UNIT-1

BIO-POTENTIAL GENERATION AND ELECTRODE TYPES

ORIGIN OF BIO-POTENTIAL AND ITS PROPAGATION , TYPES OF ELECTRODES –

SURFACE , NEEDLE AND MICRO ELECTRODES AND THEIR EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS ,
RECORDING PROBLEMS – MEASUREMENT WITH TWO ELECTRODES.
CELL AND ITS STRUCTURE:
The basic living unit of the body is the cell.Each organ of our body is made of different
cells and each type of cell is meant for performing a particular function.
The entire body contains about 100 trillion cells.Generally all the cells have the ability to
reproduce new cells.
In cells, oxygen combines with carbohydrate , fat or protein to release energy for cell
function.

Each cell consists of a centrally located nucleus.It is surrounded by the cytoplasm.

The different substances in the cell are water , electrolytes ,proteins, lipids and
carbohydrates.
Water – 70 to 85%.
Electrolytes – potassium , magnesium , phosphate, sulphate , bicarbonate,sodium , calcium and
chloride.
Proteins – 10 to 20 %. These are the enzymes which catalyze the chemical reactions which
produce energy for cellular functions.
Lipids – Fat solvents and are insoluble in water.Important lipids are phospholipids and
cholesterol.
Carbohydrates – It plays a major role in nutrition.o
Cytoplasm – It is filled with cytosol which is a clear fluid portion.It contains mitochondria and
endoplasmic reticulum.
It carries out a mechanism called Metabolism.
Metabolism = Anabolism + Catabolism
Ribosomes – It is composed of a mixture of Ribonucleic acid(RNA) and proteins.
Lysosomes – It provides an intracellular digestive system that allows the cell to digest and
remove unwanted substances such as bacteria.
Mitochondria – It is called the power house of the cell. The cells extract energy from the
nutrients and oxygen .It contain deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA).
Nucleus – DNA is the basic substance of nucleus that controls the replication of the cell.It is
called the control center of the cell.
Nucleus contains large quantities of DNA called genes.
Nucleus is surrounded by inner and outer membranes.Nucleolus is present inside the
nucleus which contain large amount of RNA and proteins.
The size of the cell is in range of 5 – 10 micrometer.When there is enormous quantity of
DNA,the cell size is larger.
Cancer cells:
Cancer is caused by abnormal activation of cellular genes that control cell growth.The
probability of abnormality can be increased by the following factors.
o Exposure of ionizing radiations
o Chemical substances
o Physical irritants
o Heriditary
o Viruses

Transport of ions through cell membrane:

Extracellular fluid – Fluid which lies outside the cell membrane. It contains large
amount of sodium and small amount of potassium. Concentration of phosphates,proteins and
chlorides are more.
Intracellular fluid – Fluid which lies inside the cell membrane.
The cell membrane consists of lipid bilayer which acts as a barrier for the movement of water
soluble substances between extracellular and intracellular fluid regions.
Transportation of substances through the cell membrane occurs by
Passive transport or Diffusion
Active transport

Active transport:
When a cell membrane moves molecules against a concentration gradient , the process is
called active transport. Sodium,potassium,chloride and calcium ions are transported in this way.
Passive transport:
Diffusion takes place through intermolecular spaces in the membrane.

Origin of bio-potential:
Resting and Action potential:
Bio-electric potentials are produced as a result of electrochemical activity of excitable
cells such as nerve and muscle cells.
Two types of bio-potentials
Resting potential
Action potential
Resting potential:
Due to the difference in permeability of different ions,charge balance is not achieved.So
that the equilibrium condition is reached with the potential difference across the membrane such
that the negative potential on the inside and positive potential on the outside.
 This membrane potential caused by the different concentration of ions is called as
Resting potential. When the cell is in the resting state , it is said to be polarized which means
inside of the cell is negative by chloride ions and outside it is positive by sodium ions.
Characteristics of Resting potential:
The resting potential is maintained constant until some kind of disturbances upsets the
equilibrium.
It strongly depends on temperature.
Resting potential may vary from -60 to -100 mV.Approximately ,the value is -90 mV.
Goldman’s equation for resting potential is

Fig:Resting potential
Action potential:
When the cell membrane is excited by some external energy,then the permeability
changes.So that the sodium ions are allowed to enter inside the cell. Therefore the cell becomes
slightly positive potential on the inside due to the imbalance of the potassium ions.
The posiive potential of the cell membrane during excitation is called as the action
potential in the range of +20 mV.
When the cell is excited or stimulated , the outer membrane of the cell becomes negative
an inner membrane becomes positive.This process is called Depolarization.

Fig:Action potential

By the action of Sodium Pump , the sodium ions are quickly transported back to the
outside of the cell and cell comes to resting potential. The outer membrane becomes positive
while the inner becomes negative . The membrane returns back to its original polarized
condition.This is called Repolarization.
All-or-nothing law:
It states that regardless of the method of excitation of cell or by the intensity of the
stimulus , the action potential is always the same for any given cell.

Absolute Refractory Period:

It is the time period in which the cell cannot respond to any new stimulus.It is about 1
millisecond in nerve cells.

Relative refractory period:

It is the time period during which the another action potential can be triggered but a
higher stimulus is required to re-initiate an action potential and the subsequent contraction of
muscles.

Conduction velocity:
The rate at which an action potential moves down a fibre or propagated from cell to cell.

Bio-medical Instrument system

Transducer:
It is used to convert one form of energy to another.Sensor is used here to convert the
physical measurements to an electrical signal.
 It transforms the physical signal like temperature,blood pressure or bio-potential into a
signal form which can be read by the signal processor.
Signal processor/signal conditioner:
It is a component which amplifies,shapes or modifies the electrical output of the
transducer.
In case of therapy,feedback is send to the biological system. In case of surgery, surgical
tool like electrosurgical knife and laser is in contact with the biological system.
The output of the processor can be displayed,stored or transformed in specific manner.
Factors to be considered while designing medical instrument:
Accuracy
Frequency response
Hysteresis
Isolation
Linearity
Sensitivity
Signal-to-Noise ratio
Simpliciy
Stability
Precision
TYPES OF ELECTRODES:
Micro-electrodes:
(i)Metal microelectrode:
It is formed by electrolytically etching the tip of a fine tungsten or stainless steel
wire to a fine point.This technique is known as electropointing.
Since the bio-electric potential requires two electrodes, the voltage measured is really the
difference between the instantaneous potentials of micro electrode and reference electrode.

EA – Metal electrode potential

EB - Reference electrode potential
EC - Variable Cell membrane potential
RA – Resistance of the connecting wire
RS – Resistance of the shaft of the electrode
RIN – Resistance of intracellular fluid
RFA , RWA , CWA – Impedance of microelectrode tip
RB – Resistance of wire connected to reference electrode
RFB , RWB , CWB – Impedance of reference electrode
REX – Resistance of extracellular fluid
CD – Distributed capacitance
The impedance of microelectrode tip is inversely proportional to area of the tip and frequency.
The electrode output is coupled with an amplifier. If the input impedance of the amplifier is not
high enough , then it behaves as a high pass filter.

Micropipet(Non-metallic microelectrode):
The non-metallic micropipet is filled with an electrolyte compatible with the cellular
fluids.
It has a dual interface.
  One interface consists of a metal wire in contact with the electrolyte
solution inside the micropipe.
 The other interface is in between the electrolyte inside the pipet and the
fluid inside.
EA – potential between metal wire and electrolyte filled in the micropipet.
EB - potential between reference electrode and extracellular fluid.
EC - Variable Cell membrane potential
RA – Resistance of the connecting wire
RS – Resistance of the shaft of the electrode
RIN – Resistance of intracellular fluid
RFA , RWA , CWA – Impedance of electrode-electrolyte interface
RB – Resistance of wire connected to reference electrode
RFB , RWB , CWB – Impedance of reference electrode-electrolyte interface
REX – Resistance of extracellular fluid
CD – Distributed capacitance
Depth and Needle electrodes:
Depth electrodes:
It is used to study the electrical activity of the neurons in the superficial layers of the
brain.
Each electrode consists of a bundle of Teflon insulated platinum(90%) – iridium(10%)
alloy wires.The end of the wire is rounded for ease of insertion into the brain.
The active area of the depth electrode is about 0.5mm2.
Needle electrode:
It is used to record the peripheral nerve action potentials(ENG).
A short length of the fine insulated metal wire is bent at its one end and the bent portion
is inserted through the lumen of the needle and is advanced into the muscle.
When the reference electrode is placed on the skin , then the needle electrode is called
monopolar.
When we insert two wires into the lumen of the needle,it constitute the bipolar electrode
such that one wire is active electrode and the other wire is reference electrode.
Surface electrodes:
Generally large area surface electrodes are used to sense ECG potential and smaller area
surface electrodes are used to sense EEG and EMG potentials.
Types:
Metal plate electrodes:
 Rectangular and circular plates of silver , nickel silver or nickel plated steel are
used as surface electrodes in ECG measurement.
When these electrodes are applied on the skin with electrode paste, resistance
values are in the range from 2 to 10kiloohms
Suction cup electrodes:
It is well suited for attachment to flat surfaces of the body and to the regions
where the underlying tissue is soft.
This electrode has a small area because only the rim is in contact with the skin.
Adhesive tape electrodes:
The pressure of the surface electrode against the skin may squeeze out the
electrode paste.To avoid this problem , adhesive tape electrode is used.
It consists of a light weight metallic screen backed by a pad for electrode paste.
The adhesive backing holds the electrode in place and retards the evaporation of
the electrolyte present in the electrode paste.
Floating electrode:
In this type, the metal doesnot contact the subject directly.The contact is made
through an electrolytic bridge.By this the movement of artifact is eliminated.It is also called as
liquid junction electrode.
RECORDING PROBLEMS
Inaccebility of variable to measurement:
In some cases like measuring neuro chemical activity of the brain,direct
measurement is not possible since transducers cannot be placed.So we use indirect measurement
in which we might have some limitations.
Variability of data:
Majority of physiological variables are non-deterministic which means
varies with respect to time.
Lack of knowledge of interrelationship:
Better understanding of physiological relationship would permit more
effective use of indirect measurements.
Interaction among physiological systems:
Stimulation in one part of a given system generally affects all other parts
of the system in some way since they are inter-related.
 Effect of transducer:
Transducer is used to convert one form of energy to another form.So while
measuring some physical quantities, adverse changes might happen.
Artifacts:
It is component or variable observed during experiment,which is not
naturally present.Examples are electrical interference , crosstalk ,etc…
Energy limitations:
Many measurement techniques need a certain amount of energy be applied
to the living system to obtain a measurement.
Safety considerations:
Hospital safety insists that extra caution must be taken in the design of any
measurement system to protect the patient.
MEASUREMENT WITH TWO ELECTRODES:
Measurement of bio-electric potential requires two electrodes , the voltage
measured is really the difference between the potentials of the two electrodes.
All types of electrodes have the metal-electrolyte interface.An electrode potential
is developed across the interface.
The double layer of charge at the interface acts as a capacitor.The equivalent
circuit consists of a voltage in series with a resistance – capacitance network.
If the two electrodes are of the same type , the potential difference is usually
small.
If the two electrodes are of different type, they may produce a significant dc
voltage that can cause current to flow through both the electrodes.
The dc voltage due to the difference in electrode potentials is called the electrode offset
voltage.
The chemical activity that takes place within the electrode can cause voltage fluctuations
to appear without any physiological input.
Such variations may appear as noise on a signal.This noise can be reduced by proper
choice of materials for coating the electrodes to improve stability.
Nomally the silver-silver chloride electrode is very stable.This electrode is prepared by
coating a piece of silver with silver chloride.
 The coating is done by placing a cleaned piece of silver into a bromide –free sodium
chloride solution. A second piece of silver is also placed in the solution and these two are
connected to a voltage source.
The silver ions combine with the chloride ions from the salt to produce neutral silver
chloride molecules that coat the silver electrode.
Impedance is not constant here.The impedance is frequency dependent because of the
effect of the capacitance.Both the electrode potential and impedance are varied by polarization.
Polarization is the result of direct current passing through the metal-electrolyte
interface.The effect is like that of charging a battery with the polarity of the charge.
Some electrodes are designed to avoid or reduce polarization.If the amplifier connected
to the electrode has high impedance , then the effect of polarization is minimized.
Size and type of electrode also determine the electrode impedance.Larger surface
electrodes have lower impedances, while the needle and microelectrodes have the higher
impedances.