Chapter 4

Meters and bridges

4.1 PMMC Meters

PMMC Permanent Magnet moving coil

Analog meters indicate the quantity to be measured
by a pointer and scale that is interoperated by the
user.
The D'Arsonval ammeter uses a simple
electromechanical movement to indicate the
current.
Current in the coil induced a magnetic field which
interacts with permanent magnet. The interaction
produces a force proportional to the enfettered
current, so the pointer rotates.

The sensitivity of PMMC meter is measured by the

full-scale deflection current (IfS).

Laboratory meter can be made highly sensitive, but

not are generally portable.

They usually used a mirrored scale (mirror under

the pointer) to avoid parallax
Taut-band meter
is a version of the D'Arsonval meter (no need to
pivots, bearing and spiral spring), so it is cheap,
but have less accuracy (2µA)

• Ideal for applications with measurements

under 100µADC
• Withstands non-operating shock - good for
portable equipment
• Can be viscous damped for vibration
Electrodynamometer
One of the oldest meter still used until now is the
Electrodynamometer, invented in 1842

Used to measure
• DC, AC current
• Modified to serve as wattmeter
• Modified to serve as power factor
meter

Its operation like D'Arsonval meter

Use two coils instead of permanent magnet to establish
the magnetic field.
For measurement of current, all 3 coils are
connected in series, so the pointer deflected
whatever the polarity
It is not sensitive like D'Arsonval meter, but can
measure larger current.

Electrodynamometer Advantages
1- Since both of the fixed and moving coils are in
series, the magnetic flux produced is proportional
to current and pointer movement is proportional
to I2.
2- The meter's inertia tends to dampen the effect of
ac variations, so it can be calibrated to measure
the RMS value of ac current
 ANALOG AMMETERS

• The D'Arsonval meter is sensitive for

small current (50µA-1mA)
• To measure larger current added shunt
resistance Rsh.
• The meter has an internal resistance Rm
and a meter current Im
• The total measured current is split into
fraction that goes through Rsh and Rm
IT = Ish + Ifs
Ish = IT -Ifs (1)
Where
IT total current entering ammeter, A
Ifs Full-scale meter current, A (Max. value of Im)
Ish shunt current, A
Ish*Rsh= Ifs*Rm (2)
Substitute by Ish from Eq.(2) into Eq. (1)

I fs Rm
R sh =
IT − I fs (3)

Methods to measure Rm

• Meter calibrator
Which is an instrument connected to ammeter, so
when the current is full scale deflection, the voltage
is measured, then the resistance can be calculated.

• Full –scale deflection method

which can be done as follows:
(a) Added larger resistance RA as shown to
minimize the current in meter resistance
(b) Change the value of Vs to have full scale
deflection and record VSFD
(c) Added resistance RB shunt with the internal
meter resistance
(d) Adjust RB until the read less than half full-
scale deflection

(e) Double the value of VSFD recorded in step (b),

so the pointer move to nearly full-scale
deflection
(f) Adjust RB to read exactly full-scale deflection,
at this point Rm = RB.
(g) Switch off the supply and measure RB, so the
internal resistance of ammeter is known.
Example-1
Assume a PMMC meter has full-scale deflection
current of 100µA and the internal resistance is
200Ω.
a- What is the shunt resistance to make meter read
1.0 mA at full-scale
b- What is the shunt resistance to make meter read
100 mA at full-scale
I fs R m (100µA).200 100 *10 −6 * 200
a- R sh = = = = 22.2Ω
I T − I fs 1mA − 100µA (1000 − 100) *10 −6

I fs Rm (100µA).200 100 *10 −6 * 200

b- Rsh = I T − I fs = = = 0.2Ω
100mA − 100µA (100000 − 100) * 10 − 6

To measure larger current, need small resistance

and vice versa.
Multiple Range ammeters
1- Switching arrangement
disadvantages
When the switch is not perfect and be in-between
two position, all the input current will pass through
the ammeter, which can damage its resiatnce and
sensitivity

2-Ayrton Shunt arrangement

when the switch inbetween two position, not all
the urrent pass through the ammter
Example-2
For the circuit shown below, calculate the values of
Ayrton resistances Ra, RB, RC
Rc Rb Ra

10V
Ifs =50 µA
3V A
30V Rm=1KΩ

For the 3 v- range

3= Ifs*Rt = 50*10-3 (Ra+Rm)
3= 50*10-3(Ra+1KΩ)
Ra =59 KΩ
For the 10 v- range
10= Ifs*Rt = 50*10-3(Ra+ Rb +Rm)
10= 50*10-3(59 KΩ +Rb+1KΩ)
Rb =140 KΩ
For the 30 v- range
30= Ifs*Rt = 50*10-3(Ra+ Rb + Rc +Rm)
30= 50*10-3(59 KΩ +140+Rc+1KΩ)
Rc =400 KΩ
Restriction for using the Ammeter
• The ammeter is connected in series with
circuit under test (CUT), so the circuit path
must be broken to connect the ammeter
• Polarity must take into consideration to avoid
reverse pointer deflection
• Use highest voltage range when measure
unknown current, then choose the suitable
range
• The internal resistance of the ammeter must be
very small when compared with the circuit
under test(CUT), so very small voltage drop
happened which not change the measured
current

For ideal ammeter we consider Rm=0

• If the meter resistance is 1% of the CUT
resistance, then 1% reduction in current will
occur
V V V V
I = = = = 0 . 99
Rm + R CUT 0 . 01 R CUT + R CUT 1 . 01 R CUT R CUT

Such error is called Loading Error

 ANALOG VOLTMETER
PMMC meter can be converted to
Voltmeter by addition of series
resistance Rs
VFs = IFs ( Rm + RS )
V Fs
Rs = − Rm
I fs

VFs voltage reading at full scale deflection

Rs Series resistance used to convert PMMC to voltmeter

• Ammeter is connected in series with the

circuit, so PMMC needs parallel resistance
• Voltmeter is connected in parallel with the
circuit, so PMMC needs series resistance
Example-3
Compute the series resistance required to convert
an ammeter with full-scale current of 250µA and an
internal resistance of 250Ω into a voltmeter that
reads 10V full scale
V Fs 10 V
Rs = − Rm = − 250 Ω = 39 . 75 K Ω
I fs 250 µ A
 Multiple range voltmeters Types
1-Conventional arrangement
Disadvantge
• If the switch is between
two resistance, the meter
will measure nothing
• Only one resisatance will
be in series with Rm

2-Modified arrangement
• Resistor RD is always in the circuit
• RD must be selected for the practical meter
resistance, Where RD is the replacement of RS
• all other resistor can be standards resistor

V Fs
R D = − Rm
I fs
Restriction of Using the Voltmeter
• Voltmeter connected with CUT in parrallel
connection
• Polarity must be take into consideration
• Use large scale at first, and then choose the
suitable scale
• The greatest accuracy occur when the meter is
reading near close to full-scale deflection.
• Voltmeter should have much greater resistance
than resistance of CUT, Otherwise loading
effect happenend
• There are other errors such as calibration or
reading error.

Ideal voltmeter must have internal

resistance equal to ∞
 Voltmeter Sensitivity

The voltmeter sensitivity is measured by Ω/V

1 R m
S = =
I FS V FS

S sensitivity, Ω/V
IFs full-scale meter current, A
Calculation of the loading error is done by using
Thevining resistance

Requivalent = RTh +Rm

RTh

VTh
Example-4
(a) Compute the sensitivity of the meter,
when it have 250µA full-sacle
defelection and the interenal meter
resistance is 40KΩ. while the full-
scale deflection is 10V.
(b) Compute the loading effect when the
meter is used to measure VAB

(a) S= (1/IFs) = (1/250µA) = 4KΩ/v

Or S=Rm/VFs = 40 KΩ/10V = 4KΩ/v

(b) RTH = 10KΩ //10KΩ = 5KΩ

VTH = 20*10/(10+10) = 10V
Vmeas (A-B) = 10*40/(40+5) = 8.89V
Loading Error = [(10-8.89)/10]*100=11.1%
Example-5
For the figure shown
calculatethe loading effect for
the following cases:
(a) Meter with S=1KΩ/v,
internal resistance 0.2 KΩ
(b) Meter with S=20KΩ/v, internal resistance
1.5 KΩ and the VFS=10V
(a) VTh= 30*5/(5+25)=5V
RT=S*Vfs= 1KΩ/V*10V=10KΩ
RTH =25KΩ //5KΩ = 4.1666 KΩ
Vmeas (A-B)= 5*10/(10+4.1666) = 3.53V
Loead error =[(5-3.53)/5]*100 =29.4%

(b) VTh= 30*5/(5+25)=5V

RTH =25KΩ //5KΩ = 4.1666 KΩ
RT =S*Vfs = 20KΩ/V*10V = 200KΩ
Vmeas (A-B)= 5*200/(4.166+200) = 4.898 V
Loead error =[(5-4.898)/5]*100 = 2.041%

Example-6 36 KΩ
Find the voltage reading by
a
this volatge when Vscale
S=20KΩ/v and Rm=100Ω 4KΩ Rm=100Ω
(a) Scale voltage is 3V V

(b) Scale voltage is 10V

(c) Scale voltage is 30V b

When V=3V
Vth= 3*4/(36+4) =0.3V
Rth = 36//4 =3.6 KΩ
RT =S*V = 20 KΩV *0.3V = 6KΩ
Vab=(0.3*6/(3.6+6) = 0.1875 V
% of Error =[(0.3-0.1875)/0.3]*100 =37.5%
When V=10V
Vth= 10*4/(36+4) =1V
Rth = 36//4 =3.6 KΩ
RT=S*V = 20 KΩV *1V = 20KΩ
Vab=(1*20/(3.6+20) =0.8467 V
% of Error =[(1-0.8467)/1]*100 =15.33%
When V=30V
Vth= 30*4/(36+4) =3V
Rth = 36//4 =3.6 KΩ
RT=S*V = 20 KΩV *3V = 60KΩ
Vab=(3*60/(3.6+60) =2.83 V
% of Error =[(3-2.83)/3]*100 =5.66 %

• As voltage scale or the meter

internal resitance increase as the
loading error decreases
• As the sensitivity increases as the
loading error decreases
 AC voltemeter

For AC, the average value will be zero, so

the signal must full-wave rectifierd , so at
this point an average value will be present
• Although the meters respond to the
average value it can be calibrated to read
rms value.
Crest factor = (peak value/rms value)

Die- Electrode --
Diode
 Temperature Coeff. PPM/Co

100 50 15 25 10 5 1

Tolerance %

±1 ±2 ±0.5 ±0.25 ±0.1 ±0.05 ±5 ±10

multiplier

1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 10-1 10-2
5 5 5 5

Significant Figures

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

‫ وا وازرق ﻥ‬  

 ‫ا د‬
‫ن اﻡد ا‬
For type-1 (left) color band
R = AB*10multiplier
R=R+T*R

For other (middle and right) color band

R = ABC*10multiplier
R=R+T*R