TOK class notes

24.2.16

Framework of knowledge poster requirements:

1. If you are focused on a subfield, state which area of knowledge in which it

belongs
2. Roles of ways of knowing in your subfield (or AOK)
Which ways of knowing are prominent or emphasized? How are they
used?
3. Scope, motivation and application
What kinds of problems are solved? What phenomena is dealt with? What
are some potential limitations?
4. Subject specific terminology and language
Provide a brief sample of some words and definitions. It doesn’t need to
be comprehensive
5. Methods for acquiring knowledge
What kinds of evidences are important in this fields? How is this evidence
obtained? Are there any conflicted or controversial methods that may not
meet accepted standards
6. Historical development
Provide a brief timeline of some of the major events that have helped in
the advancement of the field
7. Personal knowledge
Describe the process by which an individual aquires new knowledge in
the field and is able to share it with other practitioners
8. Knowledge claim
One example of something we can claim to know, based on methods
practiced within the sub-field or AOK

TOPIC- ETHICS
Subtopic Moral psychology

Historical development:

The origin of Ethics dates back to the beginning of numerous world literatures
like the Mesopotamian Epic of Gigames or Homer’s Iliad or even the Icelandic
Eddas. In these pieces of literature, the idea of moral consideration and values
don’t usually apply to the heroes in the text because they are considered to be
much too superior to be following the ethical values directed at the lower class
citizens.

This leads us to the origin of Ethical Monotheism in Judaism, which is a form of

belief that God is the source for one standard of morality, what he says is right
and true above all else and he is the pillar of ethical principals that guides
humanity.
The ancient Greek ethics focuses mainly on Socrates’, Plato’s and Aristotle’s
teachings. Socrates emphasizes on the importance of virtue and how the ultimate
objective of human activity is happiness. And to achieve happiness, we need
virtue. And this virtue can be imparted only by instruction. Plato, his disciple,
extended upon his idea and included justice, temperance and fortitude as factors
that also influence the aim of happiness in society among people. But the most
important person, who is believed to have founded systemic ethics is Aristotle.
He believed that the ‘highest good was not the good itself but goodness embodies
in a flourishing human life’. He believed that a person living a life of virtue can be
expected to attach happiness, which he believed is the greatest thing a man could
achieve. Later, Epicurans and Stoics also extended upon these ideas bringing into
light the role that pleasure, freedom and pain played in the bigger picture.

Then came the Christian ethics, which is a branch of Christian theology that
explains the concepts of virtuous and sinful behavior from a Christian
perspective. It lets the followers know which activities are right and which are
wrong. The Bible gives us detailed instructions on how to live a Christian life,
which is considered to be a pure and good life. These are principals derived from
Christian faith.
For example: Colossians 3:1-6: “Since then you have been raised with Christ, set
your hearts on things above, where Christ is seated at the right hand of God. Set
your minds on things above, not on earthly things. For you died, and your life is
now hidden with Christ in God. When Christ, who is your life, appears, then you
will appear with him in glory. Put to death, therefore, whatever belongs to your
Earthly nature: sexual immortality, impurity, lust, evil desires and greed, which
is idolatry. Because of these, the wrath of God is coming”

In the middle ages, Thomas Aquinas came up with something called the natural
law theory, which basically said the nature of humans determines what is right
and what is wrong. Like for example: murder is wrong because life is important
and necessary for humans and so taking it away from someone is wrong.
Education is also very important because it is their right and their intellectual
nature needs development. Catholic moral teachings is based on the natural law
theory, for example, the catholic view of contraception is based on this theory.

In the 18th century, Immanuel Kant said that an act is only really and truly right
and moral if it is based on a sense of duty and the most important this is human
will that has decided to act rightly and morally. He proposed a principle of
universalizability: correct moral rules that everyone could adopt and follow. He
also argues with Aristotle’s thoughts that the idea of ethics should not be based
upon the attainment of happiness because ethics is universal and happiness
depends on different people in different stages of their lives.

In the 19th century, in Britain, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill encouraged
Utilitarianism, the idea that ‘right actions are those that are likely to result in the
greatest happiness of the greatest number’. This philosophy is heavily followed
even today. It gives us ethical theories that can be related to today’s complex
political developments.
In the 20th century, debates of metaethics were born. Metaethics is the
philosophical theory on the nature of ethics. Many different types of theories
were brought into light. Some of them include moral relatism (moral truths are
about mind independent realities), evolutionary ethics (ethical practicals are
evolved ways of behavior that lead to evolutionary success) and error theory
(ethical obligation is a mistake).
1948 Universal Declaration of human rights asserted the importance of
inalienable moral rights of humans to life, edication and other basic goods.
In the 1970’s, there was the emphasis on applied ethics which include bioethics,
business ethics, environmental ethics and other special field ethics.
This leads to some of the hottest topics of debate of today’s news, the role of
ethics in the development of medical technologies and advancements like IVF
and stem cell research.

Personal knowledge

How do we actually come to an ethical position and find out what is right and
what is wrong?

One of the most important ways of attaining knowledge concerning ethics and
sharing those ideas is language. It is what is the building blocks of many of the
pathways of our thought process. Without language, we can’t actually discuss the
complexities and convolution regarding ethics. Without it, we only have simple
emotions and feelations and ituitions on whether what we are doing is
acceptable or not by society. However it can be argues that the language we use
is first and foremost based and rooted on the emotions we feel. To understand
the significance of language, you need emotion and feeling, which lets us have
intuition as to what we are doing is right or wrong.

This leads to the idea that emotions are a guiding pathway to understand the
morality of our actions. We humans are said to have a strong sense of egotism
which makes us look for a product that will benefit only us in the long haul.
Secondary comes, having feelings for those we care about and how the products
of our actions will affect them. And because of our social nature, we tend to care
about what others think is right and wrong and we tend to follow the herd when
it comes to our moral behavior. But it can also be argues that emotions interfere
with our reasons and sometimes misguide us from doing what is best for us and
those around us instead of doing what is right. Reason on the other hand allows
us to analyse the products and consequences of our actions and come to a clear-
minded conclusion about our moral actions and behavior. But again, it can be
clearly argues that, when it comes to certain situations, the right solution may
not always be the best ones. Our humanity stops us from doing what is right to
doing what is best in certain situations because emotion gets in the way and
that’s what defines human nature.

We come to ethical conclusions by what we are thought from a young age, the
country we grow up, the laws we have to abide by, the religion we follow and the
company we keep. We are told by those who raise us as to what is right and
wrong. Some of these are universal but some differ by culture. This allows for a
diversely opinionated population to be born. What allows us to reach our ethical
positions are also our experiences, our hardships, our successes, our endeavors
and our failures. They help us realize not only what is universally and socially
wrong and right and the reasons behind them, but also what is right and what is
wrong for us. They help us realize our mental and emotional capacities.

Knowledge claim

We humans claim that muder is wrong. It is evil. We believe that life is important
and everyone has a right to it. And taking it away from someone unjustly is cause
for punishment. No one wants to be murdered. It causes harm and suffering. It is
something that is universally abhorred by all human beings. We are all in this
together. By protecting your right to live your life free from murder, you are also
protecting yourself and those around you. There are laws in every country that
protect the rights of a person to live and that look at murder as a crime. For
different degrees of murder, there are different ranges of punishments including
long jail sentences and death. It is believed that when you take someone’s life,
you have to pay for it yourself because you committed such a heinous crime. No
matter what religious or political ideology or philosophy you look at, majority of
them claim that murder is unforgivable and those who commit it should be
punished. As mentioned before, this theory springs from the Natural law theory.
It has been adopted by Catholic teachings of morality

What is interesting is the role it plays in the modern world of technology. One of
the most debated topics of today’s time is the research being conducted on IVF
and stem cells and the use of embryos. Most argue about the moral status of
embryos, whether it is living or not yet living because many believe that because
using embryos in research kills them, it is wrong to do such a thing. But embryos
are argued to be only a group of cells that have not yet grown into anything yet,
they are still equivalent to tissue or bacteria. But it is argued that by killing
embryos, you are taking away a future life, you are actually depriving the growth
of a life of a person. And that is wrong. This is a very widespread debate with
many more complexities and intricacies that can be further explored.