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Causes of transformer failures and diagnostic methods – A review

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DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.165

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 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Causes of transformer failures and diagnostic methods – A review

⁎
Christina AJa, , M.A. Salama, Q.M. Rahmanb, Fushuan Wena, S.P. Anga, William Voonc
a
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Brunei, Brunei Darussalam
b
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
c
Berakas Power management company, Brunei

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: This paper presents a review on the sources of failures of transformer in the substation. Different investigations
High voltage bushing failure and test analyses have been conducted to identify the root causes of failure of the transformer in the power
Transformer failure system, and to identify the preventive measures to avoid these breakdowns. The review work has been presented
Bushing diagnostics with the focus on bushing-failure, which has been identified as one of the major causes of transformer
SEM
breakdown in different reported studies. In determining the lifespan of the insulation of the high voltage
EDS
bushing, along with different factors, moisture effect has also been considered in presenting the degradation
Transformer diagnostics
analysis. On-line measurement has been preferred over off-line measurements due to its benefits measuring the
reliability and uninterrupted functioning of the future generation, transmission and distribution systems. Post
fire-outbreak, external inspection of the damaged bushing along with analytical results, obtained with the aid of
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) analysis, have also been
included in this study. In the analysis, electric field and equipotential lines with different oil levels have been
simulated using COMSOL Multiphysics software.

1. Introduction This statement is supported by the International Council on Large

Power transformer is one of the most important devices, which
provides a vital link in the chain of other devices for supplying electric
power to the consumers. Reliable and continued performance of power
transformer is the key to profitable generation and transmission of
electric power. Transformer failure could take place in terms of
tripping that results in an unscheduled or unseen outage. Hence, a
good maintenance strategy is a crucial component to have in a power
system in order to avoid unexpected failures. In this paper, the causes
of transformer-failure within the power system have been reviewed.
The review components have enclosed the possible causes of power
system failures that have been gathered through diagnostic results and
experiments. Research works, that studied different types of test
analysis and monitoring methods to prevent future unwanted events,
have also been cited. Bushing-failure, being identified as one of the
major causes of transformer breakdown in different reported studies
[1–5], has been considered as one of the key focusses of this review
work.
Testing of damaged transformer bushings revealed several impor-
tant facts about transformer bushing failures. Bushing appears to be a
fragile part of a transformer, and it has been found that 44% of forced
outage of the large transformers related to bushings and windings [6].
Electric Systems (CIGRE / Conseil International des Grands Reseaux
Electriques), survey, which stated that 10% of transformer failures
were caused by bushing damage, followed by a catastrophic conse-
quence [7]. While looking into frequent sources of transformer failures,
bushing failure is found to contribute a significant percentage of the all
the causes depicted in Fig. 1 [8].
From the physical and electrical point of view, bushing appears to
be the weakest part of the transformer. The initial breakdown process
of the bushing structure could not be detected easily, and that could
lead to a sudden failure of bushing, eventually, failure of the whole
transformer. Statistical data on the outages due to bushing problems
from 2004 to 2009 are illustrated in Fig. 2 [9].
2. Overview of power transformer
2.1. Transformer failure analysis
Kumar et al. [10] have published a flow chart for transformer
maintenance as shown in Fig. 3 and efforts were made to analyze the
root causes that contributed to the failures of power transformers.
Authors have broadly categorized the modes of power transformer
failures into three parts, namely: 1) electrical, 2) mechanical and 3)

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: aj.christinautb@gmail.com (C. AJ).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.165

1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Abu Jahal, C., Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.165
C. AJ et al.
Fig. 1. Bushing failure shows significant percentage of transformer failure [8].
Fig. 2. Outages due to bushing problems [9].
Fig. 3. Flow chart of transformer maintenance [10].
Table 1
Typical causes of transformer failures [11,12].
Internal Insulation deterioration
Loss of winding clamping
Overheating
Oxygen
Moisture
Solid Contamination in the insulating oil
Partial discharge
Design and manufacture defects
Winding resonance
External Lightning strikes
System switching operations
System overload
System faults (short circuit)
thermal. These failures are further categorized into internal and
external components as shown in Table 1, which often occurs in the
main tank, bushings, tap changer and power transformer auxiliaries
2
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
[11,12]. Most of the transformer problems have already been classified
in terms of incipient faults classified into four major categories in
[13,14]. Wang et al. [15] further illustrated in Table 2, that any type of
fault might occur due to more than one causes. Authors in [16] have
realized that some transformer problems occur due to contaminated
oil, and these problems are generally caused by insulation oil degrada-
tion, overload, and thermal stress, humidity in oil or paper and defects
on the bushing. (Fig. 4).
With the aim to prevent any fault or failure of a transformer, the
authors in [7] have analyzed data collected from the tripping caused by
transformers and protective relays. The analysis have shown that 87%
of the transformer’s tripping occurs, due to the power system faults
followed by 10% of false operation of protective relays, and the rest is
due to the failures within the transformer itself. Also, it has been
revealed that the number tripping of the transformer varies from time
to time.
2.2. Transformer failure test analysis
AC power system is a complex network and, due to insulation
breakdown, failures in power transformers cause considerable financial
loss due to power outage, and cost of replacement or repair.
Inspections are conducted for the assessment of the transformer
condition by data collection, and information on transformer failure
cases [18]. In the early 2000, Pukel et al. [3] mentioned three different
types of tests to be performed before the operation of a transformer,
namely: 1) routine tests, 2) type tests and 3) special tests which were
used for different tasks. Common diagnostic methods for checking the
transformer conditions are chemical, electrical, thermal, optical and
mechanical. Chemical diagnostic method consisting of Dissolved Gas
Analysis (DGA), breakdown voltage, and furfural analysis delivers the
most significant results and the most popular and important diagnostic
methods compared to the other methods. Mirzai et al. [19] have
presented a case study regarding the reliability of 63/20 kV transfor-
mer by using Weibull distribution statistics. The authors have also
stated five failure analysis of transformer consisting of: 1) periodical
test, 2) services, 3) protective operation, 4) insulation problems and 5)
others (bushing faults, development, lightning, etc.), which are neces-
sary to investigate in order to improve production technology and
maintenance program as shown in Fig. 5. Ugur et al. [20] have also
used Weibull distribution to develop a model for analyzing the
reliability, and to predict the breakdown time of the polymeric
insulation material.
In 2013, Michael Bocovich [21] presented different types of transformer
failures, which were considered to be catastrophic for three different
substation locations, namely, Fifth Street Substation, Harrison Substation,
and Chicago Substation in which standard IEEE C57.125 [22] was used as
a guideline for transformer failure investigations. The following stages are
conducted in order to investigate the cause for transformer failure: 1)
internal inspection and 2) test which includes physical test [23], oil quality
[24] and dissolve gas analysis [25]. An advanced analysis to determine the
root cause of power transformer failures are presented by Boguslaw
Bochenski et al. [26] using thermal performance and electric magnetic
field (EMF), achieved by implementation of finite element method (FEM)
using the AC/DC module with the application of Maxwell’s equation and
Ampere’s law. The process of modelling the task is divided into five stages:
1) drawing (CAD software), 2) setting up domains and boundaries
(boundary conditions), 3) meshing, 4) solving and 5) post processing.
Uzair et al. [27] have dealt with three different types of tests, applied on a
132/33 kV, 15MVA power transformer from a Port substation in Andhra
Pradesh, India for analyzing the transformer failure: 1) conventional oil
test, 2) furan derivative test and 3) Markov model criteria. The test would
indicate the conditions from the transformer investigation, which are
categorized namely as healthy, moderately deteriorated, and extensively
deteriorated. Table 3 shows the comparison of the results based on these
three tests [28].
C. AJ et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 2
Power transformers incipient faults and causes [15].

Causes Faults

Arcing Corona Overheating of cellulose Overheating of oil

Winding turn-to-turn short-circuit X X

Winding open circuit X X
Operation of build-in OLTC X
Winding distortion or displacement X X
Lead distortion or displacement X X
Loose connection to bushing terminals, tap leads, terminal boards X X X
Free water or excessive moisture in oil X X
Floating metal particles X X
Loose connection to corona shields X
Loose collars, spacers, core ground straps X
Through fault X
Overloading X X
Damaged yoke bolt insulation X
Rust or other damage on core X
Damaged shunt packs of tank X
Jammed oil circulating path X
Cooling system malfunction X

140 124 Preventive tests and diagnostic techniques are on the rise due to the
b off transformer's

120 economic motivation with the advantages of predicting fault condi-

100 87 tions, enhancing maintenance, and increasing the power transformer
f

80 reliability. Thus, a need of change in time based maintenance program

tripping

63
56 to condition based diagnostic procedure and online monitoring
60 488
approaches are introduced [29]. silva et al. [30] have introduced an
40
Number

early failure detection method called predictive maintenance in power

20 transformer in terms of the insulation and checking the existence of the
0 partial discharge. This study has been introduced and conducted by the
2006 2007 2008 20009 2010
authors using equipment involving hardware, control and signal
Yeears
acquisition software and signal analysis software containing sets of
Fig. 4. Power transformer tripping [17]. algorithms made up of namely, signal processing algorithms and
artificial intelligence algorithms with intelligent extraction techniques
and interpretation of data. The advancement of the digital acquisition
system, and digital signal processing for maintenance strategy has been
developed since year 2000 as mentioned by Arango et al. [31].

3. Overview of high voltage bushing

3.1. Types of HV bushing and bushing failure analysis

Bushing is well known to be the most critical electric power system

device, playing an important role, as insulation and support [32].
Fig. 5. The percentage of any type of failures [19].
Bushing is the key link to connect the outer and inner insulating
systems and also the essential electrical accessory in the power system
networks.
As presented by Henny I. Septyani et al. [9], bushing can be divided

Table 3
Results and comparison of conventional oil, furan derivative and Markov model criteria tests [28].

No. Oil sample analysis Furan analysis Markov Model analysis

1 In this analysis, the oil samples are subjected to eleven
tests to determine the gas composition.
2 The gas composition is significant in obtaining the
transformer deterioration condition.
3 Dissolved gas levels increase resulting the breakdown
of chemical compounds of the oil as the transformer
ages.
4 Ratio of appropriate gases is considered and
conclusion is made regarding the oil condition.
5 The obtained ratio describes the condition of the
transformer. (Value that satisfies the standards
denotes a healthy machine).
In this process, Furan derivatives, which are a measure of
cellulose paper degradation, are determined from the degree of
polymerization of the paper.
Furaldehyde content in the oil sample is determined.
Furan derivatives in the oil increase with the age of the
transformer and thus decide its operating capability.
Furaldehyde content decides the transformer insulation
condition.
No computation of any ratio. (Furaldehyde value of less than
0.1 ppm indicates a healthy transformer)
Here, first the fault is classified, then library is
designed, fault is diagnosed and identified.
Software program using HMM generates the
fault possibility.
The more fault probability percentage, more
dangerous the power transformer condition
is.
Matlab program is used to get the results with
the HMM scope.
No computation of any ratio. Gas
concentrations are taken and results are
obtained.

3
C. AJ et al.
Fig. 6. Variation of DP value of different paper layers vs aging time [46].
into four main parts: 1) Insulation, 2) Conductor, 3) Connection clamp,
and 4) Accessories. They further specify two different types of insula-
tion, which are Condenser type (Capacitive graded) and Non-condenser
type (Solid bushing). High voltage bushing can be broadly classified
into three categories, namely 1) Composite bushing, 2) Compound-
filled bushing and 3) Condenser type bushing [33]. Authors in [34]
further sorted different types of condenser type bushings into Resin-
bonded paper bushings (RBP), Resin-impregnated bushings (RIP), and
Oil-impregnated paper bushings (OIP). Feilat et al. [35] have revealed,
that the two common types of transformer bushings, Solid porcelain
bushing and Oil filled condenser bushings, are particularly used in
smaller and larger transformers, respectively. In this work, the authors
have also presented the output results based on the investigation of five
blackouts due to local bushing failures from the internal degradation of
the bushing insulation as indicated by the burn-through marks on the
condenser paper, and two melted spots on the HV central conductor.
Setayeshmar et al. [36] have introduced two methods for bushing
monitoring approaches, which are: 1) The usage of summation voltage
of transformer bushings from bushing taps considering the involve-
ment with and without neutral point voltage and 2) Consideration of a
new sensor to be implemented for providing a signal reference of
voltage signal from the HV conductor in each bushing. Positive output
results were found from the laboratory measurement, enabling to
monitor the bushing condition in terms of its oil level, moisture, and
temperature variation. Authors in [37] have also acknowledged that the
failure of the transformer in a power system is caused by bushings,
which is vulnerable to high dielectric and thermal stresses. Xue et al.
[38] have discussed that faults in bushing have a considerable effect on
the reliability of the insulation system and hence, accelerates the aging
phenomenon. This information indicates that in smaller transformers
aging related failures are dominant. In the medium power rating class,
tap changer failures constitute the highest failure rate. Also, in the large
transformers insulation coordination failures are the most common
cause in the early service life of a transformer [39]. The three main
causes for the insulation failures due to bushings are discussed by
Dongxian Tan along with other researchers, which consist of: 1) bad
design, 2) flaws in the process of product manufacturing and 3) severe
operation environment [40]. They have done an analysis on a 40.5 kV
power transformer bushing failure. The equipment was dissected, and
a simulation was done to study the electric field to verify the cause for
the breakdown.
3.2. Degradation analysis and moisture effects on HV bushing
Authors in [41] have done their research by using two different
methods which are, oxygen pressurized bottles with oil-paper insula-
tion and the used of microcalorimeter. They have discovered that the
degradation reaction rate is not linear with oxygen concentration. Also,
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
they have demonstrated that the activation energy for oxidation and
hydrolysis differ from each other, and the measuring instrument,
Microcalorimeter has the capability to mimic the aging behavior and
thus, has the potential to act as a tool for quick aging examinations. V.
R. Garcia-Colon [42] has identified three different causes of bushing
failure, 1) water ingress due to aged solder, 2) corrosion in bushing tap
and 3) damaged gaskets due to environmental conditions. Using
preventive test, Xiao et al. [43] have detected that the cause of the
abnormal growth of bushing dielectric loss in 500 kV transformer was
due to the presence of moisture on the capacitor core. The results
showed that the presence of water tends to increase the conductivity of
the material, but for low contents, it does not strongly affect the
conductivity. D. M. Getson [44] further explained the impact of the
presence of moisture towards high voltage bushings. The author added
that degradation and aging of cellulose and oil contribute to the failure,
and also decrease the electric power device’s life [45]. Liao et al. [46]
have presented an experimental research on thermal aging character-
istics, and degree of polymerization (DP) of OIP used in bushing.
Variations of DP value at different insulating paper layers associated
with aging time, have been presented in Fig. 6. Authors in [47] further
proved the relationship between distribution of water content in paper
insulation and its DP and ambient temperature. IEEE recommended
that the mean DP can be represented as a reliable characterization of
insulating paper aging [48]. ..Edison Selvaraj et al. [49] have studied
and analyzed requirements, various problems, and preventive mea-
sures on bushing, which are summarized in Table 4.
3.3. On-line monitoring of power transformer bushings in high
voltage substations
Bonaldi et al. [50] have stated that due to the economic implica-
tions involving the operation and each equipment failure in the
electrical network, new technologies are implemented for monitoring
and evaluating the performance of the operating service equipment. A
technique called Electrical Signature Analysis (ESA) had received
attention by the industries for the increase in demand of predictive
technology. On-line condition monitoring reduces cost related to the
operation and maintenance of installed equipment and have mentioned
the need of change in time based maintenance program to condition
based diagnostic procedure and online monitoring approaches. Faifer
et al. [51] presented a novel monitoring method from condition based
Table 4
Different types of problems in bushing and impacts [49].
Type of problem Impact
Cracked Porcelain Moisture enters, oil and / or gas leaks, filler
leaks out
Determination of cemented Moisture enters, oil and / or gas leaks, filler
joints leaks out
Leakage in Gaskets Moisture enters, oil and / or gas leaks, filler
leaks out
Insulation Moisture Moisture enters
Leakage in solder seal Moisture enters, filler leaks out
Broken connection between Sparking in tank (apparatus) or within
ground sleeve and flange bushing, discolored oil
Voids in compound Internal corona
Mitigation of oil Filler contamination
No oil Moisture enters
Displaced grading shield Internal sparking, discolored oil
Electrical flash over Cracked of broken porcelain
Lightning Cracked of broken porcelain
Corona Internal breakdown, radio interference,
treeing along the surface of paper or internal
surfaces
Short circuit of condenser Increased capacitance, reduced voltage at
sections capacitor terminal, adds internal stress to
insulation.
Darkening of oil Radio interference & poor test results
C. AJ et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

maintenance (CBM) by superimposing high frequency sinusoidal

voltage. This monitoring technique is then implemented in obtaining
accurate measurements [52]. On-line monitoring to optimize the
operatinal management is the key factor for future profitable genera-
tion, transmission and distribution within the power system [53–56].
McDermid [57] has demonstrated that certain on line and off line test
methods such as dissolved gas-in-oil and water-in-oil tests were found
to be effective in detecting defects in bushings under service conditions.
Li et al. [58] have compared both on-line methods and off-line methods
to identify the more effective method to indicate potential risks of
electrical system. It is concluded that the off-line leakage current
measurement has higher sensitivity meanwhile, on-line test can replace
off-line test for dielectric loss detection. Recently, Cristaldi et al. [59]
have studied the limits of the applicability of the on-line monitoring
method for transformer bushing as presented by previous authors. It is
found that the method does not solely focus on bushing itself, as it is
also dependent on other parameters.
Sokolov and Vanin [60] have demonstrated that, the principle of
sum current method is a successful one for the application in the on-
line monitoring of the devices. Lachman et al. [61] further used the
method and analyzed it in order to alert the condition of the bushing in
terms change in imbalance current in the power system [62] as shown
in Fig. 7. Joshi and Kulkarni [63] have discussed a simple-online
approach for the diagnosis of transformer winding deformation by
using current deviation coefficient (CDC) at a selected frequency as a
deformed location indicator by observing deviations in neutral and line
frequency currents. This approach is said to be suitable for implemen-
tation in three-phase wye and delta windings. The authors in [64] have
also presented that the CDC can be used to determine the condition of
bushing and winding of a transformer. Apart from using summation
current or voltage, the authors further introduced another method for Fig. 8. Typical power factor / voltage curve [71].

monitoring bushing failure, and this method uses sensor voltage signal

Fig. 9. Insulation deterioration related to the intensity of partial discharge measure-

ments [76].

as a signal reference for the high voltage conductor in the bushing. This
method prevents most outages or catastrophic failure caused by
bushing. Limits on the sum current method, presented by Berler [65]
stated the importance of voltage sensors as an external reference for
further improvement. This method cannot provide enough information
about the defects and deterioration process in the bushings. Dielectric
spectroscopy is a more accurate method that can provide good
information about the insulation for a wide range of frequency before
severe damage occurs [66,67]. Dielectric response is verified by
responses measured by insulation diagnostic systems IDAX [68] and
LCR meter [69]. The dielectric loss was studied by measuring the phase
difference between current and voltage using digital oscilloscope and
found that the dielectric loss factor increased with the increase in the
moisture level. The permittivity is calculated using the reactive power
of a capacitor and it is evaluated, showing the same behavior similar to
both conductivity and dielectric losses to the moisture level [70].
Fig. 7. Changes of the imbalance voltages in the power system [61].

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Fig. 10. Partial discharge testing related to traditional testing method [77].

Fig. 11. Specimen I and III extracted from the burnt bushing.

Fig. 12. Specimen II extracted from the burnt bushing.

3.4. Measuring of power factor and capacitance

found that the measurement of power factor and capacitance over a

Authors in [35] have shown that the bushing failure can be avoided
working voltage produced extensive information about the condition of
by detecting the fault by applying a diagnostic technique which
bushing. Fig. 8 shows five distinct power factor or voltage character-
includes capacitance and power factor, an important diagnostic method
istics curves according to different bushing conditions.
to detect critical degradation. As reported in [71], to prevent HV
In Fig. 8, curve 1 signifies a normal power factor behavior, showing
bushing failure, measurement of power factor and capacitance had
the power factor ‘knee’ above working voltage representing flat
been conducted for the first time, in which the researchers focused on
characteristics of a typical new bushing. Curve 2 shows a high level
the laboratory and field tests on 132 kV Condenser Bushings due to its
of power factor. This is caused by water penetration from damp oil,
occasional failure despite being operated for twenty five years. It was

6
C. AJ et al.
Fig. 13. Electron image of specimen I produced by SEM.
which creates low insulation resistance at the surface of the synthetic
resin bonded paper. Curve 3 shows a significant drop in the power
factor level caused by a carbon path, either because of the insulating
section has punctured as shown in curve 3(a) or due to poor contact
exists at a buried foil as shown in curve 3 (b). Curve 4 shows a low
‘knee’ point, indicating voids discharging at working voltage or less.
This void containing air spaces are usually small but may cover in large
areas. However, little evidence suggests that failure of the insulating
section would result the existence of air spaces. A steady rise of the
power factor curve 5 is associated with oil penetration into the bushing.
In this case, electrical performance around the bushing structure is not
greatly affected, but it would be weak mechanically and less effective as
an oil barrier.
Setayeshmehr et al. [72] have introduced an on-line method to
measure power factor (tan δ )and capacitance (PF & C) of transformer
bushing. Here the authors implemented two sensors to allow two on-
line signals indicating the bushing’s condition and reference signal.
Also a bushing monitoring, diagnostic system has been presented that
consist of hardware and software schemes. The hardware would
perform four functions: 1) filtering, 2) amplifying, 3) conversion of
analog signal to digital signal and 4) storing of results meanwhile, the
software would compare the amplitude and phase difference between
the two signals. Mehta et al. [73] have studied the insulation system of
the transformer bushing and in-field measurement of power factor and
capacitance using a specific equipment called Doble M4000 insulation
analyzer. The authors carried out a case study on two different
transformers to demonstrate how the moisture level and dielectric
Fig. 14. Map sum spectrum analysis of the scanned specimen I.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Fig. 15. Scanned image for specimen II by EDS.
properties change with variation of power factor and capacitance of
insulation system. Maik Koch and Michael Kruger [74] have presented
an absolute method of a new on-line approach for measuring capaci-
tance and dissipation factor measurement of high voltage bushing for
recording grid transients and for partial discharge monitoring at power
transformers.
4. Partial discharge theory and applications to electrical
systems
An electrical equipment design handbook [75] stated, “Discharges
once started usually increase in magnitude with stressed time, but
discharges can become short circuited by semiconductor films inside
the void and discharging is terminated”. Partial discharge are related to
the tracking that appears on the insulation as illustrated in Fig. 9 [76].
Dongxian Tan [38] have identified, partial discharge as an im-
portant method for electrical test on bushing in order to control the
quality of the product. However, continuous use will lead to aging of
the insulation material as mentioned by the authors in [75,76]. Paoletti
et al. [77,78] defined the meaning of partial discharge and promoted a
theory for understanding partial discharge for an early detection of
deterioration of insulation as a predictive maintenance tool to reduce
unscheduled downtime. It is also stated that partial discharge monitor-
ing is an effective on-line predictive maintenance test as the analysis
and diagnostics can be done during normal operation. The partial
discharge testing related to the traditional testing method is shown in
Fig. 10. In 2008, Koltunowicz et al. [79] have introduced a modern
digital partial discharge measurement system allowing advanced
C. AJ et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 16. EDS spectrum analysis – Spectrum 22.

Fig. 17. EDS spectrum analysis – Spectrum 23.

Fig. 18. EDS spectrum analysis – Spectrum 24.

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C. AJ et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 19. EDS spectrum analysis – Spectrum 25.

showed that this detection method had high sensitivity and anti-
interfere capability and it could widely be used in insulation diagnosis
and partial discharge detection of power transformers.

5. Modelling of electric field and potential distributions

In insulation system, cavities can be formed during fabrication,

installation and operation. The deterioration and breakdown of di-
electric insulation are strongly influenced by the presence of cavities.
Air filled cavities have a lower permittivity and lower pressure than the
surrounding dielectric insulation. This leads to a stress enhanced
region and a weak spot in the insulation [81,82]. Liu et al. [83] have
used finite element analysis (FEA) to study the behavior of a transfor-
mer bushing and to calculate the electric field by varying parameters
such as structure, resistivity of the materials and barrier position. Chen
Mingkui [84] and A. Kurita [85] used finite element analysis, which
Fig. 20. Scanned image produced by EDS for the specimen III.
deemed to be suitable for solving a complex structure with diverse
dielectrics, and concluded that the electric field distribution is corre-
correlation method such as three-phase amplitude diagrams, 3PARD
lated to resistivity and temperature.
for noise suppression and discrimination thus, provided a high
Smith et al. [86] further studied the electric field and potential
relevance for on-line application. Shen et al. [80] found another
distributions by applying single and multiple air filled spherical cavities
effective method to monitor bushings’ condition and to detect partial
for simulation using finite element method (FEM). This study of
discharge by applying a range of acceptable sinusoidal signals based on
electric field distribution within dielectric materials of different geo-
direct digital synthesis (DDS). Simulation and experiment results
metric configurations has been carried out by many researchers

Fig. 21. EDS spectrum analysis – Spectrum 8.

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Fig. 22. EDS spectrum analysis – Spectrum 9.

Fig. 23. EDS spectrum analysis – Spectrum 10.

Fig. 24. EDS spectrum analysis – Spectrum 11.

[81,87,88]. In 2012, Hazlee Illias et al. [89] have developed modelled of COMSOL Multiphysics software. From this study, an understanding
two-dimensional axial symmetrical model geometries of high voltage of electric field distribution in bushing geometry may be attained,
capacitor and surge arrester bushings using FEA method, with the aid which may help in designing high voltage bushing stress control. Lijun

10
C. AJ et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 25. EDS spectrum analysis – Spectrum 12.

Fig. 26. EDS spectrum analysis – Spectrum 13.

Fig. 27. EDS spectrum analysis – Spectrum 14.

11
C. AJ et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 5 Table 11
EDS spectrum analysis for spectrum 22. EDS spectrum analysis for spectrum 10.

Element wt% Oxide Oxide% Standard Label Element wt% Oxide Oxide% Standard Label

O 0.43 – – – O 0.79 – – –
Al 0.11 Al2O3 0.22 Al2O3 Si 0.69 SiO2 1.48 SiO2
S 0.07 SO3 0.17 FeS2 Total: 1.48 – 1.48 –
Ca 0.28 CaO 0.39 Wollastonite
Cu 0.23 CuO 0.28 Cu
Zn 0.22 ZnO 0.28 Zn Table 12
Total: 1.34 – 1.34 – EDS spectrum analysis for spectrum 11.

Element wt% Oxide Oxide (%) Standard Label

Table 6
EDS spectrum analysis for spectrum 23. O 1.42 – – –
Si 1.25 SiO2 2.67 SiO2
Element wt% Oxide Oxide% Standard Label Total: 2.67 – 2.67 –

O 0.31 – – –
S 0.05 SO3 0.12 FeS2 Table 13
Ca 0.29 CaO 0.41 Wollastonite EDS spectrum analysis for spectrum 12.
Cu 0.28 CuO 0.35 Cu
Zn 0.23 ZnO 0.29 Zn Element wt% Oxide Oxide% Standard Label
Total: 1.17 – 1.17 –
O – – – –
Al 0.00 Al2O3 0.01 Al2O3
Table 7 Si 0.00 SiO2 0.00 SiO2
EDS spectrum analysis for spctrum 24. Total: – – 0.01 –

Element wt% Oxide Oxide% Standard Label

Table 14
O 0.48 – – – EDS spectrum analysis for spectrum 13.
Mg 0.12 MgO 0.20 MgO
Al 0.08 Al2O3 0.15 Al2O3 Element wt% Oxide Oxide% Standard Label
S 0.05 SO3 0.12 FeS2
Ca 0.34 CaO 0.48 Wollastonite O 0.94 – – –
Cu 0.28 CuO 0.35 Cu Si 0.83 SiO2 1.77 SiO2
Zn 0.22 ZnO 0.27 Zn Total: 1.77 – 1.77 –
Total: 1.57 – 1.57 –

Table 15
Table 8 EDS spectrum analysis for spectrum 14.
EDS spectrum analysis for spectrum 25.
Element wt% Oxide Oxide% Standard Label
Element wt% Oxide Oxide% Standard Label
O 1.69 – – –
O 29.19 – – – Si 1.48 SiO2 3.17 SiO2
Si 25.36 SiO2 54.25 SiO2 Total: 3.17 – 3.17 –
Ca 0.09 CaO 0.12 Wollastonite
Cu 0.58 CuO 0.72 Cu
Zn 0.45 ZnO 0.57 Zn
et al. [90] have introduced a mathematical model in order to calculate
Total: 55.66 – 55.66 –
the electric field distribution of a 126 kV HV GIS bushing and
simulation was conducted by using ANSYS software. Research has
Table 9 been done and found out an increase of the voltage level of the bushing,
EDS spectrum analysis for spectrum 8. the non-uniformity of the electric field between the center conductor
and the grounded flange become outstanding [91–93].
Element wt% Oxide Oxide% Standard Label

O 0.30 – – – 6. Investigations on power transformer bushing fire

Al 0.00 Al2O3 0.01 Al2O3 activities
Si 0.25 SiO2 0.54 SiO2
W 0.02 WO3 0.03 W
Total: 0.58 – 0.58 – 6.1. SEM and EDS analysis on burnt bushing

Three collected specimens labeled as I, II and III for white ash,

Table 10 burning housing ashes and solid remains from the burnt bushing,
EDS spectrum analysis for spectrum 9. respectively, are shown in Figs. 11 and 12. These collected specimens
were carefully cut into appropriate pieces to be fitted under the
Element wt% Oxide Oxide% Standard Label
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) in order for obtaining the
O 2.19 – – – electron images. The elements in the specimens are further identified
Si 1.92 SiO2 4.11 SiO2 by analyzing the entire scanned area of electron images derived from
Total: 4.11 – 4.11 –
the SEM with the help of Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS)
software involving X-ray spectrum [94].

12
C. AJ et al.
Fig. 28. 2D representation for bushing with full oil and without oil insulation respectively.
Figs. 13 and 14 represent the SEM electron image and map sum
EDS spectrum analysis of the specimen I respectively. In Fig. 13,
Green, blue and red colors on the electron images identify Silicon (Si),
Carbon (C) and Oxygen (O) elements, respectively. Figs. 15–27
represents the scanned image by EDS and EDS spectrum analysis for
specimens II and III, respectively. Tables 5–15 gives the detailed
information of the identified elements of the derived EDS spectrum
analysis where, wt% represents the weight of an element in percent.
The results obtained from the analysis indicates that specimen I
consist of a large percentage of Si (49.2%) and O (49.5%). For
specimens II and III different spectrums were obtained by selecting
random locations within the specimen. Tables 5–8 represents the
elements found in Specimen II based on the EDS analysis. As can be
seen in Table 8 for spectrum 25 Silicon dioxide (SiO2), also known as
silica, is found to have a large concentration (54.25%). This large
concentration comes from the contribution from both SI (25.36%) and
O (29.19%) that constitute silica. The chemical element Wollastonite
(CaSiO3), which is composed of Calcium (Ca) and Silica (SiO2), is
found to be common in every spectrum. Tables 9–15 represents the
types and percentages of elements or compounds found within speci-
men III. It is found that this specimen is mainly consists of silicon
dioxide (SiO2), and traces of aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) and tungsten
(W).
In the power industry, these elements or compounds are usually
made into electrical insulating polymers in order to achieve specific
electrical, mechanical and thermal properties [95]. Comparing both
output results of the spectrum analysis and external inspection, it can
be concluded that the specimen under analysis, belongs to a part of the
high voltage bushing structure, which comprises of cast-resin housing,
electrical insulation and stress cone. Thus, the post fire-outbreak
external inspection supported the analytical results.
6.2. Simulation of electric field using COMSOL
Fig. 28 represents equipotential distribution lines that exist when
66 kV is applied onto the conductor of the high voltage bushing. The
study of the electric field for different oil levels in the high voltage
bushing has been simulated with the COMSOL Multiphysics software.
The red and blue colors indicate high and low values of electric
potentials, respectively. The closer equipotential distribution lines
indicate higher electric field intensity, while the farther ones indicate
lower field intensity. The spaces between the equipotential distribution
lines indicate the cable insulation failure. The importance of maintain-
ing the oil at a normal level is crucial as the exposure of the conductor
13
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
without any insulation (oil acts as insulation) can lead to dielectric
failure in the bushing [96]. It is then concluded that, bushings are to be
considered in order to reduce the risk of fires associated with the
transformer.
7. Conclusion
A review on the sources of failures of transformer in the substation
has been presented in this paper by taking into account different
studies, which have been conducted to identify the root causes and
possible remedies of this issue. It can be concluded that condition
based diagnosis and maintenance are crucial techniques in the field of
power transformers. It does not only reduce the maintenance cost, but
also prevents catastrophic event, and thus in turn, lengthens the
operating service of the transformers. Research from the previous
and recent years clearly shows the importance of the advanced
technologies such as intelligent computer programs for developing
diagnostic and maintenance methods to obtain reliable data in order to
deduce the condition of the equipment operating within the power
system. To complete this review some analytical data on a recently
damaged bushing of a power transformer has been added to this study.
In this case, in addition to calculating the Electric fields and equipo-
tential distribution lines of the damaged bushings of the power
transformer, SEM and EDS analyses have been carried out to find
the chemical compounds, which contributed to the bushing fire.
Acknowledgements
The authors of this paper would like to acknowledge that this work
is jointly done and has been reviewed several times.
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