note: The metric units equation uses the natural log (Ln)
term to be consistent with the inductance equation pre-
sented in Chapter 3; however, the following equations for
impedance calculations use log10 to be consistent with the
references (Westinghouse 1964 and Lewis and Allen
1978) that are the basis for the impedance calculation
procedures in this chapter.
Where:
GMDφ =Geometric mean distance between the cen-
ters of the cable high-voltage conductors,
in. (mm).
= 3 d ab d bc d ac (see Figure 16-2 B)
GMRφ = Geometric mean radius (see following sec-
tion) of the high-voltage cable conductors,
in. (mm).
Conductor Geometric Mean Radius
The geometric mean radius of a solid round or compact
1
− Figure 16-2 Actual and equivalent circuits for calculation
stranded conductor, GMRφ, is equal to e 4 (or 0.779) of sequence impedances.
times the actual radius of the conductor. For concentric
stranded conductors, the GMR may be calculated using
Equation 16-6 and Figure 16-3. Another alternative is
to obtain the GMR for a specific conductor from con-
ductor tables such as those in Chapter 3. Values for the
GMR are most often obtained from conductor tables
because the individual strands deviate from the circular
cross section shown in Figure 16-3.

GMR = n 2 d11d12 d13d14 d1n d 21..d ij ..d nn Figure 16-3 Geometric mean radius of a conductor
, in. (or mm) composed of n strands.
16-6

16-5
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

tively (Figure 16-4) is calculated using Equation 16-7 Zss = Self-impedance of metallic sheath with
(Calabrese 1959). earth return.

r14 ⎛3 ⎛ r ⎞⎞ De
− r12 r22 + r24 ⎜⎜ + Ln ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ ⎟⎟ Zss = R s + R g + j 0.0529 log10 (Ω /1000 ft)
4 rsm
ln (GMR) = ln (r1 ) − ⎝4 ⎝ r2 ⎠ ⎠
(r1
2
− r22 )
2
= R s + 0.05922 + j 0.1736 log10
De
(Ω / km)
16-7 rsm
16-11
The positive sequence resistance, Rφ, is the ac resistance Rs = Resistance of cable metallic shield at oper-
of the cable high-voltage conductor at operating tem- ating temperature, Ω/1000 ft (or Ω/km).
perature taking skin effect and proximity effects into rsm = Radius from center of cable phase conduc-
account. Chapter 11 (Ampacity) contains the equations tor to center of metallic shield, in. (mm).
for calculating the ac resistance of cable conductors. Zab = Mutual impedance between phase conduc-
Combining the positive sequence resistance and induc- tors with earth return.
tive reactance, the positive sequence impedance for sin-
De
gle-conductor cables with single-point grounded cable Zab = R g + j 0.0529 log10 (Ω /1000 ft)
sheaths, is shown in Equation 16-8. GMD φ
GMD φ De
Z 1=Rφ + 0.0529 log10 Ω /1000 ft = 0.05922 + j 0.1736 log10 (Ω / km)
GMR φ GMD φ
16-12
GMD φ
Z 1=Rφ + 0.1736 log10 Ω / km Zas = Mutual impedance between phase conduc-
GMR φ tor and metallic sheath with earth return.
16-8
De
Zas = R g + j 0.0529 log10 (Ω /1000 ft)
A formula for the zero-sequence impedance, Z 0 , is rsm
shown in Equation 16-9.
De
(Z + 2Zab ) 2 = 0.05922 + j 0.1736 log10 (Ω / km)
Z0 = Zaa + 2Zab − as Ω /1000 ft (or Ω / km) rsm
Zss + 2Zab 16-13

16-9 Rg in the preceding equations is the frequency-dependent

Where: resistance of the earth return path, which may be approx-
Zaa = Self-impedance of phase conductor with imated at low frequencies by Equation 16-14 (Meliopou-
earth return. los 1988).
De
Zaa = R φ + R g + j 0.0529 log10 Ω /1000 ft Rg ≅
2 π f μ0
Ω / m = 0.05922 Ω / km at 60 Hz
GMR φ 8
De = 0.01807 Ω /1000 ft at 60 Hz
= R φ + 0.05922 + j 0.1736 log10 Ω / km 16-14
GMR φ Where:
μ0 = Magnetic permeability of free space (4 π x
16-10
10-7 h/m).

De in the preceding equations is the mean depth of the

current that returns in the earth.

De ≅ 399.6 ρ / f (m)
= 25918 ρ / f (in.)
16-15

Figure 16-4 Geometric mean radius of a cylindrical

conductor.

16-6
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations

ρ = electrical resistivity of native soil, Ω-m (see GMRgcc = geometric mean radius of ground conti-
Table 16-3). nuity conductor in. (or mm).
Multi-point Bonded Cable Sheaths
The zero-sequence impedance varies significantly with the soil
For cables with the metallic sheaths grounded at multi-
electrical resistivity, ρ, and the presence of any other conductors
ple points, the positive-sequence reactance is calculated
in the ground, such as ground wires or water pipes.
as shown in Equation 16-19.
Single-Point Bonded Cable Sheaths with Ground
Continuity Conductor (Zas − Zab ) 2
Z1 = Zaa − Zab − Ω /1000 ft
As explained in Chapter 10 (Grounding and Cathodic Zss − Zab (or Ω / km)
Protection), it is recommended that a ground continuity 16-19
conductor be installed in the same trench as cables with Where:
single-point bonded sheaths. Exceptions to this recom- Zaa, Zab, Zas, Zss
mendation are single-point bonded cable systems are the same as shown above (in the section
installed in substations with a ground grid. The ground entitled “Single-Point Bonded Cable
grids in substations provide a low impedance path for Sheaths without Ground Conductor”).
zero-sequence currents. Equations 16-16 and 16-17
show the equations for the positive and zero-sequence The zero-sequence impedance for cable systems with
impedance values for single-point bonded cable systems multi-point bonded cable sheaths is shown in Equation
with a ground continuity conductor (Figure 12-24 b). 16-20.

Z1 = Z aa− Z ab Ω/1000 ft (or Ω/km) 16-16

(Zas + 2 Zab ) 2
Z0 = Zaa + 2 Zab − Ω /1000 ft
Z an2 Zss + 2 Zab (or Ω / km)
Z 0 = Z aa + 2 Z ab − 3 Ω/1000 ft (or Ω/km) 16-17
Z nn 16-20
Where:
Zaa and Zab are the same as defined above. Cross-Bonded Cable Sheaths
Znn = Self-impedance of ground continuity A common sheath-bonding method to minimize
conductor with earth return. induced currents is cross-bonding (see Chapter 12). In
this case, the induced sheath currents are negligible if
De
Znn = R gcc + Rg + j0.0529 log10 Ω /1000ft the minor section lengths are approximately equal. If
GMR gcc the induced sheath currents are negligible compared to
De the phase currents, the positive-sequence impedance for
= R gcc + R g + j0.1736 log10 Ω / km cross-bonded cable systems can be calculated using
GMR gcc Equation 16-16 (single-point bonded sheaths). The
16-18 zero-sequence impedance for cable systems with cross-
Where: bonded cable sheaths is the same as for multi-point
Rgcc = resistance of ground continuity conduc- bonded cable sheaths and Equation 16-20 applies.
tor Ω/1000 ft (or Ω/km).
Circuit Impedances for Multiple Installation
Conditions
Table 16-3 Typical Values of Soil Electrical Resistivity In general, cable circuits do not have exactly the same
(EEI 1957; IEEE Std. 80 2000) installation geometry and sheath-bonding configura-
Soil Conditions Resistivity Ω-m tions for the entire length of the circuit. In this case, the
Average of a large number of determina- circuit is segregated into segments with different instal-
100
tions lation parameters, and the impedances calculated for
Sea water 0.1—1.0 each of the line segments using the applicable formulas.
Swampy ground 10—100 The total impedance of the line is then the sum of the
Dry earth 1,000 complex impedances for all of the segments.
Bedrock 104
Pure slate 107 16.2.4 Generalized Calculation Method for
Sandstone 108 Symmetric Component Series Impedance
Note: These values are typical, but soil resistivity can In more complicated transmission cable systems (i.e.,
vary by more than an order of magnitude with tem- multiple cables per phase and/or multiple ground conti-
perature and moisture content. nuity conductors), standardized formulas for calculating
symmetrical component impedances are generally not

16-7
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

available. In these cases, generalized numerical calcula-
tion procedures must be used to calculate the symmetrical
component series impedances. Figure 16-5 shows a gen-
eral three-phase cable circuit, which is the basis for matrix
Equation 16-21 to relate the series voltage drop along the
cable conductors to all of the currents flowing in the high-
voltage conductors, the cable sheaths, and ground conti-
nuity conductor. This figure and the corresponding set of
equations are presented to demonstrate a method that
may be used to calculate cable circuit impedances for a
variety of cable system configurations. This more elabo-
rate method is not required for common single-circuit
cables, but it may have to be extended to calculate imped-
ances for more complex cable systems.
The elements of the impedance matrix may be calcu-
lated as follows, using the geometric notations shown in
Figure 16-2 A.
For the self-impedances, Zaa, Zbb, Zcc, Zss, and Znn with
earth return, see previous Equations 16-16 to 16-18.
For the mutual impedance between the phase conductor
and the cable metallic shield with earth return, Zas, see
previous Equation 16-14.
For mutual impedance between phase conductors (e.g.,
Zab) and between cable sheaths (e.g., Z s1s2) with earth
return:

Since the objective of the calculations is to determine De

Z ab = Z s1−s2 = Rg + j 0.0529 log10 Ω /1000 ft
the series voltage drops along the high-voltage conduc- d ab
tors in terms of positive- or zero-sequence current, the
De
high-voltage conductors may be assumed to be = Rg + j 0.1736 log10 Ω / km
grounded at one end to simplify the equations. d ab
16-22
⎡Z Z Z Z Z Z Z ⎤ ⎡I ⎤
⎡ Ea ⎤ ⎢ aa ab ac as1 as2 as3 ag ⎥ ⎢ a⎥ For mutual impedance between phase conductors and
⎢ E ⎥ ⎢ Z ab Z bb Z bc Z bs Z bs Z bs Z bg ⎥ ⎢Ib ⎥ ground continuity conductor (e.g., Z ag ) with earth
⎢ b⎥ ⎢ 1 2 3
⎥ ⎢ ⎥ return and between cable sheaths and ground continuity
⎢ Ec ⎥ ⎢ Z ac Z bc Z cc Z cs1 Z cs2 Z cs3 Z cg ⎥ ⎢Ic ⎥ conductor (Zs1g) with earth return:
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢Is ⎥
⎢0 ⎥ = ⎢ Z as1 Z bs1 Z cs1 Z ss Z s1s2 Z s1s3 Z s1g ⎥ ⎢ 1⎥ De
⎢0 ⎥ ⎢ Z Z Z Z Z Z Z ag = Zs1g = Rg + j 0.0529 log10 Ω /1000 ft
Z ⎥ ⎢ I s2 ⎥ d an
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ as2 bs2 cs2 s1s2 ss s2s3 s 2 g ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 ⎥ ⎢ Z as Z bs Z cs Z s s Z s s Z ss Z s 3 g ⎥ ⎢ I s3 ⎥ De
⎢0 ⎥ ⎢ 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 = Rg + j 0.1736 log10 Ω / km
⎣ ⎦ ⎥ ⎢I ⎥ d an
⎣ Z ag Z bg Z cg Z s1g Z s 2 g Z s 3 g Z gg ⎦ ⎣ g⎦ 16-21 16-23
Where:
dan = distance between a phase conductor or
sheath and ground continuity conductor,
in. (or mm).

In all cases, the numerator and the denominator of the

log10 arguments must be in the same units (i.e., in. or mm).

The matrices of Equation 16-21 may be rewritten using

submatrices as follows to facilitate calculations for the
cable sequence impedances:

⎡ E p ⎤ ⎡ Z pp Z pn ⎤ ⎡ I p ⎤
⎢ 0 ⎥ = ⎢Z | Z ⎥⎢I ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣⎢ np nn ⎥
⎦⎣ n ⎦ 16-24
Where:
[Ep] = column matrix of voltage applied to cable
high-voltage conductors, V.
[Ip] = column matrix of currents in the high-volt-
age conductors, A.
Figure 16-5 Cable circuit for positive- and zero-sequence [In] = column matrix of the currents in the cable
impedance calculations. sheaths and ground continuity conductor,
A.

16-8
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
[Zpp] = square (three rows by three columns)
matrix of the self- and mutual impedances
for the high-voltage conductors, Ω/1000 ft
(or Ω/km).
[Zpn], [Znp]
= rectangular matrices of the conductor-to-
sheath and conductor-to-ground mutual
impedances, Ω/1000 ft (or Ω/km).
[Znn] = square matrix of the self and mutual
impedances of the cable sheaths and
ground continuity conductor, Ω/1000 ft (or
Ω/km).
[0] = column matrix of zeros, (V/1000 ft or
V/km).
Equation 16-24 may now be rewritten as the two follow-
ing matrix equations:
[Ep] = [Zpp] [Ip] + [Zpn] [In] 16-25
[0] = [Znp] [Ip] + [Znn] [In] 16-26
The procedure to calculate the positive sequence imped-
ance for the three-phase cable circuit in Figure 16-5 is:
1. Solve for the sheath and ground continuity conduc-
tor currents [In] in terms of the phase currents, [Ip],
using Equation 16-27.
[In] = -[Znn]-1 [Znp] [Ip] 16-27
Where: [Znn]-1 is the inverse of matrix [Znn]
2. Substitute the solution for the matrix [In] into matrix
Equation 16-25
[Ep] = ([Zpp] -[Zpn] [Znn]-1[Znp]) [Ip] 16-28
3. The matrix of equivalent phase impedances for the
three-phase cable circuit is then the ratio of the volt-
ages applied to the conductors, [Ep], divided by the
phase currents, [Ip]. The equivalent phase impedance
matrix, [Zphase], is a 3 x 3 matrix with the self- and
mutual impedances between the three phases taking
the mutual coupling to the cable sheaths and ground
continuity conductors into account.
[Zphase] = [Zpp] -[Zpn] [Znn]-1[Znp] 16-29
4. The equivalent phase impedance matrix, [Zphase], can
be transformed into the symmetric component
impedance (zero, positive, and negative) matrix,
[Zseq], using the following matrix equation (Glover
and Sarma 2002).
[Zseq] = [A] [Zphase] [A]-1 16-30
Where:
⎡1 1 1⎤
[A] is the matrix: ⎢1 a 2 a ⎥⎥
⎢ sheaths are single-point bonded to a 250 kcmil (125
⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
The complex operator a is defined as:
1 3
a=− −j
2 2
5. The diagonal elements of the [Zseq] matrix are the
zero (Z0), positive (Z1), and negative sequence (Z2)
impedances, and the off-diagonal elements are the
mutual impedances between the zero, positive, and
negative symmetric component networks. That is:
⎡ Z0 Z 01 Z0 2 ⎤
[Z ]
seq
⎢
= ⎢ Z1 0 Z1
⎥
Z1 2 ⎥ Ω/1000 ft (or Ω/km)
⎢Z 2 0 Z 21 Z 2 ⎥⎦
⎣
16-31
If the cables are single-point bonded, the above proce-
dure is simplified, because the sheath currents in step 1
are known to be zero. The effect of a ground continuity
conductor, if present, must, however, be included.
For cables with cross-bonded sheaths, Equation 16-21
must be rewritten for each of the three sheath sections
where the sheaths are transposed, to reflect the different
magnetic coupling between the individual sheaths and
the phase conductors. An “exact” calculation would
then require the solution of eighteen simultaneous equa-
tions. The positive- sequence impedance can be approxi-
mated by assuming that there is no sheath current.
The above procedure is not practical to perform as a
manual calculation, but is easily implemented using a
personal computer and matrix inversion and multiplica-
tion techniques.
16.2.5 Worked Examples—Single-Conductor
Cable Sequence Impedances
The following example calculation demonstrates the use
of the equations for calculating the positive- and zero-
sequence impedances of a cable circuit and compares
the results of the approximate Equations 16-16 and
16-19, and with the impedance values obtained using
the generalized impedance calculation method.
Worked Example 1: Single Conductor Cable
Symmetrical Component Impedances Using
Formulas
Calculate the positive- and zero-sequence impedances of
a 230-kV XLPE cable installed in a vertical configura-
tion with phase spacings of 10 in. (25.4 mm) between the
centers of adjacent cables (see Figure 16-6). The cable
mm2), concentric round, copper ground continuity cable.
The 230-kV XLPE cables have a 1200 mm2 (2400 kcmil)
compact segmental copper conductor. Additional details
16-9
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

of the transmission cable and ground continuity conduc- The radius from the center of the cable conductor to the
tor constructions are given in Table 16-3. middle of the sheath is:
1.526 0.095
Other parameters needed for calculating the sequence rsm = + 0.063 + 0.906 + 0.067 +
2 2
impedances are shown in Table 16-4.
= 1.85 in. (47 mm)
The geometric mean distance between the transmission
cable phase conductors from Equation 16-5 is: The self-impedance of a conductor with earth return is:
GMDφ = 3 10 x10 x 20 = 12.6 in. (320 mm) Z aa = 0.00611 + 0.01807
⎛ 33500 ⎞
+ j 0.0529 log10 ⎜ ⎟ Ω /1000 ft
The geometric mean distance between the phase con- ⎝ 0.623 ⎠
ductors and the ground continuity conductor is: = 0.02418
GMDφ − gcc = 3 14.14 x 10 x 14.14 = 12.6 in. (320 mm) + j 0.250 Ω /1000 ft (0.0793 + j 0.820 Ω / km)

The equivalent depth of the earth return current from The mutual impedance between phase conductors is:
Equation16-15 is: ⎛ 33500 ⎞
Zab = 0.01807 + j 0.0529 log10 ⎜ ⎟
De = 25918
100
= 33500 in. (850,900 mm)
⎝ 12.6 ⎠
60 = 0.01807
+ j 0.1811 Ω /1000 ft ( 0.05928 + j0.5942 Ω / km )

The self-impedance of the ground continuity conductor

(Equation 16-17) with earth return is:
Znn = 0.0489 + 0.01807
⎛ 33500 ⎞
+ j 0.0529 log10 ⎜ ⎟ Ω /1000 ft
⎝ 0.221 ⎠
= 0.067 + j 0.274 Ω /1000 ft ( 0.212 + j0.899 Ω / km )

The mutual impedance between phase conductors and

the ground continuity conductor is:
⎛ 33500 ⎞
Figure 16-6 Example 1: 230-kV XLPE duct bank cross Zan = 0.01807 + j 0.0529 log10 ⎜ ⎟ Ω /1000 ft
section. ⎝ 12.6 ⎠
= 0.01807 + j 0.1811 Ω /1000 ft
Table 16-4 Parameters for Example 1 Impedance
Calculations ( 0.05928 + j0.5942 Ω / km )
230 kV Cable Parameters
Conductor diameter: 1.526 in. (38.8 mm) Substituting the above impedances into Equations 16-16
Thickness of conductor shield: 0.063 in. (1.6 mm) and 16-17 gives the following positive and zero-sequence
AC Resistance at 90°C: 6.11 μΩ/ft (20.06 μΩ/m) impedances:
Metallic shield resistance at
80°C: 27.34 μΩ/ft (89.7 μΩ/m) Z1 = 0.0061 + j 0.0691 Ω/1000 ft
Metallic shield mean diameter: 3.693 in. (93.8 mm) (0.0200 + j 0.2266 Ω/km)
Earth electrical resistivity: 100 Ω-m Z0 = 0.0747 + j 0.2604 Ω/1000 ft
Insulation thickness: 0.906 in. (23 mm) (0.2451 + j 0.8543 Ω/km)
Thickness of insulation shield: 0.067 in. (1.7 mm)
Geometric mean radius of
conductor: 0.623 in. (15.8 mm)
Ground Continuity Conductor Parameters
Conductor diameter: 0.575 in. (15.6 mm)
Conductor GMR: 0.221 in. (5.61 mm)
AC Resistance at 60°C: 48.9 μΩ/ft (160.4 μΩ/m)

16-10
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations

Worked Example 2: Single Conductor Cable Symmetrical Component Impedances,

Generalized Calculation Method
Calculate the positive- and zero-sequence impedances of the 230-kV
XLPE cable system in Example 1 using the generalized impedance cal-
culation method (Section 16.2.4).
230-kV XLPE Transmission Cable System Data:
f = 60 Power system frequency (Hz)
Rdc25 = 0.00456 Resistance of HV conductor (25°C), Ω/1000 ft
Rac = 0.0061 ac conductor resistance at 90°C, Ω/1000 ft
Dc = 1.526 Diameter of 1200 mm2 high-voltage conductor, in.
GMRφ = 0.623 GMR of high-voltage conductor, in.
Rs = 0.02734 Resistance of cable sheath at 80°C, Ω/1000 ft
Dsm = 3.693 Mean Diameter of cable sheath, in.
Ground Continuity Conductor Data:
Rgcc = 0.0489 Resistance of 250 kcmil ground continuity conductor (60°C), ohms/1000 ft
GMRn = 0.221 GMR of neutral conductor, from conductor handbook, in.
The x coordinates are inches from left column of duct bank.
Installation Data:
The y coordinates are inches below the surface of the ground.
x1 = 0 y1 = −65 Phase A horizontal and vertical locations, in.

x2 = 0 y 2 = −75 Phase B horizontal and vertical locations, in.

x3 = 0 y 3 = −85 Phase C horizontal and vertical locations, in.

x 4 = 10 y 4 = −75 Ground continuity conductor (GCC) horizontal and vertical locations

Other System Data:

ρelec = 100 Earth electrical resistivity (assumed/typical), ohm-meter

ρelec Depth of earth return and resistance of earth return at

D e = 25918· Rg = 0.01807
60 Hz (Ω/1000 ft)
f
Constants and arrays used for calculations:
⎡1 1 1 ⎤
3 ⎢ ⎥
a = − 0.5 − j A = ⎢1 a 2 a ⎥
Symmetrical component transformation matrix
2 ⎢1 a a 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Calculate distances between cables and between cables and ground continuity conductor.

d ab = (x 2 − x1 )2 + (y 2 − y1 )2 dab = 10 in. (0.254 m)

d bc = (x 3 − x 2 )2 + (y 3 − y 2 )2 dbc = 10 in. (0.254 m)

d ac = (x 3 − x1 )2 + (y 3 − y1 )2 dac = 20 in. (0.508 m)

d an = (x 4 − x1 )2 + (y 4 − y1 )2 dan = 14.142 in. (0.359 m)

d bn = (x 4 − x 2 )2 + (y 4 − y 2 )2 dbn = 10 in. (0.254 m)

d cn = (x 4 − x 3 )2 + (y 4 − y 3 )2 dcn = 14.142 in. (0.359 m)

16-11
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Calculate Self- and Mutual Impedance Terms

⎛ De ⎞
Z aa = Rac + Rg + j 0.0529 log10 ⎜ ⎟ Self-impedance of cable high-voltage conductor with earth return
⎜ GMR ⎟ (Ω/1000 ft)
⎝ φ ⎠
⎛ De ⎞
Z nn = Rgcc + Rg + j 0.0529 log10 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ GMRn ⎠
Self-impedance of GCC with earth return (Ω/1000 ft)

⎛D ⎞ Mutual impedance between Phase a and Phase b

Z ab = Rg + j 0.0529 log10 ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟
⎝ d ab ⎠
with earth return (Ω/1000 ft)

⎛D ⎞ Mutual impedance between Phase b and Phase c

Z bc = Rg + j 0.0529 log10 ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟
⎝ d bc ⎠
with earth return (Ω/1000 ft)

⎛D ⎞ Mutual impedance between Phase a and Phase c

Z ac = Rg + j 0.0529 log10 ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟
⎝ d ac ⎠
with earth return (Ω/1000 ft)

⎛D ⎞ Mutual impedance between Phase A conductor

Z an = Rg + j 0.0529 log10 ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟
⎝ d an ⎠
and GCC with earth return (Ω/1000 ft)

⎛D ⎞ Mutual impedance between Phase B conductor

Z bn = Rg + j 0.0529 log10 ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟
⎝ d bn ⎠
and GCC with earth return (Ω/1000 ft)

⎛D ⎞ Mutual impedance between Phase C conductor

Z cn = Rg + j 0.0529 log10 ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟
⎝ d cn ⎠
and GCC with earth return (Ω/1000 ft)

Setup self- and mutual impedance matrix, Zpp

⎡ Z aa Z ab Z ac ⎤
⎢ ⎥
Z pp = ⎢ Z ab Z aa Z bc ⎥ Matrix with self- and mutual impedances between phase conductors
⎢⎣ Z ac Z bc Z aa ⎥⎦
⎡0.0242 + j 0.2502 0.0181 + j 0.1864 0.0181 + j 0.1705 ⎤
Z pp = ⎢⎢0.0181 + j 0.1864 0.0242 + j 0.2502 0.0181 + j 0.1864 ⎥⎥ Values of self- and mutual impedances,
⎢⎣0.0181 + j 0.1705 0.0181 + j 0.1864 0.0242 + j 0.2502⎥⎦ (Ω/1000 ft)

Setup Z np and Z pn matrices – Mutual impedance terms between the HV conductors and shields are eliminated
because of single-point bonding.
[
Z np = Z an Z bn Z cn ] Matrix with mutual impedances between ground continuity conductor and phase
conductors
Z np = [0.0181 + j 0.1785 0.0181 + j 0.1864 0.0181 + j 0.1785 ] Values of Znp matrix elements, (Ω/1000
ft)
Matrix with mutual impedances between phase conductors and ground continuity
Zpn = ZnpT
conductor (equals transposed Znp matrix)
Zn = Znn Self-impedance of ground continuity conductor with earth return
Zn = 0.0670 + j 0.2740 (Ω/1000 ft)

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations

Calculate Zphase matrix (equivalent self- and mutual impedance for phase conductors).
Zphase = Zpp – Zpn·Znn –1·Znp
⎡0.0285 + j 0.1362 0.0231 + j 0.0674 0.0224 + j 0.0565 ⎤
Z phase = ⎢⎢0.0231 + j 0.0674 0.0299 + j 0.1260 0.0231 + j 0.0674⎥⎥ (Ω/1000 ft)
⎢⎣0.0224 + j 0.0565 0.0231 + j 0.0674 0.0285 + j 0.1362⎥⎦
Transform the equivalent phase impedance matrix, Zphase, to a symmetrical component impedance matrix, Zseq.

Zseq= A·Zphase·A-1
⎡ 0.0747 + j 0.2604 − 0.0002 − j 0.0007 − 0.0006 + j 0.0005⎤
Z seq = ⎢⎢− 0.0006 + j 0.0005 0.0061 + j 0.0690 − 0.0093 + j 0.0053 ⎥⎥ (Ω / 1000 ft )
⎢⎣− 0.0002 + j 0.0007 0.0092 + j 0.0054 0.0061 + j 0.0690 ⎥⎦
Zero-sequence impedance (Ω/1000 ft) is first diagonal element
Z0 = Zseq[0,0] Z0 = 0.0747 + j 0.2604
of Zseq + matrix
Positive-sequence impedance (Ω/1000 ft) is second diagonal
Z1 = Zseq[1,1] Z1 = 0.0061 + j 0.0690
element of Zseq matrix
Negative-sequence impedance (Ω/1000 ft) is third diagonal
Z2 = Zseq[2,2] Z2 = 0.0061 + j 0.0690
element of Zseq matrix

The positive- and zero-sequence impedances calculated
in using the generalized impedance calculation method
give the same results as the impedance values obtained
by the solution of Equation 16-21.
16.2.6 Symmetrical Component Series
Impedances for Pipe-Type Cables
Although pipe-type cables still comprise the majority of
existing transmission cable systems in North America,
series impedance calculation methods for this type of
cable are the least accurate. This is because the nonlin-
ear permeability and losses in the steel pipe make it dif-
ficult to calculate the flux linkage within the wall of the
pipe and external to the pipe.
The most commonly used method (IEEE Relaying
Committee 1996) to calculate impedances for this type
of cable is based on an analysis of pipe-type cable
impedances by Neher (Neher 1964). Neher developed
semiempirical formulas based on laboratory measure-
ments on short sections of pipe-type cables installed in
carbon steel and nonferromagnetic pipes. These formu-
las are of questionable accuracy, especially for zero-
sequence impedance, but there are no methods currently
available that have been demonstrated to be more accu-
rate. In one example in Neher’s paper, the discrepancies
between measured and calculated values for zero-
sequence resistance and reactance values were as high as
19% and 35%, respectively.
Another problem with calculating the zero-sequence
impedance for pipe-type cables is that the impedance
varies with the magnitude of the zero-sequence current.
This means that short-circuit studies may need an itera-
tive process if the fault location is primarily supplied by
pipe-type cable circuits.
The following paragraphs summarize the method devel-
oped by Neher to calculate the positive- and zero-
sequence impedances of pipe-type cables. The general
formulas in Neher’s paper for zero-sequence impedances
include terms, such as the thickness of the pipe wall,
which are applicable to rarely used nonmagnetic pipe. As
explained by Neher, the zero-sequence current is concen-
trated toward the inner surface of a steel pipe due to its
high magnetic permeability Therefore, the effective
thickness of the pipe wall is small for steel pipe, and this
term has been omitted in the following equations.
The semiempirical formula in Equation 16-32 for calcu-
lating the positive-sequence inductive reactance of pipe-
type cables is relatively simple. As may be determined by
comparing Equation 16-32 to the positive-sequence
impedance equation for cables without a steel pipe
(Equation 16-5), the presence of the steel pipe increases
the inductive reactance of the cable circuit by approxi-
mately 15%. The constant 2.57 arises from the use of Dc
rather than GMRφ in the logarithmic term.

16-13
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

The calculation of positive-sequence inductive reac-

tance, X1, is given in Equation 16-32. Note that values in
R 'p = effective pipe resistance, μΩ/ft (or μΩ/m).
Equations 16-32 through 16-36 are given in microhms/ft Xc = conductor ac inductive reactance, μΩ/ft (or
( o r m i c ro h m s /m ) r at h e r t h a n o h m s / 1 0 0 0 f t ( o r μΩ/m).
ohms/km). Common usage for cable engineering appli- X 'p = pipe effective inductive reactance, μΩ/ft (or
cations, such as Chapter 11 (Ampacity) use micro-
hms/ft, and these equations refer to that earlier usage. μΩ/m).
System engineering applications typically use the unit
ohms/1000 ft. Conductor ac resistance includes skin and proximity
effects as described in Chapter 11 (Ampacity). The
⎡ 2.57S ⎤ effective resistance (R'p) and inductive reactance (X'p) of
X1 = 60.9 log10 ⎢ ⎥ µΩ / ft the cable pipe are determined from empirical formulas,
⎣ DC ⎦ Equations 16-36 and 16-37, developed by Neher from
laboratory test data.
⎡ 2.57S ⎤
= 200 log10 ⎢ ⎥ µΩ / m
⎣ DC ⎦ μ (H)
16-32 R p = 29.9 μ Ω / ft (D p in inches)
Where: Dp
S = axial spacing between phases, in. (or mm).
Dc = diameter over cable conductor, in. μ(H)
(or mm). = 2475 μ Ω / m (D p in mm)
Dp
For cables in a triangular configuration, S is simply the 16-36
separation between cable centers.
For cables in a cradled configuration, S may be calcu-
μ (H )
lated from Equation 16-33.
X p = 18.1 μ Ω / ft ( D p in inches)
2
Dp
⎡ DS ⎤
S = 1.26 DS 6 1 − ⎢ ⎥ μ (H )
⎣ DP − DS ⎦ in. (or mm) = 1508 μ Ω / m ( D p in mm)
16-33 Dp
Where:
16-37
Ds = diameter over skidwires, in. (or mm).
Dp = pipe inside diameter, in. (or mm).
The quantity of μ (H ) in Equations 16-36 and 16-37
The resistive part of positive-sequence impedance, R1, is the square root of the relative magnetic permeability
for pipe-type cables is calculated as shown in Equation of the steel pipe as a function of magnetizing force (H).
16-34. Figure 16-7 from Neher’s paper contains a plot of the
R1 = Rdc (l +Yc+YS+Yp) μΩ/ft (or μΩ/m) 16-34
Where:
Rdc = conductor dc resistance, μΩ/ft (or μΩ/m).
Yc = increment in losses due to conductor ac
effects, dimensionless.
YS = increment in losses due to shield ac effects,
dimensionless.
Yp = increment in losses due to pipe ac effects,
dimensionless.

Neher’s formula for the zero-sequence impedance of

pipe-type cables, Z0, is given in Equation 16-35.

Z 0 = 3 [ RC / 3 + R ′p + j ( X C + X ′p )] μΩ/ft (or μΩ/m)

16-35
Where:
Figure 16-7 Curve of μ (H ) versus Ip/Dp for carbon
Rc = conductor ac resistance, (1 + Yc)Rdc' μΩ/ft
steel pipe (Neher 1964).
(or μΩ/m).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations

6. Calculate the zero-sequence impedance from the fol-

quantity μ ( H ) as a function of magnetizing force lowing formula.
(Ip/Dp= 3 I0/Dp).
⎡R ⎤
Z0 = 3 ⎢ c + R ′p + j (X c + X′p ) ⎥ x 10−3 Ω /1000 ft
Conductor inductive reactance, XC, is calculated from ⎣ 3 ⎦ (or Ω / km)
Equation 16-38.
16-40
7. If short-circuit calculations indicate that the phase-
⎡ D 3p ⎤ to-ground fault current for the pipe-type cable circuit
X c = 17.6 log10 ⎢ 2 ⎥
μΩ/ft is significantly different from the assumed value in
⎣⎢ 3.115 D c S ⎦⎥ step 1, then the above calculations must be repeated
using the improved estimate for pipe fault current.
⎡ D 3p ⎤
= 57.7 log10 ⎢ 2 ⎥
μΩ/m It should be noted that the zero-sequence impedance
⎢⎣ 3.115 D c S ⎥⎦ 16-38 value calculated using the Neher method assumes that
the pipe magnetic characteristics shown in Figure 16-7
The effective pipe impedance, Z 'p, taking into account apply to all pipe-type cables. However, the magnetic per-
the division of fault current between pipe and cable meability of steel pipe varies depending on the carbon
shield/skid wires, is: content and the manufacturing process (see Section
16.4.2, Cables with Ferromagnetic Components).
2
⎡ R p + j(X m + X p ) ⎤⎦
Z′p = R ′p + jX′p = R p + jX p − ⎣ Worked Example 3: Symmetrical Component
Rs Impedance Calculations for HPFF Cable
+ R p + j(X m + X p ) Calculate the positive- and zero-sequence impedances
3
for a 345-kV cable that is in a cradled configuration in a
16-39
Where: 8-in (200 mm), pipe, as used for the Worked Example 3
in Chapter 11 (Ampacity). Assume that the cable con-
(D p + t p )3 ductor temperature is 85°C and that the cable has the
X m = 17.6 log10 μΩ/ft following construction:
4 D′s S2
(D p + t p )3 Conductor 2500 kcmil (1268 mm2) compact seg-
= 57.7 log10 μΩ/m
4 D′s S2 size; type: mented, copper
Shielding: Two intercalated stainless-steel shield
Rs = Resistance of metallic shield and skidwire in tapes
parallel (see Chapter 11), μ/ft (or μ/m).
Skidwires: Two 0.1 in. (2.54 mm), stainless-steel
In summary, the procedure for calculating pipe-type “D” skidwires
cable zero-sequence impedance is: Insulation 0.600 in. (15.2 mm) of LPP insulation
thickness:
1. Assume a value for the magnitude of the pipe phase-
to-ground fault current, which is three times the zero- Cable Diameter: 3.194 in. (81.1 mm)
sequence fault current (3 Io). L-G Fault 10,000 A, and 50,000A
Current
2. Determine μ (H ) from Figure 16-7 and the pipe
fault current divided by Dp. The positive-sequence impedance is calculated as fol-
3. Calculate the pipe zero-sequence resistance, Rp, and lows:
inductive reactance, Xp, using Equations 16-36 and The positive-sequence resistance, R1, is determined from
16-37, respectively. Equation 16-34.
4. Calculate the conductor inductive reactance, Xc , R1 = Rdc (1 +Yc+Ys+Yp)
using Equation 16-38. = (5.459) (1 + 0.144 + 0.0015 + 0.469)
5.Calculate the effective pipe impedance, Z 'p, using = 9.054 μΩ/ft @85°C
= 0.0091 Ω/1000 ft (0.030 /km)
Equation 16-39.

16-15
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

The equivalent conductor spacing, S, and inductive 9.81

reactance are: R p = 29.7 = 35.86 μΩ/ft (117.7 μΩ/m)
2
8.125
⎛ 3.194 ⎞
S = 1.26(3.194) 6 1 − ⎜ ⎟ = 3.676 in.(93.4 mm)
⎝ 8.125 − 3.194 ⎠ 9.81
X p = 18.1 = 21.86 μΩ/ft (71.7 μΩ/m)
8.125
And the positive-sequence inductive reactance, X 1 , is
calculated from Equation 16-32. The effective pipe impedance is calculated from Equa-
tion 16-39.
⎡ 2.57(3.676) ⎤ Z′p = R ′p + jX′p
X 1 = 60.9 log10 ⎢ = 43.5 μΩ/ft (142.7 μΩ/m)
⎣ 1.824 ⎥⎦
[35.85 + j(8.18 + 21.86)]
2

And therefore = 35.86 + j21.86 −

Z1 = 0.0091 + j 0.0435 Ω/1000 ft (0.0295 + j 0.1427 Ω/km) 36745
+ j(8.18 + 21.86)
3
The zero-sequence impedance is calculated as follows: = 35.78 + j21.39 µΩ / ft (117.7 + j 70.2 µΩ / m)

The conductor, shield, and skidwire resistances are:

The zero-sequence impedance (for 10 kA fault current)
Rc = (1 + Yc) Rdc= (1 + 0.144)(5.343 μΩ/ft) is calculated from Equation 16-40.
= 6.00 μΩ/ft (19.7 μΩ/m)
Rshield = 10,407 μΩ/ft (34,144 μΩ/m) ⎡ 6.0 ⎤
Z0 = 3 ⎢ + 35.78 + j(14.86 + 21.39 ⎥ 10−3
Rskidwire = 79,068 μΩ/ft (259,410 μΩ/m) ⎣ 3 ⎦
= 0.1166 + j0.1093 Ω /1000 ft
1
Rs = = 0.382 + j0.359 Ω / km
2 2
+
R shield R skidwire
For a phase-to-ground fault current of 50,000 A, the
1 above calculation procedure gives a zero-sequence
=
2 2 impedance of:
+
10, 407 79, 068 Z0 = 0.0567 + j0.0737 Ω /1000 ft
= 36, 745 µΩ / ft (120,550 µΩ / m) = 0.1840 + j 0.2410 Ω / km

From Equation 16-38, 16.3 INTEGRATION OF CABLES INTO THE

⎡ (8.125) ⎤ 3 UTILITY SYSTEM
X c = 17.6 log10 ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣ (3.115)(1.824)(3.194) ⎦ 16.3.1 Capacitance and Reactance Effects
= 14.86 µΩ / ft (48.8 µΩ / m) The high capacitance of cable circuits may have a signif-
icant effect on steady-state voltages throughout a power
system. Since a capacitive current flowing through an
Calculate the quantity, Ip/Dp, and determine μ (H ) inductance causes a voltage rise across the inductor
(Ferranti effect), the charging current created by the
from Figure 16-7.
capacitance of a cable circuit can cause high system
voltages by two related phenomena. The first, and most
Ip 10000 common situation, is for the cable charging current to
= = 1, 230 A / in. (48, 480 A / m) cause voltage rises across the inductive impedances
Dp 8.125 external to the cable circuit. This situation, which is
worst during light-load or load-rejection conditions, is
illustrated in Figure 16-8. In this circuit, the reactances,
From Figure 16-7, μ (H ) = 9.81 XL and XT, represent the reactances of transmission
lines and transformer impedances between the genera-
tor and the cable circuit. Since the voltage at the load
must be held near 100%, the system voltages will rise

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations

Figure 16-8 Example of voltage rise due to cable charging current.

significantly above rated voltage as the cable charging can be estimated by multiplying one-half the total
current flows through the inductive impedances, XL and charging current times the positive-sequence reactance.
XT, to the generator. During light-load conditions, this
voltage rise may be more than 105% of the nominal rat- 16.3.2 Reactive Compensation
ing for which most power system components are In addition to the steady-state overvoltage problems
designed. described in the previous section, the high capacitive
charging current inherent in cable circuits may cause a
When this condition exists, several measures can be reduction in the amount of real power that can be trans-
taken to reduce system voltages to acceptable levels. mitted through a cable circuit, and may cause apprecia-
First, voltages can be regulated within certain limits by ble energy losses. As the cable circuit length is increased,
adjusting the voltage magnitude at the generator by low- the capacitance and, therefore, the charging current
ering the field excitation, or by lowering voltage taps on increase linearly. In the worst case, the magnitude of the
transformers. The second approach is to provide shunt charging current may increase until it is equal to the
compensation of the cable’s reactive charging current by cable ampacity, at which point no real power may be
placing shunt reactors at one or both ends of the cable transmitted without overheating the cable. This length is
circuit (Dougherty and Shifreen 1962). This latter commonly called the critical cable length.
ap p ro a ch ha s num e ro us a dva n t ag e s, wh i ch a re
described in the following section. During normal- and Fortunately, charging current is in quadrature with the
high-load conditions, the high-voltage problem caused current associated with real power transfer so that avail-
by cable charging current is reduced, because the lag- able ampacity for real power transfer is more than the
ging current drawn by most loads and the voltage drops algebraic difference between the cable ampacity and the
caused by the inductive load current offset the effects of cable charging current. Figure 16-9 shows a plot of the
the cable charging current. real power that may be transferred across 2000 kcmil
(1000 mm2) copper conductor, HPFF and XLPE trans-
The second steady-state voltage-rise phenomenon, mission cables at different system voltages. The power
called Ferranti voltage rise, is caused by the voltage rise
along an unloaded transmission line due to its capaci-
tive current flowing through its own series inductance.
The Ferranti voltage rise occurs when the cable is ener-
gized from one end only. It is not a problem for most
cable circuits, because they are usually relatively short,
and their positive-sequence impedance is low. However,
some cable circuits warrant evaluation during surge
arrester selection. Long single-conductor submarine
cables with wide phase spacings are usually the only
cable circuits where the Ferranti effect is significant
(Cowley and Foxell 1983). If the cable insulation has a
high dielectric constant and wide phase spacings (which
increase the positive-sequence reactance), the voltage
may rise high enough at the open end of the cable to
cause failure of the surge arresters, which are normally
connected near the cable terminations. This voltage rise Figure 16-9 Maximum real power transfer for XLPE and
HPFF cables.

16-17
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

transfer curves for HPPF cables assume LPP insulation
for system voltages of 230 kV and above. This figure
gives an estimate of the maximum circuit lengths for
uncompensated cables at various system voltages, with
all of the reactive charging current supplied from one
end of the cable circuit. A more realistic maximum cable
circuit length is when the real power transfer capability is
reduced to 80% of the thermal capacity of the cable.
Inductive VARs consumed by the cable, even during
heavy load periods, are not sufficient to compensate
capacitive VARs, so a cable never approaches surge-
impedance loading.
Shunt Reactors
Shunt reactors are often placed at one or both ends of
long cable circuits (Figures 16-10 and 16-11) to limit the
voltage rise during light-load conditions, especially
where the local power system is relatively weak (high
system impedances) at the cable location. The reactors
can either be directly connected at line voltage, or they
can be connected to the power system through tertiary
windings of a substation three-phase transformer or
single-phase transformers. The majority of installed
shunt reactors at 60 kV and above are in the 30 to
300 MVA (three-phase) range (IEEE Std C37.015 1993).
The largest single-phase units have ratings of 125 MVA
or 375 MVA as a three-phase group. Tables 16-5 shows
typical characteristics for EHV iron-core reactors that
are connected to the power system at line voltage. Table
16-6 shows medium-voltage reactor characteristics,
which are typically air-core and usually connected to
transformer tertiary windings.
Shunt reactors may be directly connected to the substa-
tion bus or termination station, or may be connected
with load break switches. The latter allows the reactor to
be removed from the system when the system can safely
absorb the reactive current during high-load periods.
Shunt reactor switching imposes a unique and severe
duty on the connected system and circuit breaker. Par-
ticularly at high voltages, the current to be interrupted is
generally less than 300 A. However, successful current
interruption is a complex interaction between the circuit
breaker and the circuit. This interaction can result in
significant overvoltages. IEEE Standard C37.015,
Application Guide for Shunt Reactor Switching, should
be reviewed for additional information concerning
shunt reactor switching. Shunt reactors are also avail-

Table 16-5 EHV Reactor Electrical Characteristics (IEEE

Std. C37.015-1993)
System Normal
Voltage Rating Frequency Rated Induc-
(kV) (MVAR) (Hz) Current (A) tance (H)
765 150 – 300 60 113 – 226 5.17– 10.35
525 135 60 148 5.43
Figure 16-10 138-kV air-core shunt reactor (courtesy 400 120 – 200 50 173 – 289 2.55 – 4.25
author).
236 125 60 306 1.18
132 55 50 240 1.0
115 25 60 126 1.4

Table 16-6 Medium-Voltage Reactor Characteristics (IEEE

Std. C37.015-1993)
System Normal
Voltage Rating Frequency Rated Induc-
(kV) (MVAR) (Hz) Current (A) tance (H)
36 35 – 100 50/60 560 – 1600 98 – 34
24 35 – 100 50/60 840 – 2400 44 – 15
17.5 40 – 80 50/60 1400 – 2600 20 – 10
12 40 – 75 50/60 1900 – 3600 10 – 5
Figure 16-11 138-kV, 30-MVAR, iron-core shunt reactor
(courtesy author).

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations

able with under-load tap changers that make it possible
to vary the shunt compensation over a range from
approximately 50 to 100%.
A relatively recent development in shunt compensation
is the advent of static VAR compensators (SVC). These
are power electronic devices that work in combination
with reactors to provide a continuously adjustable reac-
tance source. Their main advantages are that they can
be used to vary the amount of cable compensation as
system load fluctuates, and the changes can be accom-
plished in a fraction of a second. Since the power elec-
tronics devices are most economical at high currents
and lower voltages, SVCs are connected to the power
system through transformer tertiaries or dedicated
transformers. Table 16-7 summarizes the advantages
and disadvantages of the various shunt-compensation
methods.
allowable loading of the cable. The heating effect and
losses from the reactive current can be reduced by plac-
ing reactors at both ends of the circuit and, ideally,
selecting their relative sizes so that the reactive current
flows approximately equally out of both ends of the
cable circuit (Figure 16-12 B) for normal load condi-
tions. The contribution of the reactive current to heating
at the hottest spot is reduced by a factor of four when
the reactive current flows equally out both ends of the
cable, as compared to all of the charging current flowing
out of one end. In preliminary planning studies, 60%
shunt compensation is often used for cost estimation.
Some utilities install 100% shunt compensation.

The optimum amount and location of shunt compensa-

tion must be determined by running load- flow cases at
different load levels and studying the effects of future
system expansion. In systems having a significant
amount of cables, system power factor can be influenced
at light-load periods to the extent that the system could
go leading if not corrected by reducing other capacitive
VAR sources. In general there are definite advantages in
reducing losses by having one reactor per phase at each
end of the cable circuit. This is because the reactive cur-
rent flowing through the cable causes I2 R losses in the
cable (Figure 16-12 A). Reactive current loss generated
by the cable capacitance is not uniform, and generally
causes the ends of the cable to operate hotter than the
center. Because heating will be greatest at the end, and
because the thermal environment is usually more or less
uniform throughout the cable length, this potential “hot Figure 16-12 Shunt compensation of cable circuits.
spot” at the end of the cable circuit will dictate the

Table 16-7 Comparison of Shunt Compensation Schemes

Location Device
Fixed Value Iron-Core
Transmission Line Reactor or
(Direct or Disconnect)
Air-Core Reactor
Transmission Line Iron-Core Reactor
Variable Iron-Core Reactor
Transmission Line
(Tap Changer)
Transformer Tertiary Air-Core Reactor
Static VAR Compensator
Transformer Tertiary
(SVC)
Type of Switching
Device Advantages Disadvantages
Lower cost, less
None
complications for system Not controllable
restoration
On/off controllable, better
Circuit Switcher Higher cost
system reliability
Wide range of
Circuit Switcher Higher cost
compensation
Not as effective as HV
connection because of
LV Circuit Breaker Lowest cost transformer impedance.
Induction heating in nearby
metallic equipment
High cost,
LV Circuit Breaker Continuously controllable
more complicated

16-19
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
Although shunt reactors can be used to reduce the
losses in a transmission cable circuit, they have iron core
and copper losses that should be taken into consider-
ation in an economic analysis. Typical losses in EHV
shunt reactors are approximately 0.15% of the MVAR
of the reactor. For example, a 150 MVAR reactor would
have losses of approximately 250 kW.
Keeping the reactive current flowing equally out both
ends of a cable circuit typically requires more than just
placing equal-sized shunt reactors at each end of the
cable. If system voltages are lower at one end of the
cable, the cable capacitive current will flow toward that
end, resulting in greater heating there. In addition to the
reactive current generated by the cable, there may also
be reactive current from other parts of the ac system
flowing on the cable. Because of its low reactance, the
cable tightly couples the two parts of the system that it
interconnects, so that even a small difference in voltage
between the two systems can result in very large reactive
currents flowing from generators in one area to genera-
tors or loads in another area. This system reactive cur-
rent also causes heating. Any such current contributes
to heating of the cable, and limits the real power that the
cable can carry. This dynamically changing situation is
one reason for using adjustable reactive power devices
for cable shunt compensation, such as reactors with
underload taps or SVCs.
For long cable circuit lengths, it may become necessary
to place shunt compensation at some intermediate point
or points along the cable circuit to reduce the maximum
charging current flowing in the cable, and therefore bet-
ter utilize the cable’s ampacity for real power transfer
(Dougherty and Shifreen 1962; Cowley and Foxall
1983). The cost of the added land, equipment, and reac-
tor losses must be compared to the cost of a larger cable
conductor and higher cost of cable losses to determine if
and where such intermediate shunt compensation is
warranted. As with many engineering trade-offs, eco-
nomics usually influences the decision rather than the
theoretical limits shown in Figure 16-9.
16.3.3 Load Sharing and Power Flows
Another commonly encountered problem with the inte-
gration of transmission cables into power systems is
uneven load sharing between overhead lines and under-
ground lines. This “load hogging” by underground
cables is a result of the significantly lower series reac-
tance of cables compared to overhead lines.
The reactive loading of various system branches is con-
trolled by the magnitude of the voltages across the sys-
tem and can be adjusted by generator excitation
16-20
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
adjustments and transformer voltage taps. Shunt reac-
tors or capacitors can also be added where necessary to
maintain a fairly flat voltage profile across the system
under normal load conditions.
The distribution of real power flow is a function of the
relative voltage angles around the system and the inter-
connecting impedances. Unfortunately, it is not as easily
controlled as reactive power flow because the circuit
impedances are fixed, and it may not be economical to
control power flows by adjusting angle (and therefore
the generated power) at the various generating units.
Hence, where network branch loadings are not approxi-
mately equal to the thermal capacities of the circuits, the
power transfer cannot be increased once a circuit is
loaded to its thermal limit even though other circuits
may not be very heavily loaded.
The flow of real power in an ac power system can be cal-
culated by the following relationship:
V1 V2
P12 = sin δ MVA
X 12 16-41
Where:
P12 = power flow between points 1 and 2, MVA.
V1 = magnitude of voltage at point 1, kV.
V2 = magnitude of voltage at point 2, kV.
X12 = reactance between the two points, Ω.
δ = angle between the voltage phasors at the
two locations, degrees.
If a cable and an overhead line are in parallel, as illus-
trated in Figure 16-13, the voltage magnitudes and
angles are the same at the ends of the cable and over-
head line. Therefore, the power that flows through the
cable and the overhead lines is inversely proportional to
the reactance of each of the circuits. Since a cable typi-
Figure 16-13 Load sharing between parallel
overhead and underground transmission lines.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations

cally has a series reactance which is one-half to one- input and output voltages. A phase-angle regulator
third that of an overhead line, the power flowing over may be used to balance loading between two cables that
the cable is approximately twice to three times that of have different lengths, ampacities, designs, or any other
the overhead line. If the cable and the overhead line have difference that requires control of the load sharing
about the same ampacity, the cable will be severely over- between them.
loaded before the power flow in the overhead line
reaches half of its rating, assuming that the circuits are Air-core reactors (see Figure 16-15) can be placed in
approximately the same length. series with a cable circuit to reduce the amount of power
flow over the cable.
Even two cable circuits that are not identical will not
share the total power equally. Because the reactance of
both cables is small, even an incremental difference will
cause some difference in the load sharing between the
two circuits. Such an imbalance would be acceptable
only if the ampacities of the cables happen to match the
natural imbalance in power loading. Significant imbal-
ances can result from parallel cables of unequal length.
The higher total series reactance of the longer cable will
cause it to carry less power than the shorter cable.

Calculating the load sharing between an overhead line

and a cable between the same substations is straightfor-
ward using Equation 16-41; however, actual networks
are much more complex, and a load-flow program must
be used to calculate possible cable overloading. If load-
flow studies reveal load-sharing problems with a
planned cable circuit, the following methods could be
used to redistribute the power flows.
• Use capacitors in series with overhead lines to reduce
the total reactance of the line
(Figure 16-14 A)
• Use a phase-angle regulating (shifting) transformer
to artificially decrease the angle across the cable cir-
cuit (Figure 16-14 B) Figure 16-14 Methods to improve load sharing
• Install a reactor in series with the cable circuit (Fig- between overhead and underground transmission
ures 16-14 C and 16-15) circuits.

• Complete the connection between the two transmis-

sion circuits at the distribution voltage rather than at
the transmission voltage (Figure 16-14 D)

Continuous or step adjustment of series capacitors is

not currently practical; they are expensive since they
must be mounted on insulated platforms at line poten-
tial. Therefore, they are not typically used for any over-
head circuits other than very long ones. Phase-angle
regulators are most widely used in transmission cable
circuits because motor-operated winding taps in the
phase-angle regulators (or phase shifters as they are
sometimes called) can provide an adjustable phase shift
to compensate for changing conditions.
Figure 16-15 Series reactors for load flow control
A phase-angle regulator is a transformer that is wound (courtesy author).
in a manner to create a change in the angle between the

16-21
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
Connection at distribution voltage may or may not be
possible, depending on the power system where the
cable is being applied. It is sometimes possible to supply
one (or more) substation transformers with the cable
and a second transformer with the overhead line where
the two circuits are only connected through the rela-
tively high impedance of the distribution network. If
this is done, there are usually disconnect switches, which
are normally open but may be closed during emergency
conditions.
16.3.4 Hybrid Lines
Hybrid overhead/underground lines are relatively com-
mon in power systems but have special design issues that
must be considered.
Transition Stations
Whenever a transmission line transitions from overhead
to underground, a transition station or transition pole is
required (See Figure 16-16). If no switches or reactors
are required, and the cable has extruded-dielectric insu-
lation, then steel poles are often used to make the over-
head-to-underground transition, as shown in Figure
16-16. Riser pole OH/UG transitions have been used for
HPFF and HPGF transitions in a few cases; however,
HPFF and SCFF OH/UG transitions typically require
a transition station (Figure 16-17) at one or both ends
of the line.
Transition stations can occupy several acres of land.
Depending on the voltage of the line, the height of the
structures within a transition station can reach in excess
of 100 ft (30 m). If shunt reactors are required to com-
pensate the underground line, then the transition station
needs to be located where very large trucks can access it
to deliver and someday replace the reactors. This
requires either the construction of a road or location of
the transition station close to a road. Regardless of
Figure 16-16 Typical 115/138-kV XLPE OH/UG transitions
(right, courtesy Georgia Power).
16-22
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
whether a transition station is required, underground
lines need to be constructed in areas that have access to
trucks, trailers, and other equipment used to support
the duct, manhole, and cable installation.
If a transition station is needed in an urban or suburban
area, then noise produced by equipment in the transi-
tion station (i.e., shunt reactors or forced-cooling equip-
m e n t fo r H P F F c abl e s y s t e m s ) m ay n e e d t o b e
addressed. Noise barriers can be installed to reduce the
impact of noise from a shunt reactor or mechanical
refrigeration equipment; however, there may still be
some level of noise at the perimeter of the station.
Protection and Control
Overhead-to-underground transition stations can cause
a number of difficulties that must be addressed when
designing transmission line relay protection and control
systems. Depending on system requirements, the transi-
tion station could be as simple as a single pole used to
connect the overhead line to the underground cable
(Figure 16-16) or as complicated as a substation with
circuit breakers, shunt reactors, protective relaying, ac
and dc power supplies and communication facilities.
Each transition station design provides its own relaying
concerns and design considerations.
Some of the main points to consider concerning protec-
tion and control of lines with transition stations include
the following:
• Variations in the overall line impedance caused by
having one or more parallel cables out of service for
maintenance while the remaining cable(s) and over-
head portions remain in service.
• Impedance mismatch between the overhead and
underground sections, preventing the use of power
line carrier equipment.
Figure 16-17 Typical 230-kV HPFF OH/UG transition
station (courtesy author).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
• Shunt reactors, if located at transition station,
require local fault protection or transfer tripping of
the line end breakers. If local fault protection is used,
normal power supply redundancy (e.g., dual ac and
dc systems) is required.
• HPFF or SCFF fluid pressurization units located in
transition stations must also have redundant power
sources to run the pressurizing pumps and alarm
annunciation/telemetry for one or more days.
• Fault detection and/or location equipment at the
transition station is desirable to determine if the fault
is in the cable section to enable or prohibit automatic
reclosing (see “Hybrid Line Protection” in Section
16.3.9).
Automatic Reclosing
Transmission line automatic reclosing after line-to-
ground faults is frequently used, because lightning-
related faults are frequently cleared after the fault arc is
extinguished. However, careful consideration must be
given to automatic reclosing for combination over-
head/underground lines. Automatic reclosing should
not be permitted on hybrid lines with HPFF or SCFF
cable sections unless the protective system is designed to
determine that the fault is not in the underground por-
tion of the line (IEEE 1996). If the fault is in a pipe-type
cable section, and the fault arc did not burn a hole
through the pipe wall initially, there is a significant risk
that a second fault would cause pipe burn-through. A
pipe burn-through in a buried section would result in a
significant fluid leak and possibly additional cable dam-
age due to water ingress. With XLPE transmission
cables, there is less chance of significant additional dam-
age caused by reclosing into a fault. However, there is a
risk of causing a manhole fire if the fault is in a splice.
For SCFF and extruded-dielectric cable systems, auto-
matic high-speed reclosing can also damage sheath volt-
age limiters (SVL) if the MCOV (maximum continuous
operating voltage) of the SVLs is too close to the rms
(root-mean-square) magnitude of the fault-induced
sheath voltage. Some utilities do use automatic reclosing
on hybrid OH/UG lines with short sections of extruded-
dielectric cable without differentiation of overhead ver-
sus underground faults. However, most utilities do not
use automatic reclosing without differentiation of over-
head versus underground faults if the underground seg-
ments are more than 15 to 25% of the total line length.
Relaying and instrument transformers can be installed
at transition stations to detect if the fault is in the
underground portion of the line and send a signal to the
remote substations to permit or prohibit reclosing.
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
Another issue for high-speed reclosing is the effect of
trapped charge on the magnitude of switching overvolt-
ages. Special circuit breakers with preinsertion resistors
may be required to control switching surges if automatic
reclosing is employed. This is because transmission
cables can retain trapped charge for a long period of
time, resulting in significantly higher switching surge
overvoltages compared to overhead lines. Potential
transformers, if present, will discharge the trapped
charge within several cycles.
16.3.5 System Restoration
System restoration can present problems for utilities
having an extensive cable system. Cables can be dam-
aged by overvoltages, because of the reactive current
generated by cable capacitance. Shunt reactors associ-
ated with a cable circuit should be energized at the same
time as the cable itself. There can still be substantial
voltages rises, however, depending upon reactor size and
ability of the system to absorb reactive current.
Energizing a cable without sufficient shunt compensa-
tion, or before the system is able to absorb the reactive
current from the cable without excessive overvoltages,
can result in cable damage and collapse of the system
that has been restored up to that time. If reactors are
switched for voltage control, they must be easily and
properly applied for system restoration.
HPFF cable systems require special consideration
related to system restoration. This is because more than
24 hours is required to repressurize the cable system
after a total loss of dielectric fluid pressure. The pot-
heads must be vented to expel gases, which collect at
high points during the loss of pipe pressure. Also, the
cable insulation may be wrinkled if the fluid pressure is
reapplied too quickly. These restoration problems may
be avoided if dielectric fluid pressurizing units are
equipped with a backup source of power (e.g., com-
pressed gas-driven pump or emergency generator) to
keep the pressurizing pumps running even during total
loss of electrical power.
16.3.6 System Reliability
Although transmission cables are in general very reli-
able, their repair times are much longer than those for
overhead lines. For example, typical forced-outage rates
for 138-kV overhead and 138-kV HPFF underground
transmission lines are 0.00468 outages/year/mile (0.0029
outages/year/km) and 0.00165 outages/year/mile (0.0010
outages/year/km), respectively (Mallard 1966). (This is
the fair-weather forced-outage rate. The adverse-weather
forced-outage rate for the same overhead line is 0.01 out-
ages/year/mile. The fair- and adverse-weather forced-
16-23
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
outage rates are the same for the cable circuit.) Typical
outage durations on the 138-kV overhead and under-
ground lines are 9 hours and 3 weeks, respectively.
As a result of the much longer repair times for under-
ground transmission lines, it is common practice to
design cable circuits with 100% redundancy. That is, two
parallel cable circuits are often installed with each of the
two cables having sufficient capacity to carry the rated
load of the circuit alone for the duration of a contingency.
Forced outages for underground transmission cables
may be grouped into two categories. The first category
consists of forced outages that do not involve dielectric
breakdown in the cable system and that may be repaired
in less than 12 hours. An example of this type of forced
outage is an event that results in the temporary loss of
dielectric fluid pressure. The line may trip on low pres-
sure, but it may be restored quickly if pressure does not
drop too low. In this type of situation, the same emer-
gency measures to temporarily supply loads or to
restore service may be used as is the case for overhead
lines. However, the second type of forced outage, caused
by dielectric breakdown in the cable system, either
through mechanical damage or a defect in the affected
device, results in much longer outage times. This second
type of forced outage requires different design practices
for overhead and underground transmission circuits.
The design practices vary among utilities; however, they
may be generally grouped into what are referred to as
single- or double-contingency design criteria. The
single-contingency (n-1) design criterion, which is the
most common, means that the system must be designed
such that an outage of any single transmission line in a
given area will not result in loss of load. Similarly, the
double-contingency (n-2) design criterion means that
the system is designed such that there will be no loss of
load as a result of the loss of any two transmission lines
at the same time. Actually, utilities that use the double-
contingency design criteria usually limit its application
to areas of the network, such as high-rise office areas,
where the total loss of load has particularly adverse
consequences.
These design criteria have different consequences
depending on whether the transmission system is a dense
urban network or a more widespread or sparse transmis-
sion system. In the former case, the load that is carried
by a transmission circuit can generally be rerouted even
if the circuit is an underground cable with a three- or
four-week repair time. In this type of system, there are
many instances where it is not necessary to put in multi-
ple cable circuits between two substations to maintain
16-24
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
the desired reliability. However, in the latter case, the loss
of a single transmission cable between two substations
might result in long-term loss of load. Because of this
and the long repair times for underground transmission
lines, it may be necessary to design cable circuits with
100% redundancy to meet the single-contingency design
criteria. That is, two parallel cable circuits are installed,
with each of the two cables having a sufficient capacity to
carry the rated load of the circuit alone for the assumed
duration of a contingency. For example, if a utility’s sys-
tem planning department determines that a 250-MVA
power transfer capability is required for a circuit to meet
peak demand, then two circuits with a long-term (i.e.,
300 hours) emergency rating approaching 250 MVA
would be required if underground transmission cables
are used. The length of the assumed outage duration
varies from one utility to another. Another variation in
design practice is whether to use cable long-term emer-
gency temperature ratings, which could result in loss of
cable life, or to take a more conservative approach and
use only the cable’s normal continuous rating. It appears
that the trend is toward the former as utilities search for
ways to make better use of existing facilities.
Another decision that must be made by utility planning
departments is whether to choose the ampacity of
underground transmission cables to match that of adja-
cent overhead lines when the cable or cables are in series
with the overhead line. Most utilities recognize that
design considerations for overhead lines differ from
underground lines. For example, the conductors on an
overhead line may be determined by economic consider-
ations (i.e., cost of losses), corona, or audible noise con-
siderations rather than the required current-carrying
capacity. In either case, the capacity of a cable circuit
should be based on projected peak-load conditions for
the planned circuit and a single- or double-contingency
reliability criteria, as determined by system load-flow
studies.
16.3.7 Harmonic Resonance
In some cases, the high capacitance of cable circuits can
cause harmonic resonance problems. Most problems of
harmonic resonance are due to parallel resonance
between shunt capacitance and the inductive imped-
ances of the power system at lower harmonics (Kundur
1994). More specifically, when cable circuits are
installed in an area where the cable system equivalent
source impedance is relatively high (i.e., weak power
system), the shunt capacitive reactance of the cable cir-
cuits may resonate with the power system source induc-
tance at frequencies close to the second, third, or fourth
harmonic frequencies. The addition of shunt reactors
generally does not solve harmonic resonance problems
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
because the value of their impedance increases with har-
monic frequency. System planning studies should
include the calculation of harmonic resonant frequen-
cies to avoid low-order harmonic resonance. If parallel
resonance frequencies are too close to the second, third,
or fourth harmonic frequencies, the magnitude of tran-
sient overvoltages may become problematic (Colla et al.
2005).
16.3.8 Insulation Coordination
The objective of insulation coordination is to ensure
that the cable and its accessories are not exposed to
overvoltages that are high enough to cause a breakdown
or degrade their performance. An insulation coordina-
tion study includes the following steps:
1. Tentatively select a surge arrester to protect the cable
circuit. This selection is based on the highest normal
voltage to be experienced by the arrester and on the
maximum temporary overvoltage (TOV) expected at
the cable circuit. The maximum TOV is usually
caused by fault- related overvoltages, but may result
from Ferranti rise and/or resonant conditions.
2. Tentatively select the number and location of the
surge arresters with respect to the equipment. If space
permits, it is recommended that surge arresters be
placed at both ends of the cable circuits very close to
the cable terminations.
3. Identify the magnitude and characteristics of over-
voltages to which the cable system will be subjected.
A detailed analysis of lightning and switching surge
overvoltages requires the use of a digital computer
program such as the EMTP (Electromagnetic Tran-
sients Program) (Dommel 1969; Long et al. 1990).
4. Check that the overvoltages are held by the arrester
to values that will not damage the cable system and
other adjacent equipment. This step usually involves
checking the transient overvoltages against the indus-
try-standard voltage-withstand levels for the cable,
joints, and terminations.
5. Check the energy that surge arresters must absorb
when they limit switching-surge overvoltages. The
surge arrester must be able to absorb this energy
without damage, and this determination should be
made with an EMTP program for accurate results.
6. Check that the current through the arrester is within
limits in terms of magnitude and duration. High-
magnitude arrester currents are often associated with
switching of cables (low surge impedance) and can
result in arrester damage.
7. Repeat steps one through six, if necessary, to deter-
mine proper protection of the cable system with an
adequate safety margin.
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
If the insulation coordination process is being per-
formed for a new type of cable system or for higher sys-
tem voltages where industry-standard overvoltage
withstand capabilities have not been established, then a
basic impulse insulation level (BIL) and possibly a basic
switching impulse insulation level (BSL) must be speci-
fied after the most economical overvoltage protection
methods have been investigated.
Overvoltages
The three categories of overvoltages to which the cable
system may be subjected are lightning overvoltages,
switching overvoltages, and temporary ac overvoltages.
Lightning Overvoltages
The cable is subjected to lightning strokes that strike
adjacent overhead lines. The magnitudes of the light-
ning overvoltages are determined, therefore, by the
lightning performance of the overhead lines and the
attenuation of the surges as they are conducted into the
cable system.
In theory, lightning could strike the cable terminations,
but substations and transition stations that contain the
cable terminations are typically built with overhead
shield wires, which effectively prevent the cable termina-
tions from experiencing direct strokes. If a detailed insu-
lation coordination study is being performed, the
maximum lightning overvoltage that may be conducted
into the substation or underground transition is deter-
mined by an analysis of the nature of the strokes that
can enter the substation via the overhead transmission
lines, and then an EMTP computer program is used to
calculate the overvoltage that actually appears along the
length of the cable. An EMTP program simulates the
lightning surges that travel along transmission lines near
the speed of light, similar to a traveling wave in water.
In the case of a lightning surge, the electrical charge
injected into the power system by the lightning stroke
travels along a transmission line, and the current corre-
sponding to the electrical charge is related to the voltage
surge by a quantity called the surge impedance. This
surge impedance, Zc, is determined by the following for-
mula and is normally in the range of 20-60 ohms for
cables.
60 Di
Zc = log e Ω
ε Dc 16-42
Where:
Di = diameter over cable insulation, in.
(or mm).
Dc = diameter over conductor, in. (or mm).
ε = insulation dielectric constant, dimension-
less.
16-25
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
The surge impedance for most overhead lines is from
300 to 400Ω..
The relative surge impedance of overhead lines and
underground lines is important because it determines
the magnitude of the voltage which initially enters the
cable from the overhead line. The voltage is indicated by
the following equation:
2Z c
VT = VI
Z c + Z oh 16-43
Where:
Zc = traveling wave surge impedance of cable, Ω.
Zoh = traveling wave surge impedance of over-
head line, Ω.
VI = magnitude of incident traveling wave, V.
VT = magnitude of voltage at the cable terminal,
V.
Thus, if the surge impedance of the cable is 30Ω, and
that of an overhead line is 375Ω, the magnitude of the
initial voltage wave that travels into the cable will be
only 15% of the incident voltage from the line. The mag-
nitude of the voltage on the cable eventually reaches the
same level as the voltage on the line, after reflected
waves have had time to travel back and forth several
times on the cable.
Another important characteristic of traveling voltage
waves is that they will double in magnitude at an open
circuit if there is no surge arrester to limit the voltage.
Therefore, surge arresters should be connected to both
ends of a cable circuit wherever possible.
Naturally occurring lightning overvoltages vary consid-
erably in both their duration and the rise time (time that
it takes to increase from zero to approximately 90% of
their peak value). However, in general, they have rise
times of several microseconds and durations of tens to
hundreds of microseconds.
Switching Overvoltages
Switching overvoltages are produced both by opening
and closing switching devices at various points in the
power system as well as by electrical faults. They also
vary considerably in magnitude and voltage waveshape,
but they are approximately 100 times slower than light-
ning overvoltages. That is, they generally have rise times
in the hundreds of microseconds and durations that
range from hundreds of microseconds to several milli-
seconds. Their magnitudes and waveshapes can be pre-
dicted by computer programs such as EMTP or by a
TNA (transient network analyzer). Their magnitude
may range from slightly above the crest value of the
16-26
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
power frequency voltage, ( 2 )
3 Vl-l (rms) up to 3 to
3.5 times the crest value.
Temporary Overvoltages
Temporary ac overvoltages (TOV) refer to overvoltages
that may last from several cycles of the power frequency
voltage to several seconds. The most common cause of
TOV is voltage rise on unfaulted phases during a line-
to-ground fault. This short-term increase in voltage is
typically 10-30% above normal voltage. For longer
cables, Ferranti rise may be important, and, especially
for transformer-terminated cables, resonant conditions
may be significant.
Limiting Overvoltages
The most effective measure of limiting overvoltages on a
transmission cable circuit is to install surge arresters
close to the cable potheads at one or both ends of the
cable circuit. In most cases, surge arresters are specified
for both ends of the cable circuit without a detailed
analysis of the overvoltages that may enter the cable cir-
cuit. This is because it is a conservative approach and
because the cost of performing a detailed overvoltage
analysis may not be warranted, considering the cost of
the arresters versus the cost of the analysis. There are
some instances where substation space limitations make
it difficult to install surge arresters at both ends of the
cable. A detailed overvoltage analysis may then be nec-
essary to determine if adequate protection can be
obtained with an arrester at only one end of the cable.
One relatively common example of this is the case where
the cable is terminated in a transformer without an oil-
to-air pothead (Short et al. 1958). Since the effectiveness
of a surge arrester decreases with distance from the
device that it is supposed to protect, an analysis is neces-
sary to see if the transformers, the terminations, and the
first sections of cable will be subjected to dangerously
high overvoltages.
Even though surge arresters may be placed on both ends
of a cable circuit, it is possible for transient overvoltages
to occur along the cable, which are higher than the pro-
tective or discharge level of the arresters. The phenome-
non that makes this possible is related to the reflections
of traveling waves at the cable terminals and the super-
position of the waves elsewhere along the cable. Refer-
ence (Hileman 1982) indicates that a voltage of up to 1.5
times the arrester protective level may occur at locations
away from the arresters. The user must verify that cable
BIL provides an adequate safety margin.
Arrester Selection
Arrester selection is a trade-off between using an
arrester with a low protective voltage level and making
sure that the arrester will not fail due to the current and
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
energy that it must dissipate from surges and whether it
can survive the transient overvoltages (TOV). The pro-
cess for estimating the maximum TOV is:
1. Calculate the temporary overvoltages during fault
conditions using R0/X1 vs. X0/X1 curves in industry
standards and reference books (IEEE Std. C62.22
1997; Westinghouse 1963). R0, X0, and X1 are the
zero-sequence resistance, zero-sequence reactance,
and positive-sequence reactance of the power system
at the arrester location, which is normally determined
from a short-circuit computer program.
IEEE C62.22-1997 contains curves for coefficient of
grounding (COG), which is defined as the ratio
(expressed in %) of the highest line-to-ground voltage
(rms) of the two unfaulted phases at a location dur-
ing a line-to-ground fault to the normal line-to-line
voltage at that location.
2. Check for the possibility of other sources of TOVs
that would cause higher voltages than calculated in
step one. TOV phenomena that should be checked
are load rejection, switching, and resonance.
3. Check for prolonged system overvoltages that may
occur as a result of light-load conditions, Ferranti
voltage rise, or other abnormal conditions.
For modern metal-oxide surge arresters, the maximum
continuous operating voltage (MCOV) of the arrester
must be higher than the highest continuous line-to-
ground system voltage. At a minimum, the highest
continuous system voltage is often assumed to be 5%
(345-kV system and below) or 10% (500-kV system and
higher) higher than the nominal system voltage (i.e.,
[138 kV] (1.05)/( 3 ) = 84 kV for a 138-kV system), but
the result of Item 3 above may reveal higher power-
frequency voltage conditions.
The TOV capability of a metal-oxide arrester also has to
be above the system TOV. Arrester TOV capability is a
function of the magnitude of the overvoltage, its dura-
tion, and the amount of energy (from surges) absorbed
by the arrester immediately prior to being subjected to
the system TOV. For example, one manufacturer sug-
gests that its arrester can be subjected to a TOV of
about 1.38 times the MCOV (1.13 times arrester rating)
for a period of 1 second (assuming prior energy absorp-
tion) without sustaining damage. Figure 16-18 illus-
trates TOV capability as a function of voltage and time.
A second surge arrester parameter that should be con-
sidered is the energy absorption capability of the
arrester. This is not a problem with lightning surges, but
is important for switching surges, especially for cable
application. Arrester energy requirements should be
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
determined by simulation and compared with arrester
capability. Note that for metal-oxide arresters, many
manufacturers define energy absorption capability on
the basis of multiple operations over a 1-minute period.
For energy absorbed over a shorter period, such as
might occur during a cable-energizing operation, it is
prudent to reduce the rated energy capability by about
15% from that given by the manufacturer.
A third important aspect of applying arresters on cable
circuits is the magnitude and duration of the current.
Arrester current is normally much higher in magnitude
when limiting surges on cable circuits versus overhead
circuits, because cable surge impedance is far lower than
that of overhead lines. For silicon-carbide-type gapped
arresters, the gap structure in particular can be damaged
by high-magnitude, long-duration currents (lightning
currents, while higher in magnitude, do not have the
same long duration). If the arrester current exceeds
2 kA, energy in coulombs through the gaps (I2 t) should
be summed until the current drops below about 1.5 kA.
The coulombs-per-operation should not exceed about
one coulomb if the arrester is properly applied.
For metal-oxide arresters, the problem is that at high
currents, the current tends to concentrate in specific
areas of the disc. Although the total energy capability
may not be exceeded, localized heating occurs, and
block cracking and failure can result. One of the major
arrester suppliers recommends the values shown in Fig-
ure 16-19 for determining arrester capability, but it
should be understood that the criteria may not apply to
other manufacturers’ arresters.
Figure 16-18 TOV capability following absorption of full
rated energy.
16-27
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
To apply the criteria, divide the current waveform into
small time elements (e.g., 0.05 microseconds). For each
time segment, determine the current magnitude, and
from Figure 16-19, determine the “allowable time.”
Divide the actual time element (they need not be all the
same) by the allowable time. The sum over the entire
wave must be less than or equal to 1.0 for proper appli-
cation. If the sum exceeds 1.0, either a higher-rated
arrester or a special arrester designed with additional
columns must be used.
Protective Ratio
Once the arrester is selected and transient overvoltages
are determined, the protective level of the surge arrester
should be compared to the voltage withstand levels of
the cable system components.
The ratio of these two numbers, equipment insulation-
withstand level to arrester protective level, is called the
protective ratio. Accepted industry practice is to design
for a protective ratio of at least 1.2 to provide an ade-
quate safety margin (IEEE 62.22 1997). In most practi-
cal cases, the margin will be (and probably should be)
considerably higher than 20%.
For system voltages below 345 kV, the only insulation
withstand to be considered for transient overvoltage
protection is the basic impulse insulation level (BIL) of
the cable, joints, and terminals. The basic switching
impulse insulation level (BSL) for terminations must be
considered for system voltages of 345 and 500 kV.
Figure 16-19 Application for high-current metal-oxide
arresters rated 54-360 kV (GE Arresters).
16-28
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Worked Example 4: Surge Arrester Selection for
138-kV Cable
Determine an appropriate metal-oxide arrester rating
and estimate the protective ratio for a 10-mile, 138-kV
extruded-dielectric cable system. The TOV capability of
the type of arrester to be used is shown in Figure 16-18.
A short-circuit study yielded the following ratios of
sequence impedances at the arrester locations:
R0/X1=0.75
X0/X1=2.0
The cables have 1500-kcmil (760 mm 2 ) conductors,
which are 1.412 in. (35.9 mm) in diameter, and have an
insulation thickness of 850 mils (21.6 mm). The first
step is to estimate the overvoltages that will result on the
unfaulted phases when a single line-to-ground fault
occurs near the cable. Using the above ratios and the
grounding coefficients curves from IEEE Std. C62.22, it
is estimated that the voltage on the unfaulted phases will
be approximately 70% of the normal line-to-line voltage.
Assuming that the system is operating at maximum volt-
age, this would result in the following TOV on the
unfaulted phases:
Fault TOV = 0.7(138) 1.05 = 102 kV
The continuous line-to-ground voltage may be as high
as 1.05(138)/ 3 = 84 kV.
Thus, the arrester must have an MCOV of at least 84 kV.
If no other temporary overvoltages were identified that
would exceed the above voltage of 102 kV, and the TOV
would not be expected to last more than 1 second, then,
assuming the arrester has immediately previously
absorbed its energy limit, the required arrester TOV
capability would be 107 kV (102/0.955) as determined
by the arrester characteristics in Figure 16-18.
A metal-oxide arrester with a rating of 108 kV (87 kV
MCOV) would meet the above requirements, but the
MCOV would be marginal. The next higher ratings of
120 kV (98 kV MCOV) would provide additional mar-
gin and should be selected as the tentative choice. The
120-kV arrester has a TOV capability of 142 x 0.955 kV,
or 136 kV, and this would be more than sufficient.
BIL is coordinated against the 10-kA discharge level of
the arrester, and the 120-kV arrester has a 284-kV dis-
charge level. If arresters are placed at both ends of the
cable circuit, the maximum voltage surge at the cable
terminals would be 284 kV. A traveling wave transients
program would be required to calculate the maximum
voltage that can occur in the cable as a result of subse-
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
quent traveling wave reflections; however, a conservative
assumption is that the voltage will not exceed 1.5 times
the incident or arrester discharge voltage. Thus, the
maximum lightning overvoltage in the cable should not
exceed 1.5 x 284 kV, or 426 kV.
With a BIL of 650 kV for 138-kV cables and accesso-
ries, the protective ratio for cable system components
not immediately protected by arresters would be
650/426 = 1.53.
Since the protective ratio of 1.53 is well in excess of the
minimum recommended value of 1.2, the choice of the
120-kV arrester rather than the 108-kV arrester is justi-
fied.
16.3.9 System Protection
In general, the schemes used for fault protection of
transmission cables are the same as those used for over-
head transmission lines (IEEE 1996). However, special
attention must be given to the following considerations.
1. The circuit impedance per unit of length of cables is
low compared to that of overhead lines. This affects
the impedance settings and the ranges of relays that
may be used for circuit protection.
2. Faults on underground cables are almost always per-
manent; whereas, faults on air-insulated overhead
lines will clear in many cases after the fault current is
interrupted. Consequently, reclosing on a faulted
cable should be blocked by protective relaying.
3. The zero-sequence impedance of pipe-type cables
varies as a function of the fault current magnitude.
The settings of ground distance relays must take this
impedance variation into account over the expected
range of fault currents.
4. The angle of the zero-sequence impedance values for
cable is low compared to that of overhead lines, and
the positive-sequence angles are relatively high. This
may result in the need to use a relay with special char-
acteristics to better match the cable impedance char-
acteristics.
5. The charging current in cables is high and may cause
the phase distance relays to overreach if this is not
considered in selecting the relay setting.
6. The ratio of zero-sequence to positive-sequence
impedance of cable circuits is considerably different
from that of overhead lines. This difference must be
considered when setting ground distance relays.
7. Cable circuit energization and de-energization result
in high transient currents. The frequency and magni-
tude of these currents depend on the capacitance,
inductance, and resistance of the circuit.
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
Fault Protection Schemes
Protective relaying schemes for underground cable sys-
tems generally use some form of a communications
channel between the two ends of the cable circuit. Since
almost all cable faults are line-to-ground faults, ground-
fault sensitivity is of utmost importance. Therefore,
high-speed pilot-relaying systems are the most common
relaying schemes applied for transmission cable systems.
The most commonly used relaying schemes for trans-
mission cable circuits are:
1. Directional Comparison. This protection scheme
combines the use of a directional phase and ground
protective relays at both ends of the line with a com-
munications link between the two ends to give fast
tripping for all internal line faults and avoid tripping
for faults external to the protected line.
2. Current Differential. This protective relaying scheme
compares quantities derived from the currents at one
end of the circuit with those derived from the oppo-
site (remote) end of the line. Communications
between the two ends of the cable circuit may be by
ac pilot wire, microwave, or optical fiber cables. Cur-
rent differential protection schemes are frequently
applied to underground transmission lines because
they are less dependent on the cable characteristics
that have an impact on distance relays. The relaying
settings for this relaying scheme are small and easy to
compute.
3. Phase Comparison. Phase comparison relaying
schemes compare the phase angle of the phase cur-
rents at the two ends of the cable circuit to determine
if the fault is on the protected line. Close agreement
of the phase angle of the primary currents indicates
that the fault is external to the line, while phase
angles that are out of phase indicate that the fault is
in the protected line. A communication channel is
necessary to provide remote end information to per-
mit the phase comparison scheme to operate prop-
erly. Cable charging current magnitude is generally
small compared to the magnitude of fault current,
thus phase angle difference due to charging current is
usually not a problem in fault detection. However, on
longer cable circuits with weak sources, phase angle
displacement due to cable charging current should be
studied to prevent incorrect tripping due to faults
external to the protected cable.
Distance relays are also used for protecting under-
ground cables (Kasztenny et al. 2004), but setting the
distance relays for underground transmission lines can
be quite challenging. This is because of items 3 through
6 listed in the introduction to this section (16.3.9). Con-
sidering all of these complexities in selecting the proper
relay settings, most relay engineers prefer to protect
16-29
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
transmission cables using line-current differential pro-
tection systems, or phase comparison relays.
Hybrid Line Protection
Fault protection schemes for hybrid transmission lines
must take into account the different reclosing practices
for overhead and underground lines. Many utilities will
allow high-speed reclosing if the overhead portion of
the line length is much greater than the underground
cable. Lines where the cable length is less than 15 to 25%
of the total circuit length frequently permit autoreclos-
ing for hybrid lines with XLPE transmission cables. If
the underground cable is pipe-type or SCFF cable,
reclosing is always prohibited unless a line-current dif-
ferential relay system is used to differentiate between
faults in the overhead and underground sections.
Another important factor in selecting the relay scheme
for hybrid lines is whether the cable segment is at the
beginning of either end of the line (Figure 16-20 A) or if
it is between two overhead line segments (Figure 16-20
B). If the underground transmission line segment is at
one end of the line, and the line length is much longer
than the cable segment, two instantaneous zone 1 ele-
ments are set at the relay near the cable end of the line to
discriminate between faults in the cable and the over-
head line section and to block autoreclosing for cable
faults. The instantaneous zone 1 element (zone 1-1) for
the relay near the cable end is set at 120 to 150% of the
cable positive-sequence impedance. Operation of this
zone trips the local breaker and sends direct transfer trip
to trap and block high-speed reclosing of the remote cir-
cuit breaker. The second instantaneous zone 1 (zone 1-
2) element of the relay near the cable end is set at the
Figure 16-20 Relaying schematics for hybrid transmission lines.
16-30
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
typical zone 1 reach, which is 80% of the total cable plus
overhead line positive-sequence impedance. For faults
in this zone, the relay sends a direct transfer trip signal
to trip the remote circuit breaker and allows high-speed
reclosing at the remote end for single-line-to-ground
faults. This scheme also permits high-speed reclosing for
single-line-to-ground faults for the previous condition at
the local end near the cable. The distance relay at the
end of the line opposite from the cable has only one
zone 1 element. The reach of this element is set at 80%
of the overhead line positive-sequence impedance.
Faults detected in this zone trip the local breaker, send a
direct transfer trip signal to trip the remote breaker, and
allow high-speed reclosing. Faults detected in an over-
reaching zone 2 do not permit high-speed reclosing.
A differential current relaying scheme (Figure 16-20 B)
is commonly used when the cable segment is in between
two overhead line segments. In this case, the differential
current relay that is monitoring the currents at the two
ends of the cable positively identifies when the fault is in
the cable segment and blocks autoreclosing at the two
ends of the circuit via a digital communications (e.g.,
fiber optic cable).
Low Cable System Pressure Protection
Some transmission cable systems include pressure
switches to trip the cable circuit to avoid cable or termi-
nation damage due to unacceptably low fluid or gas
pressures in the cable or terminations.
• Extruded Dielectric Cable Systems. Some extruded-
dielectric cable terminations are filled with pressur-
ized SF6 gas at a pressure of approximately 45 psig
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
(315 kPa). In this case, pressure switches are provided
with alarm contacts if the pressure drops below
15 psig (105 kPa) and to trip the circuit if the pressure
drops to atmospheric pressure. The majority of
extruded-dielectric cable terminations are filled with
dielectric fluid (polybutene or silicone oil) at close to
atmospheric pressure. Some utilities require equip-
ment to detect low liquid levels in this type of termi-
nation; however, this is not common practice.
• HPFF Cable Systems. On some HPFF cable systems,
two dedicated pressure switches are wired in series to
trip the circuit for low hydraulic system pressure. This
provides protection from cable system electrical
breakdown for the case of an energized system that is
rapidly losing pipe dielectric fluid or an inadvertent
closing of valves that supply pressure to the cable
pipe. These pressure switches should have a setting of
approximately 100 psig (690 kPa). Normally the
practice is not to trip HPGF cable systems on low gas
pressure.
• SCFF Cable Systems. SCFF cable systems usually
have an alarm system to monitor either pressure or
volume and notify the system operator of any abnor-
mal conditions. These systems are usually not set to
trip the cable circuit.
16.4 MAGNETIC FIELDS
Applications for construction permits for transmission
lines in North America usually include calculations for
above-ground electric and magnetic fields. For transmis-
sion cables, the electric field is of no concern, because
the electric field lines from the high-voltage conductor
terminate on the grounded cable metallic shield or
sheath. There is little or no electric field outside of
shielded power cables. The above-ground magnetic field
values for most underground transmission lines and
overhead transmission lines differ primarily in the rate
at which the magnetic field values decrease as a function
of distance from the transmission lines. The maximum
magnetic field values at the center of OH and UG trans-
mission lines are typically similar for equal load cur-
rents; however, the magnitude of the magnetic field for
underground lines decreases much more rapidly than for
overhead lines. This is because the high-voltage conduc-
tors are much closer together for underground transmis-
sion lines. The soils that surround the underground
cables have little or no effect on the above-ground mag-
netic field values, because they have a relative magnetic
permeability of unity.
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
16.4.1 Cables without Ferromagnetic
Components
Two-dimension or three-dimension magnetic field cal-
culations in the vicinity of underground cable systems
without ferromagnetic components are performed using
Biot-Savart’s law and the principle of superposition.
Two-Dimension Magnetic Field Calculations
The magnetic field may be calculated by applying Biot-
Savart’s law and superposition to all of the current-
carrying conductors in a cable circuit. In most cases, the
transmission line is assumed to be straight and very
long compared to the distance from the cables where the
magnetic field is to be calculated. Using these assump-
tions, Biot-Savart’s law reduces to the following equa-
tion (Equation 16-44), which may be used to calculate
the magnitude of the magnetic field density, B, in teslas
(or gauss) at a distance, r, from an infinitely long line
carrying a current, I. The direction of the magnetic field
is perpendicular to a line connecting the conductor and
the calculation point as determined by the right-hand
screw rule of basic electromagnetic field theory (see
Figure 16-21).
Î
B = μ 0 H = 4 π x 10 −7 tesla
2πr
Î
= 4 π x 10 −3 gauss
2πr
16-44
Where:
μ0 = permeability of free space, 4π x 10-7 hen-
ries/m (or volt-sec/A).
H = magnetic field, A/m (or oersteds).
r = distance from line, m (or in.).
Î = current in line, A.
If the current, I, is a sinusoidal current, then both I and
B are phasor quantities. Equation 16-44 assumes that
the current-carrying conductor is surrounded by a
medium that has a relative magnetic permeability of 1.0.
This assumption is valid for single-conductor transmis-
sion cables in most soils. As discussed later, this assump-
tion is not applicable to pipe-type cables. The use of
Equation 16-44 also makes the assumption that any
zero-sequence component of the phase currents or
induced sheath currents return in a path far enough
away from the cables that they do not appreciably affect
the field near the cable. This is usually a good approxi-
mation, because the earth return current flows several
thousand feet (hundreds of meters) below the surface of
the earth for typical soil conditions.
The gauss or milligauss (mG) is a common unit of mea-
sure for magnetic field density in the United States when
16-31
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
making calculations for transmission lines. Microteslas
(μT) is the unit for magnetic flux density used in most
other countries. Using the conversion factor of 1 x 104
gauss per tesla (or weber/m2), the horizontal, (x), and
vertical, (y), components of the magnetic field density at
an arbitrary point (xc, yc in Figure 16-21) are given by
the following equations.
^ ⎡y +d⎤
B x1 = −2 × ˆI ⎢ c 2 ⎥ mG
⎣ rc ⎦
⎡y +d⎤
= −0.2 × ˆI ⎢ c 2 ⎥ μT
⎣ rc ⎦ 16-45
^ ⎡y +d⎤
B y1 = 2 × ˆI ⎢ c 2 ⎥ mG
⎣ rc ⎦
⎡y +d⎤
= 0.2 × ˆI ⎢ c 2 ⎥ μT
⎣ rc ⎦ 16-46
In Equations 16-45 and 16-46, the “^” notation is used
to indicate phasor quantities. The dimensions yc, d, h,
and rc shown in Figure 16-21 have the units of meters.
The negative sign preceding the number 2 in Equation
16-45 assumes that the current is flowing out of the
figure. For multiple current-carrying conductors, includ-
ing any induced sheath currents, the total x and y
components of the magnetic field are the summation of
the horizontal and vertical components of the magnetic
field produced by each of the currents. The following
equations show the total horizontal and vertical compo-
nent of the magnetic field where there are n current-
carrying conductors in the cable system. The normal
procedure in calculating cable magnetic fields is to
Figure 16-21 Buried conductor and geometric
parameters for magnetic field calculations.
16-32
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
calculate the value of induced shield/sheath currents, if
multipoint bonding is used. The components of the
total magnetic field produced by these induced
shield/sheath currents must be included in the summa-
tion shown in Equations 16-47 and 16-48.
^ n ^
B xTotal = ∑ B xi mG (or μT) 16-47
i =1
^ n ^
B yTotal = ∑ B yi mG (or μT) 16-48
i =1
Since the currents in Equations 16-47 and 16-48 are
phasor quantities, the x and y components of the total
magnetic field are also phasor quantities. This, in turn,
means that the magnetic field vector at any point in
space traces out an ellipse as the vector rotates (EPRI
2005). As the total magnetic field vector rotates, its pro-
jections on the horizontal and vertical axes describe the
horizontal and vertical components of Equations 16-47
and 16-48. It should be noted that the maximum values
of these components do not coincide with the instanta-
neous vectors but with the projections of the rotating
vectors at some instants during the cycle. A method to
calculate the magnitude and direction of the major axis
of the magnetic field ellipse from the real and imaginary
components of the x and y components of the field is
contained in the EPRI Red Book (EPRI 2005). It is the
magnitude of the major axis of the magnetic field ellipse
that would be measured if a single-axis magnetic-field
probe were rotated to obtain a maximum reading at the
calculation point. Three-axis gaussmeters measure the
resultant value of the magnetic field (Equation 16-49).
^ 2 ^ 2
mG (or μT) 16-49
Br = BxTotal + B yTotal
Three-Dimension Magnetic Field Calculations
A three-dimension (3-D) calculation procedure must be
used to calculate the magnetic field for locations where
the cables are not straight and parallel to each other.
Splice vaults and bends in the cable alignment are exam-
ples where 3-D magnetic field calculations must be per-
formed to give accurate results.
Biot-Savart finite length current segment modeling is
used to calculate the magnetic flux density produced by
the currents flowing in the underground cable system in
areas where the cables are not straight and parallel to
each other. This calculation procedure models the three-
dimension magnetic field produced by the segments of
the transmission line by means of numerous straight
line, finite lengths, current-carrying segments or
“sticks.”
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations

Using the Biot-Savart law of electromagnetic field the- Worked Example 5: Magnetic Field Calculations for
ory, the magnetic field produced by a finite-length cur- Cable System without Ferromagnetic Components
rent-carrying conductor is given by Equation 16-50 This example shows the procedure for calculating the
(Haus and Melcher 1989). Figure 16-22 shows the phys- above-ground magnetic flux density for the single-point
ical meaning of the variables in Equation 16-50 for the bonded 230-kV XLPE cable system in Example 1 (Sec-
3-D magnetic field. tion 16.2.5). Calculate the resultant magnetic flux den-
sity at 1 m (3 ft) above ground directly above the cable
G μ Î c × a ⎛ a • c a • b ⎞ trench and at a distance of 25 ft (7.5 m) from the center
B= 0 ⎜ − ⎟ teslas 16-50 of the cable trench. The cables are carrying 1000 A (rms)
4 π | c × a |2 ⎝ | c | | b | ⎠
of positive-sequence current.
Where:
B = 3-D magnetic flux density vector, teslas. The first step is to calculate the current that is induced
× = Indicates vector cross product. in the ground continuity conductor. This is accom-
• = Indicates vector dot product. plished by adding the voltages induced in the ground
P = Point where magnetic field is to be calcu- continuity conductor by the currents in each of the cable
lated. high-voltage conductors and dividing by the self-imped-
a = Current segment vector with current I, ance of the ground continuity conductor.
amperes.
c = Vector from point P to end of current car- Using Equation 16-20, the mutual impedance between the
rying segment, a. Phase A cable and the ground continuity conductor is:
b = Vector from point P to start of current car- 33500
rying segment, a. Zag = 0.01807 + j0.0529 log10
(10) 2 + (10) 2
The total magnetic field at any point in the vicinity of
= 0.01807 + j 0.1785 Ω /1000 ft
the cable system is then the vector sum of the magnetic
field produced by each of the finite-length current-car-
rying segments. The magnetic field value that is calcu- The Phase B and Phase C mutual impedances to the
lated is the rms value of the resultant magnetic field ground continuity conductor are shown in Table 16-8.
given by Equation 16-51, and the units are milligauss
(mG) or microteslas (μT). The rms value of the resultant
Table 16-8 Mutual Impedances and Induced Voltages for
magnetic field is the magnetic field value measured by Example 4
most commercially available three-axis gauss meters.
Mutual Impedance Voltage Induced in
The magnetic field values that are reported are at 1 m Current with GCC GCC
(3 ft) above ground level. Phase (A) (ohms/1000 ft) (V/1000 ft)
A 1000 + j 0 0.01807 +j 0.1785 18.07+j 178.51
Br = B2x + B2y + Bz2 mG (or μT) B -500 + j 866.6 0.01807 +j 0.1865 -170.53 – j 77.59
16-51 C -500 – j 866.6 0.01807 +j 0.1785 145.56 – j 104.91
Total -6.90 – j 3.98
Calculation of the magnetic field values should include
the impact of all induced currents (i.e., cable shields Using Equation 16-18, to calculate the self-impedance
and/or ground continuity conductors). of the ground continuity conductor with earth return is:
⎛ 33500 ⎞
Zgg = 0.01807 + R gg + j0.0529 log10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0.221 ⎠
= 0.067 + j 0.274 Ω /1000 ft

Figure 16-22 Finite-length current-carrying segment or

“stick.”

16-33
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

The current induced in the ground continuity conductor Some transmission cables are surrounded by ferromag-
is the total induced voltage divided by Zgg. netic metals. For example, pipe-type cables are
contained in a carbon-steel pipe, a ferromagnetic metal.
Vinduced
Igcc = In some transmission cable installations, ferromagnetic
Zgg shields have been installed in the vicinity of single-
conductor cables to reduce the magnitude of the above-
−6.90 − j3.98
= ground magnetic field values.
0.067 + j0.274
The presence of ferromagnetic metals in the vicinity of
= −19.51 + j20.39 A transmission cables significantly complicates the com-
putation of the magnetic field values. Since the magnetic
The next step is to calculate the horizontal and vertical permeability of the ferromagnetic metal is much higher
components of the magnetic field produced by each of than nonferromagnetic materials (i.e., soil, concrete, air,
the currents in the cable system using Equation 16-45 etc.), the magnetic flux produced by the cable concen-
and 16-46. trates in the ferromagnetic components. The nonlinear
magnetic properties of the ferromagnetic metals mean
Starting with the Phase A current at 1 m above ground that the split of magnetic field between the ferromag-
at the center of the cable trench, the horizontal and ver- netic and nonferromagnetic components varies with the
tical components of the magnetic field are shown in magnitude of the cable currents. Another complicating
Table 16-9. factor is that eddy currents are induced in the ferromag-
Table 16-9 Horizontal and Vertical Magnetic Field netic components, which must be taken into account.
Components, One Meter above Ground at Center of Cable
Trench (x=0) As shown in Figure 16-23, the magnetic flux density
Horizontal Compo- Vertical Compo- (B) increases rapidly in ferromagnetic metals as the
Current nent nent magnetic field intensity (H) is increased. However,
Phase (A) Bx (mG) By (mG) there is a material-dependent saturation point above
A 1000 + j 0 -747.45 71.62 which there is very little increase in magnetic flux den-
B -500 + j 866.6 341.56- j 591.61 -29.87+ j 51.73 sity with increasing magnetic field intensity. The slope
C -500 – j 866.6 314.47 + j 544.67 -25.29 – j 43.80 of the B-H curve (ΔB/ΔH) at a specific point is the mag-
-19.51+ netic permeability.
GCC 13.43 – j 14.04 0
j 20.39
Totals -77.99 – j 60.97 79.62 + j 61.37

The resultant magnetic field is the square root of the

sum of the squares of the horizontal and vertical mag-
netic field components.

Br = B2x + B2y

= (−77.99 − j60.97) 2 + (79.62 + j61.37) 2

= 100.5 mG
=10.05 μT

16.4.2 Cables with Ferromagnetic Components

Ferromagnetic metals are metals that have magnetic
permeabilities that are much greater than the permeabil-
ity of free space and nonferromagnetic materials (Bozo-
rth 1993). A second characteristic of ferromagnetic
metals is that their magnetic permeability varies in a
nonlinear fashion with the applied magnetic field
strength. Figure 16-23 shows the B (magnetic flux den- Figure 16-23 B-H characteristics of commonly used
ferromagnetic materials.
sity) versus H (magnetic field intensity) characteristics
of several ferromagnetic metals.

16-34
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Figure 16-24 shows the relative magnetic permeability
(μ/μ0) for samples of two different pipe-type cable pipes.
Although all pipe that is used for pipe-type cable cir-
cuits is relatively low-carbon steel, the magnetic proper-
ties of the cable pipe vary with the amount of carbon
and the manufacturing process (i.e., annealing rate,
mechanical stresses, etc.). The magnetic permeability
(actually B-H curve) of a certain supplier or production
run can be measured in the laboratory using ring sam-
ples of the pipe. The magnetic permeability of steel pipe
is rarely specified or measured by the manufacturer.
Accurate calculation of the magnetic field for cable sys-
tems with ferromagnetic components requires the appli-
cation of complex computation methods that are
capable of taking into account the nonlinear character-
istics of the B-H curve of the ferromagnetic material.
The finite element computation method is the most
common method (CIGRE 1997) for calculating the
magnetic field of cable systems with ferromagnetic com-
ponents. Finite difference and boundary element com-
puter programs have also been used for this type of
magnetic field calculation. Most of these computer pro-
grams require an operator who is very skilled in their
use, and the programs can be very sensitive to the many
subtleties involved in problem setup and solution con-
vergence (Clairmont and Lordan 1999).
Simplified calculation methods have been developed for
some ferromagnetic shields that give approximate values
of the magnetic field shielding factor. These calculation
methods model both flux shunting and eddy-current
Figure 16-24 Relative magnetic permeability versus
flux density for two samples of two different steel pipes
(Bahder et al. 1979).
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
shielding; however, they generally are based on the
assumption that the magnetic permeability of the
shielding material is constant. An analytical description
(Wait and Hill 1977; Hoburg 1994) of a pipe with high
magnetic permeability and high electrical conductivity,
with a dipolar source inside of the pipe (Figure 16-25) is
given in Equation 16-52. The shielding factor is a com-
plex number, because the phase angle of the magnetic
field outside of the pipe is shifted compared to the mag-
netic field with no magnetic shield. In this case, the
shielding factor, SF, is constant for all locations outside
of the pipe. Equation 16-52 contains the modified Bessel
functions K and I of the first order and their derivatives,
K’ and I’. Tables of values of the modified Bessel func-
tions, as well as methods for calculating these values,
may be found in several mathematical handbooks
(Abramowitz and Stegun 1964).
SF = N / M (unitless)
b
N = 2 μ r γb ⎡⎣ K1 ( γb) I1' ( γb) − K1' ( γb) I1 ( γb) ⎤⎦
a
M = ⎡⎣μ r K1 ( γa) − γaK1' ( γa) ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣μ r I1 ( γb) + γb I1' ( γb) ⎤⎦
− ⎡⎣μ r I1 ( γa) − γaI1' ( γa) ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣μ r K1 ( γb) + γb K1' ( γb) ⎤⎦
16-52
Where:
μ = magnetic permeability of the material, H/m.
b = Do/2 the pipe outside radius, m.
a = (Do/2) the pipe inside radius, m.
γ = (1 + j) / δ complex wave number, m-1.
δ = 2 ,m
ωμ σ
ω = power frequency, Hz.
σ = electrical conductivity, S/m.
Figure 16-25 End view of steel pipe with dimensions in
Equation 16-50.
16-35
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Worked Example 6: Calculate the Magnetic Installation Geometry

Shielding Factor of an 8-in. Carbon Steel Pipe at It is well known (Haus and Melcher 1989) that the value
60 Hz of the magnetic field at any location is a linear function
The dimensions of an 8-in. (200 mm), Schedule 20 steel of the instantaneous currents in all of the cable system
pipe are: components, provided that there are no ferromagnetic
Pipe inside diameter: 8.125 in. (206.4 mm) components. Consequently, the above-ground magnetic
Pipe outside diameter: 8.625 in. (219.1 mm) field can be reduced by optimum placement of the
Pipe wall thickness: 0.25 in. (6.35 mm) cables to maximize cancellation of the magnetic field
between the individual currents in the cables. This is fre-
The electrical conductivity of carbon steel pipe is 6.76 x quently accomplished in three-phase power systems by
106 S/m. placing the cables close together and by optimum phase
placement of cables when there are multiple three-phase
The relative magnetic permeability of carbon steel pipe groups of cables. The maximum above-ground magnetic
at low flux densities is 180. field value can also be decreased by increased cable
burial depth.
The skin depth, δ, calculated using the above, parame-
ters is: Figure 16-26 shows the maximum magnetic field that
would occur 3 ft. (1 m) above ground as a function of
δ= 2 phase spacing for several different cable installation
(377 ∗180 ∗ 4 π 10 −7 ∗ 6.76 × 10 6 configurations with 700 amperes flowing in the cables
and single-point bonding or cross-bonding of the
= 0.00186 m (0.0732 in.)
sheaths. As can be seen from this figure, the maximum
γ = 536.8 + j 536.8 m -1 magnetic field, which generally occurs directly above the
centerline of the circuit, doubles when the phase spacing
is increased from 6 to 12 in. (15 to 30 cm). It should be
Using Equation 16-52, the numerator, N, and denomi-
noted, however, that the current-carrying capacity of the
nator, M, of the shielding factor are:
cables decreases as the phase spacing is decreased
N = 2 ∗ (0.110 / 0.103) ∗180 ∗ (58.82 + j 58.82) [(-0.00425 + j 0.00421) because of the mutual heating between the cables, as dis-
- (0.00425 - j 0.004286)] cussed in Chapter 11. The figure also shows that for a
= - 382.15 + j 0.0025 phase spacing of 9 in. (23 cm), the magnetic field varies
M = [1.672 x 10-23 - j 2.447 x 10-23 ] [-1.983 x 10 26 + j 3.198 x 10 26 ] almost two to one between a horizontal and triangular
- [2.596 x 10 24 - j 6.65 x 10 24 ] [5.263 x 10 -25 + j 9.97 x 10-27 ] installation configuration. Although the triangular con-
= 11141 - j 492.9 figuration gives the minimum magnetic field, its use is
SF = (-382.15 + j 0.0025) /(11141 - j 492.9) normally limited to situations where the cables can be
= - 0.0342 - j 0.00151 directly buried and the three cables are touching.
= 0.03425∠182°

Since the magnetic field near long parallel conductors

The shielding factor calculations indicate that the steel with balanced three-phase currents decreases approxi-
pipe will attenuate the magnetic field produced by cables mately with the square of the distance from the center-
inside of the pipe by a factor of 29.2 (i.e., 1/0.03425), line of the conductors, the maximum magnetic field
and the phase angle of the magnetic field on the outside
and inside of the pipe will be almost 180° out of phase
with the phase A current inside of the pipe.

16.4.3 Magnetic Field Management Methods

A number of methods have been devised by electric util-
ities (Bascom et al. 2006; Zemyan 1996) and research
organizations (Cooper 1993) to manage power fre-
quency magnetic field levels in the vicinity of under-
ground cables. Most practical magnetic field
management methods generally fall into one of the fol-
lowing categories. Figure 16-26 Magnetic field as a function of phase
spacing and installation configuration.

16-36
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
directly above the cables can be reduced by increasing
the depth of burial. Figure 16-27 shows a plot of the
maximum magnetic field 3 ft. (1 m) above the surface of
the ground for different depths of burial. Again, this
magnetic field reduction method would reduce the
ampacity of a cable circuit, as shown in Chapter 11.
Passive Conducting Loops
The above-ground magnetic field values can also be
reduced by the installation of conducting loops in the
proximity of the cables (Bascom et al. 2006; Vavra and
Wanda 2006). The magnetic field produced by the
power cables induces a current in the conducting loops,
which, in turn, opposes the magnetic field produced by
the power cables, as stated by Lenz’s law. This method
includes the use of ground continuity conductors or spe-
cial external shielding loops. For example, if two ground
continuity conductors are placed above the cables
shown in Figure 16-28, there is a significant reduction in
the above-ground magnetic field values, as shown by the
magnetic field plots in Figure 16-29.
Figure 16-27 Magnetic field as a function of burial depth.
Figure 16-28 Transmission cables with passive loop
shielding.
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
When the cable shield/sheaths are multipoint grounded,
the induced shield/sheath current reduces the magnitude
of the magnetic field external to the cables. Figure 16-30
shows the amount of magnetic field reduction that
occurs when the cable shield/sheaths are multipoint
grounded, as a function of shield/sheath resistance. This
method of magnetic field reduction is not as practical as
adjusting the phase relationships, because the induced
shield/sheath currents decrease the ampacity of the cir-
cuit. Also, the low-level magnetic field away from the
cable can actually be increased by the induced sheath
currents for horizontal or vertical installation configura-
tions, because unequal currents are induced in the three
cable sheaths, and there is a net effective current that
affects the magnetic field.
Cancellation with Multiple Cables per Phase
One of the most effective methods of reducing the mag-
netic field in the vicinity of transmission cables is to
alter the phase relationship of the cables when there are
two, three-phase cable circuits in close proximity or a
single circuit with two cables per phase. Figure 16-31
Figure 16-29 Magnetic field (1 m above) ground with and
without passive loop shielding (see Figure 16-28).
Figure 16-30 Magnetic field as a function of shield/sheath
resistance.
16-37
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
shows the reduction in magnetic field that is obtained
when reverse phasing is used for two cable circuits
installed in vertical configurations in the same duct
bank. The primary disadvantages of this reversed-
phasing installation are the problems and possible haz-
ards that may result during maintenance and repair of
the cables. Many utilities prefer to use the same phase
relationship for all cable circuits to avoid confusion in
identifying the cables in manholes. It should also be
noted that the ten-to-one reduction in magnetic field
produced by reverse phasing of the cables occurs only
when the load current in the two different cable circuits
is exactly the same. The effectiveness of the magnetic
field reduction decreases as the difference in current
magnitude between the two circuits increases.
Metallic Shielding
A quantitative measure of the effectiveness of a mag-
netic shield in reducing the magnetic field magnitude at
a given point is the shielding factor. The shielding factor,
SF, is defined as the ratio of the magnetic field magni-
tude (rms value) at a given point when the shield is
present to the magnetic field magnitude (rms value) at
the same point when the shield is absent. Thus, the
smaller the shielding factor, the better the shielding effi-
ciency. A shielding factor of 1.0 represents no shielding.
In general, the shielding factor is a function of the posi-
tion at which it is measured. If the properties of a shield
are independent of the magnetic field magnitudes, the
shielding factor is independent of the magnitude of the
magnetic field produced by the source. However, if the
magnetic permeability of a shield material depends
upon the flux density within the material, the shielding
factor becomes dependent upon the magnitude of mag-
netic field from the source.
Magnetic field shielding with metal structures occurs
due to two different physical mechanisms termed flux
Figure 16-31 Magnetic field for like and reverse phase
placement of cables.
16-38
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
shunting and eddy currents induced in the metal. These
two mechanisms are described below.
Flux Shunting
Materials with a relative magnetic permeability signifi-
cantly higher than one (i.e., ferromagnetic materials)
conduct magnetic fields much more easily than nonfer-
romagnetic materials. This is analogous to the conduc-
tion of electric currents in metals versus semiconducting
materials. Figure 16-32 shows the magnetic field lines of
a cross section of a cylindrical shield of a high magnetic
permeability when it is placed in a uniform dc or low-
frequency magnetic field. The area inside of the cylinder
is partially shielded from the magnetic field.
The cylindrical shield gathers flux over a region whose
size is determined by the diameter of the shield and
shunts it through the thickness of the shield. The flux
density within the shield material is amplified from the
external uniform flux density by a factor determined by
the ratio of shield diameter to thickness. The flux that
leaks into the shielded region (inside of the cylinder) is
attenuated from that within the shield material by the
ratio of material permeability to air permeability. These
effects combine to produce a shielding factor that can be
decreased (improved shielding) either by increasing the
material permeability relative to air or by increasing the
material thickness relative to the shield diameter. This
flux-shunting mechanism works for constant (dc) mag-
netic fields as well as low-frequency magnetic fields. It is
important to note that, for a closed magnetic shield, the
source needs to be entirely inside or outside the shielded
enclosure for it to be effective. For example, if a cylinder
is used to shield an area from the magnetic field pro-
duced by currents in electric cables, then the cylinder
should enclose all current-carrying conductors to shield
the large area external to the cylinder, or the cylindrical
shield needs to enclose the area to be shielded with no
current-carrying conductors inside of the shielded area.
Figure 16-32 High magnetic permeability cylinder placed
in a uniform magnetic field (example of flux shunting).
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
It should be noted that placing a single current-carrying
conductor inside of a ferromagnetic pipe (with the return
current path outside of the pipe) does not reduce the
magnetic field outside of the pipe.
Eddy-current Shielding
When a metallic structure is exposed to a time-varying
magnetic flux density, an electric field is induced in the
material. If the material has electrical conductivity, σ,
the induced electric field creates an induced current
within the material. This induced current constitutes an
additional magnetic field source that opposes the
change in the external magnetic flux. The superposition
of external and induced magnetic fields tends to “buck
out” the imposed field, diverting the flux away from a
shielded region in closed shield (Hasselgren and Luoni
1995), while in open shields it produces a compression
of the flux lines on the side of the source and a reduc-
tion of the magnetic flux density beyond the shield (see
Figure 16-33).
The induced current mechanism arises only when the
external magnetic field is time-varying, so that eddy-
current shielding is not effective for shielding dc
magnetic fields, and its efficiency increases with the
supply frequency. In conductive materials, the resulting
shielding factor is a complex number at each point in
space, with a magnitude describing the ratio of magni-
tudes of shielded to unshielded fields at the point, and a
phase describing the difference in phase between
shielded and unshielded fields.
Eddy-current shielding occurs in any electrically con-
ducting material, which may or may not be ferromag-
netic. In an ac field with angular frequency ω = 2π f, the
induced current density and total flux density decay
exponentially into the material, away from the surface
of the shield that faces the source. A material-dependent
parameter, called skin depth, quantifies how deeply the
magnetic field penetrates the metallic shield at a given
Figure 16-33 High-conductivity, unity magnetic
permeability, cylinder placed in a uniform magnetic field
(example of eddy-current shielding).
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
frequency. Equation 16-53 shows how the skin depth, δ,
is defined in terms of the metal conductivity and perme-
ability.
2
δ= skin depth, m 16-53
ω μσ
μ = magnetic permeability of the pipe material,
H/m.
σ = electrical conductivity of the pipe material,
S/m.
Shields fabricated from nonferromagnetic, conducting
materials typically have a skin depth that is significantly
less that the thickness of the shield. For example, at
60 Hz, the skin depths in copper and aluminum are 0.33
in. (8.5 mm) and 0.46 in. (11.8 mm), respectively. The
skin depth is significantly reduced in ferromagnetic
materials, which usually show a lower electrical conduc-
tivity, but a much greater magnetic permeability. When
the skin depth is much less than the thickness of the
metal, the induced currents flows uniformly over the
shield thickness. The metals used for conductive shield-
ing usually have electrical conductivity higher than 10
MS/m. Copper and aluminum in the form of thin sheets
(thickness of some mills or millimeters) are the most fre-
quently usually used nonferromagnetic shielding materi-
als.
Metals that have both good electrical conductivity and
high magnetic permeability are often selected for mag-
netic shields because both shielding mechanisms (shunt-
ing and eddy-current shielding) work together. Typical
ferromagnetic shielding metals are:
• Carbon Steel. Common carbon steel, an alloy of iron
and carbon, is often used for magnetic shields
because it has a relatively high magnetic permeability,
typically several hundred, and a low flux density to a
maximum of around 1000, and it has reasonably
good electrical conductivity (i.e., around an eighth
that of copper). Although its shielding characteristics
are not as good as many other ferromagnetic metals,
carbon steel is relatively low cost, readily available,
and unaffected by mechanical stresses during instal-
lation. Low carbon steel (ASTM 1010), with 0.08 to
0.1% carbon, is preferred for magnetic shielding
because the permeability is higher than other carbon
steel alloys.
• Silicon Steel. Silicon steel or transformer grain-ori-
ented steel is an alloy of silicon and iron (3/97%) that
was developed to reduce losses in power transform-
ers. It has significantly better shielding performance
than carbon steel. However, it is only available in rolls
of thin (i.e., 20 mils or 0.5 mm) sheets with a maxi-
16-39
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
mum width of several feet. So, multiple sheets of sili-
con steel must be bundled together and preassembled
to make useful magnetic-shielding structures.
• Mumetal and Permalloy. Mumetal and Permalloy are
nickel-iron alloys (approximately 80/20%) that have
very high magnetic permeabilities. One variation of
mumetal, called supermalloy, has relative magnetic
permeability values of up to 100,000. Mumetals typi-
cally are annealed in an oven with a hydrogen envi-
ronment to maximize the magnetic permeability. The
two primary disadvantages of mumetals are their
high cost and the fact that their magnetic permeabil-
ity may degrade significantly during field fabrication
if they are mechanically stressed or welded. Their use
is generally limited to shielding of laboratory equip-
ment, electrical switchgear vaults, and room-size
areas.
• Copper and Aluminum. Both copper and aluminum
have been used for magnetic shielding of power sys-
tems equipment, because their high electrical conduc-
tivities make up for their lack of high magnetic
permeability and they are readily available.
Table 16-10 is a summary of the shielding parameters of
the commonly used shielding materials. The geometry
and size of magnetic shielding structures have a signifi-
cant impact on their magnetic-shielding performance.
The various geometries used for magnetic shielding fall
into the categories of open and closed shields. Closed
shields are cylinders (pipes), boxes, and spheres. Most
other types of shields (i.e., flat plates, channels, etc.) are
open shield structures.
Cylinders (pipes) and box-shaped shields are the most
efficient shielding geometries, because these geometries
completely enclose the source of the magnetic field (the
cables), and the closed paths inherent to these geome-
tries enhance flux shunting and eddy-current shielding.
Table 16-10 Electrical Parameters of Commonly Used
Magnetic Shielding Materials
Relative Electrical
Metal Permeability Conductivity (S/m)
Aluminum 1 3.05 x 107
Copper 1 5.59 x 107
Low Carbon Steel 200 to 1400 6.67 x 106
Silicon Steel 900 to 10,000 1.67 x 106
Mumetal 40,000 1.64 x 106
16-40
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
They are effective in reducing the magnetic field pro-
duced by cables installed inside of them at all distances
from the cable trench.
The most commonly used open shield structures are flat
plates and inverted U-shaped shields placed on top of
the cables. Both of these open shields are effective in
reducing the magnetic field directly above the cables;
however, they have little effect on the above-ground
magnetic fields at distances greater than two or three
times the width of the magnetic shield.
Practical Considerations
Many magnetic field shields have the potential of signif-
icantly reducing the above-ground magnetic fields pro-
duced by transmission cables (Bucea and Kent 1998);
however, many design considerations must be addressed
before magnetic field shielding can be applied in practi-
cal installations. Some of the practical design consider-
ations are:
1. The most effective shields in reducing the magnitude
of above-ground fields generate eddy currents in the
shield structure. However, these eddy currents gener-
ate joule heating in the metallic shield, which
increases the transmission line losses and reduces the
ampacity of the cables because of the heat associated
with the losses. Hysteresis losses in ferromagnetic
metals generate significant additional losses. For
example, the eddy-current and hysteresis losses in the
steel pipe for pipe-type cable systems often exceed
30% of the joule losses in the cable high-voltage con-
ductors (see Chapter 11).
2. Many of the metals that are used for magnetic shields
(i.e., carbon steel, silicon steel, aluminum, etc.) are
susceptible to corrosion. Therefore, some form of
corrosion protection should be considered when
designing the shield design.
3. Most magnetic shields must have good electrical and
magnetic contact between sections that are assembled
in the field. If the electrical contact between adjacent
shield sections is poor, then eddy currents cannot
flow in these areas. If the magnetic contact is poor
between adjacent shield sections, then the flux shunt-
ing field reduction mechanism is adversely affected.
For example, consider the inverted U-shape shield
shown in Figure 16-34. Due to thermal consider-
ations, the cables must be surrounded by compacted
granular backfill or Fluidized Thermal BackfillTM
after they are laid in the cable trench. Consequently,
the top part of the magnetic shield must be installed
on top of the backfill material and then welded to the
side parts of the shield installed prior to the backfill.
Also, adjacent sections of the top shield should be
welded or have overlapping pieces to achieve good
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
shielding performance (Bottauscio et al. 2001). These
welding operations are expensive due to the field
labor required and because this increases the time to
complete installation of the cable.
4. Installation of welded shields makes access to cables
for repairs more time consuming and difficult. On the
positive side, steel shields can add significant
mechanical protection from dig-ins.
Because of the preceding practical construction consid-
erations, the most commonly used magnetic shields
applied to transmission cable installations in North
America have been flat steel plates (Durkin et al. 1994)
and carbon steel pipes (Zemyan 1996). Aluminum
plates, approximately 0.12 in. (3 mm) thick, have been
used in some underground cable installations in Europe
to reduce above-ground magnetic field levels. Studies
(Canova et al. 2002) have shown that the parameter R
(see Figure 16-35) should be greater than six times the
distance between the cables and the plates to achieve
good magnetic-shielding efficiency and to avoid
increased magnetic field levels near the ends of the alu-
minum plate. Adjacent plates should be welded together,
or additional aluminum plates should be placed on top
of the butt gaps to span the electrical discontinuity. Lab-
oratory and field tests indicate that a shielding factor of
0.5 to 0.25 can be achieved with 0.12-in. (3 mm) thick
aluminum plates.
Figure 16-34 Cross section of inverted “U” magnetic
shield.
Figure 16-35 Flat plate (plane) magnetic shield geometry.
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
16.5 INDUCTIVE COORDINATION
Currents in underground transmission lines produce a
magnetic field that surrounds the underground trans-
mission line. This magnetic field, in turn, will induce
voltages on nearby electrical conductors such as tele-
communications lines, railroad communications facili-
ties, metallic pipelines, and fences. If the nearby
conductors are continuous and grounded at more than
one location, then the induced voltages will produce a
current in the loop formed by the nearby conductors
and earth. The magnitudes of the voltages induced on
nearby electrical conductors primarily depend on the
following factors:
1. The magnitude and phase angles of the currents flow-
ing in the underground transmission cables
2. The method of grounding the cable metallic shields
(i.e., single-point or cross-bonding). Designs that
provide a return path for line-to-ground fault current
that is close to the cable high-voltage conductors (i.e.,
multi-point or cross-bonded sheaths) produce lower
induced voltages compared to cable systems where
the fault current return path is further away (e.g.,
single-point with ground continuity conductor).
3. The separation between the transmission cables
4. The radial distance (separation) between the cable
trenches and the nearby electrical conductors
5. The longitudinal distance that nearby electrical con-
ductors are in close proximity to the underground
transmission line
6. The angles between the cable duct banks and the
nearby electrical conductors
The induced voltage per unit length (i.e., volts/1000 ft.
or volts/km) of the cable duct bank alignment at a given
transmission line current is highest when nearby con-
ductor(s) are approximately parallel to the underground
transmission line. The induced voltage per unit of length
decreases when the nearby metallic objects are oblique
to the underground transmission line, and the induced
voltage is zero if the nearby metallic objects are perpen-
dicular to the underground transmission line.
The voltages per unit of length that are induced in electri-
cal conductors in close proximity to the underground
transmission lines are relatively small compared to those
produced by overhead lines and some other underground
transmission lines because of the following factors:
1. The relatively close spacing between the cables (com-
pared to overhead lines) results in magnetic field val-
ues that diminish rapidly with distance from the cable
trenches.
16-41
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
2. The relative phase placement of the cables for the
underground lines are frequently selected to minimize
above-ground magnetic field values. The reduced
magnetic field values, in turn, result in relatively low
induced voltages.
16.5.1 Industry Standards and Guides for
Inductive Coordination
There are a number of different industry guides and
standards that relate to inductive coordination between
electric transmission lines and other utilities. These
guides and standards generally fall into the following
categories.
• Pipelines
• Telecommunications lines
• Railroads
Following is a summary of recommendations and
requirements in industry standards that relate to power
line inductive coordination. Most of these standards do
not differentiate between requirements for overhead and
underground power lines.
1. The 2002 National Electrical Safety Code’s (NESC’s)
(IEEE 2001) General Requirements Applying to
Underground Lines contains the following in Section
31.316 (Induced Voltage): “Cooperative procedures
are recommended to minimize steady-state voltages
from proximate facilities. Therefore, reasonable
advance notice should be given to owners or opera-
tors of other known proximate facilities that may be
adversely affected by new construction or changes in
existing facilities.”
Section 09.095B2 of the NESC requires that “Made
grounds or grounded structures should be separated by
3.0 m (10 ft) or more from pipelines used for the trans-
mission of flammable liquids or gases operating at high
pressure (1030 kPa [150 lb/in2] or greater) unless they
are electrically interconnected and cathodically pro-
tected as a single unit. Grounds within 3.0 m (10 ft) of
such pipelines should be avoided or shall be coordinated
so that hazardous ac conditions will not exist and
cathodic protection of the pipeline will not be nullified.”
2. NACE Standard RP0177-2000 (NACE 2000) is a
document that addresses ac induced voltages on
metallic structures and corrosion control systems.
Paragraph 5.2 of this document states, “For the pur-
pose of this standard, 15 V AC (rms) open circuit or
a source current capacity of 5 mA or more are con-
sidered to constitute an anticipated shock hazard.”
This requirement is based on the electrical resistance
values for typical human bodies (Table 16-11) and 60-
Hz alternating current values affecting human beings
16-42
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
(Table 16-12). No induced voltage limits for transient
conditions, such as fault current induced voltages, are
contained in NACE RP0177-2000.
3. IEEE Standard 80 (IEEE 2000) indicates that electric
body currents below 116 mA / t , where t is the
duration of the current in seconds, can be tolerated
by the average person.
4. IEEE Standard 776 (IEEE 2000) is a document that
provides calculation and measurement procedures to
predict the exposure levels and susceptibility of com-
munications circuits to inductive coupling with power
lines. It also contains recommendations concerning
threshold levels based on safety and telecommunica-
tions circuit degradation issues.
5. Canadian Standards Association C22.3 No. 3-98 is a
document that contains inductive coordination
requirements for power lines and communications
facilities including railroad communications facilities.
6. Canadian Standards Association C22.3 No. 6-91 is a
document that is similar in scope to NACE Standard
RP0177-2000. It also requires that voltages induced
on pipelines shall be 15 V or less during normal oper-
ating conditions.
Table 16-11 Human Resistances to Electrical Current
(NACE Std.RP0177 2000)
Dry skin 100,000 to 600,000 ohms
Wet skin 1000 ohms
Internal body-hand to foot 400 to 600 ohms
Ear to ear (about) 100 ohms
Table 16-12 Continuous 60-Hz Alternating Current Values
Affecting Human Beings (NACE Std. RP0177 2000)
Current Effects
1 mA or less No sensation—Not felt
Sensation of shock—Not painful; individual can
1 to 8 mA
let go at will; muscular control not lost.
Painful shock—Individual can let go at will;
8 to 15 mA
muscular control not lost.
Painful shock—Muscular control lost;
15 to 20 mA
cannot let go.
Painful shock—Severe muscular contractions;
20 to 50 mA
breathing difficult.
Ventricular fibrillation—Death will result if
50 to 100 mA
prompt cardiac massage not administered.
100 to 200 Defibrillator shock must be applied to restore
mA normal heartbeat. Breathing probably stopped.
Severe burns—Severe muscular contractions;
chest muscles clamp heart and stop it during
200 mA and
shock (ventricular fibrillation if prevented).
over
Breathing stopped—heart may start following
shock, or cardiac massage may be required.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations

16.5.2 Calculation of Induced Voltages and The mutual impedance, Z’ m, is given by the following
Currents equation

The magnetic field produced by the currents flowing in ⎛D ⎞

Ẑ'm = 0.01807 + j 0.0529 Log 10 ⎜ e ⎟ Ω /1000 ft
the cables induce voltages or currents in proximate (near ⎜ di j ⎟
⎝ ⎠
by) metallic conductors as shown in Figures 16-36 and
⎛ De ⎞
16-37. = 0.0289 + j 0.0846 Log 10 ⎜ Ω / km
⎜ d i j ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠ 16-55
As indicated in Figure 16-36, the currents in the trans-
Where:
mission cables induce a voltage with respect to local
De = depth of earth return current (see Equa-
ground in parallel metallic objects. A typical example is
tion 16-15), in. (or mm)
a steel pipeline that is grounded at one end at a valve or
dij = distance between cable and pipe center-
cathodic protection location (i.e., right-hand end of Fig-
lines, in. (or mm)
ure 16-36) and is open at the opposite end (i.e., an insu-
lated pipe flange).
For three-phase cable systems, the total voltage induced
The voltage per unit of length (1000 ft or km) that is on the parallel metallic object is simply the vector sum
induced in a parallel metal pipeline (or other metallic of the induced voltage produced by each of the currents
object) is given by Equation 16-54. flowing in the three cables (Equation 16-56).

Vˆoc' = Iˆc Zˆ m′ volts/1000 ft (or volts/km) 16-54 VˆTotal

'
= IˆPh A Zˆ m′ A
Where:
+ IˆPh B Zˆ m′ B
Vˆoc
' = Induced open circuit voltage, volts
+ IˆPh C Zˆ m′ C V / 1000 ft (or V / km )
(rms)/1000 (or volts (rms)/km). 16-56
Where:
Iˆc = Current in transmission cable, A (rms).
VˆTotal
' =Total pipeline induced voltage, V/1000 ft (or
Zˆ m′ = Mutual impedance between transmission v/km).
cable and pipeline, Ω/1000’ (or Ω/km).
IˆPh A , IˆPh B ,IˆPhC = Transmission cable phase cur-
The carat (^) notation in Equation 16-54 indicates that rents A, B, and C, A.
the quantities are complex numbers (i.e., they have real
and imaginary components). The prime notation (’) indi- Zˆ m′ A ,Zˆ m′ B ,Zˆ mC
′ = Mutual impedances between
cates that the values are unit values (i.e., per unit of cable phases A, B, C, and pipeline,
length). Ω/1000 ft (or Ω/km).

When balanced three-phase currents are flowing in the

transmission cables, then the voltage induced in the par-
allel pipeline is less than the voltage produced by any
one of the three currents (i.e., the voltages partially off-
set each other).

When zero-sequence currents (i.e., in-phase currents)

flow in the underground line, then the pipeline induced
voltages do not cancel each other, and the induced volt-
age is significantly higher per unit of length compared
to positive-sequence currents. Single-line-to-ground
faults in the underground line (or through faults), which
are primarily zero-sequence current, in general, produce
the highest induced voltages on parallel metallic objects.

The mutual impedance shown in Equation 16-55 assumes

Figure 16-36 Voltage induced by transmission cables in that the underground line and the metallic object are par-
nearby pipeline. allel to each other. If the cables and parallel metallic

16-43
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

object are perpendicular to each other, then the mutual
impedance and induced voltage is equal to zero.
If both ends of the parallel metal object are grounded
(e.g., Figure 16-37), then the magnetic field produced by
the transmission cable will induce a current in parallel
metallic pipelines.
The induced current flowing in a parallel metallic
object, such as a pipeline, is given by Equation 16-57.
16.5.3 Inductive Coordination with Pipelines
When underground transmission lines are installed in
close proximity to metallic pipelines, voltages and or
currents will be induced on the pipeline, depending on
how the pipeline is grounded. The voltage or current
induced on the pipeline will be a maximum when the
pipeline is parallel to the underground transmission line.
Conversely, the induced voltage or current will be a min-
imum (theoretically zero) when the pipeline is perpen-
dicular to the underground transmission line.

Vˆ ′ Pipeline Inductive Coordination Requirements

Iˆ = oc A Applicable industry standards (NACE 2000; CSA 2003)
Zˆ self
′ recommend or require:
16-57
Where: 1. The maximum induced voltage at all points along
Vˆoc′ = Open circuit induced voltage, volts/1000 ft. proximate pipelines should be less than 15 V (rms)
during normal operating conditions (NACE Std.
Zˆoc
′ = Self-impedance of the parallel metallic RP0177-2000 and CSA C22.3).
2. Grounded structures for underground transmission
object with earth return, ohms/1000 ft.
lines should be located at least 3 m from gas or flam-
mable liquid pipelines (NESC).
The self impedance, Z’self, is given by the following equa-
tion. 3. Below-ground fault current discharge facilities
should be located at least 10 m from metallic pipe-
Ẑ′self = R ′pipe + 0.01807 lines (CSA C22.3).
4. In areas of ac influence, any measured ac voltages
⎛ De ⎞ between a structure and ground (or some other adja-
+ j 0.0529 Log 10 ⎜ Ω /1000 ft
⎜ GMR pipe ⎟⎟ cent structure) shall be considered an indication that
⎝ ⎠ further study is required (CSA C22.3).
= R ′pipe + 0.0289 5. Permanent gradient control mats shall be used for all
above-ground metal pipeline appurtenances, except
⎛ De ⎞ test lead stations, if the touch voltage exceeds 15 V.
+ j 0.0846 Log 10 ⎜ Ω / km
⎜ GMR ⎟⎟
⎝ pipe ⎠ 16-58
6. Each utility should be aware of the other utilities’
facilities and cooperate in the mitigation of electrical
effects of one installation on the other. The mitiga-
As in the case of induced voltages, the induced current
tion required for a specific situation must be based on
for multi-point grounded parallel objects is the vector
safety considerations with good engineering judg-
sum of the currents induced by the currents flowing in
ment (NACE Std. RP0177-2000).
each of the three cables.
Based on the preceding recommendations, it is generally
necessary to perform induced voltage calculations for
underground transmission lines when they run parallel
to metallic pipelines for any appreciable distance. Some
states require that inductive coordination studies be per-
formed as a condition for placing transmission lines in
service. The general procedure for performing the
induced voltage calculations are summarized in the fol-
lowing section.
Calculation of Normal Operating Condition
Induced Voltages
The following parameters are necessary in order to cal-
culate voltages induced on parallel metallic pipelines by
an underground transmission line during normal oper-
Figure 16-37 Current induced in nearby pipeline. ating conditions.

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
1. Maximum positive and zero-sequence currents that
will flow on the underground transmission line or
lines during normal and emergency operating condi-
tions. If there are multiple three-phase cable circuits
in the cable duct bank (or trench), then the direction
of the currents for each of the circuits must also be
determined. The direction of current flow is impor-
tant for duct banks with multiple cable circuits
because the induced pipeline voltages for currents
flowing in opposite directions will partially cancel
each other.
The maximum positive-sequence current for induced
voltage calculations is typically the ampacity of the
cable for continuous operation. Depending on local
requirements and emergency operating conditions, it
may also be necessary to perform induced voltage
calculations using the short-term emergency ampac-
ity for the underground line.
In most cases, the zero-sequence current flowing in
transmission lines does not exceed 2-4% of the posi-
tive-sequence current.
2. The locations of the transmission cables in the cable
trench (i.e., duct bank cross-section). This informa-
tion is typically obtained from duct bank cross-
section drawings at locations where the underground
line is parallel to the pipeline in question.
3. Plan and profile drawings showing the distances
between the duct bank and the pipeline along the
route of the underground transmission line.
4. Locations where the pipeline is grounded and loca-
tions where there are insulating flanges in the pipe-
line. The pipeline may be directly bonded to
sacrificial anodes, rectifiers, polarization cells, etc.
5. Information about whether or not the pipe has corro-
sion protection. Most metallic pipelines (with the
possible exception of cast iron pipelines) are installed
with some type of corrosion-protection coating,
which electrically insulates the pipe from the sur-
rounding soil. Although most pipe coatings have
some defects (called holidays), it is generally assumed
that the pipe is electrically insulated from ground,
except at locations where the pipe is intentionally
grounded. If there is no pipe coating, then it is gener-
ally assumed that there is no induced voltage (with
respect to local ground) during normal operating
conditions.
The principle of superposition and repeated application
of Equations 16-55 and 16-56 are used to calculate the
positive- and zero-sequence induced voltages for loca-
tions where the distance between the underground line
and pipeline may be considered to be constant. More
specifically, the following procedure is used to calculate
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
the maximum induced voltage on sections of the pipe-
line between insulating flanges.
1. Identify the location where a section of pipe is
grounded. A section of pipe for the purpose of
induced voltage calculations is defined as the distance
between grounding point and the adjacent insulating
pipe flange or termination point. If it is not known
where the pipe is grounded between insulating pipe
flanges (or between a pipe flange and pipe end point),
then it is assumed that either end of the pipe section
is grounded.
2. The plan and profile drawings are used to segregate
the pipe section into subsections where the distance
between the underground line and the pipeline may
be considered to be constant. The parallel (i.e., longi-
tudinal) length for each subsection, as well as the sep-
aration distance (UG line to pipeline), must be
tabulated for each of the subsections. It is generally
acceptable to use the horizontal distance between the
underground line and pipeline for induced voltage
calculations. However, if the lines are close together
and there is a significant difference in burial depth,
the distance between the pipeline and UG line should
be calculated from the horizontal and vertical separa-
tions (i.e., the hypotenuse of the triangle).
3. For each subsection, the unit induced voltage (i.e.,
volts/1000 ft or volts/km) is calculated using the sepa-
ration distances from the previous step, Equation
16-55 (mutual impedance), Equation 16-56, and the
complex values of the positive-sequence currents
flowing in each of the three phases. The positive-
sequence induced voltage for the subsection is then
calculated by multiplying the subsection length by the
unit induced voltage.
4. The previous step is repeated for the zero-sequence
current. For example, if the positive-sequence current
is 1000 A, and it is determined that the zero-sequence
current does not exceed 2% of the positive-sequence
voltage, then the induced voltage calculation for each
subsection is performed with 1000 A * 2% /3 (e.g.,
6.67 A) flowing in each of the three cable phases.
5. The total positive-sequence and zero-sequence volt-
ages for each of the pipeline sections in the pipeline is
calculated by adding up the induced voltage for each
of the subsections.
6. The total induced voltage for each of the pipeline sec-
tions is then equal to the square root of the sum of
the squares of the positive and zero-sequence cur-
rents. For example, if the positive-sequence induced
voltage for a pipeline section is 3 volts and the zero
sequence induced voltage is 4 volts, then the maxi-
mum induced voltage for that pipeline section would
be 5 volts.
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Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

If the normal operating condition induced voltage for the transmission cable with earth return. Conse-
any of the pipeline sections exceeds 15 volts (rms), then quently, the majority of the single-line-to-ground
a method must be identified to reduce the induced volt- fault current would flow on the ground continuity
age for that section, or permanent gradient control mats conductors. For cross-bonded cable systems, the
should be used for all above-ground metal pipeline return path for line-to-ground faults will be a combi-
appurtenances, except test lead stations. nation of the cable sheaths and the ground continuity
conductors, if present.
Methods to reduce the pipeline induced voltage (NACE The impedances of the transmission cable high-
Std. RP0177 [NACE 2000]) are: voltage conductor with earth return is:
• Increase the separation distances between the pipe-
line and the underground line.
Ẑ′ce = R ′cond + 0.01807
• Ground the pipeline at the location(s) of the peak ⎛ De ⎞
induced voltage. This is typically accomplished by
+ j 0.0529 Log 10 ⎜ ⎟ Ω /1000 ft
means of polarization cells or solid-state isolators ⎝ GMR cond ⎠
such as the Dairyland Electric Isolation Surge Pro- 16-59
tection (ISP) device. Where electrolytic grounding Where:
cells, polarization cells, or similar devices are used, R’cond = resistance of the high-voltage conduc-
they should be properly sized, spaced, and physically tor, ohms/1000 ft.
secured in a manner that will safely conduct the max- GMRcond = geometric mean radius of the high volt-
imum amount of anticipated fault current. age conductor, in.
The impedance of the transmission cable high-volt-
Calculation of Fault-Induced Voltages age conductor with ground continuity conductor
In general, line-to-ground fault currents in underground return is:
lines generate the highest induced voltages in nearby
pipelines. The fault currents may be due either to a fault Ẑ′c −gcc = R ′cond + R ′gcc
in the underground line or to through faults. Single-line- ⎛ Sep ⎞
to-ground fault induced voltages are generally the most + j 0.0529 Log 10 ⎜ ⎟ Ω /1000 ft
⎜ GMR cond GMR gcc ⎟
severe due to the following reasons: ⎝ ⎠
• The currents during fault conditions are significantly 16-60
Where:
higher than normal and emergency operation condi-
R’gcc = resistance of the ground continuity
tions.
conductor, ohms/1000 ft.
• Three-phase fault currents are generally higher than GMRgcc = geometric mean radius of the ground
single-line-to-ground fault currents. However, the continuity conductor, in.
currents produced by single-line-to-ground faults are Sep = separation between center of transmis-
primarily zero-sequence currents, and there is no can- sion cable and ground conductor, in.
cellation with zero-sequence (in-phase) currents, as is
The impedance of a transmission cable high-voltage
the case for positive-sequence currents.
conductor with the three cable sheaths as a return
path is:
The following procedure is used to calculate the maxi-
mum induced voltage on sections of the pipeline R ′s
between insulating flanges. Ẑc −s = R ′cond +
3
1. The direction and magnitude of the currents for each
⎛ GMD ⎞
of the circuits in a duct bank must be determined by + j 0.0529 Log 10 ⎜ ⎟ Ω /1000 ft
performing short-circuit studies for the general loca- ⎝ Dsm ⎠
tion where the underground line and pipeline are
16-61
located. Where:
2. The division of fault current return between the cable R’s = resistance of the cable sheath, ohms/1000 ft.
sheaths, ground continuity conductor(s), and earth GMD = geometric mean distance between trans-
return must be determined. This division of the fault mission cables, in.
current between the available return paths is deter- Dsm = cable sheath mean diameter, in.
mined by the relative impedances of each of the 3. The pipeline ground points and subsections lengths
return paths. For example, the electrical impedance determined for normal operating condition induced
of the transmission cable with ground continuity con- voltages are used for the fault condition induced volt-
ductor return is much lower than the impedance of age calculations.

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations

4. The tabulation of pipeline-to-cable duct bank dis- Figure 16-39 shows cross sections of the cable and pipe
tances from the normal operating condition induced trenches. The sheaths of the underground line are single-
voltages are used for the fault condition induced volt- point bonded, and a 4/0 AWG insulated ground conti-
age calculations.
5. The fault current induced voltage (per 1000 ft or km)
for each pipeline subsection is calculated from the
zero-sequence currents flowing in the transmission
cables and from the zero-sequence return currents
flowing in the opposite direction in each of the return
paths. The zero-sequence currents flowing in the
return paths are determined from step 2 above (divi-
sion of fault current between return paths). The total
induced voltage for each subsection is then equal to
the product of the subsection length and the induced
volts/1000 ft (or volts/km).
6. The total fault current induced voltage for each of
the pipeline sections is determined by performing a
complex number summation of all of the subsection
induced voltages. The magnitude of the fault current
induced voltage is then the magnitude of the complex
number induced voltage.

There are no specific guidelines or recommendations for

the maximum allowable pipeline induced voltages dur-
ing fault conditions. However, it is prudent to compare Figure 16-38 Plan view of 115-kV underground
transmission line and 8-in. gas pipeline.
the magnitude of the fault current induced voltage
obtained from the preceding calculation procedure to
the maximum value from the following relationship
(Meliopoulos 1988; IEEE Std. 80 [IEEE 2000]).

116 mA
I max = mA 16-62
t
Where:
Imax = maximum rms current, mA.
t = duration of fault current, sec.

The value of t in Equation 16-62 should be interpreted

as the maximum clearing time that is expected for
single-line-to-ground faults at the location of the under-
ground line.
Worked Example 7: Pipeline Inductive Coordination
This example demonstrates the method to perform
induced voltage calculations for a pipeline parallel to a
115-kV XLPE underground transmission line using the
equations and procedures outlined in Section 16.5.2
(“Calculation of Induced Voltages and Currents”). Fig-
ure 16-38 is a plan view of the underground transmis-
sion line and a gas pipeline. A cross section of the cable
duct bank and pipeline are shown in Figure 16-38. The
soil electrical resistivity is 100 ohm-m.

The 115-kV XLPE cables in Figure 16-38 have the

parameters:
Conductor Size: 2000 kcmil (1016 mm2), Cu Figure 16-39 115-kV cable and trench cross sections.
Sheath Mean Diameter: 3.5 in. (88.9 mm)
16-47
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

nuity conductor is installed in the cable trench, as quently, the voltage induced on the pipeline for the
shown in Figure 16-39 (a). duration of the fault would be 1000 * 1.106 V = 1106 V.

The maximum balanced, three-phase (i.e., positive- 16.5.4 Inductive Coordination with Fences
sequence) current that will flow in a 115-kV under- Voltages will be induced on nearby, parallel fences by
ground transmission line is 1000 A, and the maximum underground lines provided that there are metallic com-
zero-sequence current that is anticipated in the 115-kV ponents of the fence that are ungrounded or sections
underground line is 2% (20 A) of the positive-sequence that have only one ground point. Significant voltages
current. The impedances of the earth return paths (i.e., can be induced on barbed wire fences with wooden
remote earth and the ground continuity conductor) for fence posts, for example. The obvious induced voltage
the zero-sequence current result in 76% and 24% of the mitigation is to ground the components of the fence at
zero-sequence current to flow in the ground continuity regular intervals. There are no industry-recognized lim-
conductor and remote earth, respectively. Figure 16-40 its for voltages induced on metallic fences by under-
shows the positive- and zero-sequence currents flowing ground lines. However, the 15 V (rms) limit for
in the transmission cables. maximum pipeline voltage is considered to be a reason-
able limit based on pipeline induced voltage limits.
The distances between each of the conductors in the
cable trench and the pipeline are shown in Table 16-13. Table 16-13 Distances between Transmission Line
Conductors and Pipeline.
The mutual impedances between each of the transmis-
Distance
sion cable and the pipe line are calculated using Equa- Between
tion 16-12. Likewise, the mutual impedance between the Section Conductor
ground continuity conductor and the pipeline is calcu- (Figure and Pipe Mutual Impedance
16-38) Conductor (in.) (ohms/1000 ft)
lated using Equation 16-55.
1 Phase A 111.46 0.01807 +j 0.13108
1 Phase B 110.29 0.01807 +j 0.13132
The voltage induced on the pipeline by the positive- and
1 Phase C 110.02 0.01807 +j 0.13138
zero-sequence components of the currents in the under-
Ground
ground transmission line are shown in Table 16-14 for 1 120.27 0.01807 +j 0.12927
Conductor
pipeline Sections 1 and 2 (see Figure 16-38). As indi- 2 Phase A 370.44 0.01807 +j 0.10349
cated by the induced voltages in Table 16-14, the maxi- 2 Phase B 370.09 0.01807 +j 0.10351
mum induced voltage on the pipeline (1.1 V) is well 2 Phase C 370.00 0.01807 +j 0.10520
below the maximum value in NACE Std. RP0177-2000 Ground
2 360.20 0.01807 +j 0.10382
and CSA C22.3. It is also evident that the most of the Conductor
pipeline induced voltage is caused by the zero-sequence
component of the current. Table 16-14 Voltages Induced by Positive and Zero-
Sequence Currents (V rms)
If the ground continuity conductor were not installed in Voltage from
the duct bank, then all of the zero-sequence current Positive-Sequence Voltage from
Section Current Zero-Sequence
would return in remote earth, and the pipeline induced (Figure 16-38) (V) Current (V)
voltage would increase significantly (from 1.11 to 1 -0.003 – j 0.019 0.269 + j 0.502
4.22 V). If the line-to-ground fault current is 20 kA for 4 2 -0.004 – j 0.024 0.288 + j 0.454
cycles, then the zero-sequence current will be 1000 times Total (Magnitude) 0.044 1.106
the zero-sequence current in the above example. Conse-

Figure 16-40 Paths for positive- and zero-sequence currents.

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
The equations for calculating induced voltages on pipe-
lines (Section 16.5.2) are applicable to voltage induced
in the components of fences that are insulated from
ground.
16.5.5 Inductive Coordination with
Communications Lines
The operation of communication circuits can be
adversely affected by currents flowing in nearby power
lines. The magnetic field produced by the currents in
underground transmission cables and ground continuity
conductors induce voltages and currents on communi-
cation circuits that use metallic (copper) conductor
cables. Fiber optic cable communications circuits are
generally immune to inductive interference from power
lines.
Adverse Effects Caused by Induced Voltage
The possible adverse effects of transmission line induced
voltages on communications lines are:
1. Induced voltages can present a safety hazard to com-
munications company service personnel. 50 V rms
continuously induced with respect to ground at 60 Hz
on telecommunications facilities has historically been
considered an upper threshold in North America for
communications lines (IEEE Std. 776-1992 [IEEE
2000]).
2. The induced voltage may degrade the quality of com-
munications. For example, 60 Hz hum from power-
frequency induced voltages is a relatively common
problem.
3. The induced voltage may cause temporary outages in
communications lines. For example, a phone line pro-
tective device may temporarily disconnect a phone
line as a result of fault current induced voltages.
4. Induced voltages may cause permanent damage to
communications cables. If the induced voltage is high
enough, the electrical insulation around individual
conductors may puncture. The induced voltages may
also damage equipment attached to the communica-
tions cables.
IEEE Std. 776 (Recommended Practice for Inductive
Coordination of Electric Supply and Communications
Lines) (IEEE 2000) addresses the above inductive coor-
dination issues.
Threshold Levels for Induced Voltages
It is difficult to quantify the effect of electric supply lines
on each nearby communication circuit because the
interference susceptibility of the communications cir-
cuits depends on numerous parameters that may not
available to the power systems engineer. Consequently,
IEEE Standard 776 uses what is called the “Probe-
Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
Wire” interface method (Figure 16-41) to determine
whether or not induction from electric supply lines are
likely to have adverse effects on communication lines.
IEEE Standard 776 contains recommendations for com-
munications lines induced voltage threshold levels based
on the following considerations.
1. The open-circuit voltage that will be induced on a
100-ft length of insulated 22 gauge “probe-wire”
placed at ground level, parallel to the power line
either 50 ft or 75 ft from the geometric mean location
of the power-line phase conductor distance (Figure
16-41). The 50-ft separation between the probe-wire
and the power line applies for power lines rated 69 kV
and less. A separation distance of 75 ft applies to
power lines with rated voltages above 69 kV.
2. The length that the communications line is in close
proximity to the power line. The lengths of close
proximity are categorized into Zones 1, 2, and 3.
IEEE Standard 776 defines the distances for Zones 1,
2, and 3 as follows:
Zone 1: 0 – 15 kft (0 - 24 km)
Zone 2: 15 – 50 kft (24 - 80 km)
Zone 3: >50 kft (> 80 km)
3. The accessibility of the communications circuit to a
customer.
The term “inure” is defined as those facilities where
customers will not have access to conductors, and
where the telecommunications utility is willing to
condition those conductors to operate safely at
induced voltage levels of 50-100 V rms to ground.
The term “customer accessible” designates those
facilities that are accessible to the customer and
induced voltages are limited to less than 50 V rms to
ground.
4. The interruption tolerance of the communications
circuit.
5. The categories “A” (will not tolerate interruptions)
and “B” (will tolerate fault-caused interruptions).
Figure 16-41 IEEE Std 776 probe-wire interface.
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Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Table 16-15 shows IEEE Standard 776 recommenda-
tions for the threshold 60 Hz rms voltages on a 22-gauge
probe-wire.
Similar threshold induced voltages for fault conditions
are shown in Table 16-16.
Fault Induced Voltages
As discussed earlier for pipelines, the highest induced
voltages are caused by power system fault conditions.
Energy dissipation is dependent upon fault duration or
clearing time. Usually the fault duration at a particular
location is the time required for the nearest line side pro-
tective equipment to operate and isolate a fault, assum-
ing the maximum calculated symmetrical fault current
at the fault location.
Experience (IEEE Std 776 2000) has shown that damage
can occur to communications equipment if the product
of the square of the induced current and time (I2 t) falls
in the range of 16 to 80 A2 s. IEEE Std. 776 contains the
following (Table 16-16) probe-wire induced voltage lim-
its for various fault current durations based on the 16 to
80 A2 s limits. The probe-wire induced voltage ranges
for the Table 16-16 fault current durations were derived
from the fact that 100 ft of #22 AWG copper wire has a
resistance of 1.6 ohms.
Worked Example 8: Telecommunications Line
Inductive Coordination
This worked example demonstrates how to perform
probe-wire induced voltage calculations and application
of the results to determine if voltage induction from an
underground transmission line will adversely affect a
specific type of communications circuit. Figure 16-42 is a
profile view of the 115-kV underground transmission
line, and a cross section of the cable duct bank. Figure
16-43 shows the positive- and zero-sequence currents
flowing in the transmission cables. The soil electrical
resistivity is 100 ohm-m.
The underground transmission line will operate at a
maximum current of 1000 A during normal operating
conditions, and the line will have a 24-hr emergency rat-
ing of 1200 A. The line-to-ground fault current will not
exceed 20 kA for 4 cycles (0.0667 s).
The underground transmission line is being constructed
parallel to an existing telephone line cable for a distance
of approximately 2000 ft. The objective of the analysis is
to determine if the planned underground transmission
line will adversely affect the operation and maintenance
of the telephone line. The telephone line falls in the
IEEE Std. 776 classifications of “customer accessible”
and Class B (may tolerate interruption).

Table 16-15 Acceptable 60 Hz RMS Voltage Thresholds on As discussed in Section 16.5.5 (“Inductive Coordination
Probe-wire (Based on Safety and Circuit Degradation with Communications Lines”), the procedure is to cal-
Considerations) culate the “probe-wire” induced voltage and then com-
Class A A A B B B pare the probe-wire induced voltage to the IEEE Std.
1 2 3 1 2 3 776 threshold values that are applicable to a Zone 1,
Zone (V) (V) (V) (V) (V) (V) Class B, Customer Accessible communications circuit.
Steady c 0.3333 0.1000 0.0379 0.3333 0.1000 0.0379 The #22 AWG probe-wire is located at ground level and
State i 0.6667 0.2000 0.0758 0.6667 0.2000 0.0758 a horizontal distance of 75 ft from the closest phase of
i = inure, c = customer accessible the underground transmission line (see Figure 16-42).
Class A = may not tolerate interruption. Class B = may toler-
ate interruption (self restoring). The maximum balanced, three-phase (i.e., positive-
sequence) current that will flow in a 115-kV under-
Table 16-16 Probe-Wire Induced Voltage Threshold Values ground transmission line is 1000 A, and the maximum
for Equipment Destruction (IEEE Std. 776) zero-sequence current that is anticipated in the 115-kV
underground line is 2% (20 A) of the positive-sequence
Energy Energy
Dissipation Dissipation current. The impedances of the earth return paths (i.e.,
I2 ta I2 t remote earth and the ground continuity conductor) for
16 80 the zero-sequence current result in 76% and 24% of the
Fault
Duration Time
(Cycles) (s) (V) (V)
5 0.0833 22.17 49.57
10 0.1667 15.68 35.05
20 0.3333 11.09 24.79
40 0.6667 7.84 17.53
Figure 16-42 Elevation view of 115-kV underground line
80 1.3330 5.54 12.39
and probe-wire.
a. I2 t is the same for all zones and classes

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations

Figure 16-43 Paths for positive and zero-sequence currents.

zero-sequence current to flow in the ground continuity
conductor and remote earth, respectively.
Figure 16-43 shows the positive and zero-sequence cur-
rents flowing in the transmission cables.
The distances between the probe-wire and the current-
carrying conductors in the cable trench are summarized
in Table 16-17. The mutual impedances between each of
the transmission cables and the probe-wire are calcu-
lated using Equation 16-55. Likewise, the mutual imped-
ance between the ground continuity conductor and the
probe-wire is calculated using Equation 16-55.
The open-circuit voltage induced on the probe-wire by
the positive- and zero-sequence components of the cur-
rents in the underground transmission line are shown in
Table 16-18. The short-circuit current (28 mA) induced
in the probe-wire by the maximum normal operating
condition current would be the resistance of the #22
AWG wire (1.6 ohms) divided by the open circuit volt-
age (0.044 V) divided by the resistance of the #22 AWG
wire (1.6 ohms).
The IEEE Std. 776 probe-wire threshold voltage based
on safety and circuit degradation (Table 16-14) is 0.3333
V for Class B, Zone 1, customer accessible communica-
tions lines.
As indicated by the induced voltages in Table 16-18, the
maximum induced voltage on the probe-wire (0.044 V
rms) is significantly below the applicable IEEE Std. 776
probe-wire threshold voltage.
If the line-to-ground fault current is 20 kA for 4 cycles,
then the zero-sequence current will be 1000 times the
zero-sequence current in the above example. Conse-
quently, the voltage induced on the probe-wire for the
duration of the fault would be 1000 * 0.044 V = 44 V.
The short-circuit current induced in the probe-wire
would be 27.5 amps, and the I 2 t value would be
50.4 A 2 s. IEEE Std. 776 indicates that equipment
destruction will occur for I2 t values, ranging between 16
and 80 A2 s. Consequently, line-to-ground faults in the
underground transmission line in this example may
cause equipment destruction for the Class B, Zone 1
communications line.

16.5.6 Railway System Inductive Coordination

Table 16-17 Distances and Mutual Impedances between The alternating currents in underground transmission
Conductors in Cable Trench and Probe-wire lines can interfere with nearby railway signals and com-
Distance Between munications circuits in the same manner as they would
Conductor and interfere with nearby telecommunications circuits. In
Pipe Mutual Impedance
Conductor (in.) (ohms/1000 ft) both cases, the source and mechanism of induction are
Phase A 900.98 0.01807 + j 0.08307
the same. Railway signals and communications systems
are, in addition, unique in regard to their operation,
Phase B 901.50 0.01807 + j 0.08306
safety, and reliability objectives. The signals and com-
Phase C 902.13 0.01807 + j 0.08304 munications systems must operate reliably and safely for
Ground Conductor 902.88 0.01807 + j 0.08302 economical train movement and train protection. Train
protection includes:
Table 16-18 Probe-Wire Voltages Induced by Positive- • Prevention of conflicting train movements
and Zero-sequence Currents (V rms)
• Maintenance of safe distances between trains travel-
Voltage From Positive- Voltage From ing in the same direction
Sequence Current Zero-Sequence Current
0.003 0.044 • Broken rail detection
• Open track switch detection

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Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations
A railway communications system typically includes the
following components subsystems:
• Track circuits
• Signal control circuits
• Automatic highway grade-crossing warning systems
• Signal power supply circuits
• Supervisory control circuits
• Dispatcher and maintenance voice circuits
• Hot box detector and similar special circuits
• Train radio
• Data circuits
Railway signal systems involve the interconnection of
track circuits, signal control circuits, and signal appli-
ances to ensure the safe control of train movements.
Track circuits detect the presence of trains. The basic
principle of the track circuit is the shunting condition
produced by the train wheels passing along the electri-
cally energized running rails. A basic direct current
track circuit is shown in Figure 16-44. The signal con-
trol circuits use the information from signals, track
switches, and track circuits to cause the display of
appropriate signal aspects to approaching trains. There
may also be supervisory control circuits from a central
dispatching office.
Figure 16-44 Basic track circuit.
16-52
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
The acceptable levels (CSA C22.3 No 3 1998) for longi-
tudinally induced voltages in railway signaling and com-
munications circuits are as follows:
• Normal operating conditions. 50 V ac rms is the maxi-
mum acceptable induced voltage during normal
power system operating conditions. 150 V may be
acceptable under special conditions.
• Fault conditions. The acceptable level for longitudinal
induced voltage in railway signaling and communica-
tions circuits is 430 V rms under power line fault con-
ditions. This level applies to usual power line
equipment and maintenance. Higher voltages may be
acceptable under special conditions, such as high reli-
ability power lines with high-speed relaying and fault
clearing.
The EPRI Power System and Railroad Electromagnetic
Compatibility Handbook (EPRI 2006) is a source of
technology and data for preventing and mitigating ac
electrical interference problems on railroads. The book
includes all aspects of electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC) where railroad systems are the receptors. This
includes well-understood areas such as magnetic induc-
tion from transmission lines as well as less understood
areas such as conducted interference from distribution
systems and effects of harmonics. Chapters examine all
known effects of ac interference, including personnel
safety, operation of railroad equipment and systems,
and damage to railroad equipment. Direction is pro-
vided for studying the effects of proposed new and
upgraded installations as well as root cause analysis of
problems on existing installations.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations

16.6 NOMENCLATURE
Units
A = shield cross-sectional area circular mils (mm2)
a = pipe inside diameter in. (m)
= complex operator
a -
(-0.5 + j 0.866)
B = magnetic flux density mG or (μT)
b = pipe outside diameter in. (m)
Br = resultant magnetic flux density mG or (μT)
= magnitude of magnetic flux density along a direction defined
Bα W/m2
by angle α, use SI
Bx1 = horizontal component of magnetic flux density gauss
By1 = vertical component of magnetic flux density gauss
= capacitance between each high-voltage conductor and the
C μF/ 1000 ft (μF/km)
grounded insulation shield
ds = sheath diameter in. (cm)
dan = distance from conductor a to conductor n in. (cm)
Dc = diameter over conductor semiconducting shield in. (cm)
De = equivalent depth of earth return current in. (cm)
Di = diameter over cable insulation in. (cm)
Dp = pipe inside diameter in. (cm)
Ds = diameter over skidwires in. (cm)
Ea, Eb, Eb = A, B, C phase voltages kV
Eo = operating line-to-ground voltage kV
[Ec] = column matrix of voltage drops across the cable conductors V
f = power frequency Hz
GMDφ = geometric mean distance between cable centers in. (cm)
GMRφ = geometric mean radius of conductor in. (cm)
GMRg = geometric mean radius of the ground conductor in. (cm)
H = magnetic field strength oersteds
I = current in line A
Ia, Ib, Ic = phase currents A
Ic = charging current A/l000 ft (A/km)
[Ic] = column matrix of currents in the high-voltage conductors A
[Is] = column matrix of the currents in the cable sheaths A
Isc = maximum short-circuit current A
k = constant for conductor shield/sheath temperature rise –
P12 = power flow between points 1 and 2 MVA
r = distance from line m
r1, r2 = radius to outside and inside of cylinder mm
Rφ = conductor resistance Ω/1000 ft (Ω/km)
Rc = conductor ac resistance μΩ/ft (μΩ/m)
Rg = resistance of the earth return Ω/1000 ft (Ω/km)
Rn = sheath or shield resistance Ω/1000 ft (Ω/km)
R’p = pipe effective resistance μΩ/ft (μΩ/m)
Rs = sheath/shield resistance Ω/1000 ft (Ω/km)
Rskidwire = skidwire resistance μΩ/ft (μΩ/m)

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Chapter 16: Cable System Considerations EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Units
rsm = mean radius of cable sheath in. (cm)
S = axial spacing between phases in. (cm)
Sag, Sbg, Scg = axial spacing between the centers of cables a, b, c
= magnetic field with shield/magnetic field w/o shield and the (unitless)
SF
ground conductor in. (cm)
V1 = magnitude of voltage at point 1 kV
V2 = magnitude of voltage at point 2 kV
VI = magnitude of incident traveling wave V
VT = magnitude of voltage at cable terminal V
X12 = reactance between points 1 and 2 Ω
X0 = zero-sequence reactance Ω/1000 ft (Ω/km)
X1 = positive-sequence reactance Ω/1000 ft (Ω/km)
Xc = conductor ac reactance μΩ/ft (μΩ/m)
Xm = mutual reactance Ω/1000 ft (Ω/km)
X’p = pipe effective reactance μΩ/ft (μΩ/m)
YC = conductor ac loss increment –
YP = pipe ac loss increment –
YS = shield ac loss increment –
ZO = zero-sequence impedance μΩ/ft (μΩ/m)
Z1 = positive-sequence impedance μΩ/ft (μΩ/m)
Zaa, Zbb, Zcc,
= self-impedances Ω/1000 ft (Ω/km)
Zss
Zc = traveling wave surge impedance of cable Ω
= square matrix of the self and mutual impedances for the high-
[Zcc] Ω/1000 ft (Ω/km)
voltage conductors
[Zcs] = square matrix of the conductor-to-sheath mutual impedances Ω/1000 ft (Ω/km)
Zmn = mutual impedances, m ≠ n Ω/1000 ft (Ω/km)
Zoh = traveling wave surge impedance of overhead line Ω
= square matrix of the self and mutual impedances of the cable
[Zss] Ω/1000 ft (Ω/km)
sheaths
δ = power angle between the voltage phasors at two locations degrees
δ = magnetic field skin depth of a type of metal m
σ = metal electrical conductivity S/m
ε = relative dielectric constant –
μ = relative magnetic permeability –
μ0 = magnetic permeability of free space H/m
r = earth electrical resistivity Ω-m

16-54
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
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 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

CHAPTER 17 The Future of Underground

Transmission
Authors: Mohammad A. Pasha, The United Illuminating Company
Steve Eckroad, EPRI
Reviewer: Reza Ghafurian, Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc.

A continued increase is expected in the percentage of underground cable as part of total

transmission lines planned and built, and a higher percentage of solid dielectric cables is
predicted, making it possible to construct more underground transmission lines in urban
and suburban areas. Underground cable innovations are being driven by increased diffi-
culties in acquiring ROWs (rights-of-way) for overhead transmission lines, worldwide
demand on reliability of transmission lines, public desire for environmentally friendly
underground systems. Innovations include technological developments in insulating
materials and production gains in manufacturing processes.

Mohammad Anwar Pasha is a lead engineer with The United Illumi-

nating Company (UI). He holds a B.S. (1966) in physics from Punjab
University, Lahore, Pakistan, a B.S. (1970) in electrical engineering
(power) from the University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore,
an M.S. (1974) in nuclear technology from Islamabad University,
Islamabad, Pakistan, and an M.S.E.E (1982) from Syracuse University,
Syracuse, New York. Mr. Pasha began his career by working for the
Electric Company of Pakistan, Lahore, following which, he worked for
the Water and Power Development Authority, also in Lahore. Before immigrating to the
United States, he worked as a senior engineer with the National Engineering Services of
Pakistan, Lahore, Pakistan and was responsible for the engineering of the 205-mile,
500-kV Guddu-Jamshoro overhead transmission line. Presently he is working as project
transmission engineer for UI's 345-kV Middletown-Norwalk project. Mr. Pasha has been
chairman of EPRI's Underground Transmission Line Program since 2004. He is a past
chairman of the North East Transmission Group. He is a Member of IEEE, Insulated
Conductors Committee, and a licensed professional engineer in the state of Connecticut.
Mr. Pasha has authored numerous IEEE and EPRI publications and technical papers.

Steve Eckroad is a senior technical manager in the Power Delivery and

Markets sector of the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), where
he has been employed since 1992. He recently assumed program
management responsibilities for EPRI's Underground Transmission
Program. Mr. Eckroad has managed projects for the development of
commercial software and hardware, handbooks, guidelines, and
training courses in a wide variety of transmission and substation
equipment applications, as well as techno-economic assessments and
field demonstrations of emerging technologies, including energy storage and supercon-
ductivity. Prior to joining EPRI in 1992, Mr. Eckroad was an independent consultant to
the utility industry (1990-92). From 1979 to 1990, Mr. Eckroad was a project manager in
the Research and Development Division of Bechtel Group, Inc., where he performed
technology assessments and developed designs for advanced energy storage systems. Mr.
Eckroad is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and is a registered professional electrical

17-1
Chapter 17: The Future of Underground Transmission EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

engineer in California. He is the author or co-author of in 1965, and carried out postgraduate studies in
a number of publications in the fields of energy storage electrical engineering at the University of Missouri-
and electric power delivery technology. Mr. Eckroad Rolla in 1990-1992.
received his BA Degree in physics from Antioch College

17-2
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
17.1 INTRODUCTION
Over the last five years, an extensive growth in installing
underground transmission lines worldwide has been
observed. Nevertheless, predicting the need for and
shape of future developments in underground transmis-
sion, defined here as cable systems rated 69 kV and
higher, is uncertain at best. The only safe prediction is
that the requirement for underground transmission will
not decrease as a percentage of installed transmission
and may increase.
Underground transmission cannot compete head-on
with overhead transmission in many scenarios, simply
because the dielectric system is much more complex
and expensive, and the cost of the installation can be
s eve ra l t i m e s t h e c o s t o f t h e ove r h e a d s y s t e m .
The suburban environment is another matter alto-
gether. This will become a “Next Frontier” for under-
ground transmission.
Communities often prefer to install underground trans-
mission lines as compared to overhead lines in their
neighborhoods, because they believe that overhead lines
could devalue their property values or may have detri-
mental environmental effects. Aesthetic issues, environ-
mental concerns, weather-related outages, and the
increasing cost of rights-of-way will all be factors in the
future that may make an underground cable an attrac-
tive alternative to overhead. This situation is expected to
continue while the cost difference between overhead and
underground transmission lines continues to narrow.
Certain legislation, such as that in the State of Connect-
icut, United States, has been monitoring the life-cycle
costs of the two options so that laws could be passed at
any time to make underground transmission lines man-
datory for all future transmission line construction. This
trend is predicted to continue around the world. One
point must be made clearly: simple cost ratios of under-
ground to overhead options do not accurately reflect the
benefits of underground vs. overhead. Each potential
scenario must be independently evaluated for all of its
advantages and disadvantages, some with costs associ-
ated and others that are not measured by cost.
This chapter looks ahead to the future of underground
transmission—from developments on the verge of com-
mercial application to those further out in the research
frontier—and the achievements and benefits that may
one day be possible. Section 17.2 discusses current
research in cable technology. Section 17.3 reviews areas
of design and operation that are the subject of research
and development, and Section 17.4 describes research in
installation design. Section 17.5 speculates on future
cable systems employing high-voltage dc cables.
Chapter 17: The Future of Underground Transmission
17.2 CURRENT RESEARCH IN CABLE
TECHNOLOGY
17.2.1 Dielectrics
Nanotechnology for Insulation
The crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) presently used for
insulating HV and EHV cables has certain weaknesses.
These weaknesses include low electrical strength (there-
fore the need for thicker insulating materials), intoler-
ance to voids and contaminants, and a relatively high
coefficient of thermal expansion.
EPRI has successfully developed and evaluated a new
dielectric material that has shown an outstanding
increased performance (EPRI 2005). The material has
been developed by adding an inorganic, nanosized filler
to the insulating material commonly used for HV and
EHV extruded-dielectric cables. The new compound
material was chosen for its dielectric strength, dielectric
losses, cost, thermal conductivity, flexibility, and process
ability. The resulting insulating material has exhibited
the following characteristics:
• Breakdown strength is two to three times greater
than that of XLPE.
• Voltage endurance is almost three orders of magni-
tude higher than that of XLPE.
• Losses are lower, and the permittivity is equal to or
lower than that of XLPE.
Once nano-based polymer insulation becomes commer-
cially available, it will provide superior thin-wall insu-
lated underground transmission cables. A reduction in
cable insulation thickness will mean longer lengths for
cable reels, which will result in fewer splicing vaults,
fewer splices, smaller duct sizes, and easier handling. All
of these factors will reduce material, construction, and
installation costs. Also, fewer splices will likely mean
improved operation reliability.
Development of Polypropylene Cable
A polypropylene-type thermoplastic polymer could
someday replace XLPE. This development would give
manufacturing advantages in not having to crosslink
and degas the extruded cables. These advantages will
greatly increase the output of cable manufacturing
plants since this has been a major bottleneck of the
XLPE extrusion process.
Dc Application of Thermoplastic Polymer Cable
As of today, the thermoplastic polymer has been used
for dc applications up to +/- 150 kV. Many cable manu-
factures are conducting research and development of
thermoplastic polymer for dc applications at higher
voltage levels. Efforts have been made to replace
17-3
Chapter 17: The Future of Underground Transmission
dicumyl peroxide and some of the antioxidants in order
to reduce the polar species that cause space-charge
problems when using XLPE with direct current.
17.2.2 Dry-type Terminations and High-Stress
Splices
Research is taking place by cable manufacturers to
develop true dry-type terminations as utilities demand
fluid-free accessories due to safety and environmental
concerns. In addition, new types of XLPE cable accesso-
ries are being developed that are more reliable to manu-
facture (some reject rates run at 30 to 60%) and can
withstand higher stresses.
17.2.3 Superconducting Cables
The development of superconductors that have effec-
tively near-zero resistance to ac currents at liquid nitro-
gen temperatures (75 Kelvin, or about –200º C) has
progressed so substantially over the last 20 years that
superconducting power equipment is becoming a near-
term commercial proposition. Superconducting cables
and fault current limiters will likely be the first commer-
cially viable technologies. The first generation of high-
temperature superconductor (HTS) material to be
developed into a wire—known as “1G”—utilized a sub-
stantial amount of silver, making it relatively expensive.
A second-generation material, “2G,” now being pro-
duced in small quantities will ultimately be cheaper to
manufacture and have better performance characteris-
tics. Companies around the world are exploiting the
possibilities for applying these materials to power deliv-
ery applications. (For a more detailed discussion of
superconducting cables, see Chapter 7, Section 7.4.)
As an indication of the increased interest in and
research on superconducting power cables, a number of
projects worldwide are demonstrating HTS cables. In
the United States, in order to promote superconducting
power equipment commercialization efforts, the U.S.
Department of Energy (DOE) is currently co-funding
three HTS cable demonstration projects. Each of these
is hosted by a utility company, and each one demon-
strates insertion of a load-carrying HTS cable into its
grid: Long Island Power Authority (in Holbrook, New
York); National Grid (in Albany, New York); and
American Electric Power (in Columbus, Ohio). These
utilities have teamed with major U.S. and international
companies that produce superconducting power equip-
ment components.
• The Long Island Power Authority (LIPA) Cable
Project will connect two substations on Long Island,
New York, about 2000 ft apart, and will be the first
application on a utility grid at transmission voltage.
With a capacity of 574 MW, the 138-kV supercon-
17-4
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
ductor cable system will be an integral part of the
LIPA grid. The groundbreaking for this project was
held on August 2, 2006, and commissioning of the
cable is expected in 2007. LIPA has stated that it
expects to make the cable a permanent part of its
transmission system “backbone” on Long Island.
• The National Grid Cable Project is a 1148-ft (350 m)
HTS cable connecting two substations along the
Hudson River in Albany, New York and operates at
34.5 kV. This project will also install the first
“second-generation” HTS wire used in a utility grid
with a splice installed. The cable was put into opera-
tion on July 20, 2006, and will operate for two years
as a demonstration before being considered for per-
manent use by National Grid.
• The American Electric Power (AEP) Cable Project is
a 657-ft (200 m) 13.2 kV HTS cable installed in an
AEP substation in Columbus, Ohio. The cable is
designed to carry 3000 amps and incorporates all the
three phases in a single cable through three concen-
tric layers of HTS wires. Due to the unique “triaxial”
design, the cable is very small—about 6 in. in diame-
ter—yet is rated to carry 69 MVA. The cable was
commissioned on August 8, 2006. AEP is investigat-
ing other uses for this cable in its grid.
Other superconducting projects have been undertaken,
are under way, or are planned around the world—includ-
ing China (35 kV, 33.5 m, warm dielectric), Korea (two
projects, both 22.9 kV, 100 m, cold dielectric), Japan
(77 kV, 500 m, cold dielectric), Mexico, and Russia.
Superconducting cables offer a number of attractive
benefits, including:
• Electricity savings (i.e., via lower losses) through
near-zero resistance
• Elimination of electromagnetic fields and thermal
emissions to surrounding environments
• Three to five times higher ampacity ratings for cir-
cuits, potentially reducing voltage levels in certain
applications
• Environmentally-friendly cooling medium and elimi-
nation of hydrocarbon fluids
• Compact design, which allows for retrofit of existing
underground duct infrastructure
Of these benefits, the market drivers for future imple-
mentation of this technology are anticipated to be
increased power density and electricity savings. The
technology will allow superconducting cables to move
more power through the same underground duct cross-
section as normal copper cables. Also, more of the
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
power produced by generators will be available to the
consumer. That is because, with traditional copper or
aluminum power cable, some of the generated power is
lost due to heat generated by ohmic losses in the con-
ductor, shield/sheath, and other metallic layers, along
with dielectric losses generated in the insulation; losses
are usually of the order of 10% or more.
HTS cables will mean a reduction in right-of-way
(ROW) needs for building new transmission lines
because superconducting cables offer high power capac-
ity at lower voltage compared to conventional alumi-
num or copper wires. Existing ROW will also be utilized,
since retrofitting cables in the existing pipe, conduits,
and ducts will be possible. This will allow the utility to
avoid digging up the streets and highways and the
accompanying disruption to traffic and local public.
The ability to move greater amounts of power at
lower—even distribution—voltages will also reduce the
need for siting and operating high-voltage substations in
dense urban networks.
Also, the absence of electromagnetic fields, heat, and
fluid will help to avoid potential environmental effects.
Further, because the cable is not affected by depth of
installation or thermal quality of surroundings (since
the cable is self-cooled), installation at any depth will
be possible.
17.3 IMPROVEMENTS IN DESIGN AND
OPERATION
17.3.1 Educational Tools
Underground Transmission Systems Reference
Book
The current book represents a complete rewriting of the
1992 edition of EPRI’s Underground Transmission Sys-
tems Reference Book (“Green Book”) (EPRI 1992),
which was an outgrowth of the 1957 edition of the
underground reference book published by Edison Elec-
tric Institute.
This book provides reference material for new engineers
interested in learning underground transmission as well
as a ready reference for expert underground engineers.
Benefits of providing a reference book like this include:
• Increased efficiency of engineering staff and reduced
training costs for new engineers
• Accurate and up-to-date design tools
• Simplified design and construction practices
• Reduced project costs
Chapter 17: The Future of Underground Transmission
• Greater understanding of cable design theory and
practice
Underground Transmission Workstation (UTW)
EPRI intends to rewrite its popular UTW during the
coming years. A beta version for UTW 6.0 will be devel-
oped and is expected to be made available by the end
2007. This software is expected to provide similar bene-
fits to those of the above mentioned Underground
Transmission Systems Reference Book. The program
will provide an easy means to calculate ampacity, mag-
netic and electric field effects, pulling tensions, and other
practical calculations required for the design and instal-
lation of underground transmission systems. The UTW
will have its examples based on worked examples in the
Green Book. Thus a user could read and understand the
concept through worked examples in the Green Book
and then run the same examples using UTW.
End-of-life Criteria
As utilities’ underground systems age, it will become
essential to determine the remaining life of cable sys-
tems and to establish end-of-life criteria in order to
retire an underground system that may be vulnerable to
sudden failures. Several questions must be asked: Is the
system really at the end of its life, or does it have more
life left due to low load levels in the past? If the system
really is nearing the end of its life, is there any way to
extend it? It is essential that the condition of a cable,
splices, and terminations, and the quality of dielectric
are determined. Based on such knowledge, a rational
approach to extending the life of a cable system could
then be set.
“End-of-life” criteria for paper-insulated cables have
been studied extensively. However, as XLPE cables
installed in the 1980s start to approach 30 years of their
operating life, the aging of these cable system types will
become an increasingly important topic.
Knowledge Capture
As more and more underground engineers retire from
utilities, capturing knowledge from the outgoing engi-
neers will become necessary. It is anticipated that tools
will be developed that will help in capturing this
knowledge.
17.3.2 Thermomechanical Bending in Pipe-type
Cables
EPRI is engaged in determining whether there is a new
systemic failure mode for EHV HPFF cable systems
where thermo mechanical bending (TMB) causes fail-
ures within the pipe runs. The EPRI project intends to
evaluate whether these failures are due to age and/or
17-5
Chapter 17: The Future of Underground Transmission
operating conditions. Procedures to mitigate TMB fail-
ures in pipes will be developed.
17.3.3 Recabling Upgrades
Recabling existing pipe systems with higher voltage such
as 345 kV will be possible, because the new cables being
developed will allow higher stress values and hence
reduction in cable diameter. Although we are presently
cautious with stresses of approximately 12-13 kV/mm,
stresses of 15-17 kV/mm should be possible with the use
of new insulating materials that are in the development
phase. The present problem of cable quality and joints
could be solved by proper quality control during the
cable manufacture and splice installation in the field.
17.4 RESEARCH IN CABLE INSTALLATION
DESIGN
17.4.1 Construction Cost Reduction
What can be done to reduce underground transmission
costs? Advanced methods are being explored to reduce
costs. Horizontal directional drilling, jack and bore, and
microtunneling are very commonly employed for cross-
ing rivers, railroads, highways, and other duct banks or
obstacles. This capability has made environmental agen-
cies more flexible in giving permission to build new
underground transmission lines without fear of damag-
ing the natural habitat and causing environmental con-
cerns. Long directional drilling up to 7200 ft (2200 m)
and pulling without a splicing chamber have now been
made possible.
17.4.2 Subsurface Structures Detection
Tools for detecting existing subsurface structures are
being developed. EPRI has developed a ground pene-
Figure 17-1 Artist’s concept of SuperGrid long-distance underground transmission corridor.
17-6
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
trating radar system that could be further improved.
The device consists of multiple arrays of radars that
send signals penetrating the ground. The signals that are
reflected back are analyzed to indicate location and
presence of obstacles. The existing systems do not pos-
sess satisfactory resolution. New and improved systems
will be devised to help utilities make use of nonintrusive
methods for locating subsurface obstacles.
17.5 FUTURE CABLE SYSTEMS—HV/EHV DC
CABLES
Economical ac/dc converters are expected to be devel-
oped as use of dc transmission becomes more popular.
It is, of course, essential to have high-temperature
XLPE/polymer cables available in conjunction with this
type of transmission, since present cables are generally
temperature restricted. Japan has been making sound
and continuous progress over the last 20 years and may
take their 500-kV dc cables out of the long-term test
sites into commercial applications.
The new generation of ac/dc converters would allow
tapping off radial lines, thus making expansion to an
existing system possible.
17.5.1 The SuperGrid Vision
Dc superconducting cables are envisioned as a future
long-distance high-power transmission application.
Extremely high power links for transcontinental trans-
mission of electric power may be possible using dc
superconducting cables operating at relatively low volt-
ages (50 to 100 kV) and tens of thousands of amperes.
These HTS cables may be incorporated into a Super-
Grid that would also include transport of hydrogen for a
future hydrogen economy.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
The U.S Department of Energy (DOE) and the Office
of Electric Transmission and Distribution (OE) (now
called the Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy
Reliability) has created their vision of Grid 2030. This
came, under direction from President Bush, on
February 6, 2003, to “… modernize our electric delivery
system … for economic security … and for national
security.” According to these agencies, “Grid 2030
energizes a competitive North American marketplace
for electricity. It connects everyone to abundant, afford-
able, clean, efficient, and reliable electric power
anytime, anywhere. It provides the best and most secure
electric services available in the world.” (EPRI 2003).
Creation of a national electricity backbone is one of the
three major elements of the Grid 2030, the other two
being regional interconnections and local distribution.
This electricity backbone would consist of high-capacity
transmission corridors linking the east and west coasts,
as well as Canada and Mexico, and would comprise of a
variety of technologies. These technologies would
include controllable, very-low-impedance ac supercon-
ducting cables and transformers operating within the
synchronous ac environment; high-ampacity, long-
distance dc superconducting cables and devices forming
connections between or around regions; and other types
of advanced electricity conductors. According to the
Chapter 17: The Future of Underground Transmission
DOE and the OE, advanced materials such as high-
temperature diamond materials, would be applied to the
transmission, distribution, and control of electricity.
Diamond technology could replace silicon and yield
revolutionary improvements in current density.
The SuperGrid, originally conceived by EPRI’s founder,
Chauncey Starr, is envisioned with underground nuclear
generation as a preferred option (though wind farms or
large hydroelectric stations distant from load centers
may also prove attractive as sources of bulk power).
These plants would produce hydrogen for storage or fuel
with subsequent national distribution through a
"hydrogen-electricity" pipeline system. Superconduct-
ing dc cables would be placed inside the hydrogen
cooled pipes; the combined system would transmit large
quantities of electrical power and/or hydrogen fuel
through the pipeline to dense urban areas.
17.6 SUMMARY
In conclusion, the future of underground cable systems
looks promising as advancements in material, design,
operation, construction, and manufacturing processes
result in cost reductions. This will make underground
transmission competitive with overhead transmission
lines in an increasing number of locations.
17-7
Chapter 17: The Future of Underground Transmission
REFERENCES
DOE. 2004. U.S. Department of Energy. Office of
Transmission and Distribution Superconductivity Part-
nership with Industry “A National Effort to Introduce
New Technology into the Power Delivery Infrastructure”,
Washington, DC. May.
EPRI. 1992. Underground Transmission Systems Refer-
ence Book. First Edition. Report No. TR-101670. Palo
Alto, CA.
EPRI, 1997. Underground Cable Installation and System
Cost Reduction, Phase 1. Report No. TR-109150, Palo
Alto, CA. November.
17-8
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
EPRI, 1999. Underground Cable Installation and System
Cost Reduction Phase 2. Report No. TR-114457, Palo
Alto, CA. December.
EPRI. 2003. Transforming the Grid to Revolutionize Elec-
tric Power in North America, “Grid 2030”: A National
Vision for Electricity’s Second 100 Years. Report No.
1013089. Palo Alto, CA. July.
EPRI. 2005. An Examination of the Potential for Nano-
Composites in the Formulation of HV Cable Insulation.
Report No. 1010498. Palo Alto, CA. November.
EPRI. 2005. Capturing Undocumented Expert Knowl-
edge; Electric Delivery Topics for Public Service Electric
and Gas. Report No. 1012127. Palo Alto, CA. August.
 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

APPENDIX 1 EPRI Reports Related

to Underground
Transmission Systems

1977
Development of Extruded Dielectric Underground Transmission Cables Rated 138 kV,
230 kV and 345 kV, Volume 1. EL-428-V1. May.

Free and Forced Convective Cooling of Pipe-Type Electric Cables. EL-147. August.

1978
Research to Determine the Acceptable Emergency Operating Temperatures for Extruded
Dielectric Cables. EL-938. November.

1981
Development of Extruded Dielectric Underground Transmission Cables Rated 138 kV,
230 kV, and 345 kV, Volume 2. EL-428-V2. December.

1984
Designer’s Handbook for Forced-Cooled High-Pressure Oil-Filled Pipe-Type Cable Sys-
tems. EL-3624. July.
The handbook provides utilities with design procedures and specifications to optimize
their systems to reduce capital and operating costs.

1985
Flexible Gas-Insulated Cable Design for 500-kV Transmission. EL-3819. January.
By extrapolating from the 230-kV and 345-kV cable designs, researchers established the
characteristics and limits of higher-voltage (500-kV) cables, produced two system designs,
and explored their fabrication.

Calculating AC/DC Resistance Ratios for High-Pressure Oil-filled Cable Designs,

Volumes 1 and 2. EL-3977-V1. April.
With the new technique developed in this study, engineers can compute power losses
more precisely for cables of various configurations and voltage ratings.

Soil Resistivity Tests Using Modeling Techniques Copyright. EL-3983. May.

1987
Characterization of Arc By-Products of Sulfur Hexafluoride and Polymeric Construction
Materials. EL-5089. April.

A1-1
Appendix 1: EPRI Reports Related to Underground Transmission Systems
Economics of PPP-Insulated Pipe-Type Cable.
EL-5279. October.
This report establishes the economic range of applica-
bility for transmission cable systems insulated with
paper-polypropylene-paper (PPP).
1988
Thermal Overload Characteristics of Extruded Dielectric
Cables. EL-5757. June.
Thermomechanical Bending Effects on Extra-High
Voltage Pipe-Type Cables. EL-5880. July.
The report summarizes the work to identify the extent
of TMB in pipe-type cables, determine the effects of
cable construction variables on TMB damage resis-
tance, and to develop a test that determines the proba-
ble performance of new cable designs.
1989
Evaluation of Diagnostic Techniques for Cable Charac-
terization. EL-6207. February.
This study explores a variety of novel physical and
chemical diagnostic techniques for assessing cable con-
dition and suggests a methodology for completely char-
acterizing cable insulation.
AC Losses in the New High-Temperature Superconduc-
tors. EL-6277. March.
This report addresses the properties of high-tempera-
ture ceramic oxide superconductors in low magnetic
fields; it discusses ac losses in the superconducting and
normal states, the influence of anisotropy, and a data-
base for monitoring advances in superconductivity.
1990
Evaluation of Pipe-Type Cable Joint Restraint Systems.
EL-6760. March.
This report details an investigation of several joint-
restraining designs for pipe-type cables and recom-
mends one design.
The Effect of Polymer Properties on Water Tree Growth.
EL-6807. April.
Researchers studied the effect of polymer properties on
water tree growth, using a simpler material, polystyrene,
as a model to define the effects of parameters such as
crystallization, stiffness, and crosslinking on water tree
initiation and growth.
A1-2
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Transmission Cable Magnetic Field Research.
EL-6759-D. April.
This report provides magnetic field data for one cable
configuration and documents the need for additional
research.
Development of Moisture Barriers for Extruded Dielec-
tric Transmission Cables. EL-6857. June.
This report presents the results of an EPRI project to
develop moisture barriers for extruded dielectric cables,
and to develop an expansion layer between the cable
and the moisture barrier so that the construction can
withstand thermal cycling.
Development of 230-kV High-Pressure, Gas-Filled,
Pipe-Type Cable System: Model Test Program Phase.
EL-6933. September.
This report presents the results of an EPRI project to
establish a design and verify the technical and manufac-
turing feasibility of a 230-kV HPGF pipe-type cable
system.
Overload Characteristics of Paper-Polypropylene-Paper
Cable. EL-6929. September.
This report presents the short-time ratings of (Paper-
Polypropylene-Paper) PPP-insulated cables and com-
pares them with paper-insulated cables.
Space Charge in Polyethylene-Ionomer Blends for DC
Cable Insulation. EL-6977. October.
This research studied blends of ionomers (charged poly-
mers) with polyethylene to determine whether they
would prevent space charge buildup and be useful as
insulation for extruded dc cable insulation.
Evaluation of Sensitive Diagnostic Techniques for Cable
Characterization: Volume 1: Nine Diagnostic Tools.
EL-7076-V1. December.
This study reviews a host of physical and chemical
methods and discusses techniques to provide quantita-
tive information on cable insulation volatiles, including
water, ionic contaminants, and structural changes such
as water trees.
Proceedings: JICABLE/EPRI/CEA Workshop
“Cable 89”: The Aging of Extruded Dielectric Cables.
EL-7090. December.
This workshop addressed means of improving both dis-
tribution and transmission-class cable lifetime and per-
formance reliability at a reasonable cost.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
1991
Space Charge Measurement in DC Cable Materials.
EL-7301. May.
This research studied blends of ionomers (charged poly-
mers) with polyethylene to determine whether they
would prevent space charge buildup, and facilitated the
development of the nondestructive thermal-pulse tech-
nique for measurement of space charge.
Accessories for Specially Bonded Extruded-Dielectric
Transmission Cable Systems. EL-7259. July.
This project addressed the use of special bonding for
extruded-dielectric cable systems to reduce cable shield
circulating currents and the resulting power losses.
Dynamic Rating and Underground Monitoring System
(DRUMS). EL-7341. July.
This study indicates that the various functions and
communications systems that constitute the DRUMS
concept are technically feasible with currently
available technology.
Terminations for Extruded-Dielectric Cables Rated
69 kV and 138 kV. EL-7331. July.
This report identifies the principal causes of failure in
terminals of domestic manufacture and suggests modifi-
cations to overcome these problems.
Underground Transmission Computer Program:
Debugging and Field Testing of the ICO Pipe Coupler;
Volumes 1 and 2. EL-7299-V1, V2. July.
EPRI research confirms that ICO, Inc.’s interference fit
weldless pipe coupler is mechanically and electrically
equivalent or superior to welded pipe joints. In related
work, EPRI’s HEATER code, a soil thermal profiler,
accurately analyzed nonrectangular trenches and
determined the effect of pipe temperature on surround-
ing areas.
Characterization of Cable Insulation Materials:
Volume 2: Dynamic Mechanical Spectroscopy Studies:
Volume 2: Dynamic Mechanical Spectroscopy Studies.
EL-7076-V2. August.
This exploratory study showed that thermal aging in the
presence and absence of voltage stress yields different
results for crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) and high-
molecular-weight polyethylene (HMWPE) and that
service aging caused greater changes in HMWPE than
in XLPE.
Appendix 1: EPRI Reports Related to Underground Transmission Systems
Cross-Linked Polyethylene Cable Insulation:
Electrically Stimulated Acoustic Wave Measurements.
EL-7402. August.
This research evaluated the electrically stimulated
acoustic wave nondestructive diagnostic technique to
study charge distribution in crosslinked polyethylene.
Waltz Mill Testing of 345-kV PPP Cable.
EL-7429. October.
This report provides details of the installation, test
program, and results of a prototype 345-kV PPP-
(paper-polypropylene-paper) insulated pipe-type cable
subjected to a two-year accelerated life test program at
EPRI’s Waltz Mill Cable Test Facility.
Development of an Oil Deterioration Test Method to
Monitor the Condition of High-Pressure Fluid-Filled
Paper Cable. EL-7488-L. November.
This report summarizes the research on using a dis-
solved-gas analysis (DGA) service for “fingerprinting”
as well as periodic analyses of HPFF cable to alert a
utility to potential catastrophic events and to thermal or
electrical changes in the insulating fluid.
1992
Design of a Robotic Mouse and Other Techniques
for Instrumenting HPFF Pipe-Type Cable.
TR-100303. March.
This report summarizes the ERPI project to design a
device or system that can place a fiber-optic sensor wire
in the occupied steel pipe of HPFF cable systems; and
to develop designs for a robotic device that can move
through small interstitial regions inside pipe-type cables
to inspect and install sensors.
Development of a Lightweight Composite Trench Cover.
TR-100296. March.
This report presents the results of developing and test-
ing a lightweight composite plate that meets all Occupa-
tional Safety and Health Association (OSHA) as well as
bridge deck/road requirements and also is comparable
in strength and unit cost to steel plate.
Study of Trenching Versus Trenchless Construction
Methods for Installing Underground HPFF Cable Sys-
tems. TR-100302. March.
This report summarizes a paper study of trenchless con-
struction techniques based on an actual 3.7-mile case.
Waltz Mill Testing of 138-kV Factory-Molded Splice
Assemblies. TR-100415. April.
This report summarizes the research to determine the
integrity, reliability, usefulness, and life expectancy of
prototype 138-kV factory-molded splices.
A1-3
Appendix 1: EPRI Reports Related to Underground Transmission Systems
Computerized Database on Dielectric Materials.
TR-100619. May.
The report presents the results of the development of an
easy-to-use, interactive, computerized, dielectric materi-
als database that is readily accessible by telephone lines
from a user’s computer terminal.
Development of 500/600-kV Solid-Type Nonpressurized
Oil-Paper DC Cable. TR-100621. May.
This report summarizes the development of nonpressur-
ized, solid-type, oil-paper dc cables rated 500/600 kV.
Development of Optimized PPP Insulated Pipe-Cable
Systems in the Commercial Voltage Range.
TR-100416. May.
This report presents the details of the design, manufac-
ture, and successful laboratory testing of PPP insulated
cable in the 138 to 345-kV range.
High-Voltage Solid-Dielectric Cable Test Termination.
TR-100620. May.
This project attempted to resolve the difficulty of
achieving electrical breakdowns in extruded dielectric
transmission cable through development of a hybrid ter-
minal design, incorporating dielectric gases and fluids
as well as a molded stress-control cone.
Fundamental Studies of Tl-Ba-Ca-Cu-O Single
Crystals and New High-Temperature Superconducting
Compounds. TR-100731. June.
The research team developed new Tl-based high-tem-
perature superconductors and measured the properties
of the new materials.
Waltz Mill Testing of 765-kV Paper-Polypropylene-
Paper (PPP) Cable. TR-100422. June.
This report provides details of the installation, test
program, and results of a prototype 765-kV PPP-insu-
lated pipe-type cable that was subjected to a two-year
accelerated test program at EPRI’s Waltz Mill Cable
Test Center.
Microscopic Probes of High-Temperature Superconduc-
tivity. TR-100862. July.
1993
Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book.
TR-101670. March. Research ended December 1992.
The Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
covers all stages of cable system design and operation,
from initial planning studies to failure analysis. It
contains contributions from many of the industry’s
experts and represents practices from all parts of the
United States.
A1-4
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Field Measurement of Cable Dissipation Factor.
TR-102449. May.
This report describes the development of a diagnostic
tool for determining the condition of transmission
cables with oil-impregnated-paper insulation.
Transmission Cable Magnetic Field Management.
TR-102003. June.
This report provides detailed information on how to
reduce magnetic fields caused by single-conductor
transmission cables and what trade-offs are necessary.
Applications of Oxide Superconductors. TR-102780.
September.
Research was conducted to understand the basic physi-
cal properties and the materials characteristics of high-
temperature superconductors that control their electri-
cal and mechanical properties, and determine their
potential usefulness.
Interfacial Bond Strength of Paper-Polypropylene-
Paper Laminates. TR-102777. September.
This research determined adhesion characteristics of
PPP under cyclic heating in oil and under tensile or
compressive stress, performed optical and electron
microscopy, and developed an understanding of the
paper-polypropylene adhesion after the aging treatment.
Investigation of New Families of HTSC Compounds.
TR-102778. September.
This project investigated the doping of copper chloride
to achieve superconductivity.
1994
Diagnostics for the Detection and Measurement of
Charge Motion in Water Trees in Polymers.
TR-103892. May.
The research was to fabricate a noninvasive diagnostic
system for detecting water treeing and to make that sys-
tem sensitive to the Johnson noise limit.
Evaluation of Trenchless Technology for Installation of
Pipe-Type Cable: Phase 1. TR-103219. May.
Research was conducted to analyze guided boring and
microtunneling/pipe-jacking technologies with respect
to the installation of power cable in city streets, to per-
form detailed economic studies for determining the
most feasible installation technology, and to develop a
design method for cable installation.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Appendix 1: EPRI Reports Related to Underground Transmission Systems

Superconducting Low Voltage Direct Current (LVDC) Guidelines for the Design and Installation of Transmis-
Networks. TR-103636. April. sion and Distribution Cables Using Guided Drilling Sys-
This report presents a scheme for a superconducting, tems. TR-105850. December.
parallel-connected, multiterminal dc transmission This design guide will assist utility engineers as well as
system. the construction contractors by providing information
on the engineering plan, permitting, site analysis, and
Design Concepts for a Superconducting Cable. specifying equipment needed to perform guided drilling.
TR-103631. September.
This report discusses previous approaches to designing Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage in Trapped
superconducting cables, describes the technical issues Field Magnets of High Temperature Superconductors.
that must be considered when designing a high-temper- TR-105751. December.
ature superconductor (HTS) cable, and presents several
design concepts for an HTS cable. 1996
Cable Pushing and Calculation of Pulling Tensions
New Superconducting Materials. TR-104414. October.
for Distribution and Transmission Cables. TR-106500.
This report presents criteria to guide the search for
September.
higher transition temperature materials.
This report presents the research of analyzing pulling
forces for several types of conduit and cable, and devel-
1995 oping revised pulling tension equations that take into
Basic Breakdown Study of HPFF and Extruded-Dielec- account the effect of cable pushing.
tric Cables. TR-105301. August.
This report describes a major project to develop a test 1997
plan and conduct a large number of tests on representa-
Guided Horizontal Drilling: A Primer for Electric Utili-
tive HPFF and extruded-dielectric transmission cables.
ties. TR-107687. February 1997, Research ended Janu-
ary 1997.
DRUMS Leak Detection for HPFF Pipe-Type Cable
This document is intended to be an introduction to
Systems. TR-105250. August.
guided horizontal drilling, also termed horizontal direc-
This project developed a leak detection system that lim-
tional drilling (HDD), as an alternative construction
its fluid loss to 0.05% of the total system volume of the
method to open trenching for the installation of under-
HPFF cable system.
ground power cables, pipes, ducts, or conduits.
DRUMS Dynamic Feeder Rating for Pipe-Type Cable
Testing of XLPE Transmission Cable Terminations at
Systems. TR-105251. October.
Three Utilities: Southern California Edison, Public
Research was conducted to develop an efficient method-
Service Company of Colorado, and PECO Energy
ology to calculate normal and transient ratings, and to
Company. TR-108073. May 1997. Research ended Sep-
validate the models and methods on full-scale cooling
tember 1996.
equipment and cable.
This report describes the testing procedures and results
obtained from performing very-high-frequency partial-
Effects of Intense Fluid Pumping on Forced-Cooled
discharge measurements of 14 crosslinked polyethylene
Cables. TR-105534. November.
(XLPE) cable terminations at Southern California Edi-
This study investigated the possible breakdown of
son, Public Service Company of Colorado, and PECO
dielectric fluid due to forced cooling and intense pump-
Energy Company.
ing of an HPFF cable system.
Computing the Magnetic Fields of High-Pressure Fluid-
Underground Cable Fault Location Reference Manual.
Filled Cables. TR-108269. June 1997, Research ended
TR-105502. November.
September 1994.
This fault location reference manual provides practical
This report describes a Fourier series expansion tech-
technical material on the art and science of locating
nique and a hybrid finite element and unimoment
cable faults, including a description of common fault
method for investigating the magnetic fields generated
location instruments and principles of advanced fault
by high-pressure fluid-filled (HPFF) underground
location techniques used by utilities throughout the
transmission cables.
United States.

A1-5
Appendix 1: EPRI Reports Related to Underground Transmission Systems EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM) Technical A Feasibility Study of an Application Using Supercon-
Reference for Power Delivery. TR-108068. October 1997, ducting Cable. TR-109654. December 1997, Research
Research ended April 1997. ended October 1997.
EPRI’s RCM Technical Reference for Power Delivery In this project, EPRI, Pirelli Cable Corporation, and
provides utilities with essential technical data and guid- South Carolina Electric and Gas (SCE&G) performed a
ance for conducting RCM studies of power delivery joint study to assess the technical and economic feasibil-
equipment and systems. ity of installing an HTS cable system on a highly loaded
SCE&G underground circuit.
HPFF Cable Leak Location Using Perfluorocarbon
Tracers. TR-109086. November 1997, Research ended 1998
September 1997.
Assessment of Extruded 345-kV Cable Technology.
In this project, researchers developed methods using
TR-110906. June 1998, Research ended December 1997.
perfluorocarbon tracers (PFT) to quickly and accu-
This report presents the prequalification tests results of
rately locate underground leaks.
345-kV XLPE cable technology with premolded joints.
Soil Thermal Properties Manual for Underground Power
Distributed Fiber Optic Temperature Monitoring and
Transmission: Soil Thermal Property Measurements,
Ampacity Analysis for XLPE Transmission Cables.
Soil Thermal Stability, and the Use of Corrective Ther-
TR-110630. June 1998, Research ended December 1997.
mal Backfills. TR-108919. November 1997, Research
Project identified appropriate instrumentation, modi-
ended December 1996.
fied it as necessary for operation on underground cables,
This guide provides comprehensive information on soil
and conducted a demonstration on a utility system.
thermal property measurement, surveying, interpreta-
tion, and improvement for underground transmission
Evaluation of Service-Aged 69- and 115-kV XLPE
cables.
Cables. TR-110882. June 1998, Research Ended
May 1998.
Underground Cable Installation and System Cost Reduc-
This report evaluates retention of ac voltage breakdown
tion: Phase 1. TR-109150. November 1997, Research
and other characteristics for extruded transmission
ended August 1997.
cables aged in service.
The first phase of a comprehensive study on cost reduc-
tion, this report examines current utility practices in
Assessment of Insulation Quality for 115-kV XLPE
underground cable design and installation.
Cables. TE-113557. September.
Cable Oil Monitor and Tester (COMAT). TR-109071.
Behavior of Paper-Polypropylene-Paper Laminate Under
December 1997, Research ended November 1996.
Thermal and Electrical Stresses. TR-111321. September
This report describes efforts to develop an on-line mon-
1998, Research ended December 1997.
itoring and diagnostic system, using dissolved gas anal-
Research was conducted to assess the gassing behavior
ysis (DGA), to provide more accurate evaluations of
and mechanical characteristics of PPP as affected by
HPFF cable conditions.
thermal and electrical aging conditions.
Deep Cable Ampacities: Guidelines for Calculating
Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) by EPRI Disposable Oil
Ampacities of Cables Installed by Guided Boring.
Sampling System (EDOSS). TR-111322. September
TR-109205. December 1997, Research ended
1998, Research ended April 1997.
October 1997.
This report summarizes the research to design an easy-
This project determined whether basic principles and
to use, inexpensive, but equally accurate version of
equations for standard-depth installations apply to
EPOSS, using a disposable glass vial for fluid collection
greater depths of cable installation.
and analysis as well as a commercially available head-
space analyzer to automate analysis.

A1-6
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
High Temperature Superconductivity—A Joint Feasibil-
ity Study for a Power Application with High-Temperature
Superconducting Cable by South Carolina Electric and
Gas Company. TR-110891. November 1998, Research
ended March 1998.
This report documents a feasibility study co-sponsored
by South Carolina Electric and Gas Company
(SCE&G) to assess a real-world underground transmis-
sion application of this technology.
High Temperature Superconductivity—A Joint Feasibil-
ity Study for a Power Application with High-Temperature
Superconducting Cable by Peco Energy. TR-110892.
November 1998, Research ended March 1998.
This report documents a feasibility study co-sponsored
by PECO Energy Company (PECO) to assess a real-
world underground transmission application of this
technology.
Options for Reducing Environmental-Related Utility
Costs Associated With Dielectric Fluids Employed in
Cables and Transformers. TR-111722. December 1998,
Research ended October 1998.
This report presents results of a literature review and
technical workshop on environmental management of
dielectric fluids, with emphasis on those properties that
strongly influence transport, fate, impacts, and costs of
a dielectric fluid release into the environment.
Transmission Cable Life Evaluation and Management.
TR-111712. December 1998, Research ended Septem-
ber 1998.
This report describes procedures and diagnostic tools
for assessing the condition and remaining life of these
high-value assets and effectively managing their opera-
tion.
1999
Distributed Fiber-Optic Measurements on Distribution
Cable Systems. TE-114897. January.
Development of Improved Extrudable Dielectrics for
Transmission Cables. TE-113971. September.
138-kV Maintenance Hole Restraining System
Testing. TR-113556. September 1999, Research ended
June 1999.
This report summarizes the testing of a restraining sys-
tem as designed by Los Angeles Department of Water
and Power (LADWP).
Corrosion and Cathodic Protection of High Pressure
Fluid Filled Cable Circuits. WP-113987. October.
Appendix 1: EPRI Reports Related to Underground Transmission Systems
Evaluation of Field Diagnostic Techniques for Transmis-
sion Cable Accessories. TR-112676. October 1999,
Research ended February 1999.
The research provides diagnostic tools that will give util-
ities and other system operators time to make necessary
repairs or schedule maintenance before disruptions to
customer loads occur.
Review of After-Laying Tests for Extruded Transmission
Cables. WP-114431. November.
Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) for Fluid Filled Termina-
tions of Extruded Transmission Cables. TR-114197.
December 1999, Research ended June 1999.
This report describes the equipment and procedure
required to sample fluid from extruded cable termina-
tions for assessing the condition of these vital compo-
nents through dissolved gas analysis (DGA).
Underground Cable Installation and System Cost Reduc-
tion: Phase 2: Design Tradeoffs. TR-114457. December.
This report addresses a number of technical issues asso-
ciated with cable installation, including circuit rating,
trench configuration, and trench construction, and it
evaluates the cost-saving installation approaches from
pipe-lining technologies to fast microtunneling and
plowing-in cables.
2000
RCM Workstation for Power Delivery Version 1.1.
February 2000, Research ended October 1997.
RCM Workstation for Power Delivery is a tool for
completion of PM (preventive maintenance) optimiza-
tion studies using reliability-centered maintenance
(RCM) methods.
Industry Survey and Assessment of Available Corrosion
Mitigation Technologies: 20th Century State of the Art.
TE-114896. March.
Guidelines for the Interpretation of Dissolved Gas Analy-
sis (DGA) for Paper-Insulated Underground Transmis-
sion Cable Systems. 1000275. September.
Application of Fiber-Optic Temperature Monitoring to
Solid Dielectric Cable: DFOTS Installation at Con
Edison. 1000469. November.
Sagnac Interferometer for Electric Discharge Detection.
1000715. November.
A1-7
Appendix 1: EPRI Reports Related to Underground Transmission Systems
Superconducting Cable Construction and Testing.
1000160. November 2000, Research ended June 2000.
This report describes the development, construction,
and testing of a superconducting cable system.
Aging Model Estimating the Life of Dry Aged XLPE
Cables: Progress Report. 1000277. December.
Characteristics of High Pressure Fluid Filled Pipe-Type
Cable Dielectric Fluids: Progress Report. 1000716.
December.
Guide for Operation & Maintenance of Paper-Insulated
Transmission Cables: Part 1. 1000458. December.
Reliability Parameters of XLPE Underground Transmis-
sion Systems Based on EDF Experience. 1000473.
December.
Software Requirements Specification for Underground
Line Inspection System. 1000459. December.
Testing of Ultrasonic Guided Waves for Pipe Evaluation.
1000445. December.
2001
Cost Reduction Activities in France for Installing Cable:
Mechanical Laying Techniques. 1000519. January.
Development of Diagnostic Methods for Polyethylene
Insulations in Transmission Cables. 1001393. February.
Summary of Diagnostic Evaluation for Submarine Cable
Cathodic Protection System Performance: Feasibility
Assessment of Technologies. 1001931. July.
Underground Line Inspection System Status Report.
1006263. August.
CONQUEST—Construction Quick Estimator Code,
Version 1.0. 1006560. October.
Dry Electrical Aging and Breakdown of Extruded Cable
Insulation. 1001922. November.
This report presents a new aging model that has been
validated against experimental data obtained by differ-
ent researchers at various temperatures.
ACE—Underground Transmission Workstation Alter-
nate Cable Evaluation Code, Version 4.0. 1006687.
December.
A1-8
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Guide on Selection, Handling and Maintenance of Cable
Fluids. 1001924. December.
This guide provides an authoritative but easy-to-use
source for information on the selection, storage, trans-
portation, maintenance, and disposal of cable fluids.
Methods for Cleaning and Evaluating Pipe-Type
Cable Pipes for Retrofit with Extruded Dielectric Cable
Systems. 1001937. December.
This report summarizes studies of pipe cleaning, “pig-
ging,” inspecting, and testing pipe-type cable pipes for
re-conditioning as conduits compatible with extruded
dielectric cables.
Sagnac System for Detecting Defects in Cable Insulation
and Jackets: Theory, Calibration, and Field Tests.
1001935. December.
The research was conducted to design and build a Sag-
nac Interferometer system, calibrate the system for its
position detection sensitivity, and demonstrate proof of
principle in the field.
Ultrasonic Guided Waves for Pipe Ducts. 1001929.
December.
Ultrasonic Guided Waves for Pipe Ducts. 1001930.
December.
Underground Transmission Workstation (UTW) 3.0. CD
Installer Software and User’s Guide, Version 1.0.
1006723. December.
Underground Transmission WorkStation (UTW) 3.0. CD
Installer: Version 1.0 User’s Guide. 1006724. December.
UTWorkstation ACE Version 4.0 User’s Manual.
1006688. December.
The UTWorkstation Alternative Cable Evaluation
(ACE) program provides users with the capability to
evaluate ampacity and costs of major types of under-
ground transmission cable systems: pipe-type (high
pressure fluid-filled and high pressure gas-filled), self-
contained fluid-filled, and extruded dielectric.
Field Demonstration of a 24-kV Warm Dielectric HTS
Cable at Detroit Edison: 2000 Annual Progress. 1001337.
2002
Field Demonstration of a 24-KV Warm Dielectric Cable
at Detroit Edison: FY2001 Annual Progress Report.
1001934. February.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Characteristics of Pipe-Type Cable Fluids and Develop-
ment of Risk-Based Cleanup Goals: Interim Report.
1001932. March.
This report presents interim results of a project to char-
acterize the physical and chemical properties of HPFF
cable fluids, evaluate their fate and transport in the
environment, and develop soil cleanup levels for the
fluids that are protective of human health and the envi-
ronment.
Application of Fiber-Optic Distributed Temperature
Sensing to Power Transmission Cables at BC Hydro.
1000443. May.
This report describes applications of distributed temper-
ature sensing methods to underground and submarine
cables at BC Hydro over a five-year period.
Demonstration of Commissioning Tests for Extra-High
Voltage Cross-Linked Polyethylene Cable Systems at
Los Angeles Department of Water and Power. 1007298.
September.
Demonstration of Commissioning Tests for Extra-High
Voltage Cross-Linked Polyethylene Cable Systems at
Los Angeles Department of Water and Power. 1001856.
September.
Workshop: Operation and Maintenance of Paper-Insu-
lated Transmission Cables. 1007446. October.
Ampacity Evaluation and Distributed Fiber Optic Test-
ing on Pipe-Type Cables Under Bridgeport Harbor.
1007534. December.
This report documents the results of case evaluations
and a detailed ampacity study to determine the actual
capacity of the lines under both normal and emergency
ampacity conditions.
Cable System Technology Review of XLPE EHV Cables:
220 kV to 500 kV. 1001846. December.
This report reviews the worldwide state-of-the-art, gives
methods of calculating insulation design stress, and
recommends critical factors to consider for reliable
operation when specifying long-length EHV XLPE
cable systems.
Appendix 1: EPRI Reports Related to Underground Transmission Systems
Condition and Power Transfer Assessment of Center-
Point Energy’s Polk-Garrott Pipe-Type Cable Circuit.
1007539. December.
This report summarizes distributed fiber optic tempera-
ture sensing (DFOTS) on pipe-type cable circuits and
the results of modifying and implementing EPRI’s
Dynamic Thermal Circuit Rating (DTCR) system on
CenterPoint’s Polk-Garrott pipe-type cable circuit in
Houston, Texas.
Extruded Dielectrics for Transmission Cables: New
Developments and Aging Models 1001860. December.
This report summarizes the results of the initial work
relating to the further development of existing aging
models and the review of materials for extruded insula-
tion systems.
Impact of Emergency Operating Temperatures on the
Integrity of XLPE Transmission Cable Systems—
Interim Report 1001858. December.
This interim report describes the results of the first four
months of work on a project to systematically analyze
the characteristics of XLPE transmission cables and
develop recommended limits for emergency operating
temperatures for 100- and 300-hour durations at 75 and
100% load factor.
Mechanical Effects on Extruded Dielectric Cables and
Joints Installed in Underground Transmission Systems in
North America. 1001848. December.
This report discusses findings and progress to date on a
project involving the modeling of mechanical effects on
pipe cable routes.
Sagnac System for Detecting Electrical Shorts II: New
Robust Techniques and Field Tests. 1001851. December.
This report summarizes the results of laboratory and
field tests that were undertaken for the purpose of
assessing a Sagnac interferometer for detecting the posi-
tion of an electrical short.
2003
Characteristics of Pipe-Type Cable Fluids: Environmen-
tal Data Protocol and Comprehensive Test Matrix for
Fluid Evaluation. 1007615. January.
This report presents a decision protocol for conducting
a site investigation of cable fluid releases to soil and
groundwater, and a comprehensive testing and accep-
tance matrix for evaluation of new cable fluids.
A1-9
Appendix 1: EPRI Reports Related to Underground Transmission Systems
Field Demonstration of a 24-kV Warm Dielectric Cable
at Detroit Edison: FY2002 Annual Progress Report for
the Detroit Edison HTS Cable Field Demonstration
Project. 1001847. February.
This report summarizes the progress of the demonstra-
tion of a HTS cable system between the dates of 2
December 2001 and 1 December 2002.
Extruded Dielectrics for Transmission Cables: Evalua-
tion of Aging Models 1002036. December.
This report summarizes the evaluation of the three
models: (1) the Thermodynamic Model of Aging of
Extruded Insulation by J. P. Crine; (2) the Space Charge
Aging Model by L. A. Dissado, G. Mazzanti, and G. C.
Montanari (DMM); and (3) the Electromechanical
Aging Model by T. J. Lewis.
Impact of Emergency Operating Temperatures on the
Integrity of XLPE Transmission Cable Systems.
1001859. December.
This report describes a research project that was carried
out to develop an understanding of the mechanical
properties of XLPE transmission cables at high temper-
atures.
NYPA Avoids Costly Cable Replacement and Improves
Reliability with Advanced Diagnostics to Assess Cable
Condition and Power Transfer Capability. 1009232.
December.
Review of Materials and Materials Technologies for
Transmission Cable Applications. 1002037. December.
This technical update reviews new materials and tech-
nologies, additives, impregnants, and nanofillers with
the objective of determining a path and direction of fur-
ther research work needed to support the growth of reli-
able, cost-effective, and high-performance transmission
cable systems.
UTDT Software, Version 1.0: Underground Transmission
Design Tools Software. 1002035. December.
The Underground Transmission Design Tools (UTDT)
Software Version 1.0 enables users to search for relevant
EPRI products, including reports, computer programs,
videos, and web links relating to the design and installa-
tion of underground transmission cable systems.
2004
Field Demonstration of a 24-kV Warm Dielectric Super-
conducting Cable at Detroit Edison: FY2003 Annual
Progress Report. 1002040. March.
This report summarizes the progress of the demonstra-
tion of a HTS cable system between the dates of 2
December 2002 and 1 December 2003.
A1-10
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Mechanical Effects on Extruded Dielectric Cables and
Joints Installed in Underground Transmission Systems in
North America. 1001849. March.
This report provides information on the mechanical
effects on extruded dielectric cables in underground
transmission systems.
Novel Applications of Fiber Optic Sensor Technology for
Diagnostics of Underground Cables. 1008712. October.
This report provides an overview of the state of the art
in the use of fiber optics in measurement applications,
with particular regard to applications suitable for mea-
suring or monitoring significant parameters for under-
ground power cables.
DC Cable Systems with Extruded Dielectrics. 1008720.
December.
This report reviews the current state-of-the-art in
extruded-dielectric dc cable system technology.
Dissipation Factor Measurement of High-Pressure Fluid-
Filled Pipe-Type Cables Subjected to Prolonged Opera-
tion at Low Hydraulic Pressure. 1011366. December.
This report presents the results and conclusion of dissi-
pation factor measurement of HPFF pipe-type cables
subjected to prolonged operation at low hydraulic pres-
sure at PSE&G.
An Examination of the Potential for Nano-Composites
in the Formulation of HV Cable Insulation. 1002038.
December.
This interim technical update describes the potential
for nano-composites in the formulation of HV cable
insulation.
Functional Description Preparation to Update the Under-
ground Transmission Workstation. 1008717. December.
This report discusses the collection of information to
prepare a Functional Description document that will
be used to direct the development of EPRI’s Under-
ground Transmission Workstation (UTWorkstation)
software system.
Lower Cost Underground Transmission Cable. 1008719.
December.
This report presents the potential methods to reduce
the installed cost of underground transmission cable
circuits.
Review of the “Underground Transmission Systems
Reference Book.” 1008718. December.
This report summarizes a critical and editorial review of
the Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Simplified Leak Detection System for HPFF Cable Sys-
tems: Evaluation of Novel Leak Detection Technologies.
1009809. December.
This document describes the evaluation of novel leak
detection technologies.
Simplified Leak Detection System for HPFF Cable Sys-
tems: Evaluation of a New Leak Detection Technology.
1008713. December.
This document presents the work that has been per-
formed in 2004 for developing a simplified leak detec-
tion system for HPFF cables, including a general
description of the model and a detailed experiment plan
for the evaluation of the model.
Thermo-Mechanical Performance of 230-345kV High
Pressure Pipe Type Cable Systems: Selection of Full Size
Test Rig. 1008714. December.
This report describes the front-end project to the wider
experimental study of the thermo-mechanical perfor-
mance of high-pressure fluid-filled (HPFF) transmis-
sion class cables in pipe systems.
Using Guided Waves to Detect and Locate Corrosion in
Coated Piping. 1008715. December.
This report documents the results of laboratory and
field experiments designed to evaluate the use of ultra-
sonic guided waves for the detection of corrosion under
tar-coated pipes, for detection of delamination of such a
coating from pipes, and for coated pipe weld inspection.
2005
Best Practices for HPFF Pipe-Type Cable Assessment,
Maintenance, and Testing: Blenheim-Gilboa 345-kV
Cable Systems. 1011489. March.
This report presents the results and conclusions of an
extensive series of tests on the NYPA Blenheim-Gilboa
345-kV high-pressure fluid-filled (HPFF) transmission
cable systems to determine their condition.
Evaluation of Soft Spots in HPFF Circuits Installed in
the St. Lawrence Power Plant. 1012009. June.
An Assessment of ESR Spectroscopy as a Means of
Detecting Electrical Aging in Polyethylene. 1012088.
August.
Capturing Undocumented Expert Knowledge. 1012127.
August.
Appendix 1: EPRI Reports Related to Underground Transmission Systems
Formation of Nanovoids in Extruded Dielectrics Caused
by Mechanical Fatigue and Fracture. 1010497. August
Functional Description for UTWorkstation 5.0. 1010499.
September.
An Examination of the Potential for Nano-Composites in
the Formulation of HV Cable Insulation. 1010498.
November.
Updating the EPRI Underground Transmission Systems
Reference Book. 1010500. November.
Simplified Leak Detection System for HPFF Cable Sys-
tems. 1010876. December.
Simplified Leak Detection System for HPFF Cable Sys-
tems. 1010503. December.
Unified Thermo-Mechanical and Thermal Model for the
UT Extruded Dielectric Systems. 1010496. December.
2006
EPRI Cable Testing Network (ECTN). 1008969. May.
Find Hot Spots, Verify Ratings, and Increase Capacity
on Underground Power Cables Using Distributed Fiber
Optic Temperature Sensing (DFOTS)—Field Demon-
stration. 1012943. May.
Near-Term Projected Transmission Circuit Ratings
Based On Weather Prediction—Up to a Week in
Advance. 1013057. May
Optimize Maintenance through Integrated Monitoring &
Diagnostics (IMD). 1012853. May.
Design Tools for Underground Transmission. 1012334.
December.
Guide for Partial Discharge Measurements of Transmis-
sion Cables in the Field. 1012338. December.
2007
Highly Reliable Extruded Dielectric Insulation Systems.
1012337.
Thermal and Mechanical Stresses in Extruded Dielectric
Underground Transmission Systems Installed in Ducts or
Pipes. 1012335.
A1-11
 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Glossary
ac/dc Resistance Ratio. Ratio of the actual alternating
current resistance of a conductor to its direct current
resistance, taking into account the increments of ac
resistance due to skin effect and proximity effect.
Accelerated Aging. Test in which certain factors, such as
voltage, temperature, and so forth, are increased or
decreased beyond normal operating values to obtain
observable deterioration in a reasonable period of time,
and thereby afford some conditions or some measure of
the durability of the equipment when exposed to the
factors being aggravated.
AEIC. Association of Edison Illuminating Companies.
Aggregate. Any of several hard inert materials such as
sand or gravel used for mixing with a cementing mate-
rial to form concrete.
Alkylbenzene. Family of synthetic insulation liquids
characterized by excellent hydrogen gas absorption
properties.
Alpha Coefficient. Temperature coefficient of electrical
resistivity of a direct current insulating material.
Aluminum. Material with 61% the conductivity and
0.3027 times the weight of copper and used in power
cables, overhead conductors (ACSR, AAC, ACAR,
AAAC), and some building wire.
Alumoweld. Thin coating of aluminum fused to a steel
core. Used in line wire and cable messengers.
Annealing. Process in which the conductor is heated
about 700°F for copper, somewhat lower for aluminum
and allowed to cool. Used to allow conductors to be
bent without breaking, to remove stiffness and facilitate
compacting.
Annular Conductor. Conductor with an expanded diam-
eter to reduce skin effect and/or to provide a core for oil
pressurization and various other properties.
ANSI. American National Standards Institute.
ASTM. American Society for Testing and Materials.
Beta Coefficient. Stress coefficient of electrical resistivity
of a direct current insulating material.
BIL (Basic lightning impulse insulation level). Electrical
strength of insulation expressed in terms of the crest
value of a standard lightning impulse under standard
atmospheric conditions.
Bird Caging. Condition in stranded conductors in which
the inner layer comes through the outer layer, backing
up and bulging out. This condition sometimes occurs in
concentric stranded conductors (or cables) when the lay
is too long or assembly tensions are incorrect.
Butt Space, Butt Gap. The distance between adjacent
turns of a helically applied tape.
Cable Clearance. Free space between cable and duct.
Cable Configuration. Physical configuration that three
cables take when pulled into a common conduit.
Cable Entrance . Duct section closest to cable-feeding
equipment. It is usually the lowest tension point of the
cable in the duct section under examination.
Cable Exit . Duct section closest to the cable-pulling
equipment. This is usually the highest tension point of
the cable in the duct section under examination.
Cable Pusher. Device that allows cable to be pushed
into a duct. Also, can be used in tandem with cable pull-
ing to reduce installation tensions.
G-1
Glossary
Cable Vibrator. Vibration cylinder used to reduce the
tension required to remove a cable.
Capacitance . Property of a system of conductors,
shields, and dielectrics that permits storage of electri-
cally separated charges when potential differences exist
between the conductors and shields or sheaths.
Capacitive Voltage Stress. Alternating current cables
(and dc cables under transient and ripple conditions)
have their voltage stress distribution governed by capac-
itive effects. The capacitive gradient for a cable of con-
ductor shield radius, r1 and outer shield radius, r2 is
given as follows for an applied voltage V:
Gx = V / (rx Ln (r2/r1) )
Direct current cables will be subjected, under steady-
state conditions, to an average electrical gradient equal
to the voltage divided by the electrode spacing, and a
gradient at specific radial locations in the electric field
determined by the insulation resistivity and electrode
geometries. See also Gradient, Electrical.
Capacitively Graded Pothead . For ac operation, pot-
heads at 230 kV and above generally have longitudinal
voltage grading controlled by capacitor elements
installed between the porcelain body of the pothead and
a phenolic or epoxy tube inside the pothead. Resistive
grading is desired for dc operation; it may therefore be
necessary to change potheads when converting an ac
line to dc. See also Pothead.
Capillary. Held by the surface tension of water in the
soil.
Centerline Radius . Radius of curvature of the bend
extending to the center of the duct. Manufacturers
speak in terms of centerline radius; however, the side-
wall bearing pressure calculations use the inside radius.
CM (Circular Mil). System for specifying wire size by con-
ductor area. For solid conductors, circular mils are
obtained by multiplying the conductor diameter in
inches by 1000 and squaring the result. For concentric
stranded conductors, the area of the individual wires is
determined and summated. The areas of compact and
compressed strands are determined by weighing a unit
length of a conductor, then calculating the area using
the known specific gravity (1/density) of the metal.
Coefficient of Friction (Basic). Coefficient of friction
based on the two contacting surface materials and the
lubricant used.
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Coefficient of Friction (Dynamic). Used to calculate the
tension required to start a cable in motion.
Coefficient of Friction (Effective). The coefficient of fric-
tion that takes into account the cable configuration for
three cable pulls.
Coefficient of Friction (High) . Measure of friction
between the cable(s) and conduit, which is used for pull-
ing tension calculations when the cable is being pulled
around bends where the SWBP is less than 150 lb/ft.
Coefficient of Friction (Low) . Measure of friction
between the cable(s) and conduit, which is used for pull-
ing tension calculations at the start of the pull or when
the cable is being pulled around bends where the SWBP
is 150 lb/ft or greater.
Coefficient of Friction (Static). Used to calculate the ten-
sion required to start a cable in motion.
COG (Coefficient of Grounding). Ratio, line-to-ground
voltage (ELG)/line-to-line voltage (ELL), of the highest
root-mean-square (rms) line-to-ground power-fre-
quency voltage on a sound phase, at a selected location,
during a fault to ground affecting one or more phases to
the line-to-line power-frequency voltage, ELL, that
would be obtained at the selected location with the fault
removed.
Cold Dielectric Superconducting Cable. Superconduct-
ing cable where the electrical insulation (dielectric) is
located inside the cold space of the cable and must oper-
ating at cryogenic temperatures. The dielectric is typi-
cally a tape-type dielectric wound in multiple layers on
top of the phase HTS wires.
Compact Round Conductor (ASTM B-8) . Concentric
stranded conductor with the layers of individual wires
all laid in the same direction and rolled or die com-
pacted by layer to a predetermined size. This results in
an extremely smooth conductor surface approaching
that of a solid conductor at the same time preserving the
flexibility of a stranded conductor. Advantages are min-
imum overall diameter for a given conductor area and
freedom from “bird caging” of strand under bending,
and the practical elimination of space between strands.
Used in medium and high voltage power cables.
Compaction (1). Term for describing the amount of free
space in a stranded conductor.
Compaction (2). Process of increasing the density of
soils using a variety of devices.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Compressed Gas-Insulated Transmission Line (CGI) .
Transmission system consisting of a large-diameter con-
ductor, typically tubular aluminum, centered via epoxy
or plastic spacers in a larger-diameter shield, also typi-
cally aluminum. Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) gas, either by
itself or in mixture with nitrogen and operating at a
pressure of 2-6 atmospheres, is the insulating fluid.
Some dc development has been done as part of a com-
pact substation. This system is also known as SF6 bus,
GITL, or gas-spacer system. See also Gas-Insulated
Transmission Line.
Compressed Round Conductor (ASTM B-8). Concentric
lay conductor that has been reduced 3% in diameter in
comparison to its ASTM-specified nonsized structure
by light rolling or die-drawing. Used in high-voltage
extruded dielectric power cables.
Compressive Strength. Compressive force or stress at
which a material is permanently deformed.
Concentric Strand (ASTM B-8). Conductor formed in a
layer pattern generally with 7, 19, 37, 61, or 91 wires.
Normally adjacent layers have reversed direction of lay.
Control cables favor 7 or 19 wires, and power cables 7
through 91 wires depending on size and flexibility
desired.
Conci Conductor. Conci conductors are generally made
of high-conductivity copper and consist of a number of
annular layers of “conci,” or keystone segments laid up
around a central copper rod. Each layer is applied with
a helical lay opposite to that of the underlying layer to
improve torsional stability. This type of conductor is a
de facto standard for HVDC submarine cables where
the absence of ac skin and proximity effects means that
the use of stranded-wire Milliken conductors is not
required.
Conduction Current. Conduction current of an imper-
fect dielectric material is proportional to the applied
voltage gradient and is independent of time of voltage
application for fixed conditions of test. Conduction cur-
rent is strongly temperature-dependent and mildly volt-
age-dependent for cable insulations.
Conductor Stress. Conductor stress is the maximum
stress that the cable being pulled can withstand. The
allowable stress is a function of the conductor type.
Connector. At splicing locations where two cable sec-
tions are joined, the copper or aluminum conductors are
placed in a tight-fitting sleeve that is compressed with
hydraulically-actuated dies and often machined to give a
Glossary
smooth surface (copper) or compressed and welded
(aluminum).
Copper. Principal electrical conductor. This material has
an electrical resistivity of 10.371 ohms-cmil/ft.
Copperclad. Thin coating of copper fused to an alumi-
num core. Used in some building wires (#12 and larger).
Copperweld . Thin coating of copper fused to a steel
core. Used in line wire and cable messengers, and
stranded with copper for strength or extending flex life.
Cradled Configuration . Configuration where center
cable rests between the other two cables.
Critical Current. Maximum current that a superconduct-
ing wire may transmit at a given temperature and mag-
n e t i c fi e l d wh i l e m a i n t a i n i n g s u p e rc o n d u c t i n g
properties.
Critical Length. The capacitance charging current of an
ac cable increases linearly with the cable length until, at
the so-called critical length, the magnitude of the charg-
ing current equals that of the thermal current rating of
the cable so that no real power can be transmitted.
Critical Temperature. Maximum temperature at which a
superconducting wire exhibits superconducting proper-
ties.
Cross-Bonding. Technique of eliminating or minimizing
the I 2 R losses in sheaths of single-core cables which
accrue from voltages induced in the sheaths by the load
currents flowing in the conductors when the sheaths are
bonded so as to permit current flow. Cross-bonding uti-
lizes the phaser relationships among the induced volt-
ages, electrically transposing the connections between
three equal length sections so that the net vector voltage
at the ends is equal, obviating current flow. Eddy cur-
rent losses remain but in general are of a much lower
magnitude than the circulating current losses. An elec-
tric connection across a joint in the armor or lead
sheath of a cable, or between the armor or lead sheath
and the earth, or between the armor or sheath of adja-
cent cables.
Crosslinked Polyethylene (XLP, XLPE, X-LINK PE). HV
and control cable insulations (90ºC). Special appliance
wiring material (125ºC). Extruded polyethylene that is
rendered thermosetting (rubberlike) by crosslinking
(“vulcanizing”, “knitting”) the PE molecules usually
chemically (heat activated catalyst) or for special,
smaller cables by electron beam irradiation.
G-3
Glossary
Cryogenic System. Cooling or refrigeration system used
to deliver subcooled and pressurized liquid nitrogen to
superconducting cables.
Cryostat. Thermal insulating pipe used in a supercon-
ducting cable. The cryostat is double-walled, stainless
steel, corrugated, vacuum-jacketed pipe. A high-level
vacuum is pulled between the two walls of the pipe with
multilayer thin film metallized mylar insulation (MLI)
wrapped around the inner pipe. The MLI and vacuum
together provide thermal insulation on the order of 1.0-
1.5 W/m heat leak at 77 K operating temperature.
CSA. Canadian Standards Association.
DDB (Dodecylbenzene). Impregnant of the alkylbenzene
type commonly used as the impregnant for SCFF
cables.
Degree of Soil Saturation . Fraction of pore space
between soil particles that contain water.
Deionized Water. In the paper-making process for cellu-
losic insulation, the final rinses of the paper pulp are
often done with deionized water, to reduce the amount
of conductive material left in the paper after drying.
This is especially important for dc operation, where
paper losses are primarily due to conduction currents.
Dielectric Absorption. When dc voltage is applied to a
dielectric, the charge continues to flow with a decreasing
amount over a long time. When the dielectric is shorted,
the charge is not dissipated instantaneously; the dielec-
tric material may accumulate a substantial charge at its
electrodes. For high-voltage cables, especially extruded
cables with their larger volume resistivity, care should be
taken to have the conductor and shield shorted for
many hours before handling the cable.
Dielectric Constant. Physical quantity describing elec-
tric field effects. That property of a dielectric material
that determines how much electrostatic energy can be
stored per unit of volume when unit voltage is applied.
It is determined by the ability of a material to polarize
in response to the field, and thereby reduce the field
inside the material. Also called “relative permittivity.”
An older, but seldom used, term for dielectric constant
is “specific inductive capacity (SIC).”
Dielectric Loss. Heating in and of a dielectric caused by
radial flow of capacitive charging current through the
resistance represented by the loss component of the
shunt admittance. Physically the phenomenon consists
of frictional heat generated by rotation in the alternat-
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
ing electrostatic field of the polar (lossy) molecules of
the dielectric. In dc cables or dielectrics, the dielectric
loss is simply the square of leakage current times the
leakage resistance.
Dielectric Loss Factor. For ac cables, the product of the
dielectric constant times the dissipation factor; common
values for HV paper cables are dielectric constant of 3.5
and dissipation factor of 0.002, for a dielectric loss fac-
tor of 0.007. Dielectric loss factor is often used as a fig-
ure of merit for comparing the losses of alternative cable
insulations.
Dielectric Polarization. Appearance of surface charges
of opposite sign on the opposing faces of a dielectric
due to displacement of positive and negative charges
contained in its molecular structure. The displacement
is proportional to the applied electric field.
Dielectric Strength. Potential gradient at which electric
failure or breakdown occurs. To obtain the true dielec-
tric strength, the actual maximum gradient must be con-
sidered, or the test piece and electrodes must be
designed so that uniform gradient is obtained. The
value obtained for the dielectric strength in practical
tests will usually depend on the thickness of the material
and on the method and conditions of the test.
Dielectric Strength, Intrinsic . Ultimate dielectric
strength of a material in a completely uniform field, in
the absence of any external effects such as voids, con-
taminants, etc.
Direct Burial. In rural and suburban areas, and occa-
sionally in urban areas, it is possible to install self-con-
tained oil-filled or extruded dielectric cables directly in
the ground, without having to install ducts and pull the
cables through the duct. A controlled backfill is usually
installed around the cables to optimize heat dissipation
and to prevent damage from rocks, etc. and care is taken
to maintain proper spacing to reduce mutual heating
effects. Because of the more direct heat transfer to the
earth, directly buried cables have a higher current rating
than the same cable installed in ducts. For important
circuits, the cables are protected against damage by con-
crete slabs or troughs.
Direction of Lay. Direction of lay of strand (or insulated
wire) is determined by the direction of the rotation of
the top strand (or insulated wire) when looking away
from the viewer along the axis of the conductor (or
cable). For example, a right-hand lay is indicated when
the top strand (or insulated wire) goes away from and to
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
the right of the viewer looking along the axis of the con-
ductor (or cable)—i.e., clockwise.
Dodecylbenzene (DDB). An impregnant used in SCFF
Cables. See also Alkylbenzene
Duct Bank. Arrangement of conduit providing one or
more continuous ducts between two points. In urban
areas where it is not possible to have long street open-
ings, or in any area where there may be a need to
remove/reinstall cables without disturbing the street sur-
face, ducts are installed and cables are later pulled into
the ducts. Use of ducts generally results in a lower cable
rating and the distance between splices is shorter
because of the relatively high coefficient of friction
between the cable sheath and the duct.
EHV. Extra-High-Voltage.
Emanuelli Cables. Design of HV and EHV transmission
cable utilizing three paper-insulated oil-impregnated
cables, each with its own factory-applied metal sheath
that contains the pressure medium, a low-viscosity oil at
1/2 to 15 atmospheres, fed to the cable insulation via a
duct in the center of the conductors. See also Fluid-
Filled Cable and Self-Contained Fluid-Filled Cable.
Ethylene Propylene Rubber (EPR, EPM, EPDM). Syn-
thetic HV insulation (90ºC) with excellent weathering
and ozone resistance. Control cable insulation (105ºC)
and jacket.
Extruded Cable Jacket. Cable jacket that substantially
encapsulates the metallic shield. It is also known as an
encapsulating cable jacket.
Extruded Cables. Cables having a rubber or polymeric
material that is extruded onto the conductor to give a
monolithic insulation. Insulation material is commonly
crosslinked polyethylene, non-crosslinked polyethylene,
or ethylene propylene rubber.
Feed-in Section. Short section of duct, either a straight or
bend section, that allows the installer to reach the cable
entrance to the duct run. If a feed in tube is used, the
feed-in section could be used to address the tension drop
in the feed-in tube. Alternatively, the reel back tension
could be increased and the feed-in section eliminated.
Feed-in Tube. Flexible tube that is placed through the
manhole cover and is attached to the duct. Cable is
pulled through the tube, which protects the cable.
Glossary
Feed Joint. A joint or splice used in SCFF cable systems
to enable fluid to be fed from the feed tanks to the cable
central duct without presenting a hydraulic barrier
between adjacent cable sections.
Feed Tanks. Static pressurized fluid reservoirs con-
nected to SCFF cable systems designed to accommo-
date the thermal expansion and contraction of the
impregnating fluid.
Ferromagnetic. Materials that have magnetic permeabil-
ities that are much greater than the permeability of free
space. They are also characterized by nonlinear mag-
netic properties.
Filled Strand. “Glop” wiped into all interstices of the
strand, which when cured, forms a rubbery mass serving
to block the flow of liquids or gases through and along
the strand. Used in some extruded power cables, pump
cables, shipboard cables, and cables in hazardous location.
Fluid-Filled Cables (SCFF, LPFF, FF). Design of HV and
EHV transmission cable utilizing three paper-insulated
fluid-impregnated cables, each with its own factory-
applied metal sheath that contains the pressure medium,
a low-viscosity impregnant at low pressure, fed to the
cable insulation via a duct in the center of the conduc-
tors. See also Emanuelli Cable and Self-Contained Fluid-
Filled Cable.
Forced-Cooling. Means to artificially remove heat from
the cable system. For HPOF cables, the filling oil is peri-
odically removed from the pipe, cooled (oil-to-air or oil-
to water exchangers, or refrigeration exchangers), and
returned to the cable pipe at a separate location. Self-
contained cables can have external (lateral) cooling (a
water pipe laid in the trench with the cables), integral
cooling (the cables installed in a water pipe), or internal
(core) cooling (the oil in the cable core periodically
removed, cooled, and reintroduced). Extruded cables
can have external (lateral) or integral cooling.
Freezing. Technique for temporary hydraulic isolation
for repairs or to facilitate installation, where the cable's
impregnate and its filling oil are frozen using various
liquified gases or low temperature fluids to form a solid
plug.
Gage. System for specifying wire size. The American
Wire Gage (AWG), also known as Brown & Sharpe
Gage, is used for copper. An increase of three gage num-
bers (e.g., from #1 to #4) halves area and weight and
doubles dc resistance.
G-5
Glossary
Gas-Insulated Transmission Line (GITL). Transmission
system consisting of a large-diameter conductor, typi-
cally tubular aluminum, centered via epoxy or plastic
spacers in a larger-diameter shield, also typically alumi-
num. Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) gas, either by itself or in
mixture with nitrogen and operating at a pressure of 2-6
atmospheres, is the insulating fluid. Some dc develop-
ment has been done as part of a compact substation.
This system is also known as SF 6 bus, CGI, and gas-
spacer system. See also Compressed Gas-Insulated
Transmission Line.
Geometric Mean Radius (GMR). The geometric mean
radius of a conductor is the radius of a fictitious thin,
hollow conductor that produces the same magnetic flux
as the actual conductor for the same current flowing in
the two conductors.
GITL. See Gas-Insulated Transmission Line.
GMR. See Geometric Mean Radius.
Gradient, Electrical. Electrical stress in an insulating
material, determined by dividing the applied voltage by
the electrode spacing, with suitable geometric factors for
electrode geometries. Where the insulating material is
intrinsically or intentionally made nonhomogeneous (as
for stress-grading purposes), the stress distribution must
be calculated for the actual dielectric constants (ac
cables) or using the alpha and beta coefficients (dc
cables).
Harmonic Resonance. Resonance of an electrical circuit
at frequencies that are integer multiples of the power
system frequency (i.e., 60, 120, 180, 240…Hz for a
60 Hz power system).
High-Pressure Gas-Filled (HPGF) Cable. Design of HV
and EHV transmission cable utilizing three paper-
insulated, mass-impregnated cables without individual
metal sheaths, installed in a common steel pipe, which
contains the pressure medium, usually oil, at nominally
15 atmospheres; occasionally nitrogen gas at voltage
138 kV and below. Also known as HPOF, Oil-O-Static,
and POF cable. See also High-Pressure Oil-filled Cable,
Oil-O-Static, and Pressurized Oil-Filled Cable.
High-Pressure Oil-Filled (HPOF) Cable. Design of HV
and EHV transmission cable utilizing three paper-
insulated, mass-impregnated cables without individual
metal sheaths, installed in a common steel pipe, which
contains the pressure medium, usually oil, at nominally
15 atmospheres; occasionally nitrogen gas at voltage
G-6
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
138 kV and below. Also known as Oil-O-Static, POF,
and HPGF cable.
High-Temperature Superconductors (HTS). Those con-
ductors that exhibit superconductivity at or above the
temperature of liquid nitrogen, or -196°C (77 K).
Horizontal Bend. In the field, some portions of a hori-
zontal bend actually have both horizontal and vertical
components. When this occurs, the section is treated as
a straight pull, and any elevation change is made up in
the section preceding or following the bend using a
slope up or slope down pull.
Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD). Installation of
pipes and utilities beneath obstacles such as waterways,
railroad tracks, or roadways. It is a trenchless technol-
ogy that provides numerous benefits over a traditional
open-cut trenching.
HPGF. See High-Pressure Gas-Filled Cable.
HPOF. See High-Pressure Oil-Filled Cable.
HTS. See High-Temperature Superconductors.
HV. High Voltage.
HVDC Integral Return Cable (HVDC-IRC). HVDC cable
systems require a current return path. This can be pro-
vided in at least three different ways, namely: a
ground/sea return using an anode/cathode electrode sys-
tem, a separate return cable, or a metallic return con-
ductor integrated into the HVDC cable. To date, the
Moyle HVDC interconnection between Scotland and
Northern Ireland is the only project to employ HVDC
integrated return cables.
ICEA. Insulated Cable Engineers Association.
Impedance Bonding . Bonding method consisting of
grounding the cable sheaths through an impedance.
Impermeability. Also known as Air Impermeability. A
measure of the resistance of insulating paper to the flow
of air through its fiber structure and thus to the amount
the pulp was beaten in the manufacturing process.
Impregnant (Impregnating Fluid). Fluid used to saturate
the paper and fill all the spaces between taped insulation
layers and between conductor strands. A suitable sub-
stance is of low viscosity at the impregnating tempera-
ture and fills the spaces between the fibers. To be
considered suitable, the impregnating substance must
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
have good insulating properties, gas-absorbing proper-
ties, and resistance to oxidation.
Impregnation Coefficient. Measure of the degree of
completeness of impregnation of an SCFF cable.
Inductance. Property of an electric circuit by virtue of
which a varying current induces an electromotive force
in the circuit or in a neighboring circuit.
Insulation. Material applied over conductors for electri-
cal isolation between conductors. The part that is relied
upon to insulate the conductor from other conductors
or conducting parts or from ground.
Insulation Coordination. Selection of insulation strength
consistent with expected overvoltages to obtain an
acceptable risk of failure.
Insulation Resistance. Ratio of applied dc voltage of an
insulating material to the total current flowing though
the material for prescribed conditions of test.
Interlock Armoring. A 0.020-in. or 0.030-in. thick strip
of mild steel or aluminum is preformed and spiralled
around the cable core, each turn being “interlocked”
with the preceding turn ala “BX” wiring.
Ionization Factor Test. Test performed on laminar
dielectric cable to detect ionization (partial discharges)
in the cable high voltage insulation. The ionization fac-
tor test is the difference in insulation dissipation factor
values at two different electrical stress levels.
Jack and Bore. Method of simultaneously jacking cas-
ing through the earth while removing the spoil inside the
encasement by a rotating auger. Also known as “auger
boring.”
Jacket. Self-contained fluid-filled and extruded cables
often have a thermoplastic or thermosetting jacket
applied over the lead or aluminum cable sheath, or over
the cable armoring. This jacket provides additional
mechanical protection, especially during the cable-pull-
ing operations. The jacket also electrically isolates the
sheath from the earth, permitting special sheath bonding.
Jam Ratio. Calculated constant that warns if a cable is
likely to become stuck or jammed.
Jet Plow. Submarine cables are generally buried to pro-
vide protection against damage due to third-party
marine activities. Jet Plows and Water-Jetting ROVs
Glossary
(remote operated vehicles) are preferred burial equip-
ment where seabed conditions permit. The working
principle of the Jet Plow is to fluidize the seabed materi-
als in a narrow path and to a predetermined depth
(down to ~ 8 ft). The Jet Plow is towed by a support or
the cable-laying vessel itself, and cable laying and burial
take place simultaneously.
Kraft Paper. See Paper (Kraft Paper).
Laminated Polypropylene (LPP). Also known as PPL,
PPP, and PPLP. A taped insulation material used in
SCFF and HPFF cables and manufactured by extrud-
ing a thin layer of polypropylene between two layers of
paper. It has significantly improved electrical properties
compared to kraft paper.
Lapping Head. Piece of cable manufacturing machinery
used to apply tapes in a helical manner to the cable.
Lay. Distance between successive points where the same
strand (or insulated conductor) when twisted with one
or more strands (or insulated conductors) presents itself
in the same position. The helical arrangements formed
by twisting together the individual elements of a cable.
Laying Up. Process of bringing the individual cores of a
multicore cable together without imparting a twist to
the cores.
Leach. To dissolve out by the action of percolating
liquid.
Leakage Surface. Applied to longitudinal stress as on
joints or potheads—the total length of the insulating
surface between the two electrodes.
Link-Box. Waterproof enclosure housing the bus bars
and connection hardware for interconnecting the cable
sheaths in a cross-bonded scheme, together with the
surge protection devices when used to control the volt-
age from sheath to earth across the protective jacket.
Load Factor. In cable rating or loss evaluation; the ratio
of the sum of the hourly currents to 24 times the peak
hourly current. Alternatively, the daily energy usage
divided by 24 times the daily peak load. (Annual or sea-
sonal load factors can be calculated as desired for evalu-
ating equipment utilization.)
Loss Factor. As used in cable rating, the ratio of the sum
of squares of the hourly current readings divided by 24
times the square of the maximum hourly reading. An
G-7
Glossary
empirical relationship to the load factor at transmission
voltages has been found to be:
Loss factor = 0.3 Load Factor + 0.7 (Load Factor)2
(Annual or seasonal loss factors can be calculated as
desired when evaluating equipment losses.)
LPP. See Laminated Polypropylene.
Lubricant. Slippery material used to reduce the coeffi-
cient of friction between cable and conduit.
Maintenance Test. Field test made during the operating
life of a cable system. It is intended to detect deteriora-
tion of the system and to check the serviceability so that
suitable maintenance procedures can be initiated.
Mandrel. Device that has a diameter slightly smaller
than the duct. This device is pulled through the duct to
ensure that the run is not blocked.
Mass Impregnation. Process used in the manufacture of
paper and LPP insulated cables where, after the cable
has been dried, the entire drying and impregnating ves-
sel is filled with impregnating fluid. The cable is then
metal-sheathed directly from the vessel via a tube filled
with impregnant.
Maximum Bending Radius. Highest tension that can be
placed on a cable without risk of damage.
Maximum Pulling Tension. Maximum tension (in
pounds) that can be placed on the cable(s) at the bend
exit.
Maximum Sidewall Bearing Pressure. Maximum pres-
sure (in pounds/foot) that the side of a cable can with-
stand as it is being pulled through a bend.
Maximum Stress. In ac cables and uniform temperature
dc cables, the highest dielectric stress always occurs at
the conductor screen surface. In dc cables, the location
of maximum stress varies with temperature and stress
characteristics.
MCOV (Maximum Continuous Operating Voltage). Max-
imum designated root-mean-square (rms) value of
power-frequency voltage that may be applied continu-
ously between the terminals of a surge arrester.
Milliken Conductor. Conductor construction where the
total cross sectional area comprises a number, typically
four or six, of smaller segments lightly insulated from
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
each other in order to reduce proximity and skin effects
in alternating current systems.
Minimum Bending Radius. Minimum radius (in feet) in
which a cable can be bent without structure damage.
Minimum Bending Radius Pulling Tension. Tightest
allowable radius that a cable can be pulled around with-
out damage.
Moisture Content. Soil moisture has a strong influence
on the soil's thermal resistivity. The moisture collects at
the contact points between soil grains, aiding in conduc-
tion from soil grain to soil grain resulting in overall
lower thermal resistivities. Due to the loss of water at
the grain to grain interface, the thermal resistivity of a
dry soil can be three to six times higher than the thermal
resistivity of a wet soil. The moisture content of the soil
is calculated according to the following relationship:
Percent Moisture = ((Wet soil weight - Dry soil
weight) / Dry Soil Weight) ∗100
The moisture content is said to be calculated on a dry
basis when this equation is used because the soil weight
in the denominator does not include moisture.
Mouse . Any device attached to a small rope that
restricts air flow through a duct. A compressor is used
to blow the mouse and the rope through the duct.
Multipoint Bonding. Bonding method consisting of
grounding of the cable sheaths at multiple locations,
typically at all terminations and splices.
Nanotechnology. Science of engineering that deals with
things smaller than 100 nanometers.
NEMA. National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
Normal Joint. Splice or joint not incorporating any fea-
tures to provide hydraulic isolation between adjacent
cable sections.
Oil. Fluid(s) used to impregnate the insulating tapes of
pipe-type cables, and to maintain a positive pressure in
the cable system to increase dielectric strength and sup-
press ionization. Pipe-type cables usually contain a min-
eral oil or a polybutene oil at pressures of 15-30
atmospheres. Some of the synthetic and semi-synthetic
insulations under development may require a synthetic
oil such as a silicone oil.
Oil-O-Static Cable. Design of HV and EHV transmis-
sion cable utilizing three paper-insulated, mass-impreg-
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
nated cables without individual metal sheaths, installed
in a common steel pipe, which contains the pressure
medium, usually oil, at nominally 15 atmospheres; occa-
sionally nitrogen gas at voltage 138 kV and below. Also
known as HPOF, POF, and HPGF cable. See also High-
Pressure Oil-Filled Cable, High-Pressure Gas-Filled
Cable, and Pressurized Oil-Filled Cable.
Oversheath. See Jacket.
Paper (Kraft Paper). Insulating material in almost uni-
versal use for pipe-type and self-contained cable.
Paper Lead Cable. Paper lead cable is an oil-impreg-
nated paper-insulated cable with a copper conductor
and a lead covering.
Paper-Polypropylene-Paper (PPP). Trade name for
Laminated Polypropylene (LPP).
Parkway Taping. Flat metal tape applied with an open
lap over the cable core or inner jacket. A duplicate sec-
ond tape is applied centered over the opening of the first
tape.
Partial Discharge (PD). Localized electrical discharge
that only partially bridges the insulation between con-
ductors and that may or may not occur adjacent to a
conductor. Partial discharges are a consequence of local
breakdown either as a result of (a) an electric field
enhancement within or on the surface of the insulation,
or (b) a region of low breakdown field. PDs appear as
individual events of very short duration, are always
accompanied by emissions of light, sound, and heat, as
well as electromagnetic pulses, and often result in chem-
ical reactions.
Particle Size Analysis. Particle size analysis (or sieve
analysis) shows the grain size gradation of soils. This
test can be performed on all soils and is used to deter-
mine if the soil is predominantly sand, silt, or clay. The
particles are segregated by running the soil through
sieves as outlined in ASTM Standard D 422. Soils with
good thermal properties are generally characterized as
having a wide gradation of particle sizes. The thermal
resistivity of a soil is decreased as the number of contact
points is increased. Consequently, evaluation of the
sieve analysis of a soil gives an indication of the poten-
tial of a soil to be a good thermal conductor.
PD. See Partial Discharge.
Permeability. Ability of a liquid to flow through pores
or openings.
Glossary
Pipe-Type Cable. Design of HV and EHV transmission
cable utilizing three paper-insulated, mass-impregnated
cables without individual metal sheaths, installed in a
common steel pipe, which contains the pressure
medium, usually oil, at nominally 15 atmospheres; occa-
sionally nitrogen gas at voltage 138 kV and below. Also
known as HPOF, Oil-O-Static, POF, and HPGF cable.
Polarity Reversal. Switching operation to change the
polarity of the voltage applied to a conductor—e.g.,
from positive to negative. Of concern to insulated dc
cable systems because of the dielectric absorption of the
dielectric. See also Dielectric Absorption.
Polarization Index. Method of evaluating dielectric
absorption of an insulating material by determining its
insulation resistance after one minute and comparing
that value to its insulation resistance after 10 minutes.
The ratio is the Polarization Index.
Polybutene. Synthetic oil commonly used for pipe-type
cables, in a viscosity as an impregnating oil, and in lower
viscosities as pipe-filling oils. Polybutene is obtained by
polymerizing the isobutylene gases that are produced in
petroleum refining.
Polyethylene. Extrudable polymeric insulation charac-
terized by very low dielectric loss, very high intrinsic
dielectric strength but high vulnerability to degradation
by corona discharge. Due to its thermoplasticity and rel-
atively low fusion temperature, the short-time emergency
loading capability of polyethylene cables is limited.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC). Extrudable thermoplastic
polymeric material compounded from base polymer,
plasticizer, stabilizer, lubricant, filler, and color. Used as
an extruded jacket (oversheath) on supertension SCFF
and XLPE cables and as insulation on LV cables.
Pothead. Device providing both the required electrical
stress grading and insulating hydraulic seal to atmo-
sphere or other medium (e.g., SF6) where the cable ter-
minates. Electrical stress grading is effected by flared
build-ups of insulation-paper rolls or molded epoxy ele-
ments typically, by distributed capacitors or combina-
tions thereof. The internal pressure is contained, and
external creepage and weathershed (for in- air termina-
tors) provided by petti-coated porcelain insulators; in
certain designs with an internal pressure-support tube
of ceramic or fiberglass. For SF6 or oil-immersed termi-
nations, various designs exist using cast epoxy or
ceramic seals, usually of a smooth conical shape. A
device that seals the end of a cable and provides insu-
G-9
Glossary
lated egress for the conductor or conductors. See also
Terminator and Sealing-End.
PPP. See Paper-Polypropylene-Paper.
Pre-qualification Test. Series of long-term electrical tests
required for approval to supply a prospective design and
manufacturing technique of EHV XLPE cable and
accessories.
Pressurized Oil-Filled (Type POF) Cable. Design of HV
and EHV transmission cable utilizing three paper-
insulated, mass-impregnated cables without individual
metal sheaths, installed in a common steel pipe, which
contains the pressure medium, usually oil, at nominally
15 atmospheres; occasionally nitrogen gas at voltage
138 kV and below. Also known as HPOF, Oil-O-Static,
and HPGF cable. See also High-Pressure Oil-filled
Cable, High-Pressure Gas-Filled Cable, and Oil-O-Static
Cable.
Pressurizing Plant. Unit consisting of a pressurizing
pump and oil storage tank (typical capacities 4000-
200,000 liters) with controls and alarms. Its purpose is
to maintain the designed pressure in the cable system,
and to provide a means for accommodating oil volume
changes due to temperature variations in the cable. All
pipe-type oil-filled circuits have such a plant, and a few
long self-contained circuits have pressurizing plants
instead of reservoirs.
Proctor Curve. The Proctor Curve provides valuable
data in predicting the thermal behavior of soil. The
Proctor Curve is a plot of the maximum dry density that
can be obtained as a function of moisture content. For
most soils, the maximum obtainable density increases as
the moisture content increases until a maximum dry
density is achieved. At higher moisture contents, the
water begins to displace soil particles resulting in lower
Proctor dry densities. The Proctor Curve is useful in
selecting the moisture content that the maximum Proc-
tor density is obtained. Compaction of backfill soils at
the moisture content that corresponds to the maximum
dry density is desirable. It provides conditions that max-
imize heat transfer in soils in the vicinity of under-
ground power cables. Field densities of 95% maximum
Proctor density are commonly specified for backfills. It
is likely that densities of 85 to 90% of the Proctor den-
sity will be obtained unless strict quality control is
maintained during compaction.
Proximity Effect. Phenomenon of nonuniform current
distribution over the cross section of a conductor caused
by the time variation of the current in a neighboring
G-10
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
conductor. In effect, the current density is increased in
sections of conductors nearer each other and decreased
in the sections farthest from each other.
Pulling Eye Stress. Pulling eye stress is the stress on the
cable when pulling eyes are used.
Pulling Eyes. Device that is attached to cable conductor
for subsequent cable pulling.
Pulling Grip Tension. Tension on the cable when pulling
grips are used.
Pulling Grips. Woven steel basket grips that slide over a
cable for subsequent cable pulling.
Pulling Section Dip Depth. Distance in feet that a verti-
cal dip bends below the horizontal. Thus, it is only rele-
vant to vertical dip section types.
Pulling Section Length. Length in feet of a pulled sec-
tion.
Pulling Section Offset Angle. Angle from the vertical, in
degrees, that a section travels as it is pulled through a
bend.
Pulling Section Radius. Centerline radius of curvature,
in feet, of a section that is pulled through a bend.
Pulling Section Total Angle. Angle in degrees that a sec-
tion travels as it is pulled through a bend.
Pulling Tension. Tension on a cable at the cable exit
which results from pulling the cable through a run. You
might want to add jumps to the pulling grips and pull-
ing eyes here since these are two primary methods used
to pull the cables through a run.
Pumping Plant. Unit consisting of a pressurizing pump
and oil storage tank (typical capacities 4000-200,000
liters) with controls and alarms. Its purpose is to main-
tain the designed pressure in the cable system, and to
provide a means for accommodating oil volume changes
due to temperature variations in the cable. All pipe-type
oil-filled circuits have such a plant, and a few long self-
contained circuits have pressurizing plants instead of
reservoirs.
PVC. See Polyvinyl Chloride.
Qualification Test. Type tests or qualification tests are
performed to demonstrate the adequacy of designs,
manufacturing, and materials of a cable system or com-
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
ponent to achieve the desired performance characteris-
tics. The term “qualification test” is commonly used in
Association of Edison Illuminating Companies (AEIC)
and Insulated Cable Engineers Association (ICEA)
cable specifications and standards. IEC cable standards
contain similar tests, but they are called “type tests.”
Quality Factor. For an inductor, the ratio of the reac-
tance in ohms divided by the resistance in ohms.
Reel Back Tension. Tension required to unspool cable
off a reel.
Registration (of tapes). Measurement of the percentage
of the width of one tape that overlaps the tape beneath
it. Thus 35/65 registration has 35% of the tape lying in
front of and 65% of the tape lying behind the trailing
edge of the tape beneath it.
Reinforcement. Layer or layers of metal tapes wound
with a short lay around a SCFF cable lead alloy sheath
to contain the internal fluid pressure.
Relative Permittivity. Physical quantity describing elec-
tric field effects. That property of a dielectric material
that determines how much electrostatic energy can be
stored per unit of volume when unit voltage is applied.
It is determined by the ability of a material to polarize
in response to the field, and thereby reduce the field
inside the material. Also called “dielectric constant.” An
older, but seldom used, term for relative permittivity is
“specific inductive capacity (SIC).”
Reservoir. Tank of typical capacity 100 liters, used to
maintain oil pressure and allow for oil expansion and
contraction on self-contained circuits. The reservoirs are
usually placed in splicing manholes, at spacings from
1000 m to several thousand meters, depending upon ele-
vation changes.
Residual Gas Pressure. Measure of the amount of air
or other gas dissolved in the impregnating fluid of an
SCFF cable.
Resistivity. Volume resistivity in ohm-cm of a dielectric
is the ratio of the dc potential (volts/cm paralleling the
flow of current in the material) to the current density
(amperes/cm) after a prescribed time of voltage appli-
cation.
Rho. Characteristic of insulations and thermal environ-
ments that determine temperature rise as a function of
watts of heat dissipated.
Glossary
Rod. A 5/16-in. diameter rod of copper drawn from wire
bars. Used in making solid conductors and individual
strands.
Rope. Rope used to pull power cables. Typically made of
steel or of polymers.
Round Wire Armoring. High tensile strength round steel
wires are spiralled, close spaced, around the cable for
mechanical protection or strength. Steel wire sizes vary
from #24 through #8 solid.
Routine Test. Series of electrical and mechanical tests
carried out on every reel of completed cable, or acces-
sory, before shipping.
Saturated (1). To be full of moisture, thoroughly wet.
Saturated (2). Alternative term for impregnated.
SCFF. See Self-Contained Fluid-Filled Cable.
Screen. Conducting or semiconducting layer(s) over or
under the cable dielectric used to define and confine the
electrostatic field between the energized and grounded
earthed) electrodes, in a completely radial pattern. The
screening layers also serve to smooth out irregularities
in conductors and are designed with thermal character-
istics to obviate void formation between materials of
varying thermal expansion coefficients, viz. 13, conduc-
tors and insulation.
Screening. Material separated out by passage through
or retention on a screen.
Sealing End. Device providing both the required electri-
cal stress grading and insulating hydraulic seal to atmo-
sphere or other medium (e.g., SF 6 ) where the cable
terminates. Electrical stress grading is effected by flared
build-ups of insulation-paper rolls or molded epoxy ele-
ments typically, by distributed capacitors or combina-
tions thereof. The internal pressure is contained, and
external creepage and weathershed (for in- air termina-
tors) provided by petti-coated porcelain insulators; in
certain designs with an internal pressure-support tube
of ceramic or fiberglass. For SF6 or oil immersed termi-
nations, various designs exist using cast epoxy or
ceramic seals, usually of a smooth conical shape.
Sector Conductor. Stranded conductor whose cross sec-
tion is approximately the shape of a sector of a circle. A
multi-conductor insulated cable with sector conductors
has a smaller diameter than the corresponding cable
with round conductors.
G-11
Glossary
Segmental Conductor. Stranded conductor consisting
of three or more stranded conducting elements, each
element having approximately the shape of a circle,
assembled to give a substantially circular cross section.
The sectors are usually lightly insulated from each other
and, in service, are connected in parallel. The light insu-
lation is in order to reduce proximity and skin effects in
alternating current systems.
Self-Contained Fluid-Filled (SCFF) Cable. Design of HV
and EHV transmission cable utilizing three paper or
LPP insulated fluid-impregnated cables, each with its
own factory-applied metal sheath that contains a low
viscosity fluid at low pressure, fed to the cable insulation
via a duct in the center of the conductors. Three core
types with all phases inside one metal sheath are avail-
able up to a certain voltage level. Also known as LPFF,
FF, and Emanuelli cable. (In North America, it is more
common to use the term “Self-Contained Fluid-Filled
(SCFF) Cable”). A pressure cable in which the con-
tainer for the pressure medium is an impervious flexible
metal sheath, reinforced if necessary, that is factory
assembled with the cable core. A self-contained pressure
cable in which the pressure medium is low-viscosity
fluid having access to the insulation.
Self-Contained Mass-Impregnated (SCMI) Cable. In
common with self-contained fluid-filled cables, SCMI
cables have insulation consisting of paper tapes impreg-
nated with a dielectric fluid. In the case of SCFF cables,
a low-viscosity synthetic fluid—generally an alkylben-
zene—is maintained under pressure by a pressurizing
system. SCMI cables, on the other hand, employ a high-
viscosity fluid that does not require a pressurizing sys-
tem. SCMI cables can in theory be used for ac transmis-
sion at voltages up to 69 kV, though their major field of
application is in HVDC transmission, where they are
used at voltages up to and including 500 kVdc. The
absence of the pressurizing system requirement means
that there is no length limitation as in the case of SCFF
cables.
Semiconducting Layer. A conducting or semi-conduct-
ing layer(s) over or under the cable dielectric used to
define and confine the electrostatic field between the
energized and grounded (earthed) electrodes, in a com-
pletely radial pattern. The screening layers also serve to
smooth out irregularities in conductors and are
designed with thermal characteristics to obviate void
formation between materials of varying thermal expan-
sion coefficients, viz. 13, conductors and insulation. A
tape or such resistance that, when applied between two
elements of a cable, the adjacent surfaces of the two ele-
ments will maintain substantially the same potential.
G-12
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Such tapes are commonly used for conductor shielding
and in conjunction with metallic shielding over the insu-
lation.
Semi-Stop Joint. A splice or joint in HPFF cable with
features to effect only a partial or temporary hydraulic
isolation between adjacent cable sections usually for
maintenance or leak location or rate reduction pur-
poses. A joint designed to restrict movement of the
dielectric fluid between cables being joined.
Sheath. Metal tube, usually lead, lead alloy, or alumi-
num formed, almost universally by extrusion, over the
cable core as a hermetic seal and pressure containing
vessel. The overall protective covering for the insulated
cable.
Shield. Conducting or semi-conducting layer(s) over or
under the cable dielectric used to define and confine the
electrostatic field between the energized and grounded
(earthed) electrodes, in a completely radial pattern. The
screening layers also serve to smooth out irregularities
in conductors and are designed with thermal character-
istics to obviate void formation between materials of
varying thermal expansion coefficients, viz. 13, conduc-
tors and insulation.
Shielding Factor. Ratio of the magnetic field magnitude
(rms value) at a given point when a magnetic shield is
present to the magnetic field magnitude (rms value) at
the same point when the shield is absent.
Sidewall Bearing Pressure (SWBP). Radial pressure
experienced by the cable as it is pulled through a curved
section. The pressure is caused by the tension and
weight of the cable, which tends to force it against the
conduit wall. The parameters that influence the SWBP
are cable tension and the inside radius of curvature of
the bend.
Sieve. Device with meshes or perforations allowing finer
particles of a mixture to pass, while retaining coarser
materials.
Single-point Bonding . Bonding method consisting of
grounding the cable sheaths at only one end along a seg-
ment of cable.
Skid Wires. Nonmagnetic metal wires, usually D-shaped
applied helically over the single core of pipe-type cables
to serve as protective runners to the core during pulling
into the steel pipe. Wire or wires, usually D-shaped,
applied open spiral with curved side outward with a
suitable spacing between turns (lay) over the outside
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
surface of the cable. Its purpose is to facilitate cable
pulling and to provide mechanical protection during
installation.
Skin Effect. Phenomenon of charge of current distribu-
tion over the cross section of a conductor with conse-
quent increase in ac resistance caused by the alternating
flux created by the ac current carrying conductor itself.
The tendency of an alternating current to concentrate in
the areas of lowest impedance.
Slump. To fall or sink.
Slurry. Watery mixture of insoluble matter.
Soil Density. Density of a soil affects thermal stability.
As the dry density of a soil increases, the void space
between soil particles decreases and the paths for vapor
outward flow are reduced. At increased dry densities,
the total soil contact area is increased, resulting in a
lower soil thermal resistivity. At an applied heat input,
the increased conduction in a dense soil results in lower
temperature gradients across the soil. The driving
potential for the movement of water vapor is reduced.
Therefore, at a given soil moisture content, the soil is
thermally stable as the dry density of a soil is increased.
Soil Thermal Stability. A cable whose ampacity was cal-
culated based on the thermal resistivity of a moist soil
will reach a higher temperature if moisture is driven
away from the cable by the thermal gradient in the soil.
As the moisture content of the soil decreases further, the
thermal resistivity of the soil increases, resulting in
higher cable temperatures compounding the problem of
overheating even further. This type of behavior is called
“thermal runaway.” Soil under the existing conditions
would be thermally unstable. If a soil is thermally stable
under a given cable heat input, the movement of soil
moisture (in a vapor state) away from the cable surface
is balanced by the movement of liquid moisture back
toward the cable, due to capillary action.
Solid Dielectric Cable. Cables having a rubber or poly-
meric material that is extruded onto the conductor to
give a monolithic insulation, which is highly resistant to
the flow of electric current. Insulation material is com-
monly cross-linked polyethylene, non-cross-linked poly-
ethylene, or ethylene propylene rubber.
Spaced. Installation configuration wherein the three
cables are spaced (almost always laterally) from each
other in order to improve heat dissipation.
Glossary
Spacer-Gas Cable. Transmission system consisting of a
large-diameter conductor, typically tubular aluminum,
centered via epoxy or plastic spacers in a larger-diame-
ter shield, also typically aluminum. Sulfur hexafluoride
(SF6) gas, either by itself or in mixture with nitrogen and
operating at a pressure of 2-6 atmospheres, is the insu-
lating fluid. Some dc development has been done as part
of a compact substation. This system is also known as
SF6 bus, GITL, and CGI. See also Compressed Gas-
Insulated Transmission Line and Gas-Insulated Trans-
mission Line.
Specific Inductive Capacity (SIC). An older, but seldom
used, term for relative permittivity or dielectric con-
stant.
Spiral Duct. Component of an SCFF cable designed to
support other components of the cable and thus provide
a flow path for impregnating fluid along its length. It is
normally manufactured from metal strip wound around
into an open spiral.
Splice. Process and hardware components used to make
the electrical and hydraulic connections between adja-
cent lengths of cable. It entails connecting the conduc-
tors usually by compression or swaged fittings for
copper conductors, welding for aluminum, restoration
of the insulation almost universally by hand taping, and
restoration of the hydraulic pressure enclosure pipe or
sheath by welding, brazing or soldering. The physical
connection of two or more conductors to provide elec-
trical continuity.
Stop Joint. Splice or joint with features to effect a com-
plete hydraulic isolation between adjacent cable sec-
tions, as may be required to limit pressures due to
profile changes or fluid loss in the event of sheath dam-
age. A joint that is designed to prevent any transfer of
dielectric fluid between the cables being joined. Many
designs will also allow feeding of the individual sections
from static feed tanks.
Stop Mark . A circumferential discontinuity in the
smooth extruded surface of a lead alloy sheath caused
by the need to raise the ram of the extrusion press to
recharge the extruder with metal.
Stranding. The bringing together by twisting or laying
of smaller wires to form a single larger conductor. Used
to provide, flexibility and ease of handling.
Stress Cone. Shaped insulating device and related
shields to control the electrostatic stress concentration
at a termination.
G-13
Glossary
Superconductor. Conductor used in specialized cable
systems that when cooled to very low temperatures
develops a near-zero conductor resistance. Practical
cable systems using superconductors operate at near-liq-
uid nitrogen temperatures (77 kelvin, or about -200° C).
Surge Arrester. Protective device for limiting surge volt-
ages on equipment by discharging or bypassing surge
current; it limits the flow of power follow current to
ground, and is capable of repeating these functions as
specified.
Surging. Resonant phenomenon where tensions fluctu-
ate rapidly during pulling.
Symmetrical Components. Analytical method for trans-
forming three-phase electrical circuits into three single-
phase circuits (zero-sequence, positive-sequence, and
negative-sequence circuits). This transformation is per-
formed to simplify the solutions for currents and volt-
ages in the three-phase circuit.
Symmetrical Component Impedance. Impedance of
power system components to zero-, positive- and nega-
tive-sequence circuit currents.
Synthetic Insulation Cable. Replacement of the cellu-
lose insulation on a pipe-type or self-contained cable
with synthetic or semi-synthetic (e.g., polypropylene/cel-
lulose laminate) insulation to reduce ac dielectric losses
and allow application of a higher voltage stress.
Temporary Overvoltage (TOV). An oscillatory overvolt-
age, associated with switching or faults and/or nonlin-
earities of relatively long duration, which is undamped
or slightly damped.
Tension. Pulling force required to install cable in a duct.
Terminator. Device providing both the required electri-
cal stress grading and insulating hydraulic seal to atmo-
sphere or other medium (e.g., SF 6 ) where the cable
terminates. Electrical stress grading is effected by flared
build-ups of insulation-paper rolls or molded epoxy ele-
ments typically, by distributed capacitors or combina-
tions thereof. The internal pressure is contained and
external creepage and weathershed (for in-air termina-
tors) provided by petti-coated porcelain insulators; in
certain designs with an internal pressure-support tube
of ceramic or fiberglass. For SF6 or oil-immersed termi-
nations, various designs exist using cast epoxy or
ceramic seals, usually of a smooth conical shape. See
also Pothead and Sealing-End.
G-14
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Thermal Backfill. Thermal backfills are required where
higher cable ampacities are expected for both transmis-
sion and distribution cables. Backfills are used around
pipe type cables, cables in duct, or direct buried cables.
Thermal backfill materials can be used at selected loca-
tions along a cable route where there is poor native soil.
This will reduce the chances of developing local hot
spots. If the native soil thermal resistivity is higher than
desired or if the soil is considered to be thermally unsta-
ble or the soil is unsuitable for compaction, a thermal
backfill can be placed along the entire length of the
cable. The overall earth thermal resistivity is affected by
the native soil thermal properties and by the properties
of the thermal backfill. The thermal resistivity of the
backfill has a stronger influence on the heat dissipating
capacity of the system because it is in the immediate
vicinity of the cables. The primary requirement of a
thermal backfill is to dissipate heat away from the cable
so the design temperature of the cable is not exceeded.
Thermal Conductivity. Inherent quality of a substance
that indicates its ability to conduct heat.
Thermal Probe. Thermal probes are used to measure the
thermal properties of soils. Thermal probes are con-
structed from stainless steel tubing. The diameters and
lengths of the probes are selected depending on the
desired application. An insulated heater element made
of nichrome or constantan wire is run down and back
the active length of the thermal probe. These heater ele-
ments are preferred, because the resistance of these
materials does not change significantly with tempera-
ture. Thermocouples are slipped down the steel tubing
and placed at selected locations in the heated section of
the probe. Copper constantan is a preferred thermocou-
ple material.
Thermal Resistivity (Rho). Characteristic of insulations
and thermal environments that determine temperature
rise as a function of watts of heat dissipated.
Thermal Sands. Thermal sand contains a wide grada-
tion of particle sizes as well as small amounts of silt and
clay. This soil type will have lower liquid and vapor per-
meabilities than a uniformly grained sandy soil. This is
because the smaller silt and clay particles tend to fill the
voids between larger sized sand grains, reducing the
path for either vapor or liquid flow. Used for mixing
with a cementing material to form concrete. Thermal
sands are more likely to dry out than weak mix backfills.
Thermal sands are considered to be more thermally sta-
ble than most sands, because they have better heat-car-
rying capacities and they contain silt and clay, which
reduces the permeability of the sand.
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Thermistor. Electrical resistor made of semiconducting
material whose resistance changes dramatically with
temperature.
Thermocouple. Special matched alloy conductors. Used
in temperature-measuring applications. A pair of dis-
similar conductors so joined at two points that an elec-
tromotive force is developed by the thermoelectric
effects when the junctions are at different temperatures.
Thermoplastic (PVC, Polyethylene, Nylon, etc.). Term
used to describe the extruded materials which after pro-
cessing, can be repeatedly made to flow under the appli-
cation of heat. Having the quality of softening when
heated above a certain temperature range and of return-
ing to its original state when cooling below that range.
Thermosetting (rubber, neoprene, hvpaion, etc.). Term
used to describe extrudable materials which are cross-
linked (vulcanized chemical agents) using steam and
heat or radiation. After processing, the materials cannot
be made to flow under the application of heat.
Total Bend Angle. Sum of the total angles of all the sec-
tions in the pull.
Trefoil. Installation configuration wherein the three
cables (in ac circuits) are in a close equilateral triangle
with sheaths or jackets touching.
Triangular Configuration. Configuration where the cen-
ter cable rests on top of the other two cables.
Triplexed Cables. Three cables that have been twisted
together and then placed on a single reel.
Tubed Cable Jacket. Cable jacket loosely applied over
the metallic shield. Usually a separator tape separates
the jacket and the metallic shield. Also known as a
sleeved cable jacket.
Type Approval Test. Series of mechanical and electrical
tests carried out by a prospective manufacturer to gain
approval to supply the design of cable and accessories to
be tested.
Type Test. See Qualification Test.
ULI. Underwriters Laboratories Incorporated.
Vacuum Sheathing. Process used in the manufacture of
SCFF cables whereby the dried insulated core is metal
sheathed under vacuum before impregnation.
Glossary
Vertical Dip. Most vertical bends are close to 90º and are
used to bring cable into an enclosure or up a riser pole.
Therefore, the designer can treat the section as a bend
section having a section total angle of 90º and a section
offset angle of 0º. The possible bend sections are: con-
cave up, concave down, convex up, and convex down.
Voltage Source Converter (VSC). The fundamental pro-
cess that occurs in an HVDC transmission line is the
conversion of ac to dc at the transmitting end and of dc
to ac at the receiving end. The use of Voltage Source
Converters is one of three ways of achieving this conver-
sion. Voltage Source Converters are unique in that the
employ semiconductors that can be switched on and
switched off. Stated advantages for this type of conver-
sion are independent control of active and reactive
power and improved power quality.
Voltage Stress. Applied voltage divided by the electrode
spacing.
Warm Dielectric Superconducting Cable. Supercon-
ducting cable where the electrical insulation (dielectric)
is located outside the cold space of the cable. The dielec-
tric is typically an extruded polyethylene or EPR on the
outside of the cable cryostat.
Water-Jetting ROV. Submarine cables are generally bur-
ied to provide protection against damage due to third-
party marine activities. Water-Jetting ROVs (remote
operated vehicles) and Jet Plows are preferred burial
equipment where seabed conditions permit. The Water-
Jetting ROV combines seabed fluidizing and hydrody-
namic transport of the fluidized material. The fluidizing
process creates a trench into which the cable sinks
before the fluidized material is allowed to settle and
start the trench-filling process. In this process, the cable
is laid on the seabed by the cable ship prior to com-
mencement of burial by the Water-Jetting ROV.
Weight Correction Factor. Calculated correction factor
that adjusts the effective coefficient of friction for three
cable pulls.
Wire Coating. Applied over conductor to prevent insula-
tion from attacking copper. Eliminates difficulties in
soldering, and prevents deterioration of copper at high
temperatures. Coating (Maximum Condition Rating
Degrees Celsius): Tin (200), Lead Alloy (200), Nickel
(250), and Silver (250).
XLPE. See Crosslinked Polyethylene.
G-15
 EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Index

All references are to section or subsection numbers, unless otherwise noted.

A Bipole cable, 3.4.1

Ac cable. See Alternating current cable. Bird caging, 15.3.4
Accessories. See Cable accessories. Bonding, 10.2.1, 12.2.9
Ac voltage withstand and step-breakdown tests, 14.2.1 Bonding leads, 8.4.1
AEIC specifications, 2.11, 5.7.1 Bonding scheme, 3.2.7
After-installation tests, 13.14, 14.1.1, 14.4 Cross-bonding, 10.2.1, 12.2.9
Extruded-dielectric cables, 14.4.1 Impedance bonding, 10.2.1
High-pressure fluid-filled and high-pressure gas-filled Multipoint bonding, 10.2.1
cables, 14.4.2 Sheath bonding, 8.4.1, 10.2.1
Self-contained fluid-filled cables, 14.4.3 Single-point bonding, 10.2.1, 12.2.9
Series impedance measurements, 14.4.5 Bridges, 12.3.4
Sheath-bonding verification tests, 14.4.4 Butt gap, 2.8.3, 4.23.1
Alkylbenzene liquids, 5.5.2, 6.16 Butt space, 5.4.4, 6.5
Alternating current cable, 3.4.2
Ampacity, 11.1.1 C
Ampacity for trenchless installations, 11.2.7 Cable accessories, 2.9, 3.2.4, 8.2–8.4
Ampacity implications for crossing external heat Bonding leads, 8.4.1
sources, 11.2.8 Cable outer sheath/jacket, 8.4.1
Ampacity verification and uprating, 11.5 Cathodic protection and grounding, 2.9.5
Cable data, 11.2.3 Fluid-handling equipment, 2.9.4
Cables in air and tunnels, 11.2.6 Link boxes, 2.9.3, 8.4.1
Calculation principles, 11.2.1 Monitoring, 2.9.6
Calculation procedures, 11.2.5 Sectionalizing, 8.4.1, 10.2.1
Fault current calculations, 11.2.9 Sheath bonding, 8.4.1, 10.2.1
Forced cooling, 11.4 Splices, 2.9.1. 8.2 (See also Joints, Splices.)
Installation data, 11.2.4 Surge diverters, 8.4.1
Neher-McGrath paper, 11.2.1 Terminations, 2.9.2, 8.3 (See also Potheads,
Thermal ohm-meter, 11.2.1 Terminations.)
Transient rating and temperature calculations, 11.3 Cable as a two-port network, 3.7.1
Uprating, 11.5.2 Cable burial, 7.3.6
Utility system data, 11.2.2 Cable components, 3.2.3
Worked examples, 11.6 Conductor, 2.4.1
Ancillary equipment, 3.2.5 Ground continuity conductor, 3.2.3
Armoring, 2.4.4, 5.5.1, 6.10, 6.17 Ground return conductor, 3.2.3
ASTM standards, 5.7.2 Insulation, 2.4.3
Outer layers, shielding, and sheath, 2.4.4
B Semiconducting shield, 2.4.2
Backfilling, 13.7, 13.2.7 Shield conductor, 3.2.3
Basic lightning impulse insulation level. See BIL. Cable design, 3.6
Bedding tapes, 4.17.1 Cable length, 3.6.7
Bell and spigot conduits, 13.4.2, 13.6 Conductor, 3.6.1
Bending radius, 3.6.7, 4.11 Conductor shield, 3.6.2
BIL, 3.3.2, 3.4.2, 5.4.5, 16.3.8 Ground return conductor, 3.6.5

I-1
Index EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Insulation, 3.6.3 Field bends, 13.4.3

Insulation shield, 3.6.4 Joining sections of conduit, 13.4.2
Jacket, 3.6.6 Proof testing, 13.4.4
Cable electrical parameters, 3.7 Construction, cable system, 13.1–13.17
Cable fluid, 6.16 After installation tests, 13.14
Cable installation, 13.8 Backfilling, 13.7
Cable length, 3.6.7 Cable installation, 13.8
Cable maintenance, 15.3.4 Conduit installation for extruded-dielectric cables,
Cable Probabilistic Design Model (CPDM), 4.23.5 13.4
Cable system considerations Cost reduction research, 17.4.1
Impedance calculations, 16.2 Dielectric fluid installations, 13.11
Inductive coordination, 16.5 Direct-buried cable installation, 13.5
Integration of cables into the utility system, 16.3 Fiber-optic cables installation, 13.16
Magnetic fields, 16.4 High-pressure fluid-filled pipe and conduit
Cable System Endurance Model (CSEM), 4.23.6 installation, 13.6
Calculations, cable system designs, 12.4 Horizontal directional drill installations, 13.3.3
Capacitance, 2.3, 2.10.1, 3.6.3, 5.4.4, 5.4.5, 6.8, 11.1.1 Jack-and-bore installations, 13.3.2
Capacitance and reactance effects, 16.3.1 Nitrogen gas installations, 13.12
Casings, 10.3.11 Pipe freezes installation, 13.15
Cathodic protection and grounding, 2.9.5, 10.3 Pressurization plant installations, 13.13
Cathodic protection criteria, 10.3.4 Splicing, 13.9
Cathodic protection for pipe-type cable, 10.3.5 Submarine cable installation, 13.17
Field rectifiers, 10.3.5 Terminations, 13.10
Galvanic protection systems, 10.3.5 Trenching and manholes, 13.2
Polarization cell, 10.3.5 Tunneling, 13.3.1
Resistor-rectifier, 10.3.5 Continuous steady-state rating, 3.5.1
Solid-state isolator, 10.3.5 Continuous vulcanizing, 4.5.2
Voltage-breakdown gap, 10.3.5 Corrosion, 10.3
Charging currents, 2.4.4, 2.10.1, 4.1.2, 4.16.3, 5.5.1, Atmospheric corrosion, 10.3.10
16.3.2 Casings, 10.3.11
Chemical crosslinking process, 4.6.1 Cathodic protection criteria, 10.3.4
Chill or backer ring, 13.6.1 Cathodic protection for pipe-type cable, 10.3.5
Coatings, 10.3.8 Coatings, 10.3.8, 13.6.2
Damage, 15.3.2 Corrosion Coordinating Committees, 10.3.2
Disbonded coatings, 10.3.9 Corrosion prevention, 10.3.3
Coefficient of friction, 5.4.4, 5.4.7 Corrosion theory, 10.3.1
Coefficient of grounding, 16.3.8 Disbonded coating, 10.3.9
Cold dielectric. See Superconducting cable. Dynamic interference, 10.3.1
Conci conductors, 6.3 Electrolytic (stray current) corrosion, 10.3.1
Conduction current, 5.5.2 Galvanic corrosion, 10.3.1
Conductor Resistance R, 3.7.3 Lead-sheathed cable, 10.3.12
Conductor, sector, 3.6.1 Pipe to soil potential surveys, 10.3.7
Conductor, segmental, 3.6.1 Prevention, 10.3.3
Conductor shield, 3.6.2 Static interference, 10.3.1
Pipe-type cables, 5.3.1 Stray current mitigation, 10.3.6
Self-contained fluid-filled, 6.4 Theory, 10.3.1
Conductors, 2.4.1, 3.6.1 Cost considerations, 2.10.5
Conci, 6.3 Critical length, 7.3.1, 11.2.5
Conductor resistance, 3.6.1 Cross-bonding, 8.4.1, 10.2.1
Milliken, 6.2.1, 6.3 Crosslinked polyethylene, 2.5, 4.5–4.9
Pipe-type cables, 5.2 Benefits, 4.5.1
Self-contained fluid-filled cables, 6.3 Challenges, 4.5.2
Stranded round wire conductors, 3.6.1 Continuous vulcanizing, 4.5.2
Stranded shaped wire conductors, 3.6.1 Development of, 1.5
Conduit installation for extruded-dielectric cables, 13.4 Electrical breakdown mechanism, 4.9.1
Conduit materials and types, 13.4.1 Electrical design stresses, 4.8

I-2
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Index

Electrical properties, 4.9.2 Distributed temperature sensing (DTS), 2.9.6, 4.17.7,

Insulation, 4.6 11.5.1
Landmarks, 4.7 Dodecylbenzene cable fluid, 6.16
Physical properties, 4.9.3
Properties, 4.9 E
Thermal properties, 4.9.4 Educational tools, 17.3.1
Cryogenic system. See Superconducting cable. Electrical characteristics of underground cables, 2.3
Cryostat. See Superconducting cable. Electrical stress distribution, 3.6.3
Current rating, 3.5 Electromagnetic field, 3.3
CV. See Continuous vulcanizing. Electrostatic field, 3.3.1
CV lines, 4.20.2–4.20.6 EMF. See Electromagnetic field.
Emanueli cable, 1.2, 1.3
D Emanueli, Luigi, 1.2, 5.4.1
Dc cables. See Direct current cables. Environmental considerations, 2.10.4
Demand calculations, 9.3.2 EPR. See Ethylene propylene rubber.
Design considerations Ethylene propylene rubber, 2.5, 4.10–4.13
Ancillary equipment, 3.2.5 Applications, 4.11.3
Accessories, 3.2.4 Benefits, 4.10.1
Bonding scheme, 3.2.7 Challenges, 4.10.2
Cable, 3.2.3, 3.6 Electrical breakdown mechanism, 4.13.1
Cable electrical parameters, 3.7 Electrical properties, 4.13.2
Cable length, 3.6.7 First production, 1.5
Cable system, 3.2 Formulation, 4.11.1
Conductor, 3.6.1 General description, 4.11
Conductor shield, 3.6.2 Landmarks, 4.12
Current rating, 3.5 Physical properties, 4.13.3
Electromagnetic field, 3.3 Properties, 4.13
Ground return conductor, 3.6.5 Thermal properties, 4.13.4
Hydraulic and pneumatic scheme, 3.2.6 Excavating trenches, 13.2.2
Installation design, 3.2.10 Expulsion calculation, 9.3.1
Insulation, 3.6.3 Extruded cable core, 4.20
Insulation shield, 3.6.4 Extruded-dielectric cables, 2.5
Jacket, 3.6.6 Cable life and design stress, 4.23
Operation, maintenance, and testing, 3.2.11 Conductor construction, 4.14
Power rating, 3.4 Conductor and insulation shield construction, 4.15
Thermal design, 3.2.8 Crosslinked polyethylene, 4.5–4.9
Thermomechanical design, 3.2.9 Ethylene propylene rubber, 4.10–4.13
Dielectric constant. See Relative permittivity. Insulation construction, 4.16
Dielectric constants for insulation materials, Table 16-2 Jacket construction, 4.18
Dielectric fluid Joints, 8.2.2
Installation, 13.11 Manufacture of compounds, 4.19
Maintenance, 15.3.5 Manufacture of extruded cable core, 4.20
Research, 17.2.1 Outer layer construction, 4.17
Dielectric loss, 2.2, 3.3.1, 3.6.3, 4.1.2, 4.10.2, 4.11, 5.4.5, Polyethylene cable, 4.2–4.4
6.2.1 Quality control, 4.21
Dielectric loss factor, 3.6.3, 4.2.1, 5.4.5, Table 6-1 Shipping, 4.22
Dielectric strength, 3.2.6, 4.9.2, 5.4.2, 5.4.4 Terminations, 8.3.2
Direct-buried cable installation, 13.5 Extruders, 4.20.1
Direct current cables, 2.8.2, 3.4.1, 6.18, 7.3
Cable accessories—splices and terminations, 7.3.4 F
Cable design, 7.3.4 Factory production (routine) tests, 14.1.1, 14.3
HVdc underground cables, 7.3.3 Failure repair, 15.5
Insulation design, 7.3.4 Extruded-dielectric, 15.5.1
Selection of dc versus ac cables, 7.3.1 Pipe-type, 15.5.2
Submarine cables, 7.3.2 Self-contained fluid-filled, 15.5.3
Tests, 7.3.5

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Index
Failure repair material, 15.6
Extruded-dielectric, 15.6.1
Pipe-type, 15.6.2
Self-contained fluid-filled, 15.6.3
Fault location, 15.4
Features of underground cable systems, 2.1.1
Feed joint, 6.2.2, 8.2.1
Feed tank, 6.15.2
Ferranti cable, 1.2
Ferromagnetic, 3.3.2
Fiber-optic cables, installation, 13.16
Field bends
Extruded-dielectric cables, 13.4.3
High-pressure fluid-filled cables, 13.6.5
Fluids, 6.16
Fluid-handling equipment, 2.9.4
Fluidized Thermal BackfillTM, 12.2.6, 13.2.7
Forced-cooling, 11.4
Axial thermal calculations, 11.4.5
Calculating losses, 11.4.3
Cooling plant design, 9.5.3
Pressure-loss calculations, 11.4.6
Thermal-hydraulic characterization, 11.4.4
System components, 9.5.2
Systems design, 9.6.2
Freezing, 15.3.7
FTBTM. See Fluidized Thermal BackfillTM
G HPGF. See High-pressure gas-filled cable.
Gas cabinets, 9.4.4
Gas-insulated transmission line, 2.8.1, 7.2
Enclosures, 7.2.3
Epoxy spacers, 7.2.2
Factory assembled and tested GIL
Field assembled and tested GIL
Field test, 7.2.7
First U.S. installation, 1.6
High-voltage conductor, 7.2.4
Operation and maintenance, 7.2.8
Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) gas, 7.2.1
Geometric mean distance, 16.2.3
Geometric mean radius, 16.2.3
GIL. See Gas-insulated transmission line.
GITL. See Gas-insulated transmission line.
Gradient, electrical, 4.3, 8.2.5
Ground continuity conductor, 3.2.3
Ground return conductor, 3.2.3
Grounding, 10.2, 12.2.9
Alternatives to sheath bonding, 10.2.1
Cable jacket, 10.2.1
Design calculation, 10.2.3
Link boxes, 10.2.1
Sectionalizing—shield/sheath interruptions, 10.2.1
Sheath bonding, 10.2.1
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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book
Structure grounding, 10.2.2
Surge Voltage Limiters, 10.2.1
Gutta percha insulation, 1.2
H
Harmonic resonance, 16.3.7
HDD. See Horizontal directional drilling.
HDPE. See High-density polyethylene insulation.
High capacitance, 2.3
High-density polyethylene insulation, 2.5, 4.4.1
High-pressure fluid-filled cable, 2.6. 5.1.1
First U.S. installation, 1.3
Pipe and conduit installation, 13.6
High-pressure gas-filled cable, 2.6
First U.S. installation, 1.3
High-pressure liquid-filled cable, 2.6, 5.1.1
High-pressure oil-filled cable, 2.6, 5.1.1
High-temperature superconducting cable, 2.8.3.
See also Superconducting cable.
Cable design options, 2.8.3, 7.4.2
Cold dielectric, 2.8.3, 7.4.2
Demonstration projects, 1.9
Discovery of, 1.7
Warm dielectric, 2.8.3, 7.4.2
High-voltage direct-current cable
Long Island Sound installation, 1.9
Horizontal directional drilling, 12.3.3, 13.3.3, 13.2.8
HPFF. See High-pressure fluid-filled cable.
HPLF. See High-pressure liquid-filled cable.
HPOF. See High-pressure oil-filled cable.
HTS. See High-temperature superconducting cable.
HTS. See Superconducting cable.
HVdc. See High-voltage direct current cable.
Hybrid lines, 16.3.4
Hydraulic calculations, 9.3
Demand calculations, 9.3.2
Expulsion calculation, 9.3.1
Pressure drop due to flow, 9.3.3
Hydraulic design and equipment, 9.2–9.7
Engineering design principles, 9.2
Forced-cooling equipment, 9.5
Hydraulic calculations, 9.3
Pressurization equipment, 9.4
System design considerations, 9.6
Thermal and hydraulic driving forces, 9.2.3
Worked example, 9.7
Hydraulic equations, basic, 9.2.2
Hydraulic and pneumatic scheme, 3.2.6
I
ICEA specifications, 2.11
IEEE specifications, 2.11, 5.7.3
Impedance, 3.7.4, 3.7.5
EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Index

Impedance bonding, 10.2.1 Splices, 12.3.1

Impedance calculations, 16.2 Trenching, 12.3.2
Calculation method for symmetric component series Trenchless installations, 12.3.3
impedance, 16.2.4 Underwater installations, 12.3.5
Series symmetrical component impedances, 16.2.2 Insulation, 2.4.3, 3.6.3
Shunt impedance, 16.2.1 Crosslinked polyethylene, 4.6
Single-conductor cable symmetrical component Electrical stress distribution, 3.6.3
series impedance, 16.2.3 Extruded-dielectric, 4.16
Symmetrical component series impedances, 16.2.6 HVdc, 7.3.4
Worked examples, 16.2.5 Pipe-type, 5.4
Impermeability, 6.5 Polyethylene, 4.3
Impregnant, 1.3, 2.4.4, 5.4, 6.5 Self-contained fluid-filled, 6.5
Impregnated paper, 5.4.2 Insulation coordination, 16.3.8
Induced voltages, 10.2.3 Insulation resistance, 3.6.3, 4.21.4, 5.4.5
Inductance L, 3.7.2 Insulation shield, 3.6.4
Inductive coordination, 16.5 Pipe-type cables, 5.3.2
Calculation of induced voltages and currents, 16.5.2 Self-contained fluid-filled cables, 6.6
Inductive coordination with communication lines, Integration of cables into the utility system, 16.3
16.5.5 Capacitance and reactance effects, 16.3.1
Inductive coordination with fences, 16.5.4 Harmonic resonance, 16.3.7
Inductive coordination with pipelines, 16.5.3 Hybrid lines, 16.3.4
Industry standards and guides, 16.5.1 Insulation coordination, 16.3.8
Railway system inductive coordination, 16.5.7 Load sharing and power flows, 16.3.3
Installation considerations, 2.10.2 Reactive compensation, 16.3.2
Installation System protection, 16.3.9
Cable installation, 13.8 System reliability, 16.3.6
Conduit installation for extruded-dielectric cables, System restoration, 16.3.5
13.4 Ionization factor, 6.12
Dielectric fluid, 13.11
Direct-buried cable installation, 13.5 J
Extruded-dielectric cable installation, 13.8.2 Jack-and-bore, 12.3.3, 13.3.2
Fiber optic cables, 13.16 Jacket, 3.6.6, 4.18. 6.11, 10.2.1
High-pressure fluid-filled pipe and conduit Jam ratio, 12.4.2
installation, 13.6 Jet plow, 7.3.6
Nitrogen gas, 13.12 Joint, semi-stop, 8.2.3
Pipe freezes, 13.15 Joint, stop, 2.9.1, 8.2.1, 8.2.3, 15.5.3
Pipe-type cable installation, 13.8.3 Joints, 2.9.1, 8.2 (See also Splices.)
Pressurization plants, 13.13 Anticorrosion protection, 8.2.1
Research, 17.4 Connectors, 8.2.1
Self-contained fluid-filled cable installation, 13.8.4 Electrical design, 8.2.1
Submarine cable, 13.17 Extruded-dielectric joints, 8.2.2
Installation design, 3.2.10 Function, 8.2.1
Common design considerations, 12.2 General description, 8.2.1
Cable-type selection, 12.2.1 Maintenance, 15.3.6
Grounding/cathodic protection, 12.2.9 Mechanical/hydraulic design, 8.2.1
Mechanical considerations, 12.2.7 Metallic sheath closures, 8.2.1
Monitoring, 12.2.8 Pipe-type joints, 8.2.3
Overhead-to-underground transition, 12.2.5 Self-contained fluid-filled joints, 8.2.4
Rerouting existing lines, 12.2.4 Thermal design, 8.2.1
Route considerations, 12.2.2
Soil thermal properties and special backfill, 12.2.6 K
Surveying, 12.2.3 Kraft paper, 5.1.1, 5.4.2, 6.5
Thermomechanical bending, 12.2.7 Capacitance, 5.4.5
Installation modes, 12.3 Dielectric loss, 5.4.5
Bridges, 12.3.4 Dielectric strength, 5.4.5

I-5
Index EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Insulation resistance, 5.4.5 Maintenance or proof tests, 14.1.1, 14.5

Physical properties, 5.4.6 Mandrel, 13.4.2
Manholes, 13.2
L Maintenance, 15.3.3
Laminated paper polypropylene, 5.1, 5.4.3 Manhole installation, 13.2.9
Development of 1.6 Manhole racking, 12.2.7
Electrical properties, 5.4.5 Mass impregnation, 5.4.4
History, 5.4.1 Medium-pressure gas-filled cable
Physical properties, 5.4.6 First U.S. installation, 1.3
Self-contained fluid-filled cables, 6.5 Metallic sheath, 3.6.5, 4.17.3, 4.17.6, 6.9
LDPE. See Low-density polyethylene insulation Microtunneling, 12.3.3
Lead-sheathed cable, 10.3.12 Milliken conductor, 6.2.1, 6.3
Leak management, 15.7 Mineral oils, 5.5.2
Causes of leaks, 15.7.2 Moisture content, 4.17.2, 5.4.4, 6.5
Leak detection techniques, 15.7.3 Monitoring
Leak location techniques, 15.7.4 Distributed temperature monitoring, 12.2.8
Leak prevention, 15.7.8 Leak detection, 12.2.8
PFT leak location method, 15.7.6 Leak location, 12.2.8
Pinpointing methods, 15.7.5 Temperature monitoring, 12.2.8
Link boxes, 2.9.3, 8.4.1, 10.2.1 Monopole cable, 3.4.1
Load factor, 3.5.1, 11.2.1 MPGF. See Medium-pressure gas-filled cable.
Load sharing and power flows, 16.3.3 Multipoint bonding, 10.2.1
Loss factor, Table 5-1, Table 6-1, 11.2.1, 11.2.4
Low-density polyethylene insulation, 2.5, 4.2–4.4 N
Low impedance, 2.3 Nitrogen gas installation, 13.12
Low inductance, 2.3
Low-pressure gas-filled cable O
First U.S. installation, 1.3 Operation of cables, considerations for, 2.10.3
Low-pressure oil-filled cable. See Self-contained fluid- Operation, maintenance, and testing, 3.2.11
filled cable. Operations procedures, 15.2
Low-temperature superconductors. See Overhead-to-underground transition, 12.2.5
Superconducting cable. Oversheathing. See Jacket.
LPGF. Low-pressure gas-filled cable.
First U.S. installation, 1.3 P
LPOF. Low-pressure oil-filled cable. See Self-contained Paper-insulated cable, first uses, 1.3
fluid-filled cable. Partial discharge, 2.9.6, 3.2.5, 4.3
LPP. See Laminated paper polypropylene. PD. See Partial discharge.
LTS. Low-temperature superconductors. See PE cable. See Polyethylene cable.
Superconducting cable. PFT leak location, 15.7.6
Pipe freezes, 13.15, 15.5.2
M Pipe-type cables, 2.6
Magnetic field, 3.3.2, 16.4 Conductors, 5.2
Cables with ferromagnetic components, 16.4.2 General description, 5.1.1
Cables without ferromagnetic components, 16.4.1 Insulation and impregnant, 5.4
Magnetic field management methods, 16.4.3 Joints, 8.2.3
Maintenance, routine, 15.3 Outer layers and filling medium, 5.5
Cable, 15.3.4 Quality control, 5.6
Cable installed in pipe or duct, 15.3.1 Shields, 5.3
Dielectric fluid, 15.3.5 Specifications and standards, 5.7
Joints, 15.3.6 Terminations, 8.3.3
Manhole and joint casings, 15.3.3 Polarity reversal, 3.6.3, 6.18
Pipe coating damage, 15.3.2 Polybutene, 5.5.2
Pressurization system, 15.3.8 Polyethylene cable, 4.2–4.4
Terminations, 15.3.7 Benefits, 4.2.1

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Index

Challenges, 4.2.2 S
First U.S. use, 1.4 SCFF. See Self-contained fluid-filled cable.
Landmarks, 4.4 SCLF. Self-contained liquid-filled cable. See Self-
Polyethylene insulation, 4.3 contained fluid-filled cable.
Polyethylene insulation, 4.3 Screen, 2.8.3, 3.6.3, 4.8, 4.11.2, 5.4.2, 6.6
Water trees, 4.4.2 Sealing ends, 2.9.2
Potheads, 2.9.2 (See also Sealing ends and Sectionalizing, 8.4.1, 10.2.1
Terminations.) Selecting underground cable systems, considerations for,
Power rating, 3.4 2.2, 2.10
PPP. Paper polypropylene. See Laminated paper Cost considerations, 2.10.5
polypropylene. Environmental considerations, 2.10.4
Pressure drop due to flow, 9.3.3 Installation considerations, 2.10.2
Pressure limits, of cable system, 9.2.1 Operations considerations, 2.10.3
Pressurization equipment, 9.4 System considerations, 2.10.1
Computing reservoir volume, 9.4.5 Self-contained fluid-filled cable, 2.7
Gas cabinets, 9.4.4 Cable fluid, 6.16
Installation, 13.13 Characteristics, 6.1
Maintenance, 15.3.8 Components, 6.2.2
Pressurization plants, 9.4.2, 9.6.1 Conductor, 6.3
Reservoir systems, 9.4.3 Conductor shield, 6.4
Protection, system, 16.3.9 Dc operation, 6.18
Proctor density, 12.2.6 Design description, 6.2.2
Pulling tension, 2.9.1 Developments, 6.2.1
Drying and impregnation, 6.8
Q Electrical tests, 6.14
Qualification tests, 3.2.11, 3.5.3, 3.6.3, 4.4.2, 4.7.3, First U.S. installation, 1.3
11.2.5, 14.1.1, 14.3 Historical landmarks, 6.2.1
Quality factor, 14.2.6 Hydraulic and fluid quality tests, 6.15
Insulation 6.5
R Insulation shield, 6.6
Radial water barrier, 3.6.5 Jacketing or oversheathing, 6.11
Rating Joints, 8.2.4
Continuous steady-state rating, 3.5.1 Laying up, 6.7
Current rating, 3.5 Metal sheathing, 6.9
Power rating, 3.4 Reinforcement, 6.10
Short-circuit rating, 3.5.2 Routine testing, 6.12
Reactive compensation, 16.3.2 Shipping, 6.13
Relative permittivity, 3.3.1, 3.6.3, 5.4.5, 5.4.6, 5.5.2, 6.5, Submarine use, 6.17
Table 5-1, Table 5-2, Table 6-1 Terminations, 8.3.4
Reliability, system, 16.3.6 Semiconducting layer, 2.9.1, 4.9.4
Rerouting existing lines, 12.2.4 SF6 gas. See Sulfur hexafluoride gas.
Research in cable technology, 17.2 Sheath, 3.2.7, 3.3.2, 3.6.4, 2.4.4, 4.9.4, 5.4.1, 6.2.1
Cable installation design, 17.4 Sheath bonding, 8.4.1, 10.2.1
Dielectrics, 17.2.1 Alternatives to sheath bonding, 10.2.1
Dry-type terminations and high-stress splices, 17.2.2 Cable jacket, 10.2.1
Superconducting cables, 17.2.3 Design of bonding methods, 10.2.1
SuperGrid, 17.5.1 Link boxes, 10.2.1
Reservoir systems, 9.4.3 Sectionalizing—shield/sheath interruptions, 10.2.1
Computing reservoir volume, 9.4.5 Surge Voltage Limiters, 10.2.1
Restoration, system, 16.3.5 Sheath or surge voltage limiters (SVLs), 2.10.3, 8.3.3,
Route considerations, 12.2.2 8.4.1
Shields, 2.1.1, 2.2, 3.2.3, 3.6.1, 3.6.2, 4.9.4, 5.3, 6.1
Shield conductor, 3.2.3, 4.17.4. 5.3.1, 6.4

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Index EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book

Shipping Superconducting cable, 7.4

Extruded-dielectric cables, 4.22 Accessories, 7.4.3
Self-contained fluid-filled cables, 6.13 Applications, 7.4.1
Shoring/sheeting, 13.2.4 Cable projects, Table 7-5
Short-circuit rating, 3.5.2 Cold dielectric, 7.4.2
SIC. See Relative permittivity. Cryogenic systems, 7.4.3
Sidewall bearing pressure, 7.4.4 Cryostats, 7.4.3
Sieve, 12.2.6 Design, 7.4.2
Single-point bonding, 10.2.1 History, 7.4.1
Skid wires, 2.4.4, 3.2.3, 3.6.4, 5.4.4 Installation, 7.4.4
Skin effect, 3.3.2, 3.6.1, 3.7.3, 11.2.5 Materials, 7.4.1, 7.4.3
Sleeves, 13.6.1 Research, 17.2.3
Soil density, 12.2.6 Standards, 7.4.5
Soil thermal properties and special backfill, 12.2.6 Warm dielectric, 7.4.2
Fluidized Thermal BackfillTM (FTBTM), 12.2.6 SuperGrid, 17.5.1
Thermal Property Analyzer (TPA), 12.2.6 Surge arrester, 2.1, 2.10.1, 5.4.7
Thermal resistivity and diffusivity, 12.2.6 Surge diverters, 8.4.1
Thermal stability, 12.2.6 Surge Voltage Limiters, 10.2.1
Solid dielectric cables. See Extruded-dielectric cables. Surveying, 12.2.3, 13.2.1
Special application cables, 2.8 SVLs. See Surge Voltage Limiters.
Special-purpose tests, 14.1.1, 14.6
Specific inductive capacity. See Relative permittivity. T
Specifications and standards, 2.11 Temperature monitoring, 2.9.6
AEIC specifications, 2.11, 5.7.1 Temporary overvoltage, 16.3.8
ASTM standards, 5.7.2 Terminations, 2.9.2, 13.10
Contact information, 2.11.3 Components, 8.3.1
ICEA specifications, 2.11 Electrical design, 8.3.1
IEEE specifications, 2.11, 5.7.3 Extruded-dielectric cable terminations, 8.3.2, 13.10.1
Listing, 2.11.2 Failure, 15.5.1, 15.5.2
Pipe-type cables, 5.7 Function, 8.3.1
Splices, 2.9.1, 8.2, 12.3.1, 13.9 (See also Joints.) General description, 8.3.1
Extruded-dielectric cables, 13.9.1 High-pressure pipe-type termination, 13.10.2
High-pressure pipe-type cables. 13.9.2 HVdc, 7.3.4
HVdc, 7.3.4 Installation, 8.3.1
Self-contained fluid-filled cables, 13.9.3 Maintenance, 15.3.7
Stop joint. See joint, stop. Mechanical/hydraulic design, 8.3.1
Stray current mitigation, 10.3.6 Pipe-type cable terminations, 8.3.3
Stress cone, 8.2.1 Self-contained fluid-filled cable terminations, 8.3.4,
Submarine cables, 2.8.2, 7.3 13.10.3
Alternating-current cables, 2.8.2, 7.3.2 Specification and standards, 8.3.5
Cable accessories—splices and terminations, 7.3.4 Thermal design, 8.3.1
Cable burial, 7.3.6 Tests, 4.1–4.6
Cable design, 7.3.4 Ac voltage withstand and step-breakdown tests,
Direct-current cables, 2.8.2, 7.3.2 14.2.1
Installation, 13.17 After-installation tests, 13.14, 14.1.1, 14.4
Insulation design, 7.3.4 Compressed-gas-insulated cables, 14.3.6
Major ac cable links, Table 7-2 Dc Hi-Potential tests, 14.2.2
Major dc cable links, Table 7-3 Development tests, 14.1.1
Reliability, 7.3.6 Electrical tests for self-contained fluid-filled cables,
Self-contained fluid-filled cables, 6.17 6.14
Tests, 7.3.5 Extruded-dielectric cables, 14.3.2, 14.3.3
Worldwide experience, 7.3.2 Factory partial-discharge measurements, 14.2.5
Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) gas, 7.2.1 Factory production (routine) tests, 14.1.1, 14.3

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EPRI Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book Index

Field partial-discharge measurements, 14.2.6 Street and highway crossings, 13.2.8

HVdc and submarine cable system, 7.3.5 Survey of route, 13.2.1
Hydraulic and fluid quality tests for self-contained Traffic control, 13.2.5
fluid-filled cables, 6.15 Water removal/well pointing, 13.2.3
Impulse and switching surge tests, 14.2.3 Trenchless installations, 12.3.3
Insulation dissipation factor test, 14.2.4 Horizontal directional drilling, 12.3.3
Joints, 14.3.7 Jack-and-bore, 12.3.3
Longitudinal water penetration tests, 15.6.4 Microtunneling, 12.3.3
Long-term prequalification tests, 14.1.1 Triangular configuration, 16.2.5, 16.4.3
Maintenance or proof tests, 14.1.1, 14.5 Tunneling, 13.3.1
Mechanical bending tests, 16.6.2 Type or qualification tests, 14.1.1, 14.3
Pipe-type cables, 14.3.4, 14.3.5
Special-purpose tests, 14.1.1, 14.6 U
Standards organization, 14.1.3 Underground Transmission Systems Reference Book,
Terminations, 14.3.8 17.3.1
Test standards and guides, 14.1.2 Underground Transmission Workstation, 17.3.1
Thermomechanical bending tests, 14.6.3 Underwater installations, 12.3.5
Type or qualification tests, 14.1.1, 14.3 Uprating, 11.5.2
Thermal backfill, 2.9.1, 11.2.1, 11.2.4, 12.2.6, 16.4.3 Dielectric fluid circulation, 11.5.2
Thermal conductivity, 4.9.4, 5.5.2 Heat pipes, 11.5.2
Thermal design, 3.2.8 Quasi-dynamic, 11.5.2
Thermal probe, 15.7.4 Real-time dynamic ratings, 11.5.2
Thermal resistivity, 3.2.8, 4.9.4, 5.4.6, 11.2.1, 11.2.4,
11.2.5 V
Thermomechanical bending, 12.2.7, 17.3.2 Voltage source converter, 7.3.3
Thermomechanical design, 3.2.9 Voltage stress, 5.5.2, 6.5
TMB. See Thermomechanical bending.
Transient rating and temperature calculations, 11.3 W
Trefoil, 3.7.1, 6.17, 12.2.8 Warm dielectric. See Superconducting cable.
Trenching, 12.3.2, 13.2 Water blocking tapes, 4.17.2
Backfilling, 13.2.7 Water removal/well pointing, 13.2.3
Bed of trench, 13.2.6 Water trees, 4.4.2, 4.9.1
Excavating, 13.2.2 Weight correction, 12.4.2
Manhole installation, 13.2.9
Pavement restoration, 13.2.10 X
Shoring/sheeting, 13.2.4 XLPE. See Crosslinked polyethylene.

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