Physics
NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
1. Scalar Quantities: These are quantities
that have magnitude only but no direc-
tion.e.g mass,length ,time,distance,volume,
temperature,pressure,Power,work,Energy,
Speed,Temperature,area,Density, Volume
,Current,Potential difference
2. Vector Quantities: These are quantities
that have both magnitude and direction.
.e.g velocity,acceleration,displacement,
momentum,force,magnetic field,Impulse,
electric field,Weight, Tension,Up-thrust,
Friction, Magnetic flux density
,Magnetic field intensity,Viscous drag,
Electric field Intensity
3. Fundamental quantities: These are quan-
tities which can’t be expressed in terms of 16. Uniform deceleration: This is the constant
any other quantities by using any mathe-
matical equation.e.g mass,length and time
4. Derived quantities: These are quanti-
ties which can be expressed in terms of
fundamental quantities of mass, length and
time.e.g velocity,acceleration,force
5. Dimensions of a physical quantity:This
refers to the way a derived quantity is re-
lated to the three fundamental quantities
of length,mass and time.
LINEAR MOTION
6. Linear motion:This is motion in a straight
line
7. Distance: This is the length between two
fixed points.SI units metre(m)
8. Displacement: This is the distance moved
in a specificied direction.SI units metre(m)
9. Speed: This is the rate of change of dis-
tance moved with time.SI units ms−1
10. Uniform speed: This is the constant rate
of change of distance moved with time.SI
units ms−1
11. Velocity: This is the rate of change of dis-
tance moved with time in a specified direction.
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OR .It is the rate of change of displacement
with time .SI units ms−1
12. Uniform velocity: This is the constant
rate of change of displacement with time.OR
it is the constant rate of change of distance
moved with time in a specified direction .
SI units ms−1
13. Acceleration: This is the rate of change
of velocity with time.SI units ms−2
14. Uniform acceleration: Is the constant rate
of change of velocity with time.SI units
ms−2
15. Deceleration: This is the rate of decrease
of velocity .SI units ms−2
rate of decrease of velocity .SI units ms−2
17. Acceleration due to gravity: This is
the rate of change of velocity for an object
falling freely under gravity.SI units ms−2
18. Force: This is a push or a pull that changes
a bodys state of rest or uniform motion in
a straight line.SI units N or newton
19. Inertia: This is the tendency of a body
to remain at rest or keep moving with uni-
form motion.OR Its the reluctance to start
moving and its reluctance to stop once it
has begun moving.OR Inertia is the reluc-
tance of a body to start moving once its
at rest or to stop moving if its already in
motion.
20. Momentum: This is the product of mass
of a body and its velocity.SI units kgms−1
21. Linear Momentum:This is the product
of mass and velocity of a body moving in
a straight line.SI units kgms−1
22. Impulse:Is the product of force and the
time of action of the force on the body
OR This is the product of the force and
time for which the force acts on a body.SI
units kgms−1 or Ns
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23. Elastic collision: This is the type of col- 32. Static friction: This is the frictional force
lision where the colliding bodies separate between bodies tending to slide against
after collision and both momentum and one another.
kinetic energy are conserved.e.g collision be-
33. Dynamic friction: This is the frictional
tween atoms,collision between two billiard
force between two bodies moving relative
balls,when we throw a ball on the floor,it
to one another.
bounces back
34. Coefficient of friction: This is the ratio
24. Inelastic collision: This is the type of
of limiting frictional force to the normal
collision where the colliding bodies stay
reaction on the body.
together after collision and move with a
common velocity, momentum is conserved PROJECTION
but kinetic energy is not conserved.e.g col-
35. Projectile: Is any body that is given an
lision between a bullet and a block of wood,car
initial velocity and left to move on its own
crush(car crashing against th tree).
in presence of a constant force field.
25. Moment: This is the turning effect of the
36. Projectile motion:This is the motion of
force about the fixed point.
a body which after being given an initial
26. Moment of a force: This is the product velocity moves under the influence of grav-
of the force and the perpendicular distance ity.
of its line of action from the point.SI units
37. Time of flight:This is the total time taken
Nm
by the projectile to move from its initial
27. Couple: This is a pair of equal parallel position to the final position along its path.
and opposite forces whose line of action
38. Speed of projection:Initial velocity of
do not coincide.
projection
28. Centre of gravity: This is the point of
39. Range:It refers to the horizontal distance
application of the resultant force due to
from the point of projection to where the
the earths attraction on it.OR is the point
projectile lands along the horizontal plane
where its resultant weight acts
through the point of projection OR Is the
29. Neutral Equilibrium: This is when a distance between the initial and final posi-
body is slightly displaced its Centre of grav- tions of the projectile on the plane through
ity doesnot change position relative to the the point of projection
ground.
40. Trajectory:This is the path takeb by the
30. Stable equilibrium: This is when a body projectile .
is slightly displaced its Centre of gravity is
raised and the body returns to its original
position.
41. Relative velocity:This is the velocity a
31. Un-Stable equilibrium: This is when body would have as seen by an observer
a body is slightly displaced its Centre of on another body
gravity is lowered and the body does not
42. Work: This is the product of force and
return to its original position.
distance moved in the direction of force.SI
units joules or J
Friction: This is the force that opposes
relative motion between two surfaces in 43. Work done :This is the product of the
contact.S.I units N or newton component of the force in the direction of

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motion and displacement in that direction of change of velocity of a body moving in

a circular path and is always directed to-
44. Energy: This is the ability to do work.OR
wards the centre.
is the capacity to perform work.SI units J
56. Centripetal force :This is a force which
45. Potential energy: This is the energy pos-
keeps a body moving in a circular path
sessed by a body by reason of its position
and is directed towards the center of the
in the field of force.SI units joules or J
circular path.
46. Kinetic energy: This is the energy pos-
sessed by a body by reason of its motion.SI Gravitation
units joules or J
57. Parking orbit:This is an orbit in which
47. Mechanical energy: This is the energy a satellite revolves a round a planet with
possessed by a body by virtue of its mo- the same period as that with which the
tion and its position in the gravitational planet rotates about its axis.
field.SI units joules or J
58. Gravitational potential:This is the work-
48. A conservative force :This is one where done to move a body of unit mass from in-
the work done in moving around a closed finity to a point in the gravitational field
path in the field of force is zero.e.g Grav-
59. Escape velocity:This is the minimum ver-
itational force,Electrostatics force, Mag-
tical velocity with which a body is pro-
netic force
jected from the surface of the earth so that
49. A non-conservative force:This is one it escapes from the earth’s gravitational
where the work done moving around a closed pull. OR This is the minimum velocity
path in the field of force is not zero.e.g with which an object must be projected
Frictional force,Air resistance,Viscous drag from the surface of a planet so that is no-
longer under the influence of that plan-
50. Dissipative force:Is one for which the
ets gravitational field and the object will
workdone against them can not be recov-
never return to the planet.
ered .e.g friction,air resistance
60. Weightlessness: is the condition of a body
51. Centre of mass:This is a point where an
having zero reaction when a body moves
applied force produces a linear accelera-
with the acceleration equal to the accelera-
tion but not an angular acceleration (ro-
tion due to the gravity.OR This is when an
tation)
object seems to have no weight when the
force acting on it is due to gravity so that
Circular motion
it falls freely with an acceleration equal to
52. Circular motionThis is the motion of acceleration due to gravity.
the body with a uniform speed around a
61. Satellite:This is a celestial body which re-
circular path of fixed radius about a cen-
volves in an orbit around another object
ter.
usually larger in size than it.
53. Angular velocity :This is the is the rate
62. Gravitational field strength:This is the
of change of the angle for a body moving
force acting on a unit mass at a point in
in a circular path.
the gravitational field.
54. Period:This is the time taken for the body
63. Surface tension: This is the force acting
to describe one complete revolution
normally per unit length on an imaginary
55. Centripetal acceleration This is the rate line drawn tangentially on the surface of

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the liquid.
64. Velocity gradient :Is the change in ve-
locity between two molecular layers of the
field separated by a distance of one meter
65. Viscous drag(fluid friction): This is
the force that opposes motion of a body
in a fluid.
66. Terminal velocity: This is the maxi-
mum constant velocity a body attains when
it falls through a fluid
67. Up-thrust: This is the upward force act-
ing on a body immersed in a fluid. SI units
N or newton
68. Laminar flow:This is the liquid flow where
equidistant liquid layers from the axis haave
the same flow velocity and the flow lines
of the liquid are parallel.
69. Simple harmonic motion:This is the
periodic motion where/in which acceler-
ation is directly proportional to the dis-
placement from a fixed point and is di-
rected towards that point.
70. Period: This is the time taken to com-
plete one oscillation.S.I units s
71. Amplitude: This is the maximum dis-
placement of the particles of the wave from
their rest position
72. Angular speed(Angular frequency:This 83. Strength:This is the ability of a material
is the rate of angular displacement for an to withstand or to resist an applied force
object moving in a circular path before it brakes.
73. centripental force:This is the force that
keeps an object moving in a circular path
and is always directed towards the center
74. Non uniform circular motion:This is
motion of an object in circular path with a
changing velocity both in maagnitude and
direction
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
MATTER
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75. Elasticity: This is the ability of a sub-
stance to regain its original shape, size and
length when the tensile force applied on it
is removed.
76. Elastic deformation: This is when a
material can recover its original length and
shape when the deforming load has been
removed
77. Elastic material: This is a material which
regains its original shape and size when
the deforming load has been removed.E.g.
Rubber band, spring.
78. Elastic limit: This is the maximum load
which a material can experience and still
regain its original size and shape once the
load has been removed.
79. Plasticity:This is the ability of a material
to remain permanently deformed when a
deforming force has been removed.
80. Toughness:This is the ability of a mate-
rial to resist wearing e.g. rubber
81. Strength: This is the ability of the mate-
rial to withstand the applied force before
breaking.
82. Stiffness: This is the ability of the ma-
terial to resist change in size or shape.OR
Its the ability of a material to resist being
bent.
84. Annealing: It is a process by which a
material restores its ductility.
85. Work hardening:It is the process of in-
creasing the resistance of a material to
plastic deformation by plastically deform-
ing it repeatedly.OR is the strengthening
of a material by repeatedly deforming it.
86. Ductility: This is the ability of a material
to be hammered, moulded, bent, stretched
and rolled into different shapes without
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breaking.
87. Brittleness: This is the ability of a ma-
terial to break just after elastic limit is
reached.
88. Hardness:This is the ability of a material
to resist wearing
89. Stiff material: This is the material that
resists change of size or shape.
90. Ductile material: This is the material
that can be hammered, moulded, bent,
stretched and rolled into different shapes
without breaking.e.g copper, steel, iron,
lead,plasticine
91. Brittle material: These are materials
that can not be permanently stretched.It
breaks as soon as the elastic limit has been
reached e.g. glass, chalk, rocks and cast
iron
92. Plastic material: This is the material 105. Heat: This is the form of energy which
that cannot regain its original size or shape
when the applied force has been removed.
93. Proportional limit: This is the point
beyond which force applied is not directly 106. Temperature:Is a number which expresses
proportional to the extension.
94. Yield point: Is a load of material be-
yond which the material stops undergoing 107. Fundamental interval:Is the difference
plastic deformation and instead undergoes
auntil rapid increase in its extension when 108. Thermometric property: This is a phys-
loaded beyond this point until the mate-
rial breaks
95. Plastic deformation: This is the type of
deformation in which the material cannot
regain its original shape or size when the
force is removed.
96. Tensile Stress: This is the ratio of force
applied to cross sectional area of the ma-
terial. SI units Nm−2 or Pa
97. Tensile Strain: This is the ratio of ex-
tension to original length of the material.
98. Young’s modulus: This is the ratio of
tensile stress to tensile strain. SI units
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Nm−2 or Pa
99. A girder: This is a piece of material that
strengthens a structure.
100. Strut: This is the girder under compres-
sion.
101. Tie: This is the girder under tension.
102. Shear force: This is the force needed to
fracture the material in a direction parallel
to the applied force.
103. Notch: This is a cut or a weak point in a
given material.
104. Concrete: This is a stone like material
which is obtained by proportionate mix-
ture of cement, sand, gravel and water and
is left to harden.
HEAT DEFINITIONS:
is transferred from one place to another
owing to a temperature difference between
them.SI units joules or J
its degree of hotness or coldness on some
choosen scale.S.I units kelvin or K
between the two fixed points
ical property which changes continuously
and linearly with change in temperature.
109. Fixed point: This is temperature at which
a physical change is expected to occur.
110. Lower fixed point(ice point): This is
the temperature at which pure ice can ex-
ist in dynamic equilibrium with pure wa-
ter at standard atmospheric pressure of
760mmHg.OR is the temperature of pure
melting ice
111. Upper fixed point(steam point): This
is the temperature at which steam and wa-
ter exist in equilibrium.OR Is the temper-
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ature of steam from water boiling under from solid to liquid without change in tem-
standard atmospheric pressure of 76ommHg perature.SI units J
112. Gas: This is the state of a substance above 124. Latent heat of vaporization: This is
its critical temperature. the heat required to change the state of a
substance from liquid to vapour without
113. Ideal gas: Is one which obeys all the
change in temperature.SI units J
three gas laws perfectly.OR This is a gas
whose intermolecular forces are negligible 125. Specific latent heat: This is the heat re-
and its molecules undergo perfectly elastic quired to change the state of one kilogram
collision. mass of substance without change in tem-
perature.SI units Jkg−1
114. Real gas: This is a gas whose intermolec-
ular forces attraction or repulsion are not 126. Specific latent heat of fusion: This
negligible. is the heat required to convert the state
115. Equation of state of a gas(ideal gas of a unit mass of a substance from solid
equation): Is one which relates pressure to liquid at constant temperature.SI units
P,volume V and temperature T of a given Jkg−1
mass of a gas. 127. Specific latent heat of vaporization:
116. Heat transfer: This is the transition of This is the heat required to convert the
heat from a hot region to a cold region. state of a unit mass of a substance from
liquid to vapour without change in tem-
117. Conduction: This is the transfer of heat perature.SI units Jkg−1
through matter from a region of high tem-
perature to a region of low temperature 128. Absolute zero temperature: This is
without the movement of matter as a whole. the temperature at which the molecules
of the gas have minimum kinetic energy.
118. Convection: This is the transfer of heat
through fluids from a region of high tem- 129. Triple point of water: This is the tem-
perature to aregion of low temperature b perature at which pure water, pure melt-
with the movement of the fluid as a whole. ing ice and saturated vapour exist in equi-
librium.
119. Radiation: This is the transfer of heat
through a vacuum by means of electro- 130. Saturated vapour: This is the vapour
magnetic waves. which is in dynamic equilibrium with its
own liquid.
120. Heat capacity: This is the heat required
to raise the temperature of a body by one 131. Unsaturated vapour: This is the vapour
kelvin.SI units JK−1 which is not in dynamic equilibrium with
its own liquid.
121. Specific heat capacity: This is the heat
required to raise the temperature of a unit 132. Evaporation: This is the escape of molecules
mass of a body by one kelvin.S.I units of the liquid from its surface.
Jkg−1 K−1
133. Boiling: This is the process which oc-
122. Latent heat: This is the heat required curs when the saturated vapour pressure
to change the state of a substance without is equal to external pressure.
change in temperature.SI units J
134. Boiling point: This the temperature at
123. Latent heat of fusion: This is the heat which the saturated vapour pressure is equal
required to change the state of a substance to external pressure(atmospheric pressure).

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135. Freezing: This is the process that oc- 147. Activity: This is the number disintegra-
curs when a substance changes from liquid tions per second.
state to solid state at constant temperature.
148. Half-life: This is the time taken by a ra-
136. Freezing point: This is the temperature dioactive substance to decay to a half its
at which a substance changes from liquid original value.
state to solid state.
149. Thermionic Emission: This is a process
137. Melting: This is a process which occurs by which electrons are emitted from the
when a substance changes from solid state metal surface by application of heat en-
to liquid state at constant temperature. ergy.OR Is the process by which hot met-
als emit electrons from thin surfaces.
138. Melting point: This is the temperature
at which a substance changes from solid 150. Photoelectric Emission: This is a pro-
state to liquid state. cess by which electrons are emitted from
the metal surface when exposed to an elec-
MODERN(NUCLEAR) PHYSICS tomagnetic radiation of given frequency.
DEFINITIONS: 151. Work function:This is the minimum en-
139. An atom: This is the smallest particle of ergy required to remove an electron from
an element that can take part in a chemi- a metal surface.
cal reaction. 152. Diode: This is an electrical device that
conducts electricity in only one direction.
140. Atomic number: This is the number of
protons in the nucleus of an atom. 153. Rectification: This is a process of chang-
ing alternating current to direct current by
141. Atomic mass: This is the number of pro-
use of a diode.
tons and neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom. 154. Cathode rays: These are streams of elec-
trons moving at a very high speed.
142. Isotopes: These are atoms of the same
element with the same atomic number but 155. Radio isotope:Are nuclides which are un-
different mass numbers and number of neu- stable and undergo radioactive decay emit-
trons. ting alpha,or beta particles or gamma rays
during return to stable form.OR Radioiso-
143. Radioactivity: This is the spontaneous tope is an isotope which undergoes sponta-
disintegration of unstable nucleus to form neous decay (radioactivity) with emission
a stable nucleus with emission of radia- of radiations.
tions.
156. X-Rays: These are electromagnetic radi-
144. Radioactive decay: This is a sponta- ations of short wavelength produced when
neous break down of radioactive nuclide cathode rays are stopped by a heavy metal.
with emission of radiations.
157. Soft X-Rays: These are produced when
145. Nuclear fusion: This is the process by a low potential difference is applied a cross
which two light nuclei combine to form a the x-ray tube.
heavy nucleus with a release of energy.
158. Hard X-Rays: These are produced when
146. Nuclear fission: This is the process by a high potential difference is applied a cross
which a heavy nucleus splits into two light the x-ray tube.
nuclei with release of energy.

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Definitions for S.I units
159. newton(N): This is a force that gives a
body of unit mass an acceleration of one
metre per second squared.
160. joule(J): This is the work done when a
force of one newton moves a body through
a distance of one metre in the direction of
force.
161. watt(W): This is the rate of transfer of
energy of one joule in one second.
162. Pascal(Pa): This is the pressure exerted
when a force of one newton is acting nor-
mally on an area of one metre squared.
163. Hertz(Hz): This is the frequency of one
oscillation made in one second.
COMMON SCIENTIFIC LAWS ,THEO-
REMS AND PRINCIPLES
1. Newton’s laws of motion:
1st Law : It states that everybody continues
in its state of rest or uniform motion
in a straight line unless compelled by
some external force to act otherwise.
2nd Law :The rate of change of momentum of
a body is directly proportional to the
force applied and takes place in the
direction of the force.
3r d Law :To every Action there is an equal
and opposite reaction.
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2. Principle of moments:
It states that when a number of parallel
forces are in equilibrium the sum of clock-
wise moments about any point is equal to
the sum of anticlockwise moments about
the same point.
3. The principle/Law of conservation of
energy: It states that energy can neither
be created nor destroyed but it only be-
comes transferred to a different form of
energy.
4. The principle/Law of conservation of
energy: It states that energy can neither
be created nor destroyed but it only be-
comes transferred to a different form of
energy.
5. Archimedes’ principle: It states that
when a body is wholly or partially im-
mersed in a fluid ,the fluid exerts an up-
ward force on the body equal to the weight
of the fluid that is displaced by the body.
6. The law of floatation: It states that a
floating body displaces its own weight of
the fluid in which it floats.
7. Graham’s law of diffusion:At constant
temperature gases diffuse at rates which
are inversely proportional to the square
roots of their densities.
8. Laws of friction
(i) Frictional force is directly proportional
to the normal reaction.
(ii) Frictional force between two surfaces
opposes their relative motion.
(iii) Frictional force is independent of the
relative velocity of the two surfaces
in motion.
(iv) Frictional force is independent of the
area of contact of the given surfaces
Physics
when the normal reaction is constant.
9. Hooke’s law: It states that the exten-
sion of a an elastic material is directly pro-
portional to the applied force provided the
proportional limit is not exceeded
10. Work energy theorem:The work done
by the resultant external force on a body
is equal to the change in the kinetic energy
of the body.
11. The principle of conservation of me-
chanical energy:It States that in a me-
chanical system the total mechanical en-
ergy is a constant provided that no dissi-
pative forces act on the system.
12. Kinetic theory of matter: It states that
matter consists of molecules which are in
constant vibratios for solids and continous
random motion for gases and liquids.
13. Kinetic theory of Gases:Gases consist
of molecules which are always in continous
random motion colliding with each other
and with the wall of the container and the
higher the temperature,the higher the ki-
netic energy of the gas molecules
14. The principle of conservation of lin-
ear momentum: It states that ,for a sys-
tem of colliding objects,their total linear
momentum in a given direction remains
constant provided no external force acts
on them.OR when two or more bodies col-
lide the total momentum remains constant
provided no external forces act on a sys-
tem of colliding bodies
Common explanations
15. Bernoulli’s Principle: The sum of the
pressure at any part plus the kinetic en-
ergy per unit volume plus the potential
energy per unit volume there are always
constant
16. Boyle’s law: It states that the pressure of
a given mass of a gas at constant temper-
ature is inversely proportional to its vol-
ume.
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17. Charles’ law: It states that the volume
of a fixed mass of gas is directly propor-
tional to the absolute temperature pro-
vided pressure is kept constant.
18. Pressure law: It states that pressure of
a fixed mass of a gas at constant volume is
directly proportional to its absolute tem-
perature.
19. Inverse square lawIt states that the force
of attraction between two given masses is
inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
20. Keplers law
1st law (law of elliptical paths) :All plan-
ets move in elliptical orbits with the sun
at one focus.
2nd law (Law of equal areas) :A line
joining any planet to the sun sweeps out
equal areas in equal times ( dA
dt
= constant)
3rd law (law of harmonic) :The square
of the period of any planet is proportional
to the cube of the planet’s mean distance
from the suni.e T 2 αR3
21. Newton’s law of Universal gravita-
tion:It states that the force of attraction
between two objects of known masses is di-
rectly proportional to the product of mag-
nitude of their masses and inversely pro-
portional to the square of the distance be-
tween them.
1. Describe an experiment to determine the
centre of gravity of an irregular lamina(object)
• Three small holes are made at well
spaced intervals round the edge of the
irregular object(card board)
• A stout pin is then put through one
of the holes and held firmly by a clamp
and stand so that the card can swing
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freely on it.
• A pendulum bob fixed on a string is
suspended on the pin
• When the cardboard stops swinging,two
marks are made on the cardboard where 3. Explain why scalds of steam burn are more
the string passes
• A plumbline is drawn through the points
marked
• The procedure is repeated with the
other holes
• The point of intersection of the plumblines
is the centre of gravity for the irreg-
ular object
2. An experiment to determine the accelera-
tion due to gravity using a pendulum bob
• Apendulum bob is fixed on one
end of the string and then sus-
pended on a retort stand.
• The initial length l of the string
is measured using a metre rule
and recorded
• The bob is displaced through a
small angle and released
• The time t ,for 10 oscillations is
noted using a stopclock.
• The period T for one oscillation
is calculated from T = 10t
• The procedure is repeated with
different values of the length l of
the string
• The measured values are tabu-
lated in a table including values
of l, t,T,T2 , Does and Donts
l(m) t(s) T(s) T2 (s2 )
• A graph of T2 against l is plotted
giving a straight line through the
origin
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• The slope M of the graph is cal-
culated
• The acceleration due to gravity
2
g is determined from g= 4π
M
severe than that of boiling water
When steam makes contact with the
body, it condenses on the body thus
it loses its hidden (latent) heat to
the body.The condensed water also
looses heat to the body from 1000 C
to the body temperature.The total
heat lost by the body by steam is
thus greater than that lost by boiling
water only.This results into a more
burning
4. why longer jumper bends legs The
force F exerted on a long jumper on
coming to rest is F = changeinmomentum
timwtaken
Since the change in momentum is con-
stant. Therefore the knees are bent
so as to increase the time taken to
come to rest which reduces the rate
of change of momentum, therefore
the force on the jumpers legs is re-
duced thus less pain on the legs.
5. Explain why more energy is required
to push a wheelbarrow uphill than
on a level ground. When pushing a
wheelbarrow on a level ground, work
is done only against the frictional force.
While when pushing up hill, work is
done against the frictional force plus
the component of the weight of the
wheelbarrow along the plane of the
hill.
1. Force diagrams to have arrows(directions)
2. Include conditions for some Laws and prin-
ciples e.g provided no external force · · ·
3. Stating a formula earns you a mark (0.5)
4. Diagrams must be working,Do not label
Physics Pass with a distinction

what you are not sure about.No marks for

correct explanations coming from a wrong
diagram
5. Cathode rays travel in straight lines but
not in a straight line
6. Always start with the questions you know
most to gain confidence
7. spend a maximum of 30 minutes on each
question
8. Do not answer more than the required num-
ber of questions
9. Always label your diagrams since they nor-
mally take any four correctly labelled parts
10. mention the use of each part of the dia-
gram in an experiment.

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