Body mass index - BMI

BMI, formerly called the Quetelet index, is a measure for indicating nutritional status in adults. It is
defined as a person’s weight in kilograms divided by the square of the person’s height in metres
(kg/m2). For example, an adult who weighs 70 kg and whose height is 1.75 m will have a BMI of
22.9.

70 (kg)/1.752 (m2) = 22.9 BMI

For adults over 20 years old, BMI falls into one of the following categories.

Table 1. Nutritional status

BMI Nutritional status

Below 18.5 Underweight

18.5–24.9 Normal weight

25.0–29.9 Pre-obesity

30.0–34.9 Obesity class I

35.0–39.9 Obesity class II

Above 40 Obesity class III

The BMI ranges are based on the effect excessive body fat has on disease and death and are
reasonably well related to adiposity. BMI was developed as a risk indicator of disease; as BMI
increases, so does the risk for some diseases. Some common conditions related to overweight and
obesity include: premature death, cardiovascular diseases, high blood pressure, osteoarthritis, some
cancers and diabetes.

BMI is also recommended for use in children and adolescents. In children, BMI is calculated as for
adults and then compared with z-scores or percentiles. During childhood and adolescence the ratio
between weight and height varies with sex and age, so the cut-off values that determine the
nutritional status of those aged 0–19 years are gender- and age-specific. The cut-off points of the
2006 BMI-for-age reference for children aged 0–5 years for the diagnosis of overweight and obesity
were set as the 97th and the 99th percentile, respectively. For those aged 5–19 years, overweight is
defined as a BMI-for-age value over +1 SD and obesity as a BMI-for-age value over +2 SD.

History

BMI is very easy to measure and calculate and is therefore the most commonly used tool to
correlate risk of health problems with the weight at population level. It was developed by Adolphe
Quetelet during the 19th century. During the 1970s and based especially on the data and report from
the Seven Countries study, researchers noticed that BMI appeared to be a good proxy for adiposity
and overweight related problems.

Like any other measure it is not perfect because it is only dependant on height and weight and it
does not take into consideration different levels of adiposity based on age, physical activity levels
and sex. For this reason it is expected that it overestimates adiposity in some cases and
underestimates it in others.

Other measures, such as waist circumference (WC), can complement BMI estimates. Association
between WC and health risks is not an easy task and should be done scientifically using proper
techniques.

Exercises for Physical Fitness

Components

Exercises for physical fitness components are important for keeping your body healthy and for
increasing overall fitness. The 5 components of physical fitness are cardiovascular
fitness, muscle endurance, muscular strength, flexibility, and body composition. Regular
participation in activities within each of these categories offers a well-rounded fitness program.

Exercises for Cardiovascular Fitness

Cardiovascular fitness involves the

degree to which your body takes in and
efficiently uses oxygen for the heart and
muscles during exercises and physical
activity. Your cardiovascular system is
improved when you do activities on a
regular basis that raise your heart rate.
The more often you do such activities and
the more frequently you increase the
intensity of exercise, the higher the
increases will be in your level of
cardiovascular fitness.

Exercises for cardiovascular health involve anything that gets your heart pumping, such as those
activities listed below:

 Swimming  Basketball

 Jogging  Football

 Hiking  Soccer

 Cycling  Volleyball

 Rollerbladi  Water polo

ng
 Skiing/snowboard
 Walking ing

 Tennis  Mountain biking

The recommended amount of cardiovascular, or aerobic, exercise is 30-60

minutes a day, 3-5 days per week. The higher your fitness level, the more you
might crave increased amounts and increased intensity of exercise. Exercises
for physical fitness components are a great way to round out and increase all
aspects of your fitness.

Exercises for Muscle Endurance

Muscle endurance is a muscle’s ability to sustain and maintain its effectiveness and efficiency
through long periods of exercise activity and exertion. Exercises that enhance muscle endurance
are activities like:

 Marathon/Trathlon training

 Long distance running/swimming/cycling

 High mileage hikes/backpacking

 High-repetition resistance training or weight lifting

Muscle endurance is muscle-specific, so training one muscle or muscle group (legs) will not
transfer the endurance gained to another muscle or muscle group (arms). You must train for
endurance separately for each muscle. Sport-specific training is also important for increasing
endurance applied to a given sport.

Exercises for Muscular Strength

Muscular strength is the maximal force that can be exerted in a single voluntary
contraction.Strength is a muscle’s ability to carry, lift, push, or even throw a load or weight.
The higher the strength, the more weight that muscle can carry and the more force it can exert.

Mostly, when someone is referring to exercises that “tone” the body and create form under the
skin, the person is talking about strength-training exercises. These enhance muscle tone and
definition and can be one helpful indicator of the health of a person’s body.
Men typically have a higher muscle-to-fat ratio than women and can be interested in building
more muscle, but it is very important for everyone to maintain muscular strength to help prevent
osteoporosis, keep the bones strong, and to create a firm and fit figure. Cardio burns fat, but so
does muscle, and it is what provides a beautiful underlying shape to the body.

The recommended frequency for strength-training depends on your level of fitness and your
goals, with higher exercise frequency recommended for those with higher fitness levels and
goals, and lower frequency and perhaps fewer sets recommended for those at lower fitness
levels. Consistent gradual increases should be made for those looking to increase strength. On
average, a good guideline is to do a specific exercise around 3 times a week, and perform 3 sets
of 10-20 repetitions for each exercise.

To train for muscular strength, the best exercises for physical fitness components are:

 The use of various weight machines (for abs, shoulders, lower and upper arms, lower and
upper back, glutes, thighs, calves, and hamstrings). Weight machines are helpful in
stabilizing movements, so they can be beneficial for beginners.

 Free weights (bar bells, dumb bells, medicine balls, kettle bells)

 Resistance bands

 Calisthenics (push ups, pull ups, sit ups, crunches, squats, lunges, leg lifts, chair dips,
etc.)

Always remember to warm up and cool down for 5-10 minutes before and after strength-training
to increase lubrication around the joints and decrease soreness and risk of injury.

Muscles get toned and build strength by breaking down the individual muscle fibers and then
rebuilding stronger. Soreness has a lot to do with this process. Giving the muscles a chance to
rest and rebuild by taking a day off between training sessions is an important step in the
strengthening process and also in maintaining a strength program. Soreness can also be
decreased by stretching...

Stretches for Flexibility

Flexibility is the range of motion through which the limbs are able to move. Increasing flexibility keeps your
muscles and ligaments limber and may help decrease risk of injury by stretching tight muscles and releasing
tension.

Listed below are a few great flexibility stretches when it comes to exercises for physical fitness components:

 Yoga (my favorite because it incorporates all of the stretches below and simultaneously
enhances balance and strength)

 Hamstring stretch (toe touches)

 Runner’s stretch

 Quadricep stretch

 Calf stretch

 Tricep/Bicep stretch

 Wrist and ankle twists

 Neck stretches

 Gentle waist twists

 Hip stretch
  Glute stretch

 Groin Stretch

 Inner and outer thigh stretch

 Shoulder stretch and rolls

 Oblique reach and hold

 Abdominal stretch

As mentioned above, flexibility decreases risk of injury, and in my experience, its main benefit is
the ability to release tension, which feels absolutely incredible. When you incorporate breathing
techniques, as you do with yoga, your body feels invigorated and centered. Stretching can be a
very enjoyable addition to any fitness regimen.

Exercises for Body Composition

Body composition is the body’s relative amounts of fat, muscle, and bone as
compared with body weight and how much each represents out of the
whole. Two people weighing the same amount and measuring the same height may look quite
different because they have very different body compositions.

A person’s aim when it comes to body composition usually involves losing fat
and gaining more muscle. Your ideal ratio of fat to muscle depends on your
age and sex, but a good starting place for a healthy body would be 8-19%
body fat for men ages 20-40, and 20-33% for women ages 20-40.

Exercising for optimum body composition involves doing exercises from each of the categories
listed above. Diet also plays a large role in achieving a healthy body composition. Some
exercises for achieving a healthy fat-to-muscle ratio are:

 Cardio exercise 3-5 times a week, 30-60 minutes per session

 Exercise in your fat burning zone (see Cardiovascular Fitness and Body Composition for
a more detailed explanation on fat-burning).

 Eat a healthy, balanced diet (see Nutrition and Physical Fitness for the best foods for a
lean body.

 Build muscle/weight training (muscle also helps burn fat)

Total fitness requires a holistic approach that must incorporate various exercises for physical
fitness components. Your fitness routine doesn't have to be complex to achieve your optimum
fitness level. Participating in a team or solo sport twice a week, swimming or hiking on
Wednesdays, hitting up your local yoga class on Thursdays, and using the weight machines at
your gym or doing calisthenics at home a few times a week, or any variation on this, will keep
you in excellent shape.

A well-rounded regimen that gives attention to a combination of the exercises for physical fitness
components will not only round out your overall health, but it will have you feeling incredible as
well!

Basic Volleyball Skills

Developing fundamentals are key to
success in volleyball
Developing basic volleyball skills for success.

Fundamentals

I'm sure you have often heard the key to success in sports is focusing on
fundamentals. This statement is perhaps more true in volleyball than any other sport.

The best teams are always the most highly skilled teams.

The most fundamentally sound teams have the best skills and are very confident.
These highly skilled players have the ability to focus better than anyone else.

2Save
 Success Breads Success

As player skills improve, standards increase. This is key if you want to have highly
successful volleyball teams. As skill improves, the players expectation will increase.
As a player learns, they will start to expect to be more successful.

Learning is fun and as skill level improves, players will naturally try to improve their
skill level. This is a cycle that will never stop. As long as skill level is improving,
players will never become "burned out". It's natural to never be satisfied. As long as
the athlete believes and expects to improve, they will continue to always experience
more success.

6 Basic Skills in Volleyball

The six basic volleyball skills are passing, setting, spiking, blocking, digging,
and serving.

Passing is often thought of as the most important skill in volleyball. If you can't pass
the serve, then you won't ever put your team in a position to score a point.

The importance of serving is often undervalued. Many coaches don't teach players to
serve aggressive and use this opportunity to give the team an advantage for scoring
points.

Blocking is perhaps the least taught skill in volleyball. Players can get away with
poor blocking skills because not blocking isn't going to hurt the team as much as being
poor at executing other skills in volleyball.

Digging is another skill that isn't focused on quite as much as most skills in volleyball.

The setter position is considered to be the most important position in volleyball. The
setter basically runs the team offense.

How to Play Volleyball

The object of the game is to score 25 points first.

Points are scored by winning the rally. One way to win the rally is by spiking the ball
to the floor of the opponents court.

There are many other ways to win the rally.

Here are a few...

 Hitting the ball off the opponent in way that ball isn't retrievable.

 The opponent not being able to return a spiked ball back across the net successfully.

 The opponent volleyball spiking the ball out of bounds.

 Serving the ball so tough it can't be returned.

Basic Strategy for Winning in Volleyball

The big picture END RESULT that we're after is to win the game. You win the game by
scoring points.

Now think of each skill in volleyball as having an END RESULT that you're after.

Always be focusing on the END RESULT

When first learning to play volleyball, skills should be taught with the end result in
mind.

For example, the end result of the serve is the opponent passes or doesn't pass the
ball.

The end result of the volleyball pass is the passer passes the ball to the setter to set
the ball.

The end result of a set is a spike by an attacker.

The end result of a block is deflecting the ball coming from the opponent.

UNDERSTAND THE END RESULT OF EACH SKILL

It's important to understand the end result that we're after.

For example, every single time a passer passes the ball, they should be aware of
whether or not the ball was passed in such a way that made it easy for the setter to
set it. The passer should be aware of this because this is their role on the
team....passing the ball to the setter in way that makes the setter's job easier.

The better job a passer does passing, the easier it will be for the setter to set the ball
to an attacker.

This is why developing basic volleyball skills is so important.

The main goal should always be on developing individual player skills

Jumping High to Spike

Calisthenics is a form of exercise consisting of a variety of movements which exercise large muscle
groups (gross motor movements), such as running, standing, grasping, pushing, etc. These
exercises are often performed rhythmically and with minimal equipment, as bodyweight exercises.
They are intended to increase strength, fitness and flexibility, through movements such as pulling,
pushing, bending, jumping, or swinging, using one's bodyweight for resistance. Calisthenics can
provide the benefits of muscular and aerobic conditioning, in addition to improving psychomotor
skills such as balance, agility and coordination.
Urban calisthenics are a form of street workout; calisthenics groups perform exercise routines in
urban areas. Individuals and groups train to perform advanced calisthenics skills such as muscle-
ups, levers, and various freestyle moves such as spins and flips.
Sports teams and military units often perform leader-directed group calisthenics as a form
of synchronized physical training (often including a customized "call and response" routine) to
increase group cohesion and discipline. Calisthenics are also popular as a component of physical
education in primary and secondary schools over much of the globe.

The word calisthenics comes from the ancient Greek words kallos (κάλλος), which means "beauty"
or "beautiful" (to emphasize the aesthetic pleasure that derives from the perfection of the human
body), and sthenos (σθένος), meaning "strength" (great mental strength, courage, strength and
determination). It is the art of using one's bodyweight as resistance in order to develop physique.
The practice was recorded in use in Ancient Greece, including the armies of Alexander the
Great and the Spartans at the Battle of Thermopylae.[1]
Disciples of Friedrich Ludwig Jahn brought their version of gymnastics to the United States, while
Catherine Beecher and Dio Lewis set up physical education programs for women in the 19th century.
[2]
Organized systems of calisthenics in America took a back seat to competitive sports after
the Battle of the Systems, when the states mandated physical education systems.[citation needed] The Royal
Canadian Air Force's calisthenics program published in the 1960s helped to launch modern fitness
culture.[3][4]
Calisthenics is associated with the rapidly growing international sport called street workout. Street
workout consists of athletes performing calisthenics routines in timed sessions in front of a panel of
judges. The World Street Workout & Calisthenics Federation (WSWCF) based in Riga, Latvia
orchestrates the annual National Championships and hosts the World Championships for all the
national champions to compete at one competition. The World Calisthenics Organization (WCO)
based in Los Angeles, CA. promotes a series of competitions known globally as the Battle of the
Bars. The WCO created the first ever set of rules for formal competitions, including weight classes,
timed round system, original judging criteria and a 10-point must system - giving increasing number
of athletes worldwide an opportunity to compete in these global competitions.

 Muscle-ups
One of the basic calisthenics routines. Performed by a combination routine of a pull-up
followed by a dip. May be done on pullup bars or rings.

 Squat jumps (box jumps)

Performed by entering a squatting position, then using a plyometric jumping movement to
jump as high as possible.

 Front lever
A front lever is performed by performing a lat pulldown of the bar with straight arms until the
body is parallel to the ground, with the front of the body facing upwards. May be done on
rings or pull-up bar.

 Push-ups
Performed face down on the floor, palms against floor under the shoulders, toes curled
upwards against the floor. The arms are used to lift the body while maintaining a straight line
from head to heel. The arms go from fully extended in the high position to nearly fully flexed
in the low position, while avoiding resting on the floor. Chest, shoulders, and triceps are
trained with this exercise.

 Pull-ups
An overhead bar (sometimes called a chin-up bar) is grasped using a shoulder-width grip.
The subject lifts their body up, chin level with the bar, and keeping the back straight
throughout. The bar remains in front of the subject at all times. The subject then slowly
returns to starting position in a slow controlled manner. This primarily trains the lats or upper
back muscles, as well as the forearms. An underhand grip variation or chin-up trains both the
back and biceps.

 Chin-ups
Much like the pull-up, except that the hand placement is reversed. The hands are facing the
person as he pulls his body up using the chin-up bar. The chin-up focuses on
the biceps muscles, rather than the Latissimus dorsi muscle which is the focus of the pull up.
[5]

 Squats
Standing with feet shoulder width apart, the subject squats down as far as possible, bringing
the arms forward parallel to the floor. The subject then returns to standing position. Squats
train the quadriceps, hamstrings, calves, and gluteal muscles.

 Back lever
A back lever is performed by lowering from an inverted hang from rings or bar, until the
gymnast's body is parallel to the ground and facing towards the floor.
 Handstand
A handstand is the act of supporting the body in a stable, inverted vertical position by
balancing on the hands. In a basic handstand the body is held straight with arms and legs
fully extended, with hands spaced approximately shoulder-width apart.

 Dips
Done between parallel bars or facing either direction of trapezoid bars found in some gyms.
Feet are crossed with either foot in front and the body is lowered until the elbows are in line
with the shoulders. The subject then pushes up until the arms are fully extended, but without
locking the elbows. Dips focus primarily on the chest, triceps, and deltoids, especially the
anterior portion.

 Hyperextensions
Performed in a prone position on the ground, the individual raises the legs, arms and upper
body off the ground.

 Leg raises
Lying on the back, hands in fists under buttocks, move feet up and down.

 Planks
This is the name for holding the 'top' position of a push-up for extended periods of time. The
primary muscle involved in this exercise is the rectus abdominis.

 Shuttle runs
This is running back and forth between two points (or cones) typically separated by 5-40
meters, as fast as possible, with a touchdown. The emphasis should be on stopping, turning
back and accelerate back to a sprint as quickly as possible.

 Burpees
A full body calisthenics workout that works abdominal muscles, chest, arms, legs, and some
parts of the back.

 L-sit
The L-sit is an acrobatic body position in which all body weight rests on the hands, with the
torso held in a slightly forward-leaning orientation, with legs held horizontally so that each leg
forms a nominal right-angle with the torso. The right-angle causes the body to have a notable
"L" shape, hence the name "L-sit". The L sit requires you to keep your core tensed and hold
your legs horizontal so your body sits in a perfect 'L' position. This requires significant
abdominal strength and a high level of hamstring flexibility.

Mimetic Dance is a style of dance that simply imitates behaviour found in nature, particularly of
animals. This style of dance is found in most indigenous cultures of the Philippines, especially that of
the Aetas.

A distinctive type is the wide assortment of mimetic dances in which movements try to mimic, for
example, the flight of birds, the catching of fish, the making of wine, and other aspects of Visayan
life.
Examples are:

Itik-itik (mimetic dance)

Mananagat (mimetic dance)

Mananguete (mimetic dance)

Ohong-Ohong (mimetic dance)

"Individual and Dual Sports"

"Individual sports"

An Individual sports is where you play as one team and it refers to a sports in which participants
compete as an individual

Examples of individual sports:

1. Archery- is the art, practice, or skill of propelling "arrows" with the use of a "bow".
2. Badminton- is a "racquet sport" played by either two opposing players or two opposing pairs, who
take position on opposite halves of a rectangular court that is divided by a net.

3. Boxing- also called as "pugilism", is a combat sport in which two people engage in a contest using only
their fists.

4. Golf- is a precision club and ball sport, in which competing players use many types of clubs to hit the
balls into a series of holes on a golf course using the fewest number of stroke.
5. Table Tennis- also known as "ping-pong, is a sports in which two or four players hit a lightweight
hollow ball back and fourth using table tennis rackets.

"Dual Sports"
Dual sports is a sports where in you played with someone else.

Examples of Dual sports:

1. Chess- is a two player board game, played on a chessboard, a square-checkered board with 64 squares
arranged in an eight-by-eight grid.

2. Basketball- is a dual sports, the objective being to shoot a ball through a basket horizontally positioned
to score points while following a set of rules.
3. Synchronized Swimming- is a hybrid form of swimming dance and gymnastics, consisting of swimmers
performing a synchronized routine of elaborate moves in the water, accompanied by music.

Badminton and table tennis, also known as pingpong, are considered fun games by many people but
are also very competitive racquet Olympic sports. Badminton player Fu Haifeng of China hit the
shuttlecock, badminton’s version of a ball, 206 mph in 2005, according to Guinness World Records.
China dominates both sports. Badminton and table tennis have other similarities in field of play,
equipment and rules, but they also have differences.
Badminton is a racquet sport played using racquets to hit a shuttlecock across a net. Although it
may be played with larger teams, the most common forms of the game are "singles" (with one player
per side) and "doubles" (with two players per side). Badminton is often played as a casual outdoor
activity in a yard or on a beach; formal games are played on a rectangular indoor court. Points are
scored by striking the shuttlecock with the racquet and landing it within the opposing side's half of
the court.
Each side may only strike the shuttlecock once before it passes over the net. Play ends once the
shuttlecock has struck the floor or if a fault has been called by the umpire, service judge, or (in their
absence) the opposing side.[1]
The shuttlecock is a feathered or (in informal matches) plastic projectile which flies differently from
the balls used in many other sports. In particular, the feathers create much higher drag, causing the
shuttlecock to decelerate more rapidly. Shuttlecocks also have a high top speed compared to the
balls in other racquet sports. The flight of the shuttlecock gives the sport its distinctive nature.
The game developed in British India from the earlier game of battledore and shuttlecock. European
play came to be dominated by Denmark but the game has become very popular in Asia, with recent
competitions dominated by China. Since 1992, badminton has been a Summer Olympic
sport with four events: men's singles, women's singles, men's doubles, and women's doubles, [2] with
mixed doubles added four years later. At high levels of play, the sport demands excellent fitness:
players require aerobic stamina, agility, strength, speed, and precision. It is also a technical sport,
requiring good motor coordination and the development of sophisticated racquet movements.[3]

Rules
The following information is a simplified summary of badminton rules based on the BWF Statutes
publication, Laws of Badminton.[13]

Court
The court is rectangular and divided into halves by a net. Courts are usually marked for both singles
and doubles play, although badminton rules permit a court to be marked for singles only. [13] The
doubles court is wider than the singles court, but both are of the same length. The exception, which
often causes confusion to newer players, is that the doubles court has a shorter serve-length
dimension.
The full width of the court is 6.1 metres (20 ft), and in singles this width is reduced to 5.18 metres
(17 ft). The full length of the court is 13.4 metres (44 ft). The service courts are marked by a centre
line dividing the width of the court, by a short service line at a distance of 1.98 metres (6 ft 6 inch)
from the net, and by the outer side and back boundaries. In doubles, the service court is also
marked by a long service line, which is 0.76 metres (2 ft 6 inch) from the back boundary.
The net is 1.55 metres (5 ft 1 inch) high at the edges and 1.524 metres (5 ft) high in the centre. The
net posts are placed over the doubles sidelines, even when singles is played.
The minimum height for the ceiling above the court is not mentioned in the Laws of Badminton.
Nonetheless, a badminton court will not be suitable if the ceiling is likely to be hit on a high serve.

Serving
The legal bounds of a badminton court during various stages of a rally for singles and doubles games

When the server serves, the shuttlecock must pass over the short service line on the opponents'
court or it will count as a fault. The server and receiver must remain within their service courts,
without touching the boundary lines, until the server strikes the shuttlecock. The other two players
may stand wherever they wish, so long as they do not block the vision of the server or receiver.
At the start of the rally, the server and receiver stand in diagonally opposite service courts (see court
dimensions). The server hits the shuttlecock so that it would land in the receiver's service court. This
is similar to tennis, except that in a badminton serve the whole shuttle must be below 1.15 metres
from the surface of the court at the instant of being hit by the server's racket with the shaft pointing
downwards, the shuttlecock is not allowed to bounce and in badminton, the players stand inside their
service courts, unlike tennis.
When the serving side loses a rally, the server immediately passes to their opponent(s) (this differs
from the old system where sometimes the serve passes to the doubles partner for what is known as
a "second serve").
In singles, the server stands in their right service court when their score is even, and in her/his left
service court when her/his score is odd.
In doubles, if the serving side wins a rally, the same player continues to serve, but he/she changes
service courts so that she/he serves to a different opponent each time. If the opponents win the rally
and their new score is even, the player in the right service court serves; if odd, the player in the left
service court serves. The players' service courts are determined by their positions at the start of the
previous rally, not by where they were standing at the end of the rally. A consequence of this system
is that each time a side regains the service, the server will be the player who did not serve last time.

Scoring
Each game is played to 21 points, with players scoring a point whenever they win a rally regardless
of whether they served[13] (this differs from the old system where players could only win a point on
their serve and each game was played to 15 points). A match is the best of three games.
If the score reaches 20-all, then the game continues until one side gains a two-point lead (such as
24–22), except when there is a tie at 29-all, in which the game goes to a golden point. Whoever
scores this point will win.
At the start of a match, the shuttlecock is cast and the side towards which the shuttlecock is pointing
serves first. Alternatively, a coin may be tossed, with the winners choosing whether to serve or
receive first, or choosing which end of the court to occupy first, and their opponents making the
leftover the remaining choice.
In subsequent games, the winners of the previous game serve first. Matches are best out of three: a
player or pair must win two games (of 21 points each) to win the match. For the first rally of any
doubles game, the serving pair may decide who serves and the receiving pair may decide who
receives. The players change ends at the start of the second game; if the match reaches a third
game, they change ends both at the start of the game and when the leading player's or pair's score
reaches 11 points.

Lets
If a let is called, the rally is stopped and replayed with no change to the score. Lets may occur
because of some unexpected disturbance such as a shuttlecock landing on a court (having been hit
there by players playing in adjacent court) or in small halls the shuttle may touch an overhead rail
which can be classed as a let.
If the receiver is not ready when the service is delivered, a let shall be called; yet, if the receiver
attempts to return the shuttlecock, the receiver shall be judged to have been ready.

Equipment
.

Racquets
Badminton racquets are lightweight, with top quality racquets weighing between 70 and 95 grams
(2.5 and 3.4 ounces) not including grip or strings.[14][15] They are composed of many different materials
ranging from carbon fibre composite (graphite reinforced plastic) to solid steel, which may be
augmented by a variety of materials. Carbon fibre has an excellent strength to weight ratio, is stiff,
and gives excellent kinetic energy transfer. Before the adoption of carbon fibre composite, racquets
were made of light metals such as aluminium. Earlier still, racquets were made of wood. Cheap
racquets are still often made of metals such as steel, but wooden racquets are no longer
manufactured for the ordinary market, because of their excessive mass and cost. Nowadays,
nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and fullerene are added to racquets giving them greater
durability.[citation needed]
There is a wide variety of racquet designs, although the laws limit the racquet size and shape.
Different racquets have playing characteristics that appeal to different players. The traditional oval
head shape is still available, but an isometric head shape is increasingly common in new racquets.

Strings
Badminton strings for racquets are thin, high performing strings with thicknesses ranging from about
0.62 to 0.73 mm. Thicker strings are more durable, but many players prefer the feel of thinner
strings. String tension is normally in the range of 80 to 160 N (18 to 36 lbf). Recreational players
generally string at lower tensions than professionals, typically between 80 and 110 N (18 and 25 lbf).
Professionals string between about 110 and 160 N (25 and 36 lbf). Some string manufacturers
measure the thickness of their strings under tension so they are actually thicker than specified when
slack. Ashaway Micropower is actually 0.7mm but Yonex BG-66 is about 0.72mm.
It is often argued that high string tensions improve control, whereas low string tensions increase
power.[16] The arguments for this generally rely on crude mechanical reasoning, such as claiming that
a lower tension string bed is more bouncy and therefore provides more power. This is, in fact,
incorrect, for a higher string tension can cause the shuttle to slide off the racquet and hence make it
harder to hit a shot accurately. An alternative view suggests that the optimum tension for power
depends on the player:[14] the faster and more accurately a player can swing their racquet, the higher
the tension for maximum power. Neither view has been subjected to a rigorous mechanical analysis,
nor is there clear evidence in favour of one or the other. The most effective way for a player to find a
good string tension is to experiment.

Grip
The choice of grip allows a player to increase the thickness of their racquet handle and choose a
comfortable surface to hold. A player may build up the handle with one or several grips before
applying the final layer.
Players may choose between a variety of grip materials. The most common choices
are PU synthetic grips or towelling grips. Grip choice is a matter of personal preference. Players
often find that sweat becomes a problem; in this case, a drying agent may be applied to the grip or
hands, sweatbands may be used, the player may choose another grip material or change his/her
grip more frequently.
There are two main types of grip: replacement grips and overgrips. Replacement grips are thicker
and are often used to increase the size of the handle. Overgrips are thinner (less than 1 mm), and
are often used as the final layer. Many players, however, prefer to use replacement grips as the final
layer. Towelling grips are always replacement grips. Replacement grips have an adhesive backing,
whereas overgrips have only a small patch of adhesive at the start of the tape and must be applied
under tension; overgrips are more convenient for players who change grips frequently, because they
may be removed more rapidly without damaging the underlying material.

Shuttlecock
A shuttlecock (often abbreviated to shuttle; also called a birdie) is a high-drag projectile, with an
open conical shape: the cone is formed from sixteen overlapping feathers embedded into a rounded
cork base. The cork is covered with thin leather or synthetic material. Synthetic shuttles are often
used by recreational players to reduce their costs as feathered shuttles break easily. These nylon
shuttles may be constructed with either natural cork or synthetic foam base and a plastic skirt.
Badminton rules also provide for testing a shuttlecock for the correct speed:
3.1: To test a shuttlecock, hit a full underhand stroke which makes contact with the shuttlecock over
the back boundary line. The shuttlecock shall be hit at an upward angle and in a direction parallel to
the sidelines.
3.2: A shuttlecock of the correct speed will land not less than 530 mm and not more than 990 mm
short of the other back boundary line.

Shoes
Badminton shoes are lightweight with soles of rubber or similar high-grip, non-marking materials.
Compared to running shoes, badminton shoes have little lateral support. High levels of lateral
support are useful for activities where lateral motion is undesirable and unexpected. Badminton,
however, requires powerful lateral movements. A highly built-up lateral support will not be able to
protect the foot in badminton; instead, it will encourage catastrophic collapse at the point where the
shoe's support fails, and the player's ankles are not ready for the sudden loading, which can cause
sprains. For this reason, players should choose badminton shoes rather than general trainers or
running shoes, because proper badminton shoes will have a very thin sole, lower a person's centre
of gravity, and therefore result in fewer injuries. Players should also ensure that they learn safe and
proper footwork, with the knee and foot in alignment on all lunges. This is more than just a safety
concern: proper footwork is also critical in order to move effectively around the court.

Technique
Strokes

Badminton offers a wide variety of basic strokes, and players require a high level of skill to perform
all of them effectively. All strokes can be played either forehand or backhand. A player's forehand
side is the same side as their playing hand: for a right-handed player, the forehand side is their right
side and the backhand side is their left side. Forehand strokes are hit with the front of the hand
leading (like hitting with the palm), whereas backhand strokes are hit with the back of the hand
leading (like hitting with the knuckles). Players frequently play certain strokes on the forehand side
with a backhand hitting action, and vice versa.
In the forecourt and midcourt, most strokes can be played equally effectively on either the forehand
or backhand side; but in the rear court, players will attempt to play as many strokes as possible on
their forehands, often preferring to play a round-the-head forehand overhead (a forehand "on the
backhand side") rather than attempt a backhand overhead. Playing a backhand overhead has two
main disadvantages. First, the player must turn their back to their opponents, restricting their view of
them and the court. Second, backhand overheads cannot be hit with as much power as forehands:
the hitting action is limited by the shoulder joint, which permits a much greater range of movement
for a forehand overhead than for a backhand. The backhand clear is considered by most players and
coaches to be the most difficult basic stroke in the game, since the precise technique is needed in
order to muster enough power for the shuttlecock to travel the full length of the court. For the same
reason, backhand smashes tend to be weak.

Position of the shuttlecock and receiving player

The choice of stroke depends on how near the shuttlecock is to the net, whether it is above net
height, and where an opponent is currently positioned: players have much better attacking options if
they can reach the shuttlecock well above net height, especially if it is also close to the net. In the
forecourt, a high shuttlecock will be met with a net kill, hitting it steeply downwards and attempting
to win the rally immediately. This is why it is best to drop the shuttlecock just over the net in this
situation. In the midcourt, a high shuttlecock will usually be met with a powerful smash, also hitting
downwards and hoping for an outright winner or a weak reply. Athletic jump smashes, where players
jump upwards for a steeper smash angle, are a common and spectacular element of elite men's
doubles play. In the rearcourt, players strive to hit the shuttlecock while it is still above them, rather
than allowing it to drop lower. This overhead hitting allows them to play smashes, clears (hitting the
shuttlecock high and to the back of the opponents' court), and drop shots (hitting the shuttlecock
softly so that it falls sharply downwards into the opponents' forecourt). If the shuttlecock has dropped
lower, then a smash is impossible and a full-length, high clear is difficult.

Vertical position of the shuttlecock

When the shuttlecock is well below net height, players have no choice but to hit upwards. Lifts,
where the shuttlecock is hit upwards to the back of the opponents' court, can be played from all parts
of the court. If a player does not lift, their only remaining option is to push the shuttlecock softly back
to the net: in the forecourt, this is called a net shot; in the midcourt or rear court, it is often called
a push or block.
When the shuttlecock is near to net height, players can hit drives, which travel flat and rapidly
over the net into the opponents' rear midcourt and rear court. Pushes may also be hit flatter, placing
the shuttlecock into the front midcourt. Drives and pushes may be played from the midcourt or
forecourt, and are most often used in doubles: they are an attempt to regain the attack, rather than
choosing to lift the shuttlecock and defend against smashes. After a successful drive or push, the
opponents will often be forced to lift the shuttlecock.

Spin
Balls may be spun to alter their bounce (for example, topspin and backspin in tennis) or trajectory,
and players may slice the ball (strike it with an angled racquet face) to produce such spin. The
shuttlecock is not allowed to bounce, but slicing the shuttlecock does have applications in
badminton. (See Basic strokes for an explanation of technical terms.)

 Slicing the shuttlecock from the side may cause it to travel in a different direction from the
direction suggested by the player's racquet or body movement. This is used to deceive
opponents.
 Slicing the shuttlecock from the side may cause it to follow a slightly curved path (as seen
from above), and the deceleration imparted by the spin causes sliced strokes to slow down more
suddenly towards the end of their flight path. This can be used to create drop shots and
smashes that dip more steeply after they pass the net.

 When playing a net shot, slicing underneath the shuttlecock may cause it to turn over itself
(tumble) several times as it passes the net. This is called a spinning net shot or tumbling net
shot. The opponent will be unwilling to address the shuttlecock until it has corrected its
orientation.
Due to the way that its feathers overlap, a shuttlecock also has a slight natural spin about its axis of
rotational symmetry. The spin is in a counter-clockwise direction as seen from above when dropping
a shuttlecock. This natural spin affects certain strokes: a tumbling net shot is more effective if the
slicing action is from right to left, rather than from left to right. [17]

Biomechanics
Badminton biomechanics have not been the subject of extensive scientific study, but some studies
confirm the minor role of the wrist in power generation and indicate that the major contributions to
power come from internal and external rotations of the upper and lower arm. [18] Recent guides to the
sport thus emphasize forearm rotation rather than wrist movements.[19]
The feathers impart substantial drag, causing the shuttlecock to decelerate greatly over distance.
The shuttlecock is also extremely aerodynamically stable: regardless of initial orientation, it will turn
to fly cork-first and remain in the cork-first orientation.
One consequence of the shuttlecock's drag is that it requires considerable power to hit it the full
length of the court, which is not the case for most racquet sports. The drag also influences the flight
path of a lifted (lobbed) shuttlecock: the parabola of its flight is heavily skewed so that it falls at a
steeper angle than it rises. With very high serves, the shuttlecock may even fall vertically.

Other factors
When defending against a smash, players have three basic options: lift, block, or drive. In singles,
a block to the net is the most common reply. In doubles, a lift is the safest option but it usually allows
the opponents to continue smashing; blocks and drives are counter-attacking strokes but may be
intercepted by the smasher's partner. Many players use a backhand hitting action for returning
smashes on both the forehand and backhand sides because backhands are more effective than
forehands at covering smashes directed to the body. Hard shots directed towards the body are
difficult to defend.
The service is restricted by the Laws and presents its own array of stroke choices. Unlike in tennis,
the server's racquet must be pointing in a downward direction to deliver the serve so normally the
shuttle must be hit upwards to pass over the net. The server can choose a low serve into the
forecourt (like a push), or a lift to the back of the service court, or a flat drive serve. Lifted serves
may be either high serves, where the shuttlecock is lifted so high that it falls almost vertically at the
back of the court, or flick serves, where the shuttlecock is lifted to a lesser height but falls sooner.

Deception
Once players have mastered these basic strokes, they can hit the shuttlecock from and to any part
of the court, powerfully and softly as required. Beyond the basics, however, badminton offers rich
potential for advanced stroke skills that provide a competitive advantage. Because badminton
players have to cover a short distance as quickly as possible, the purpose of many advanced
strokes is to deceive the opponent, so that either they are tricked into believing that a different stroke
is being played, or they are forced to delay their movement until they actually sees the shuttle's
direction. "Deception" in badminton is often used in both of these senses. When a player is
genuinely deceived, they will often lose the point immediately because they cannot change their
direction quickly enough to reach the shuttlecock. Experienced players will be aware of the trick and
cautious not to move too early, but the attempted deception is still useful because it forces the
opponent to delay their movement slightly. Against weaker players whose intended strokes are
obvious, an experienced player may move before the shuttlecock has been hit, anticipating the
stroke to gain an advantage.
Slicing and using a shortened hitting action are the two main technical devices that facilitate
deception. Slicing involves hitting the shuttlecock with an angled racquet face, causing it to travel in
a different direction than suggested by the body or arm movement. Slicing also causes the
shuttlecock to travel more slowly than the arm movement suggests. For example, a good
crosscourt sliced drop shot will use a hitting action that suggests a straight clear or a smash,
deceiving the opponent about both the power and direction of the shuttlecock. A more sophisticated
slicing action involves brushing the strings around the shuttlecock during the hit, in order to make the
shuttlecock spin. This can be used to improve the shuttle's trajectory, by making it dip more rapidly
as it passes the net; for example, a sliced low serve can travel slightly faster than a normal low
serve, yet land on the same spot. Spinning the shuttlecock is also used to create spinning net
shots (also called tumbling net shots), in which the shuttlecock turns over itself several times
(tumbles) before stabilizing; sometimes the shuttlecock remains inverted instead of tumbling. The
main advantage of a spinning net shot is that the opponent will be unwilling to address the
shuttlecock until it has stopped tumbling, since hitting the feathers will result in an unpredictable
stroke. Spinning net shots are especially important for high-level singles players.
The lightness of modern racquets allows players to use a very short hitting action for many strokes,
thereby maintaining the option to hit a powerful or a soft stroke until the last possible moment. For
example, a singles player may hold their racquet ready for a net shot, but then flick the shuttlecock
to the back instead with a shallow lift when they notice the opponent has moved before the actual
shot was played. A shallow lift takes less time to reach the ground and as mentioned above a rally is
over when the shuttlecock touches the ground. This makes the opponent's task of covering the
whole court much more difficult than if the lift was hit higher and with a bigger, obvious swing. A short
hitting action is not only useful for deception: it also allows the player to hit powerful strokes when
they have no time for a big arm swing. A big arm swing is also usually not advised in badminton
because bigger swings make it more difficult to recover for the next shot in fast exchanges. The use
of grip tightening is crucial to these techniques, and is often described as finger power. Elite players
develop finger power to the extent that they can hit some power strokes, such as net kills, with less
than a 10 centimetres (4 inches) racquet swing.
It is also possible to reverse this style of deception, by suggesting a powerful stroke before slowing
down the hitting action to play a soft stroke. In general, this latter style of deception is more common
in the rear court (for example, drop shots disguised as smashes), whereas the former style is more
common in the forecourt and midcourt (for example, lifts disguised as net shots).
Deception is not limited to slicing and short hitting actions. Players may also use double motion,
where they make an initial racquet movement in one direction before withdrawing the racquet to hit
in another direction. Players will often do this to send opponents in the wrong direction. The racquet
movement is typically used to suggest a straight angle but then play the stroke crosscourt, or vice
versa. Triple motion is also possible, but this is very rare in actual play. An alternative to double
motion is to use a racquet head fake, where the initial motion is continued but the racquet is turned
during the hit. This produces a smaller change in direction but does not require as much time.
To win in badminton, players need to employ a wide variety of strokes in the right situations. These
range from powerful jumping smashes to delicate tumbling net returns. Often rallies finish with a
smash, but setting up the smash requires subtler strokes. For example, a net shot can force the
opponent to lift the shuttlecock, which gives an opportunity to smash. If the net shot is tight and
tumbling, then the opponent's lift will not reach the back of the court, which makes the subsequent
smash much harder to return.
Deception is also important. Expert players prepare for many different strokes that look identical and
use slicing to deceive their opponents about the speed or direction of the stroke. If an opponent tries
to anticipate the stroke, they may move in the wrong direction and may be unable to change their
body momentum in time to reach the shuttlecock.

Singles
Since one person needs to cover the entire court, singles tactics are based on forcing the opponent
to move as much as possible; this means that singles strokes are normally directed to the corners of
the court. Players exploit the length of the court by combining lifts and clears with drop shots and net
shots. Smashing tends to be less prominent in singles than in doubles because the smasher has no
partner to follow up their effort and is thus vulnerable to a skillfully placed return. Moreover, frequent
smashing can be exhausting in singles where the conservation of a player's energy is at a premium.
However, players with strong smashes will sometimes use the shot to create openings, and players
commonly smash weak returns to try to end rallies.
In singles, players will often start the rally with a forehand high serve or with a flick serve. Low
serves are also used frequently, either forehand or backhand. Drive serves are rare.
At high levels of play, singles demand extraordinary fitness. Singles is a game of patient positional
manoeuvring, unlike the all-out aggression of doubles.[20]

Doubles
Both pairs will try to gain and maintain the attack, smashing downwards when the opportunity arises.
Whenever possible, a pair will adopt an ideal attacking formation with one player hitting down from
the rear court, and their partner in the midcourt intercepting all smash returns except the lift. If the
rear court attacker plays a drop shot, their partner will move into the forecourt to threaten the net
reply. If a pair cannot hit downwards, they will use flat strokes in an attempt to gain the attack. If a
pair is forced to lift or clear the shuttlecock, then they must defend: they will adopt a side-by-side
position in the rear midcourt, to cover the full width of their court against the opponents' smashes. In
doubles, players generally smash to the middle ground between two players in order to take
advantage of confusion and clashes.
At high levels of play, the backhand serve has become popular to the extent that forehand serves
have become fairly rare at a high level of play. The straight low serve is used most frequently, in an
attempt to prevent the opponents gaining the attack immediately. Flick serves are used to prevent
the opponent from anticipating the low serve and attacking it decisively.
At high levels of play, doubles rallies are extremely fast. Men's doubles are the most aggressive form
of badminton, with a high proportion of powerful jump smashes and very quick reflex exchanges.
Because of this, spectator interest is sometimes greater for men's doubles than for singles.

Mixed doubles
In mixed doubles, both pairs typically try to maintain an attacking formation with the woman at the
front and the man at the back. This is because the male players are usually substantially stronger,
and can, therefore, produce smashes that are more powerful. As a result, mixed doubles require
greater tactical awareness and subtler positional play. Clever opponents will try to reverse the ideal
position, by forcing the woman towards the back or the man towards the front. In order to protect
against this danger, mixed players must be careful and systematic in their shot selection. [21]
At high levels of play, the formations will generally be more flexible: the top women players are
capable of playing powerfully from the back-court, and will happily do so if required. When the
opportunity arises, however, the pair will switch back to the standard mixed attacking position, with
the woman in front and men in the back.

Table tennis, also known as ping-pong, is a sport in which two or four players hit a lightweight ball
back and forth across a table using small rackets. The game takes place on a hard table divided by
a net. Except for the initial serve, the rules are generally as follows: players must allow a ball played
toward them to bounce one time on their side of the table, and must return it so that it bounces on
the opposite side at least once. A point is scored when a player fails to return the ball within the
rules. Play is fast and demands quick reactions. Spinning the ball alters its trajectory and limits an
opponent's options, giving the hitter a great advantage.
Table tennis is governed by the worldwide organization International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF),
founded in 1926. ITTF currently includes 226 member associations.[3] The table tennis official rules
are specified in the ITTF handbook.[4] Table tennis has been an Olympic sport since 1988,[5] with
several event categories. From 1988 until 2004, these were men's singles, women's singles, men's
doubles and women's doubles. Since 2008, a team event has been played instead of the doubles.

Equipment

Ball
The international rules specify that the game is played with a sphere having a mass of 2.7 grams
(0.095 oz) and a diameter of 40 millimetres (1.57 in).[23] The rules say that the ball shall bounce up
24–26 cm (9.4–10.2 in) when dropped from a height of 30.5 cm (12.0 in) onto a standard steel block
thereby having a coefficient of restitution of 0.89 to 0.92. Balls are now made of a polymer instead
of celluloid as of 2015, colored white or orange, with a matte finish. The choice of ball color is made
according to the table color and its surroundings. For example, a white ball is easier to see on a
green or blue table than it is on a grey table. Manufacturers often indicate the quality of the ball with
a star rating system, usually from one to three, three being the highest grade. As this system is not
standard across manufacturers, the only way a ball may be used in official competition is upon ITTF
approval[23] (the ITTF approval can be seen printed on the ball).
The 40 mm ball was introduced after the end of the 2000 Summer Olympics.[19] This created some
controversies. Then World No 1 table tennis professional Vladimir Samsonov threatened to pull out
of the World Cup, which was scheduled to debut the new regulation ball on October 12, 2000. [24]

Table
The table is 2.74 m (9.0 ft) long, 1.525 m (5.0 ft) wide, and 76 cm (2.5 ft) high with any continuous
material so long as the table yields a uniform bounce of about 23 cm (9.1 in) when a standard ball is
dropped onto it from a height of 30 cm (11.8 in), or about 77%.[25][26] The table or playing surface is
uniformly dark coloured and matte, divided into two halves by a net at 15.25 cm (6.0 in) in height.
The ITTF approves only wooden tables or their derivates. Concrete tables with a steel net or a solid
concrete partition are sometimes available in outside public spaces, such as parks. [27]

Racket/paddle
Players are equipped with a laminated wooden racket covered with rubber on one or two sides
depending on the grip of the player. The ITTF uses the term "racket",[28] though "bat" is common in
Britain, and "paddle" in the U.S. and Canada.
The wooden portion of the racket, often referred to as the "blade", commonly features anywhere
between one and seven plies of wood, though cork, glass fiber, carbon fiber, aluminum fiber, and
Kevlar are sometimes used. According to the ITTF regulations, at least 85% of the blade by
thickness shall be of natural wood.[29] Common wood types include balsa, limba, and cypress or
"hinoki", which is popular in Japan. The average size of the blade is about 17 centimetres (6.7 in)
long and 15 centimetres (5.9 in) wide, although the official restrictions only focus on the flatness and
rigidity of the blade itself, these dimensions are optimal for most play styles.
Table tennis regulations allow different surfaces on each side of the racket. [30] Various types of
surfaces provide various levels of spin or speed, and in some cases they nullify spin. For example, a
player may have a rubber that provides much spin on one side of their racket, and one that provides
no spin on the other. By flipping the racket in play, different types of returns are possible. To help a
player distinguish between the rubber used by his opposing player, international rules specify that
one side must be red while the other side must be black.[29] The player has the right to inspect their
opponent's racket before a match to see the type of rubber used and what colour it is. Despite high
speed play and rapid exchanges, a player can see clearly what side of the racket was used to hit the
ball. Current rules state that, unless damaged in play, the racket cannot be exchanged for another
racket at any time during a match.[31]

Starting a game
According to ITTF rule 2.13.1, the first service is decided by lot,[32] normally a coin toss.[33] It is also
common for one player (or the umpire/scorer) to hide the ball in one or the other hand, usually
hidden under the table, allowing the other player to guess which hand the ball is in. The correct or
incorrect guess gives the "winner" the option to choose to serve, receive, or to choose which side of
the table to use. (A common but non-sanctioned method is for the players to play the ball back and
forth three times and then play out the point. This is commonly referred to as "serve to play", "rally to
serve", "play for serve", or "volley for serve".)
Service and return

Service by professional Russianplayer Alexander Shibaev

In game play, the player serving the ball commences a play.[34] The server first stands with the ball
held on the open palm of the hand not carrying the paddle, called the freehand, and tosses the ball
directly upward without spin, at least 16 cm (6.3 in) high.[35] The server strikes the ball with the racket
on the ball's descent so that it touches first his court and then touches directly the receiver's court
without touching the net assembly. In casual games, many players do not toss the ball upward;
however, this is technically illegal and can give the serving player an unfair advantage.
The ball must remain behind the endline and above the upper surface of the table, known as the
playing surface, at all times during the service. The server cannot use his/her body or clothing to
obstruct sight of the ball; the opponent and the umpire must have a clear view of the ball at all times.
If the umpire is doubtful of the legality of a service they may first interrupt play and give a warning to
the server. If the serve is a clear failure or is doubted again by the umpire after the warning, the
receiver scores a point.
If the service is "good", then the receiver must make a "good" return by hitting the ball back before it
bounces a second time on receiver's side of the table so that the ball passes the net and touches the
opponent's court, either directly or after touching the net assembly.[36]Thereafter, the server and
receiver must alternately make a return until the rally is over. Returning the serve is one of the most
difficult parts of the game, as the server's first move is often the least predictable and thus most
advantageous shot due to the numerous spin and speed choices at his or her disposal.

Let
A Let is a rally of which the result is not scored, and is called in the following circumstances: [37]

 The ball touches the net in service (service), provided the service is otherwise correct or the
ball is obstructed by the player on the receiving side. Obstruction means a player touches the
 ball when it is above or traveling towards the playing surface, not having touched the player's
court since last being struck by the player.

 When the player on the receiving side is not ready and the service is delivered.

 Player's failure to make a service or a return or to comply with the Laws is due to a
disturbance outside the control of the player.

 Play is interrupted by the umpire or assistant umpire.

A let is also called foul service, if the ball hits the server's side of the table, if the ball does not pass
further than the edge and if the ball hits the table edge and hits the net.

Scoring

Table tennis umpire

A point is scored by the player for any of several results of the rally:[38]

 The opponent fails to make a correct service or return.

 After making a service or a return, the ball touches anything other than the net assembly
before being struck by the opponent.

 The ball passes over the player's court or beyond their end line without touching their court,
after being struck by the opponent.

 The opponent obstructs the ball.

 The opponent strikes the ball twice successively. Note that the hand that is holding the racket
counts as part of the racket and that making a good return off one's hand or fingers is allowed. It
is not a fault if the ball accidentally hits one's hand or fingers and then subsequently hits the
racket.

 The opponent strikes the ball with a side of the racket blade whose surface is not covered
with rubber.

 The opponent moves the playing surface or touches the net assembly.

 The opponent's free hand touches the playing surface.

 As a receiver under the expedite system, completing 13 returns in a rally. [39]

 The opponent that has been warned by the umpire commits a second offense in the same
individual match or team match. If the third offence happens, 2 points will be given to the player.
[40]
If the individual match or the team match has not ended, any unused penalty points can be
transferred to the next game of that match.[33]
A game shall be won by the player first scoring 11 points unless both players score 10 points, when
the game shall be won by the first player subsequently gaining a lead of 2 points. A match shall
consist of the best of any odd number of games.[41] In competition play, matches are typically best of
five or seven games.

Alternation of services and ends

Service alternates between opponents every two points (regardless of winner of the rally) until the
end of the game, unless both players score ten points or the expedite system is operated, when the
sequences of serving and receiving stay the same but each player serves for only one point in turn
(Deuce).[42] The player serving first in a game receives first in the next game of the match.
After each game, players switch sides of the table. In the last possible game of a match, for example
the seventh game in a best of seven matches, players change ends when the first player scores five
points, regardless of whose turn it is to serve. If the sequence of serving and receiving is out of turn
or the ends are not changed, points scored in the wrong situation are still calculated and the game
shall be resumed with the order at the score that has been reached.

Doubles game

Service zone in doubles game

In addition to games between individual players, pairs may also play table tennis. Singles and
doubles are both played in international competition, including the Olympic Games since 1988 and
the Commonwealth Games since 2002.[43] In 2005, the ITTF announced that doubles table tennis
only was featured as a part of team events in the 2008 Olympics.
In doubles, all the rules of single play are applied except for the following.
Service
A line painted along the long axis of the table to create doubles courts bisects the table. This
line's only purpose is to facilitate the doubles service rule, which is that service must
originate from the right hand "box" in such a way that the first bounce of the serve bounces
once in said right hand box and then must bounce at least once in the opponent side's right
hand box (far left box for server), or the receiving pair score a point. [35]
Order of play, serving and receiving
 1. Players must hit the ball in turn. For example, if A is paired with B, X is paired with Y, A is
the server and X is the receiver. The order of play shall be A→X→B→Y. The rally
proceeds this way until one side fails to make a legal return and the other side scores. [44]

2. At each change of service, the previous receiver shall become the server and the
partner of the previous server shall become the receiver. For example, if the previous
order of play is A→X→B→Y, the order becomes X→B→Y→A after the change of
service.[42]

3. In the second or the latter games of a match, the game begins in reverse order of play.
For example, if the order of play is A→X→B→Y at beginning of the first game, the order
begins with X→A→Y→B or Y→B→X→A in the second game depending on either X or
Y being chosen as the first server of the game. That means the first receiver of the
game is the player who served to the first server of the game in the preceding game. In
each game of a doubles match, the pair having the right to serve first shall choose which
of them will do so. The receiving pair, however, can only choose in the first game of the
match.

4. When a pair reaches 5 points in the final game, the pairs must switch ends of the table
and change the receiver to reverse the order of play. For example, when the last order
of play before a pair score 5 points in the final game is A→X→B→Y, the order after
change shall be A→Y→B→X if A still has the second serve. Otherwise, X is the next
server and the order becomes X→A→Y→B.

Grips
Though table tennis players grip their rackets in various ways, their grips can be classified into two
major families of styles, penhold and shakehand.[45] The rules of table tennis do not prescribe the
manner in which one must grip the racket, and numerous grips are employed.

Penhold
The penhold grip is so-named because one grips the racket similarly to the way one holds a writing
instrument.[46] The style of play among penhold players can vary greatly from player to player. The
most popular style, usually referred to as the Chinese penhold style, involves curling the middle,
ring, and fourth finger on the back of the blade with the three fingers always touching one another.
[46]
Chinese penholders favour a round racket head, for a more over-the-table style of play. In
contrast, another style, sometimes referred to as the Japanese/Korean penhold grip, involves
splaying those three fingers out across the back of the racket, usually with all three fingers touching
the back of the racket, rather than stacked upon one another. [46] Sometimes a combination of the two
styles occurs, wherein the middle, ring and fourth fingers are straight, but still stacked, or where all
fingers may be touching the back of the racket, but are also in contact with one another. Japanese
and Korean penholders will often use a square-headed racket for an away-from-the-table style of
play. Traditionally these square-headed rackets feature a block of cork on top of the handle, as well
as a thin layer of cork on the back of the racket, for increased grip and comfort. Penhold styles are
popular among players originating from East Asian countries such as China, Japan, South Korea,
and Taiwan.
Traditionally, penhold players use only one side of the racket to hit the ball during normal play, and
the side which is in contact with the last three fingers is generally not used. This configuration is
sometimes referred to as "traditional penhold" and is more commonly found in square-headed racket
styles. However, the Chinese developed a technique in the 1990s in which a penholder uses both
sides of the racket to hit the ball, where the player produces a backhand stroke (most often topspin)
known as a reverse penhold backhand by turning the traditional side of the racket to face one's self,
and striking the ball with the opposite side of the racket. This stroke has greatly improved and
strengthened the penhold style both physically and psychologically, as it eliminates the strategic
weakness of the traditional penhold backhand.
Shakehand grip

Forehand

Backhand

Shakehand
The shakehand grip is so-named because the racket is grasped as if one is performing a
handshake.[47] Though it is sometimes referred to as the "tennis" or "Western" grip, it bears no
relation to the Western tennis grip, which was popularized on the West Coast of the United States in
which the racket is rotated 90°, and played with the wrist turned so that on impact the knuckles face
the target. In table tennis, "Western" refers to Western nations, for this is the grip that players native
to Europe and the Americas have almost exclusively employed.
The shakehand grip's simplicity and versatility, coupled with the acceptance among top-level
Chinese trainers that the European style of play should be emulated and trained against, has
established it as a common grip even in China.[48] Many world class European and East Asian players
currently use the shakehand grip, and it is generally accepted that shakehands is easier to learn
than penholder, allowing a broader range of playing styles both offensive and defensive. [49]

ypes of strokes
Table tennis strokes generally break down into offensive and defensive categories.

Offensive strokes
Hit

Also known as speed drive, a direct hit on the ball propelling it forward back to the opponent. This
stroke differs from speed drives in other racket sports like tennis because the racket is
primarily perpendicular to the direction of the stroke and most of the energy applied to the ball
results in speed rather than spin, creating a shot that does not arc much, but is fast enough that it
can be difficult to return. A speed drive is used mostly for keeping the ball in play, applying pressure
on the opponent, and potentially opening up an opportunity for a more powerful attack.
Loop

Perfected during the 1960s,[1][51] the loop is essentially the reverse of the chop. The racket
is parallel to the direction of the stroke ("closed") and the racket thus grazes the ball, resulting in a
large amount of topspin. A good loop drive will arc quite a bit, and once striking the opponent's side
of the table will jump forward, much like a kick serve in tennis. Most professional players nowadays,
such as Ding Ning, Timo Boll and Zhang Jike, primarily use loop for offense.
Counter-hit

The counter-hit is usually a counterattack against drives, normally high loop drives. The racket is
held closed and near to the ball, which is hit with a short movement "off the bounce" (immediately
after hitting the table) so that the ball travels faster to the other side. Kenta Matsudaira is known for
primarily using counter-hit for offense.
Flip

When a player tries to attack a ball that has not bounced beyond the edge of the table, the player
does not have the room to wind up in a backswing. The ball may still be attacked, however, and the
resulting shot is called a flip because the backswing is compressed into a quick wrist action. A flip is
not a single stroke and can resemble either a loop drive or a loop in its characteristics. What
identifies the stroke is that the backswing is compressed into a short wrist flick.
Smash

A player will typically execute a smash when the opponent has returned a ball that bounces too high
or too close to the net. It is nearly always done with a forehand stroke. Smashinguse rapid
acceleration to impart as much speed on the ball as possible so that the opponent cannot react in
time. The racket is generally perpendicular to the direction of the stroke. Because the speed is the
main aim of this shot, the spin on the ball is often minimal, although it can be applied as well. An
offensive table tennis player will think of a rally as a build-up to a winning smash. Smash is used
more often with penhold grip.

Defensive strokes
Push

The push (or "slice" in Asia) is usually used for keeping the point alive and creating offensive
opportunities. A push resembles a tennis slice: the racket cuts underneath the ball, imparting
backspin and causing the ball to float slowly to the other side of the table. A push can be difficult to
attack because the backspin on the ball causes it to drop toward the table upon striking the
opponent's racket. In order to attack a push, a player must usually loop (if the push is long) or flip (if
the push is short) the ball back over the net. Often, the best option for beginners is to simply push
the ball back again, resulting in pushing rallies. Against good players, it may be the worst option
because the opponent will counter with a loop, putting the first player in a defensive position.
Pushing can have advantages in some circumstances, such as when the opponent makes easy
mistakes.
Chop

A chop is the defensive, backspin counterpart to the offensive loop drive. [52] A chop is essentially a
bigger, heavier push, taken well back from the table. The racket face points primarily horizontally,
perhaps a little bit upward, and the direction of the stroke is straight down. The object of a defensive
chop is to match the topspin of the opponent's shot with backspin. A good chop will float nearly
horizontally back to the table, in some cases having so much backspin that the ball actually rises.
Such a chop can be extremely difficult to return due to its enormous amount of backspin. Some
defensive players can also impart no-spin or sidespin variations of the chop. Some famous choppers
include Joo Sae-hyuk and Wu Yang.
Block

A block is executed by simply placing the racket in front of the ball right after the ball bounces; thus,
the ball rebounds back toward the opponent with nearly as much energy as it came in with. This
requires precision, since the ball's spin, speed, and location all influence the correct angle of a block.
It is very possible for an opponent to execute a perfect loop, drive, or smash, only to have the
blocked shot come back just as fast. Due to the power involved in offensive strokes, often an
opponent simply cannot recover quickly enough to return the blocked shot, especially if the block is
aimed at an unexpected side of the table. Blocks almost always produce the same spin as was
received, many times topspin.
Lob

The defensive lob propels the ball about five metres in height, only to land on the opponent's side of
the table with great amounts of spin.[53] The stroke itself consists of lifting the ball to an enormous
height before it falls back to the opponent's side of the table. A lob can have nearly any kind of spin.
Though the opponent may smash the ball hard and fast, a good defensive lob could be more difficult
to return due to the unpredictability and heavy amounts of the spin on the ball. [53] Thus, though
backed off the table by tens of feet and running to reach the ball, a good defensive player can still
win the point using good lobs. Lob is used less frequently by professional players. A notable
exception is Michael Maze.

Effects of spin
Adding spin onto the ball causes major changes in table tennis gameplay. Although nearly every
stroke or serve creates some kind of spin, understanding the individual types of spin allows players
to defend against and use different spins effectively. [54]

4 phases in a backspin curve

Backspin
Backspin is where the bottom half of the ball is rotating away from the player, and is imparted by
striking the base of the ball with a downward movement. [54] At the professional level, backspin is
usually used defensively in order to keep the ball low. [55] Backspin is commonly employed in service
because it is harder to produce an offensive return, though at the professional level most people
serve sidespin with either backspin or topspin. Due to the initial lift of the ball, there is a limit on how
much speed with which one can hit the ball without missing the opponent's side of the table.
However, backspin also makes it harder for the opponent to return the ball with great speed because
of the required angular precision of the return. Alterations are frequently made to regulations
regarding equipment in an effort to maintain a balance between defensive and offensive spin
choices.[citation needed] It is actually possible to smash with backspin offensively, but only on high balls that
are close to the net.

4 phases in a topspin curve

Topspin
The topspin stroke has a smaller influence on the first part of the ball-curve. Like the backspin
stroke, however, the axis of spin remains roughly perpendicular to the trajectory of the ball thus
allowing for the Magnus effect to dictate the subsequent curvature. After the apex of the curve, the
ball dips downwards as it approaches the opposing side, before bouncing. On the bounce, the
topspin will accelerate the ball, much in the same way that a wheel which is already spinning would
accelerate upon making contact with the ground. When the opponent attempts to return the ball, the
topspin causes the ball to jump upwards and the opponent is forced to compensate for the topspin
by adjusting the angle of his or her racket. This is known as "closing the racket".
The speed limitation of the topspin stroke is minor compared to the backspin stroke. This stroke is
the predominant technique used in professional competition because it gives the opponent less time
to respond. In table tennis topspin is regarded as an offensive technique due to increased ball
speed, lower bio-mechanical efficiency and the pressure that it puts on the opponent by reducing
reaction time. (It is possible to play defensive topspin-lobs from far behind the table, but only highly
skilled players use this stroke with any tactical efficiency.) Topspin is the least common type of spin
to be found in service at the professional level, simply because it is much easier to attack a top-spin
ball that is not moving at high speed.

Sidespin
This type of spin is predominantly employed during service, wherein the contact angle of the racket
can be more easily varied. Unlike the two aforementioned techniques, sidespin causes the ball to
spin on an axis which is vertical, rather than horizontal. The axis of rotation is still roughly
perpendicular to the trajectory of the ball. In this circumstance, the Magnus effect will still dictate the
curvature of the ball to some degree. Another difference is that unlike backspin and topspin, sidespin
will have relatively very little effect on the bounce of the ball, much in the same way that a spinning
top would not travel left or right if its axis of rotation were exactly vertical. This makes sidespin a
useful weapon in service, because it is less easily recognized when bouncing, and the ball "loses"
less spin on the bounce. Sidespin can also be employed in offensive rally strokes, often from a
greater distance, as an adjunct to topspin or backspin. This stroke is sometimes referred to as a
"hook". The hook can even be used in some extreme cases to circumvent the net when away from
the table.

Corkspin
Players employ this type of spin almost exclusively when serving, but at the professional level, it is
also used from time to time in the lob. Unlike any of the techniques mentioned above, corkspin (or
"drill-spin") has the axis of spin relatively parallel to the ball's trajectory, so that the Magnus
effect has little or no effect on the trajectory of a cork-spun ball: upon bouncing, the ball will dart right
or left (according to the direction of the spin), severely complicating the return. In theory this type of
spin produces the most obnoxious effects, but it is less strategically practical than sidespin or
backspin, because of the limitations that it imposes upon the opponent during their return. Aside
from the initial direction change when bouncing, unless it goes out of reach, the opponent can
counter with either topspin or backspin. A backspin stroke is similar in the fact that the corkspin
stroke has a lower maximum velocity, simply due to the contact angle of the racket when producing
the stroke. To impart a spin on the ball which is parallel to its trajectory, the racket must be swung
more or less perpendicular to the trajectory of the ball, greatly limiting the forward momentum that
the racket transfers to the ball. Corkspin is almost always mixed with another variety of spin, since
alone, it is not only less effective but also harder to produce.

Power moves are moves loosely defined as relying on speed, momentum, and acrobatic elements
for performance. They are prominent in B-boying, often the centerpieces of routines featuring the
other elements (toprock, downrock, and freezes) that make up breaking. Also, power moves are
closer to gymnastics than dancing. B-boys who focus heavily on power moves and execute them as
a main part of their routines are often called "power heads".

Types[edit]
Spins[edit]

A b-boy performing an air chair spin, in 4X slow-motion.

 Back spin: One of the first and most famous spinning power moves, the dancer is balled up
and spinning on his or her back. In some variations, the dancer may choose to hop while
spinning.
 Shoulder spin

 Air chair spin

 Zulu spin

 The headspin is an athletic move in which a person spins on their head from a headstand
position. These may be done continuously through hand-tapping and proper balance.
Handstand moves[edit]

 The 1990 is a breakdance move which resembles a rapidly spinning one-handed handstand.
Created Spinner of the Dynamic Rockers referred to as a "Hand Spin"*2000s are similar to
1990s, but with both hands.

 Airflare is a breakdance move that requires the dancer to revolve hand to hand while keeping
their legs in the air in a V-Formation.
Floats[edit]
Floats were one of the first power moves in the 80's. The body is usually in a fixed position while the
arms move.

 Crickets and variants: Hydro, Jackhammer, Lotus Jackhammer, Super Jackhammer,

Darkhammer, Hopping Turtles/Scratching Turtles, etc.

 UFO, Boomerangs, Inside Boomerangs, Gorillas, Gremlin Spins/Buddha spins

Swipes[edit]
Swipes are one of the most recognizable power moves. The b-boy or b-girl leans back, whips his or
her arms to one side to touch the ground, and his or her legs follow closely behind, twisting 360
degrees to land on the ground once again.

 A variant is the master swipe, also known as a superman swipe or one-footed swipe
Shadow Swipes is a variation of the swipe that incorporates the chair freeze to start the swipe.
Created by Bboy Kid Shade of Hong Kong, it is one of his signature moves.

Windmills[edit]
The headmill is a windmill variant performed without the use of hands for stability, rotating with the
head and shoulders as the pivot point. As headmills free the hands, there are many further variations
defined by the positioning of the hands.
Major windmill variants:

 Mummies/Coffin

 Nutcrackers

 Eggbeaters
 HandCuffs

 Bellymills/superman

 Confusions

 Barrels/headmills

 Forearms

 Airplane/Highrisers/Highrises

 Munchmills/Babymills

 Tombstone
Flares[edit]
Flares are a widely recognized power move borrowed from gymnastics. Major variants:

 King Flares/Hopping Flare

 Crossed-legged Flare

 Chair Flare

 Double Chair Flare

 Sandwich Flare

 Lotus Flare

 Thread Flare

 One-legged Flare

 Virgin/Double Leg Circles - flares done with closed, straight legs

 Tomas Flare

Hip-hop dance refers to street dance styles primarily performed to hip-hop music or that have
evolved as part of hip-hop culture. It includes a wide range of styles primarily breaking which was
created in the 1970s and made popular by dance crews in the United States. The television
show Soul Train and the 1980s films Breakin', Beat Street, and Wild Style showcased these crews
and dance styles in their early stages; therefore, giving hip-hop mainstream exposure. The dance
industry responded with a commercial, studio-based version of hip-hop—sometimes called "new
style"—and a hip-hop influenced style of jazz dance called "jazz-funk". Classically trained dancers
developed these studio styles in order to create choreography from the hip-hop dances that were
performed on the street. Because of this development, hip-hop dance is practiced in both dance
studios and outdoor spaces.
The commercialization of hip-hop dance continued into the 1990s and 2000s with the production of
several television shows and movies such as The Grind, Planet B-Boy, Rize, StreetDance
3D, America's Best Dance Crew, Saigon Electric, the Step Up film series, and The LXD, a web
series. Though the dance is established in entertainment, including mild representation in theater, it
maintains a strong presence in urban neighborhoods which has led to the creation of street dance
derivatives Memphis jookin, turfing, jerkin', and krump.

Main styles[edit]
Breaking[edit]
Main article: B-boying

A b-boy in an airchair freeze at Street Summit 2006 in Moscow.

Breaking was created in the South Bronx, New York City during the early 1970s. [3] It is the first hip-
hop dance style. At the time of its creation, it was the only hip-hop dance style because Afrika
Bambaataa classified it as one of the five pillars of hip-hop culture along
with MCing (rapping), DJing (turntablism), graffiti writing (bombing), and knowledge.[22][23][24][25] Though
African Americans created breaking,[26][27] Puerto Ricans maintained its growth and development when
it was considered a fad in the late 1970s.[28] In a 2001 interview Richard "Crazy Legs" Colón, the
president of Rock Steady Crew, commented on how Puerto Ricans contributed to breaking: "I think
the difference is when the brothas first started doing [it] and it was at its infancy they weren't doing
acrobatic moves. That didn't come into play until more Puerto Ricans got involved in the mid 70s.
We then took the dance, evolved it and kept it alive. In '79 I was getting dissed. I would go into a
dance and I would get dissed by a lot of brothas who would ask 'Why y'all still doing that dance?
That's played out'. By 79, there were very few African American brothas that was doing this... We
always maintained the flava. It was like a changing of the guard and all we did was add more flava to
something that already existed."[27][29][30] Breaking includes four foundational dances: toprock, footwork-
oriented steps performed while standing up; downrock, footwork performed with both hands and feet
on the floor; freezes, stylish poses done on your hands; and power moves, complex and impressive
acrobatic moves.[31] Transitions from toprock to downrock are called "drops."[32][33]
Traditionally, breakers dance within a cypher or an Apache Line. A cypher is a circular shaped dance
space formed by spectators that breakers use to perform or battle in. [12][31] Cyphers work well for one-
on-one b-boy or b-girl (break-boy/break-girl) battles; however, Apache Lines are more appropriate
when the battle is between two crews—teams of street dancers. In contrast to the circular shape of a
cypher, competing crews face each other in an Apache Line, challenge each other, and execute
their burns (a move intended to humiliate the opponent, i.e. crotch grabbing). [34][35][36][37]

Locking[edit]
Main article: Locking

Locking, originally called Campbellocking, was created in 1969 in Los Angeles, California by Don
"Campbellock" Campbell and popularized by his crew The Lockers.[13][38] In addition to Campbell, the
original members of The Lockers were Fred "Mr. Penguin" Berry, Leo "Fluky Luke" Williamson,
Adolfo "Shabba-Doo" Quiñones, Bill "Slim the Robot" Williams, Greg "Campbellock Jr" Pope,
and Toni Basil, who also served as the group's manager.[39][40][41] At the 2009 World Hip Hop Dance
Championships, Basil became the first female recipient of the Living Legend Award in honor of her
role in giving locking commercial exposure.[42]
Locking looks similar to popping, and the two are frequently confused by the casual observer. In
locking, dancers hold their positions longer. The lock is the primary move used in locking. It is
"similar to a freeze or a sudden pause."[43] A locker's dancing is characterized by frequently locking in
place and after a brief freeze moving again.[13] According to Dance Spirit magazine, a dancer cannot
perform both locking and popping simultaneously; thus, it is incorrect to call locking "pop-locking". [13]
[44]
While both styles are from Los Angeles, locking and popping are two distinct funk styles with their
own histories, their own set of dance moves, their own pioneers, and their own competition
categories. Locking is more playful and character-driven, whereas popping is more illusory. [13] In
popping, dancers push the boundaries of what they can do with their bodies. [13] Locking has specific
dance moves that distinguish it from popping and other funk styles. In the 2006 book Total Chaos,
hip-hop historian Jorge "Popmaster Fabel" Pabon lists some of these moves which include "the lock,
points, skeeter [rabbits], scooby doos, stop 'n go, which-away, and the fancies." [43] In addition,
Lockers commonly use a distinctive dress style characterized by colorful clothing with stripes
and suspenders.[13]

Popping[edit]
Main article: Popping

Popping was derived from the earlier Boogaloo street dance movement taking place in Oakland,
California during the late 1960's, the Boogaloo dance form incorporated techniques of soulful
footwork steps, arm movements, stop-motion animation, the robot, & posing hard - which contracted
muscles during robotic poses to the music of Funk.[45] Throughout the 1960's and 1970's - Boogaloo
groups in Oakland, CA such as One Plus One, the Black Resurgents and the Black Messengers
would help popularize the dance.[46] Early Boogaloo movements would inspire groups throughout the
San Francisco Bay Area and eventually spread to Fresno, California in the 1970s and popularized by
Samuel "Boogaloo Sam" Solomon and his crew the Electric Boogaloos.[13] It is based on the
technique of quickly contracting and relaxing muscles to cause a jerk in a dancer's body, referred to
as a pop or a hit. When performed correctly, each hit is synchronized to the rhythm and beats of the
music. Popping is also used as an umbrella term to refer to a wide range of closely related
illusionary dance styles[47] such as strobing, liquid, animation, twisto-flex, and waving.[14][47] Dancers
often integrate these styles with standard popping to create a more varied performance. [note 2] In all of
these subgenres it appears to the spectator that the body is popping. The difference between each
subgenre is how exaggerated the popping is. In liquid, the body movements look like water. The
popping is so smooth that the movements do not look like popping at all; they look fluid. [14] The
opposite of this is strobing (also called ticking) in which the movements are staccato and jerky. [49]
Popping as an umbrella term also includes gliding.[14][47] Gliding is a lower body dance performed with
little to no movements in the chest or arms. In gliding a dancer appears as if they are drifting across
the floor on ice.[note 3] Opposite from gliding is tutting, an upper body dance that uses the arms, hands,
and wrists to form right angles and create geometric box-like shapes. Tutting can be done primarily
with the fingers rather than the arms. This method is called finger tutting. In both variations the
movements are intricate, linear, and form 90° or 45° angles. In practice, tutting looks like the
characters on the art of ancient Egypt,[50][51][52]:2 hence the name—a reference to King Tut.
While popping as an umbrella term is widely used by hip-hop dancers and in competitive hip-hop
dancing, Timothy "Popin' Pete" Solomon of the Electric Boogaloos disagrees with the use of the
word "popping" in this way. Many of these related styles (animation, liquid, tutting, etc.) can not be
traced to one person or group. Solomon states "There are people who wave and there are people
who tut. They're not popping. I say this to give the people who created other styles their just dues
and their props."[13]

ocking
Locking (originally Campbellocking) can be traced back to the late 1960’s and was created by Don
Campbell. It is a style of funk and street dance and originally danced to traditional funk music such as
James Brown.

The name is based on the concept of locking which means freezing from a fast movement and "locking"
in a certain position, holding that position for a short while and then continuing in the same speed as
before. It relies on fast and distinct arm and hand Hip Hop Manual movements combined with more
relaxed hips and legs. The movements are generally large and exaggerated, and often very rhythmic and
tightly synced with the music.

Locking includes quite a lot of acrobatics and physically demanding moves, such as landing on one's
knees and the split. These moves often require knee protection of some sort. Other important stylistic
features are waving of arms, pointing, walking stationary and grabbing and rotating the cap or hat. Don
Campbell created the original freezes, incorporating his unique rhythm and adding gestures such as
points and handclaps.

In the early 1970s this set off a movement of Locking dance groups, notably Campbell's group The
Lockers. Another locker called Greggery 'Campbell Jr.' Pope and others set the foundation for locking
dance and clothes style. Lockers commonly use a distinctive dress style, such as colorful clothing with
stripes, suspenders, pegged knee length pants, hats and gloves.
Locking is quite performance oriented, often interacting with the audience by smiling or giving them a
high five, and some moves are quite comical in nature.

Popping
The best way to describe the movement of popping would be to imagine a force of energy going through
the body causing it to move like a wave. This style is difficult to manage at the technical level as it
requiring command of isolations, a perfect knowledge of the body, and a good sense of the rhythm with
major use of counter-tempo. The style demands continuous contraction of the muscles to the beat to
give a jerky/snapping effect – a bouncy style.

Electric Boogie
Electric boogie is a style of popping (ticking) but the major difference is that Popping creates a soft wave
whereas Electric Boogie creates more jerky waves with micro wave moves, executed with a high velocity
more difficult than classical popping. The Robot, and the more smooth and controlled movements of
mime are characteristic. Instead of throwing the body in and out of control like locking, or in total
hydraulic control like The Robot, energy is passed through the body popping and snapping elbows,
wrists, necks, hips and just about all the body joints along the way. Electric Boogaloo is more like mime in
the sense that it imitates a live wire of electrical current or rippling river, but it still needs the control of
The Robot to give it style.

Breakdance / B-Boying
Breaking or b-boying, commonly called breakdancing, is a style of dance that evolved as part of hip-hop
culture among Black and Latino American youths in the South Bronx during the 1970s. It is danced to
both hip-hop and other genres of music that are often remixed to prolong the musical breaks.

Four basic elements form the foundation of breaking. The first is Toprock, a term referring to the upright
dancing and shuffles. The second element is Downrock which refers to footwork dancing performed on
the floor. The third element is the Freeze, the poses that breakers throw into their dance sets to add
punctuation to certain beats and end their routines. The fourth element is the Power Moves. These are
the most impressive acrobatic moves normally made up of circular motions where the dancer will spin
on the floor or in the air.

Uprock
The term breakdancing, though commonly used, is frowned upon by those immersed in hip-hop culture
because the term created by the media to describe what was called breaking or b-boying in the street.
The majority of the art form’s pioneers and most notable practitioners refer to the dance as b-boying.
Uprock is a soulful, competitive street dance using the rhythms of Soul, and Funk music. The dance
consists of foot shuffles, spins, turns, freestyle movements, sudden body movements called "jerks" and
hand gestures called "burns". Uprock is said to be mastered with discipline, patience, heart, soul, and
knowledge.

Funk
Funk dancing originated on the West coast of the United States, where it developed in the late 60’s as a
reaction to the fusion of Soul and Disco, as well as early R’n’B and Hip Hop music.
It is a highly choreographed dance form, similar to dances seen on commercial video clips. It features a
mixture of sharp and fluid movements, popping & locking and animated expression.

Streetdance
Streetdance is very physical and incorporates dance moves from all over the world. Various dance styles
are mixed with a multi-cultural influence and funky tunes. Generally a Streetdance routine can include
locking and popping, street style and funk. Streetdance is a FUSION of styles from the Hip Hop genre.

Tutting/Tetris
Tutting or Tetris is a dance style that mimics the angular poses common to ancient Egyptian art. Whoever
coined the term probably imagined that this was how King Tut danced. The style is rapidly evolving but
there are some constant rules that define it.

The most important stylistic convention is that limbs form 90 degree angles. While this constraint is
fundamental, and for the most part is not violated, other aspects of the dance are in flux. Dancers used
to utilize a limited set of static hiero-inspired poses, but they now have begun to create more complex
geometric patterns involving interaction between multiple limbs.

Battle
A battle is a freestyle where dancers 'fight' against each other on the dance floor without contact. They
form a circle and take turns trying to show each other up by using either a better style, more complex
combinations, or harder moves.
Liguid Dancing
Liquid dancing (or liquiding) is a form of gestural dance that sometimes involves pantomime. The term
invokes the word liquid to describe the fluid-like motion of the dancers’ body and limbs. It is primarily
the dancers’ arms and hands which are the focus, though more advanced dancers work in a full range of
body movements. Liquid dancing is similar to the styles of popping or locking.

Boogaloo
A fluid style, that uses every part of the body and involves using angles and smooth movements to make
everything flow together. It often uses rolling of the hips, knees, and the head and is often used as a
transition.

Ragga
This is a dance style originating (in the late 70’s) from street dance by Afrojamaïcans, Afrocarabians,
which uses music which evolved from classical Reggae with a hip hop influence. The style used is a
combination between hip hop moves, afro moves with latin influences with sensuality. It requires very
good physical condition, as many muscles are involved in the Raggajam, particularly in the lower part of
the body. Correct execution requires good technique.

House Dance
House is a group of dance styles primarily danced to house music that have roots in the clubs of Chicago
in the late 70’s and early 80’s. The main styles include Footwork, Jacking and Lofting. Like hip hop dance
it was created by black and latino Americans and is often improvisational in nature. It emphasizes fast
and complex foot oriented steps combined with fluid movements in the torso.

House dance incorporates movements from many other sources such as Capoeira, tap, jazz, bebop, and
salsa. It includes a variety of techniques and sub-styles that include skating, stomping, and shuffling. One
of the primary elements in house dancing is a technique called jacking and involves moving the torso
forward and backward in a rippling motion, as if a wave were passing through it. This movement is
repeated and sped up to match the beat of a song. This technique is the most important movement in
house dancing. All footwork in house dancing is said to initiate from the way the jack moves the center
of gravity through space. Other than footwork, jacking, and lofting, house dance has grown to include
other related styles such as vogue, wacking and hustle.

Lyrical
Lyrical hip-hop is a fluid and more interpretive version of new style hip-hop most often danced to
downtempo rap music or R&B music. Lyrical is "hip-hop with emotion". It focuses more on choreography
and performance and less on freestyles and battles.
The name lyrical comes from the word "lyrics" because dancers use the lyrics of a song or instrumental
music to inspire them to do certain movements or show expression. The goal of a lyrical dancer is to use
gesture, facial expression, and controlled movements in order to execute their movements and emotions
fully. Besides emotional connection to music, lyrical dance typically encourages use of articulation, line,
weight, and movement qualities.

Stepping
Stepping or step-dancing is a form of percussive dance in which the participant's entire body is used as
an instrument to produce complex rhythms and sounds through a mixture of footsteps, spoken word,
and hand claps. Though stepping may be performed by an individual, it is generally performed by groups
of three or more, often in arrangements that resemble military formations.

Stepping may also draw from elements of gymnastics, tap dance, march, or African and Caribbean
dance, or include semi-dangerous stunts as a part of individual routines. Some forms of stepping include
the use of props, such as canes, rhythm sticks and/or fire and blindfolds.

The tradition of African stepping is rooted within the competitive schoolyard song and dance rituals
practiced by historically African American fraternities and sororities, beginning in the mid-1900s

Free Running
Free running or freerunning is a form of urban acrobatics in which participants, known as free runners,
use the city and rural landscape to perform movements through its structures. It incorporates efficient
movements from parkour, adds aesthetic vaults and other acrobatics, such as tricking and street stunts,
creating an athletic and aesthetically pleasing way of moving. It is commonly practiced at gymnasiums
and in urban areas (such as cities or towns) that are cluttered with obstacles.

The term free running was coined during the filming of Jump London, as a way to present parkour to the
English-speaking world. However, the term free running has come to represent a separate, distinct
concept to parkour — a distinction which is often missed due to the aesthetic similarities. Parkour as a
discipline emphasizes efficiency, whilst free running embodies complete freedom of movement — and
includes many acrobatic maneuvers. Although the two are often physically similar, the mindsets of each
are vastly different.
The founder and creator of Free running Sébastien Foucan defines free running as a discipline to self
development, following your own way, which he developed because he felt that parkour lacked enough
creativity and self-expression as a definition of each free-runner to follow your own way.

Punking
This style came in 1970s from the West coast, directly Los Angeles, where it was developed in clubs and
underground scene. Punking was first spotted in gay clubs in Hollywood. Dancers began to represent it
on television and it became well-known thanks to Soul Train. Punking then became a part of many
shows from Hollywood to Las Vegas.

Some of the first dancers of punking : Billy Goodson, Tinker, Lanny and Aka Micheal Angelo, Adolfo
"Shabba Doo" Quinones, also dancers from the group Dancing Machine, which was founded in 1975 by
Jeff Kutachem, who later created the show , called Splash in Las Vegas. Show was danced in the 70s and
early 80s. Dance Machine was dancing this show, members were: Stever' Sugarfoot 'Notario, Gino, Dino,
SugarBop, Fast Freddy, Topaz Lanet, Diane, Flame, Dallas and Ana 'Lollipop' Sanchez.

Contemporary dance is a genre of dance performance that developed during the mid twentieth
century and has since grown to become one of the dominant genres for formally trained dancers
throughout the world, with particularly strong popularity in the U.S. and Europe. Although originally
informed by and borrowing from classical, modern, and jazz styles, it has since come to incorporate
elements from many styles of dance.[1] Due to its technical similarities, it is often perceived to be
closely related to modern dance, ballet, and other classical concert dance styles.
In terms of the focus of its technique, contemporary dance tends to combine the strong but
controlled legwork of ballet with modern that stresses on torso. It also employs contract-
release, floor work, fall and recovery, and improvisation characteristics of modern dance.
[2]
Unpredictable changes in rhythm, speed, and direction are often used, as well. Additionally,
contemporary dance sometimes incorporates elements of non-western dance cultures, such as
elements from African dance including bent knees, or movements from the Japanese contemporary
dance,

The Top 10 Types of Dance

 1. Ballet
Tutus, pointe shoes and men in tights are what come to mind when someone
speaks of ballet. Yet Ballet is so much more than that. Said to be the most
difficult genre to master, ballet is a poised style of dance that is at the core of all
forms of dance. It is usually set, but not limited to, orchestrated music and is
often the first dance style a child will experience as they begin their dance
training. Ballet shoes are usually worn until the dancers feet have developed
enough strength to progress into pointe shoes. This often happens around the
age of 12 and only after the students have been given permission by their
teacher. Ballet is an excellent teaching tool for all dancers as it is a complex
mixture of technique, coordination and musicality.
 2. Tap
Tap is best described as "musical feet". Tap is a form of dance where dancers
use their feet as percussive instruments. Tap shoes are specially designed with
metal plates on the toe and heel called taps. There are many different styles of
tapping however the two most noted are Rhythm Tap and Broadway Tap. Rhythm
Tap is more musically driven, where as Broadway Tap is more dance and
movement oriented. Tap is great for fostering rhythm in dancers.
 3. Jazz
Jazz is the most popular style of dance among dancers. Jazz pulls from all dance
styles mixing them together to create a high energy style that knows no
boundaries. It has been influenced by ballet, modern, tap, hip-hop, African dance
and many more styles. Jazz is most often set to up beat popular songs of the
time. Jazz shoes are worn for this style and are typically a leather split sole
allowing the dancers foot more freedom to bend and move. Due to the upbeat
music, power packed moves and limitless style, it isn’t hard to see why this is the
most popular dance style!
 4. Modern
Modern was said to be developed as a rebellion against classical ballet. Since
then it has come into its own. Built on concept of rawness. Modern dance
focuses on the dancers strong relationship with the floor, methods of
contractions, release and movement, and the connectivity of breath. Modern can
be performed in bare feet, or with a half-sole style shoe that will allows freedom
in the foot while providing protection from the floor. Dance Paws, FootUndeez,
and Twylas are some of the most popular styles worn in modern. Though
developed out of the distaste for classical ballet, modern and ballet are closely
linked in the complexity of technique, coordination and musicality.
 5. Lyrical
Though the basis of lyrical is ballet it also encompasses both jazz and modern. It
is dynamic while instantaneously subtle. Lyrical focuses on conveying feelings
and emotions through movement and is usually set to popular songs. Lyrical is
often danced wearing Twyla’s, Dance Paws, FootUndeez or bare feet. Though
proper dance techniques are important, the true heart of lyrical is found in its
expressive nature.
 6. Hip Hop
Hip Hop is an urban dance style also known as Street Dance. Hip Hop is edgy,
raw and intense. The founder of popping, locking and krumping, Hip Hop is
mostly danced to rap, urban and hip hop music. High top sneakers, funky bright
sneakers, and traditional Hip Hop Shoes are normally worn by dancers. What
sets Hip Hop apart from most dance genres is that it is often freestyle in nature
and does not follow a vocabulary. Hip Hop is a style of dance that is open to
personal expression.
 7. Contemporary
Contemporary dance embodies ballet, modern, jazz and lyrical. It uses technique
such as ballet as its fundamentals and creates many more greater movements
that do not adhere to the strict rules of ballet and modern. There are different
categories of contemporary dance such as Contemporary Ballet and
Contemporary Jazz. Contemporary dance is often danced to all types of music
and in bare feet with non-traditional costumes.
 8. Highland Dancing
Highland dance was developed in the Gaelic Highlands of Scotland and should
not be confused with Scottish Country Dancing. Highland dancing requires a lot
of stamina , as well as arm and leg strength. Many people confuse Scottish
highland dance with Irish dance but, Highland dancing is from Scottland and is
traditional, whereas, Irish dance is from Ireland and is progressive. Younger
dancer may wear ballet shoes, however, when they get older
traditional Ghillies are often required.
 9. Line Dancing
Line Dancing is a social dance that is made up of a sequence of repeated steps.
Line dancing is is traditionally associated with country-western music and dance.
Line dancing is a solo dance that is danced in a straight line, a circle or in a
“follow the leader” pattern. Footwear is decided by the dancer and is if often
cowboy boots for the men and heels for the women. Many women choose to
wear a Cuban heel shoe as it offers great support and is the perfect heel height
for any age!
 10. Irish Dancing
Irish dancing originated from Ireland and can be divided into performance and
social dances. Made famous by Riverdance it is best recognized by stationary
arms combined with rapid leg and foot movements. Both Irish soft shoes and
hard shoes are worn depending on the style of Irish dance. Irish dancers are also
known for their bold-colour, and intricately detailed dance costumes.

ancesport is the term used to describe high level American style and international style ballroom dancing.
It is done on a competitive level rather than exhibition or social dancing, and features various categories
such as International Latin-American, International Ballroom, American Rhythm and American Smooth.

As this advanced degree of dancing is classed as a sport, events are regulated at both international and
national levels via various official dancesport organisations including the famous World Dance Sport
Federation. The first world championship was held over a hundred years ago, although it was not an
official event at the time, and in 1969, dancesport was first shown on television to an excited audience.
This was due to the popularity of couples’ dancing together at this time, as well as the colourful glamorous
attire and the dancers’ athletic and flamboyant moves. Ultimately, this led to the long running BBC series
‘Come Dancing,’ and the current series, ‘Strictly Ballroom,’ which involves celebrities from all different
genres including film, TV, radio, politics and sport.

There is a broad spectrum of dance competitions which dancers can compete in, and dance fans can
watch. These include the world famous, highly esteemed Blackpool Dance Festival which was initiated in
1920. This is the most popular event of the dance calendar for many dancers and fans, and during this
time people from different countries head up to Blackpool for eight days of fun filled dance. The
competitions are open to everyone, both professionals and amateurs.

In order to prove that this form of dancing is on par with other sports, various research studies have been
undertaken. When the researchers compared exponents of sports and ballroom dancing by monitoring
their average gross energy expenditure, the results indicated that dancesport is just as demanding as a
number of mainstream sports including basketball.

I N T E R N AT I O N A L S T Y L E L AT I N

Samba, Cha Cha Cha, Rumba, Paso Doble, Jive

INTERNATIONAL STYLE STANDARD

Waltz, Tango, Viennese Waltz, Slow Foxtrot, Quickstep.

AMERICAN SMOOTH

Waltz, Tango, Foxtrot, Viennese Waltz.

CARRIBEAN MIX

Salsa , Merengue , Bachata.

Basic Ballet Positions

Positions of the Feet
In ballet, there are five basic positions of the feet, numbered one through five. Each of
the positions utilizes turn-out, or a 90-degree rotation of the leg from the hip joint. Refer
to the pictures below and match your feet to each of them to the best of your ability.
Remember: Dancers work many years to achieve a full 90-degree turn-out!
Wait…where’s Third Position? Third position is rarely used anymore because
with the high degree of turnout of today’s dancers, it looks too similar to Fifth Position.

Positions of the Arms

There are also various positions of the arms. Match your arms to the pictures shown
below.
Movements in Dance
There are multiple steps referred to as the “movements in dance.” There are three
movements that ballet/dance beginners learn. First learn to pronounce the terminology
given below, learn the definition, and then attempt to do the movement described.
1. plie (plee-ay): to bend. Keeping both feet flat on the floor at all times, bend your knees. Remember to
send your knees directly out over your toes!
2. releve (ruh-leh-vay’): to rise. This can be done on one foot or both feet together. Start with the feet
together, keep the knees straight and lift the heels high enough so all of your body weight is on the balls of
the feet – NOT the tips of your toes. Repeat this on one foot.
3. saute (soh-tay): to jump. This sort of jump is performed “two feet to two feet.” This means that you leave
the ground by jumping off of both feet at the same time and you land on both feet at the same time. Begin in
a plie (as described above). Using your feet the same way you did to perform releve, propel yourself into the
air. Be sure to straighten and extend your legs in the air, but land in plie to cushion your knees.