WELCOME

HARDY- WEINBERG PRINCIPLE

It says that allele frequencies in a population are

stable and is constant from generation to
generation.
The gene pool (total genes and their alleles in a
population) remains a constant. This is called
genetic equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium).
Sum total of all the allelic frequencies = 1

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E.g. In a diploid, p and q are the frequencies of
alleles A and a respectively.
– The frequency of AA = p2 (i.e. the probability of an allele
A with frequency p is the product of the probabilities,
i.e. p2)
– The frequency of aa = q2
– The frequency of Aa = 2pq
– Hence p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 [binomial expansion of (p+q)2]
Change of frequency of alleles in a population
causes disturbance in genetic equilibrium. This
change is due to evolution.

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FACTORS AFFECTING
HARDY-WEINBERG EQUILIBRIUM

Gene migration (gene flow)

Genetic drif
Mutation
Genetic recombination
Natural selection

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FACTORS AFFECTING
HARDY-WEINBERG EQUILIBRIUM

Gene migration (gene flow): from one population

to another. Here gene frequencies change in both
populations. There would be a gene flow if
migration happens multiple times.

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FACTORS AFFECTING
HARDY-WEINBERG EQUILIBRIUM
Genetic drif: It is the
accidental gene flow causing
change in frequency.
Sometimes, the change in
frequency is so different in
the new sample of
population that they become
a different species. The
original drifed population
becomes founders and the
effect is called founder effect. 6
FACTORS AFFECTING
HARDY-WEINBERG EQUILIBRIUM

Mutation: Pre-existing advantageous mutations

result in new phenotypes. Over few generations,
this results in speciation.

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FACTORS AFFECTING
HARDY-WEINBERG EQUILIBRIUM

• Disruptive
Stabilizing
Directional
Natural selection: 3 types
selection: Here,
individuals of• Stabilizing selection
more individuals
Here,
both extremes
acquire mean
individuals of• Directional selection
are
one more
character
extremevalue
• Disruptive selection
favoured.
andmore
are variation is
reduced.
favoured.

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A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION
 Proterozoic era: 2000 million years
ago (mya):
◦ First cellular forms of life.
◦ Some of the cells had the
ability to release O2 as the light
reaction in photosynthesis.
◦ Single celled organisms to
Multicellular organisms.

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 Paleozoic era:
◦ 500 mya: Invertebrates
◦ 400-600 mya: First land organisms (plants).
◦ 400 mya: Arthropods invaded the land
◦ 350 mya: Jawless fish. Fish with stout and strong fins could move
on land and go back to water.
◦ 320 mya: Sea weeds and few plants.
◦ Amphibians to reptiles. They lay thick-shelled eggs which do not
dry up in sun unlike those of amphibians.
◦ In the next 200 million years reptiles dominated on earth. Giant
ferns (Pteridophytes) were present but they all fell to form coal
deposits slowly.
In 1938, a coelacanth fish was caught in South Africa which
was thought to be extinct. These animals called lobefins
evolved into the first amphibian. 10
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 Mesozoic era:

◦ 200 mya: Some of the land reptiles went back into water
to evolve into fish-like reptiles (E.g. Ichthyosaurs).
◦ The land reptiles were dinosaurs. They include
 Tyrannosaurus rex: Largest dinosaur (20 feet in height, huge
fearsome dagger-like teeth)
 Triceratops
 Pteranodon
 Stegosaurus
 Brachiosaurus

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Triceratops
Pteranodon

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BRACHIOSUARUS

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 Coenozoic era:
◦ 65 mya: Dinosaurs suddenly disappeared
◦ First mammals (shrew-like). Their fossils are small sized.
◦ In South America, there were mammals resembling horse,
hippopotamus, bear, rabbit etc. due to continental drif,
when South America joined North America, these animals
were overridden by North American fauna.
◦ Due to continental drif, Australian Marsupials survived
because of lack of competition from any other mammals.

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HUMAN EVOLUTION

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HOMINID FAMILY

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 DRYOPITHECUS AND RAMAPITHECUS
 15 mya
 Hairy. Walked like

gorillas and chimpanzee

 Dryopithecus: More

ape-like
 Ramapithecus: More

man-like
 Few fossils of

man-like bones
discovered in Ethiopia
and Tanzania
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 3-4 mya:
◦ Man-like primates
◦ Height up to 4 feet

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AUSTRALOPITHECUS & HOMO HABILIS
2 mya AUSTRALO PITHECUS
 AUSTRALOPITHECUS:
◦ In East African grass lands
◦ Hunted with stone weapons
◦ Ate fruits
 HOMO HABILIS:

◦ First human-like being

(hominid)
◦ Brain capacities:
650-800 cc
◦ Did not eat meat

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 HOMO ERECTUS

 1.5 mya
 Large brain

(900 cc)
 Ate meat

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 NEANDERTHAL MAN

 40,000- 1 lakh years ago

 Brain 1400 cc
 Live din East and Central

Asia
 Used hides to protect

their body
 Buried their dead

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 HOMO SAPIENS (MODERN MAN)

 10,000 to 75,000 years

ago
 Pre-historic cave art

developed about 18,000

years ago
 Agriculture and human

settlements: 10,000 years

ago

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A comparison of the skulls of
a) adult modern human being
b) baby chimpanzee
c) adult chimpanzee

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Prepared by
MUHAMMED ALI. K.C
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY
Ph: 9544187632
Email: mailtokcm@gmail.com
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