Wat. Res. Vol. 25, No. 8, pp. 911-922, 1991 0043-1354/91 $3.00+0.

00
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved Copyright© 1991 PergamonPress pie

SIZE DISTRIBUTIONS OF PARTICULATE

CONTAMINANTS IN WASTEWATER A N D
THEIR IMPACT ON TREATABILITY
AUDREY D. LEVINEl(~, GEORGETCHOBANOGLOUS2~ and TAKASHIASANO2~)
JDepartment of Civil Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011 and
2Department of Civil Engineering, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, U.S.A.

(First received March 1989; accepted in revised form December 1990)

Abstract--Particle size information, derived from membrane separation of wastewater samples and
quantification of solids and organic content, is used to examine particulate contaminants in wastewater
in terms of size distributions and biological treatability. Field and bench-scale studies of aerobic and
anaerobic biological processes provide a basis for determining the conditions under which influent particle
size distributions influence process kinetics. The value of using pretreatment processes to modify particle
size distributions is investigated for high-rate and conventional biological treatment processes. The utility
of particle size information for design and process evaluation, as an adjunct to conventional wastewater
characterization parameters, is discussed, particularly for municipal wastewater treatment and reuse.

Key words--particle size, particulate matter, organic contaminants, wastewater, wastewater reuse,
treatment, biological treatment processes, pretreatment, kinetics

INTRODUCTION on particle size distributions. The use of pretreatment

To increase the efficiency of biological wastewater
treatment processes, a variety of engineering sol-
utions have been developed in recent years. For
example, efforts to increase biomass concentrations
in aerobic systems using various types of biomass
support media have stimulated design of smaller
treatment units with shorter hydraulic detention
times. Incorporation of treatment processes prior
to biological treatment such as primary filtration
or chemical coagulation have resulted in increased
capacity of biological treatment units and improved
treatment performance. Treatment process reliability
is of particular importance for wastewater reuse
applications. While high rate processes are efficient
and cost-effective for treatment of wastewater, their
reliability is highly dependent on specific wastewater
characteristics. The principal objective of biological
wastewater treatment is to remove organic contami-
nants. However, the contaminants that must be
removed from wastewater are complex mixtures
of particulate and soluble inorganic and organic
constituents that range in size from less than 0.001
to well over 100pm (Levine et al., 1985). Thus,
incorporating particle size information into current
design approaches for wastewater treatment and
reuse can provide impetus for further refinements in
biological treatment technology.
The purpose of this paper is to identify conditions
under which influent particle size distributions influ-
ence process kinetics in conventional and high-rate
biological treatment processes. Several wastewater
treatment facilities were used to provide baseline data
to modify particle size distributions prior to bio-
logical treatment was evaluated through pilot plant
studies. The influence of particle size on biological
degradation of particulate organics was studied
through bench-scale experiments on aerobic and
anaerobic biological processes. Based on the exper-
imental results, the potential benefits of modifying
particle size distributions prior to biological treat-
ment of particulate contaminants are discussed.
BACKGROUND
A variety of techniques are available for character-
izing particle size distributions, however standardized
analytical techniques for evaluating wastewater par-
ticulate organic contaminants do not currently exist.
Because the size ranges of wastewater contaminants
span five orders of magnitude, no single analytical
method can be used to quantify all particle size ranges
directly. Historically, four size categories have been
used to describe wastewater contaminants based on
separations achieved by different fractionation tech-
niques. The operational definitions of the size cat-
egories of contaminants are: dissolved ( < 0.001/~m),
colloidal (0.001-1 gm), supracolloidal (1-100 /zm),
and settleable ( > 100 pm).
Studies to characterize the size of organic com-
ponents in wastewater have been conducted by a
number of researchers (Levine et al., 1991). Analyti-
cal methods that have been used for fractionating the
particulate matter in wastewater samples and sludges
into various size ranges include: sedimentation,

911
912 AUDREY D. LEVINEet al.

c e n t r i f u g a t i o n , filtration, ultrafiltration, gel filtration (1978) f o u n d over 9 0 % o f the o r g a n i c m a t t e r (on a

c h r o m a t o g r a p h y , a n d field flow f r a c t i o n a t i o n . T h e
o r g a n i c c o n t e n t o f the v a r i o u s size fractions is usually
r e p o r t e d in t e r m s o f the b i o c h e m i c a l o x y g e n d e m a n d
(BOD), the total o r g a n i c c a r b o n (TOC), o r the
chemical o x y g e n d e m a n d ( C O D ) . T o c o m p a r e the
results o f p r e v i o u s studies, d a t a o n d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f
o r g a n i c m a t t e r f r o m p e r t i n e n t studies are s u m m a r -
ized in Table 1 a c c o r d i n g to t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s a n d
size category. Colloidal a n d s u p r a c o l l o i d a l particles
are p r o d u c e d d u r i n g biological t r e a t m e n t a n d t h u s
pose an a d d i t i o n a l c o m p l i c a t i o n in i n t e r p r e t i n g
particle size data. Particles c o n t a i n e d in biological
p r o c e s s effluents include n o n d e g r a d e d particles
p r e s e n t in the influent, influent particles that have
been m o d i f i e d by h y d r o l y t i c a n d p h y s i c a l - c h e m i c a l
reactions, a n d particles f o r m e d d u r i n g biological
treatment.
T h e size d i s t r i b u t i o n o f u n t r e a t e d w a s t e w a t e r is
site specific a n d a significant f r a c t i o n o f the o r g a n i c
m a t t e r is in the colloidal a n d supracoltoidal size
ranges. T r e a t m e n t o p e r a t i o n s a n d processes p r o v i d e
p h y s i c o c h e m i c a l r e m o v a l o f c e r t a i n o r g a n i c size
fractions as well as solubilization a n d biological
c o n v e r s i o n o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r . Thus, size d i s t r i b u t i o n s
shift a c c o r d i n g to the specific t r e a t m e n t process.
F o l l o w i n g biological t r e a t m e n t , the o r g a n i c c o n t e n t is
r e d u c e d a n d a significant fraction o f the r e m a i n i n g
o r g a n i c m a t t e r is in the s u b m i c r o n size ranges. In
analysis o f w a s t e w a t e r sludges, K a r r a n d K e i n a t h
m a s s basis) in the settleable size range ( > 100 ~tm),
a n d after a n a e r o b i c t r e a t m e n t , there was a decrease
in the c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f settleable particles a n d an
increase in the s u p r a c o l l o i d a l a n d colloidal particle
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . T h e y also f o u n d the s u p r a c o l l o i d a l
size range to be m o s t significant for d e w a t e r i n g o f
sludge.
Biochemical c o n v e r s i o n o f particulate o r g a n i c m a t -
ter involves c o m p l e x c o n c u r r e n t r e a c t i o n s that act to
h y d r o l y z e the particulate m a t t e r to smaller s u b u n i t s
( D e a n , 1978; Lee a n d F a n , 1983; M a t t e r - M u l l e r e t a l . ,
1980). F o r e n z y m a t i c hydrolysis, the a m o u n t o f en-
zyme r e q u i r e d a n d the rate o f reaction are related to
the size a n d physical structure o f the substrate.
H y d r o l y s i s reactions are o f t e n t h o u g h t to be rate
limiting in the biological t r e a t m e n t o f wastes, particu-
larly in a n a e r o b i c digestion processes ( E a s t m a n a n d
F e r g u s o n , 1981). F i r s t - o r d e r decay rate c o n s t a n t s
have been used to describe the rate o f particle solubil-
ization in b o t h a e r o b i c systems (Balmat, 1957) a n d
in a n a e r o b i c systems (Gujer a n d Z e h n d e r , 1982).
B a l m a t (1957) f o u n d t h a t colloidal particles were
d e g r a d e d m o r e effectively, t h a n supracolloidal par-
ticles u n d e r a e r o b i c conditions.
R e m o v a l m e c h a n i s m s for dissolved a n d p a r t i c u l a t e
m a t t e r in biological w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t differ c o n -
siderably ( A d a m s a n d A s a n o . 1978; Sarner, 1986).
B u n c h a n d Griffin (1987) have described colloidal
particle r e m o v a l as a zero o r d e r physical p r o c e s s in

Table I. Distribution of organic matter in untreated and treated municipal wastewater

Percent of organic matter contained
in indicated size range, ,am
Sample <0.001 0.001 1 1-100 > 100 Reference
Untreated wastewater 4l 16 28 15 Balmat 11957)
31 14 24 31 Heukelekian and Balmut (1959)
38 i3 19 30 Painter and Viney (1959)
29 13 ~1 27 Walter ( 196la,b)
29 15 22 34 Waltel (1961a,b)
25 14 27 34 Hunter and Heukelekian (1961 )
18 15 25 42 Hunter and Heukelekian (1961)
25 14 27 34 Hunter and Heukelekian (1965)
23 14 23 40 Hunter and Heukelekian (1965)
30 19 I0 41 Hunter and Heukelekian (1965)
50 9 IS 23 Rickert and Hunter (1967)
47 9 19 25 Rickert and Hunter (1967)
40 10 21 29 Rickert and Hunter (1971)
12 15 30 43 Munch et al. (1980)
Primary effÊuent 9 48 15 28 Munch et al. (1980)
5V 8b 34~ 7'~ Levine (1985)
50a 19h 26' 5'~ Levine (1985)
25" 2h 13' 60'~ Levine (1985)
35" I 1h 13' 41 ~ Levine (IL)85)
Secondary effluent
Activated sludge 79 2 18 i Rickert and Hunter (1967)
78 3 16 3 Rickert and Hunter (1967)
74 5 31 -- Rickert and Hunter (1971)
28a 3b 20~ 49d Levine (1985)
30" 2b 38" 30d Levine (1985)
26a 9b 49~ 16d Levine (1985)
46 a 7b 34¢ 13d Levine (1985)
Trickling filter 40 60 - -- Painter (1973)
Wastewater sludge
Primary 5 1 4 90 Karr and Keinath (1978)
Secondary 3 0.1 1 96 Karr and Keinath (1978)
Anaerobic 5 3 19 72 Karr and Keinath (1978)
~<0.1 tam; bO.l-I um; ¢l-12,am; d> 12,am.
 Particulate contaminants in wastewater
contact stabilization processes. Other researchers
have found that particulate organics can interfere
with removal of dissolved organics, particularly
in biofilm processes (Sarner, 1986; Figueroa and
Silverstein, 1990). Bouwer (1987) developed a theor-
etical framework for determining the impact of par-
ticle size on efficiency of biofilm treatment processes.
He concluded that removal of particles larger than
10/~m is controlled by sedimentation and filtration,
and removal of submicron panicles is controlled
primarily by diffusion. Based on theoretical consider-
ations, the most difficult size range to remove in
biofilm processes is between 1 and 10/~m.
F r o m a review of previous studies of wastewater
particle size distributions, it is clear that colloidal and
supracolloidal size ranges are significant in biological
wastewater treatment. However, methods for incor-
porating particle size information into approaches
for treatment process design and evaluation need
development. Experimental studies in which panicle
size information is used as an adjunct to conventional
wastewater characterization parameters are presented
and discussed in this paper. To describe particle
size ranges in biological systems more specifically,
a subset of supracolloidal particles, macrocolloidal
particles, is used to refer to particles ranging in size
from 1 to 10/tm.
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
To evaluate the characteristics and size distributions of
particulates in wastewater, this study consisted of both field
and laboratory investigations. Particle size distributions
from operating wastewater treatment facilities were evalu-
ated. The effects of particle size modifications on biological
process efficiency were studied using pilot-scale wastewater
treatment facilities. Laboratory studies were conducted
to determine the influence of particle size on aerobic
and anaerobic degradation of colloidal, macrocolloidal, and
supracolloidal organic particulates. The procedures and
methodology are described below briefly.
Particle size and organic content characterizations
Particle size characterizations were conducted using
a membrane filtration technique that has been reported
previously (Levine et aL, 1985). Wastewater samples were
filtered sequentially through NucleoporeTM polycarbonate
membrane filters with nominal pore sizes ranging from 12
to 0.1 ]~m. The mass of material retained on each filter and
the organic content of the unfiltered samples and each
filtrate were determined. The size distributions were evalu-
ated from a mass balance on the filtrable solids and the total
organic carbon (TOC) of the solids retained in each size
fraction.
In this study, wastewater samples were fractionated into
six particle size ranges using membrane filtration. The
dimensions of each particle size range were derived from the
nominal pore sizes of the filters used in the separation. To
provide a basis for comparing the various samples, the
geometric-mass mean particle size, StuB,for each sample was
calculated as follows:
,~t , In S~
= exp = (I)
J were filled with aerated waste samples and active biomass
WR 25t&'-B
913
where m~is the mass of solids or organic carbon in size range
i and S~ is the mean size for particle size range i based on
the nominal pore sizes of successive membrane filters.
Geometric mass mean sizes calculated based on solids
distributions are referred to as Stop and geometric mass
mean sizes calculated based on organic carbon distributions
are referred to as Stage- The validity of using a lognormal
distribution approximation was verified by calculating
geometric standard deviations, skewness, and kurtosis.
While not precise measurements, Stage and Smp are general
measures of particle size that provide a quantitative basis for
comparing size distributions among various wastewater
samples. It should be noted that the use of the term diameter
has no physical meaning with respect to the particles
collected by membrane filtration. Also, it is not possible to
infer any details about particle shape from membrane
separation techniques.
Field studies of wastewater-treatment facilities
To obtain baseline data on particle size distributions, six
wastewater treatment facilities were selected to represent a
variety of plant sizes, operations, and processes. Influent
and time-delayed grab samples were collected based on the
hydraulic detention time of each successive treatment unit.
At least three sets of samples were collected from each
treatment facility. The sampling locations were: Davis,
Orange County, and San Diego, Calif.; South Tahoe,
and Las Vegas, Nev.; and Clear Lake, Wis., U.S.A. The
analyzed samples included untreated municipal wastewater,
primary effluent, filtered primary effluent, secondary efflu-
ent, and wastewater sludge before and after anaerobic
digestion. Anaerobic digester influent and effluent samples
were collected from the University of California Wastewater
Treatment Plant at Davis (UCD).
Pilot plant studies of wastewater pretreatment
Three biological treatment pilot plants were selected for
detailed evaluation of the influence of particle size modifi-
cation on biological process performance: activated sludge,
biotowers, and water hyacinth ponds. Each pilot plant
consisted of two parallel aerobic treatment units. The
influent to each aerobic biological treatment process was
either primary or filtered primary effluent. Pulsed-bed
granular-medium filters were used to filter the primary
effluents, thus reducing the concentration of colloidal,
macrocolloidal, and supracolloidal particles applied to the
biological processes. High rate activated sludge and
biotower systems were sampled from the University of
California at Davis (UCD) Pilot Plant (Rodriquez, 1985;
Koltz, 1985), and water hyacinth pond samples were
collected from pilot treatment facilities at San Diego, Calif.
Bench-scale studies
Bench-scale studies were conducted on aerobic and anaer-
obic biological reactors to evaluate relationships between
particle size distributions and process kinetics. Substrates
for aerobic batch studies were wastewaters containing differ-
ent particle size distributions. Substrates for anaerobic
reactors were particulate organic wastes subjected to bio-
logical or physical pretreatment for particle size reduction.
Aerobic bench-scale studies. To study the influence of
particle size on aerobic biological reactions, respirometric
studies were conducted on wastes containing different size
distributions of organic contaminants. Wastewater samples
tested were: primary effluents and filtered primary effluents
from UCD and San Diego, Calif. wastewater treatment
facilities. Studies on particulate organics were conducted
using filter backwash solids from primary effluent filtration
units at UCD. Prior to initiation of the studies, the size
distributions of the organic matter in the wastewaters were
determined using membrane filtration techniques and the
Sine for each sample was calculated. The reaction vessels
914 AUDREY D. LEVnr~Eet al.

and then sealed and connected to an Exidyne ER-100
electrolytic respirometer. Tests were run in triplicate. The
reactor contents were stirred continuously for the duration
o f each experiment and oxygen consumption was monitored
on an hourly basis.
(a)
100 --
The effect of reducing Smo using filtration was studied
using samples of primary effluent and filtered primary
effluent from two locations. The effect o f reducing S=go
by particle homogenization was studied using wastewater
solids collected from sedimentation of backwash water from

:::k

N
~ 1 -- Influent solids
-G ~ Lake Tahoe
• Las Vegas
n 0.1 -- • San Diego
• UCD

0.01
L I I I I I I I I I I f I I
o
o
o N

(b)
100 - -

10 E
E
::L

.N
~0 1 _ Primary solids
(D
Las Vegas
• Orange cry
0.1 - - • San Diego
• UCD
u Wisconsin

o.01 I I I I I ] I I ] I I t I J
g ~o go o og o~ ~ ~
o
o 0~ o~

(cl
100 - -

10 - -
E
:=L

.N
Filt. P r i . s o l i d s ~ ~
(D
, Orange cty
~2
• San Diego
Q- 0.1 - - • UCD
• Wisconsin

0.01
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
0

P e r c e n t of m a s s g r e a t e r t h a n i n d i c a t e d s i z e
Fig. 1. Comparison of the size distributions of wastewater solids from various locations. (a) Influent solids;
(b) primary effluent solids; and (c) filtered primary effluent solids. Each line is a representative distribution
from grab samples collected from treatment units at each treatment facility.
 Particulate contaminants in wastewater 915

Table 2. Comparisonof the influenceof filtrationon the sizedistributionof solidsin primary

effluents from various locations
Filtered
Primary diluent primary e~uent
Conch* s~t Co~cn* S.~t
Location (g/ms) (#m) (g/m3) (pm)
Clear Lake, Wis. 73 9.4 24 3.8
Orange County, Calif. 108 4.1 55 3.9
San Diego, Cafif. 113 !.6 69 1.3
University of Cafifornia at Davis 104 6.9 30 2.4
*Based on the mass of solids retained on a membrane filter with a pore ~ of 0.1 pro.
tCalculated from membrane separation of filtrable solids using equation (I).

cleaning of pulsed-bed granular medium filters used to treat
primary effluent. The concentration of organic material
applied to each batch reactor was identical; however, the
size distribution of the particulate material was varied.
Solids were collected using a screen with a nominal mesh size
of 250 #m and divided into two parts. The nonhomogenized
solids were suspended in buffer and applied directly to the
reactors, the remaining solids were homogenized using a
laboratory blender. For the homogenized solids tested in
this study, S_ was about 10 pro.
The norma~zed reaction rates for each experiment were
determined by correcting the cumulative oxygen con-
sumption for endogenous respiration. The reaction rates
were assumed to be first order with respect to the BOD
remaining and reaction rate constants for each expjeriment
were determined with the method of Fujimoto (1964).
Normalized reaction rate constants were calculated by
correcting for the biomass concentration.
Anaerobic bench-scale studies. To evaluate the effect of
modifying particle size distributions on methane pro-
duction, experimental studies were conducted using com-
pletely-mixed bench scale anaerobic reactors (Weiss, 1990).
The substrate to the anaerobic reactors consisted of munici-
pal waste-water solids collected from the primary clarifier at

(a) (c)
100 High -rate 100 --
b i o t o w e r solids
• Tower 1
I0 ~ • Tower 2 A 10
E
v
::L
~ • Tower 4 =
N .,acint,
Tower 5
Tower 6
-~ 1
_~
pondso,ids \
._o ._o ' Pond 1-pri ~ \
I:
• Pond 2-pri ~ ~'e~
~. 0.1 o. 0.1
• Pond 5-filt.pri
• Pond 6-filt.pri
I I II II I II II I I I I I II II I II II I I I
0.01 0.01
tJDO O0 0 O 0 0 ~ O~ O~ O~ mo co o co om o~ o~ m
0 O~ O~
O~

P e r c e n t of mass greater than i n d i c a t e d size P e r c e n t of mass g r e a t e r t h a n indicated size

(b) (d)
100 -- Activated 100
sludge solids
• Reactor 1
A 10 -
E
.. .otor ~ 10
::L Reactor 3
v v
Reactor 4
.N N
m 1 m Reactor 5
~ . Reactor 6 _¢
.2 O A n a e r o b i c solids
I:: T:
, Influent
~-0.I -- a.o.1 • Effluent

I I I I li i ii I I I I I I II II I II i I I I I
0.01 0.01
t.'30 O0 0 O0 O~ O~ O~ O~ L~'30 O0 0 O0 OL.~ ~ O~ O~

o o~ mm

Percent of mass g r e a t e r than i n d i c a t e d size Percent of m a s s g r e a t e r t h a n indicated size

Fig. 2. Comparison of size distributions of solids in biological process effluents. (a) Pilot-scale biotowers,
six parallel reactors, UCD; (b) pilot-scale high-rate activated sludge, six parallel reactors, UCD;
(c) pilot-scale hyacinth ponds, San Diego, Calif.; and (d) anaerobic digester influent and effluent, UCD.
916 AUDREYD. LEV[N-Eet al.

Ames, Iowa. The influence of three pretreatment schemes on
anaerobic digestion was evaluated. One portion of the
primary sludge was not modified prior to digestion, a second
portion was homogenized using a laboratory blender, and
a third portion was treated by an anaerobic hydrolysis
reactor with a detention time of I day at a pH of 5. Thus,
the particle size of the feed to the anaerobic reactors was
modified either physically by homogenization, or biochemi-
cally by hydrolysis. The size distributions of the untreated,
pre-treated, and treated anaerobic effluents were determined
by fractionating the samples using sedimentation and
sequential centrifugation and measuring the COD content
of each fraction.
The methanogenic reactors were operated at steady state
with a loading rate of 4.2 g COD/I-d. The organic concen-
tration of the feed was constant for all reactors, however the
size distribution of the feed was a function of the pretreat-
ment scheme, The two completely mixed anaerobic reactors
were operated at 35°C in parallel at a 10-day hydraulic
detention time.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The results of the field and bench scale studies are
presented below. The effect of treatment processes on
the distribution of particle sizes and organic content
in wastewater and the effects of particle size on the
treatability of wastewater are discussed.
Particle size characterization of untreated and treated
municipal wastewaters
Particle size distributions based on membrane
filtration techniques were evaluated to determine if
the results were distributed log-normally and how
treatment of wastewater influences size distributions
of organics and solids in treatment process effluents.
Transformations of particle size distributions result-
ing from physical treatment such as primary sedimen-
tation and primary effluent filtration were evaluated.
Primary treatment. Size distribution results from
membrane filtration of solids in municipal waste-
water treatment plant influents, primary effluents,
and filtered primary effluents are presented in Fig. 1.
The results shown represent average values from
different locations. Although the data exhibit a de-
gree of scatter, the distributions can be compared

(a) (c)
100 -- 100 --

i#

~I0 ~ 10 - =%
E-I E
v
//
N _ High rate ~ N

activated Hyacinth \ \
sludge TOC pondTOC
t.,
• Primary TOC -- * Primary TOC \ \
0_0.1
• Act.sludge o_0.1 • Pond efficient ~

0.01 I I I II i _ . I ] 0.01 I I I I I I I i I ]~=~ I 4

O3 ca
(R. (5 ~ r,,oo o~ o~ ca
o ca ca o~
ca ca

Percent of TOC greater than indicated size Percent of TOC greater than indicated size
(b) (d)
100 I =* 100
&~A i=$ _ *,,,, =.'_ ~,
10 "~A =. ~ 10
v \2", s
N [Highrate - ~ ~ . TM
1
activated Hyacinth
"6 sludge TOC "G pond T o o
"~ , Primary TOC . P,imary TOC \\\
o_ 0.1 • Fill. pri.TOC o- 0.1 - = Fill.pri.TOC X'~
• Act.sludge TOC

0.01 I I II II I _ _. I I 0.01 I I I I I I I I I I\I \L I I

OO O OO (~Lt3 ca ca t~O O0 O CJ~ (:~ 1.0 ca ca ca
6 oJ~ ~n r~oo caca ca o~ 6 ~ ~ ~ ~co caca ca o; ca
o ca ca
o~

Percent of TOC greater than indicated size Percent of TOC greater than indicated size
Fig. 3. Influence of treatment on size distributions of wastewater organics. (a) High-rate activated sludge
treating primary effluent; (b) high.rate activated sludge treating filtered primary effluent; (c) hyacinth
ponds treating primary efltuent; and (d) hyacinth ponds treating filtered primary effluent.
 Particulate contaminants in wastewater 917

using log-probability plots. As would be expected
from physical treatment operations, there is a ten-
dency for the distributions to shift towards smaller
size ranges following sedimentation.
The effectiveness of primary effluent filtration for
modifying particle size distributions depends on the
characteristics of the primary effluent. Examples of
the effect of primary effluent filtration on particle size
are reported in Table 2. For each wastewater, the
total solids concentration and Sm~ for primary and
filtered primary effluents are reported. In all cases,
filtration caused a reduction in the solids concen-
tration. However, the removal efficiency of filtration
increased with increasing Sm~. The Sm~ of primary
effluents can be used to evaluate the efficacy of
primary effluent filtration or other types of pretreat-
merit. In general, sedimentation and filtration cause
a truncation of the particle size distributions by
selectively removing larger particles.
Biological treatment. Particle size distributions
resulting from membrane filtration of solids in bio-
logical process effluents are presented in Fig. 2 in
order of increasing hydraulic detention time. Solids
distributions from six parallel pilot-scale high-rate
biotowers are compared in Fig. 2(a), six pilot-
scale high-rate activated sludge reactors are com-
pared in Fig. 2(b), and four parallel pilot-scale hy-
acinth ponds are compared in Fig. 2(c). Solids
distributions in the influent and effluent from a
full-scale anaerobic digester are shown in Fig. 2(d).
As shown, the effluents from biological systems tend
to deviate from a log-normal distribution more than
the effluents from physical processes (see Fig. 1). For
the aerobic processes, the distributions tend to be
bimodal with a break between the colloidal and
macrocolioidal size ranges (around l/~m). For the
anaerobic solids distributions, there is a shift with
treatment, but the form of the distribution remains
about the same. There is a tendency for organic
matter larger than 100#m to be transformed to
smaller size ranges.
The size distributions of TOC resulting from
membrane filtration of effluents from biological
treatment of primary and filtered primary effluents
are presented in Fig. 3. For treatment of primary
effluent by high-rate activated sludge, the distribution
shifts slightly to the left [Fig. 3(a)]. For treatment of
filtered primary effluent by high-rate activated sludge
[Fig. 3(b)], there is more of a dramatic shift in the
distribution, particularly in the macrocolloidal size
range. A similar trend is apparent for treatment of
primary effluent and filtered primary effluent using
water hyacinths [Fig. 3(c) and (d)].
To determine the influence of influent particle size
on biological treatment, distributions of solids and
organics from pilot scale and full scale facilities
treating either primary or filtered primary effluents
were compared. The results of this comparison for
two locations are summarized in Table 3. In each case
primary effluent was treated either directly or filtered
through a pulsed-bed granular-medium filter prior to
biological treatment. The concentrations of solids
and TOC in each effluent and the calculated Smo and
Smgo are reported. Pretreatment by filtration reduces
Smo and Smgo to different degrees depending on the
quantity of grit and inorganic particles in the waste-

Table 3. Influence of size distribution of biological process influent on high rate and conventional
biological treatment process
Sample location Suspended
Biological process infiuent solids* Smg~t TOC:~ Smgo
Biological treatment process (g/m3) (gm) (g/m3) (/~m)
University of California, Davis
Primary effluent 104 6.9 103 2.9
High rate activated sludg~ 45 3.2 35 1.8
High rate biotowerlt 58 2.2
Conventional activated sludge 39 17.5
Filtered primary effiuent¶ 30 2.4 48 2.2
High rate activated sludge§ 26 3.7 21 0.4
High rate biotowerll 28 4.1
San Diego, California
Primary effluent 113 1.6 107 1.0
Water hyacinth ponds** 35 2.7 36 0.1
Filtered primary effluent¶ 69 1.3 74 0.3
Water hyacinth pondstt 25 1.2 17 0.2
*Based on the mass retained on a membrane filter with a pore size of 0.1 #m. Reported values
are average values from grab samples collected during steady-state operation.
tCalculated from membrane separation of filtrable solids using equation (1). Reported values are
average values from grab samples collected during steady-state operation.
~Calculated from membrane separation of filtrable TOC using equation (1). Reported values are
average values from grab samples collected during steady-state operation.
§Settled effluent from pilot-scale reactor. Average hydraulic detention times were about 1 h
(Rodriguez, 1985).
IlHigh rate biotowers operated without recirculation. Hydraulic loading rates ranged from 40 to
160 m3/m 2. d. Average hydraulic detention times were about 6 min (Koltz, 1985).
¶Filtered primary effluent obtained using a pulsed-bed granular-medium filter (d0=0.45,
FR = 4.0 gal/ft 2. min).
**Water hyacinth ponds treating primary effluent and operated with recirculation
(Tchoganolgous et al., 1989).
ttWater hyacinth ponds treating filtered primary effluent and op¢rated without recirculation
(Tchobanoglous et al., 1989).
918 AUDREYD. LEVINEet al.
water. An additional result of filtration of primary
effluent is that the organic content is reduced depend-
ing on the size distribution of organic solids as
reflected by Stago.
When Smo and Sinso for a given sample are com-
pared, no direct relationship is apparent between the
size distributions of solids and organic carbon in
wastewater. However, both measures are useful
for modeling and predicting process performance.
The size distribution of solids is useful for design
of solid-liquid separation systems while the size
distribution of organic matter is useful for evaluating
biological degradation. Changes in the ratio of
Smgo/arags that occur as a result of wastewater treat-
ment reflect selective removal of either inorganic or
organic particles.
Bench-scale studies
Bench-scale studies were conducted to obtain more
detailed information on the influence of colloidal and
macrocolloidal particles on aerobic and anaerobic
degradation of particulate organic contaminants.
Aerobic bench-scale studies. First-order reaction
rate constants for electrolytic respirometry studies
were calculated from oxygen consumption data
for primary and filtered primary effluents from two
locations. The calculated reaction rate constants are
presented in Fig. 4 in relation to the Smso for each
sample or subsample. Similar trends were observed
for the wastewaters from the two locations. For
colloidal particles ( < 1 #m), the reaction rate con-
stants were significantly higher than those calculated
for macrocolloidal particles. As the Smgodecreased to
less than about 1 #m, the calculated reaction rate
constants did not change significantly.
For comparison of the effect of particle size re-
duction on oxygen uptake, first-order oxygen uptake
rate constants were determined for each reactor on
the basis of four different time intervals: 36, 70, 90,
and 125 h, respectively. The reaction rate constants,
shown in Fig. 5 are plotted as a function of the total
100
A\
x -s
0.1 -
o.01 I
0.0" 0.1 1 10
S mgo (l~m)
Fig. 4, Influence of particle size of wastewater organic
matter on aerobic first-order reaction rate constants based
on respirometric studies. A and B represent two different
sampling locations.
reaction time. For reaction times of less than about
80 h, the rate of oxygen consumption is higher for the
homogenized waste. However, as the reaction time
increases, the rate constants for the two wastes tested
are essentially identical. Therefore, the degree to
which particle size is reduced by homogenization may
only be significant in cases where short reaction times
are available, such as in high-rate biological reactors.
Anaerobic bench -scale studies. Transformations that
occurred in the size distributions of COD resulting
from pretreatment and methanogenesis are shown in
Fig. 6. The majority of the COD in the primary sludge
was associated with particles larger than 50 # m prior
to pretreatment. As shown, the large material was
converted to colloidal and soluble components as a
result of pretreatment and methanogenesis. As ex-
pected, the homogenized sludge was converted to
soluble substrate more readily than the nonhomoge-
nized sludge. Pretreatment by hydrolysis shifted the
size distribution, so more of the COD was associated
with particles smaller than 0.5 #m. Methane pro-
duction from the hydrolyzed feed was significantly
higher than that from either the nonprocessed or
homogenized feed. Thus, for completely mixed lab-
oratory anaerobic reactors treating primary sludge at
a 10-day detention time, no advantage of mechanical
homogenization was observed. Hydrolysis of particu-
late COD was a more effective method than hom-
ogenization for increasing the amount of methane
produced from primary sludge (Levine et al., 1988).
The hydrolysis reactors were used to estimate the in-
fluence of homogenization on the rate of hydrolysis.
The hydrolysis reactors can be considered to be closed
systems at steady state and in the absence of gas pro-
duction, the total COD, Ct, in the reactor is essen-
tially constant and is distributed in n size intervals:
Ct = ~, Ci = constant. (2)
i=1
The size distribution, however, is modified as a result
of treatment. Therefore, an increase in soluble COD
0.5
Homogenized
0.4
"0 0.3
m 0.2
0.1
0 I 1 I
0 50 100 150
Reaction t i m e (h)
Fig, 5. Reaction rate constants for nonhomogenized and
homogenized filter backwash solids based on electrolytic
respirometry studies of oxygen uptake.
 Particulate contaminants in wastewater 919
(a) Primary sludge Initial processing Methanogenic reactor
10e~1 No pretreatment Oh = 10 days

~ ] Methane
Volatile acids
g io-2~

liiii;iiii;iiiiiiiil
k~, 2 ''"°° ...... " ......
10 :::::::::::::::::::

lO 4
0 20 40 60
I
80 100 0 20 40 60 S0 100 0 20 40 60 80 100

(b)
10-6{
Homogenization Oh=10 days
Methane
atile acids

"~'! 1 0 0 ~

° LiiiiiiHiid iiiiiiiiiiiiiii
10 2 :::::::::::::::::::: .rl
-~ "''''" .............

Q.
30 4 I iii l I I I
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 00

(c)
10 -6
Hydrolytic reactor Oh =9 days
E
.~ lO-4 Oh =1 day pH =5.3
Methan¢
tD
Go le acids ~ Volatileacids

~r
t-,-
lo .2

N
'~ 10 o
-6
10 2
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiil
.~

10 4 I I I I I I
20 40 60 80 00 0 20 40 60 80 00 0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent of influent COD
Fig. 6. Methanogenic transformation of particulate COD in primary sludge. (a) No pretreatment;
(b) following homogenization; and (c) following acid hydrolysis.

in the hydrolysis reactor, C,, results from a decrease where kh is the first-order hydrolysis rate con-
in particulate COD, Cp: stant, d -1, and Cpo is the initial concentration of
particulate degradable COD, and Oh is the hydraulic
ACs = -ACp. (3)
detention time, d. For these studies, the calculated kh
If hydrolysis is considered to be first-order with was 0.17 d - mfor the primary sludge and 0.23 d - l for
respect to particulate degradable COD (Eastman and the homogenized sludge. The effect of homogeniz-
Ferguson, 1981): ation on the hydrolysis reaction rate is related to the
particle size distribution of the homogenized sample.
dCp = khCp (4) As demonstrated by the results of the methanogenic
dt
reactor, the reduction in particle size by homogeniz-
then, for a completely mixed reactor operated at ation did not have a significant effect on the overall
steady state, the hydrolysis rate constant, kh, can be methane production.
calculated from the concentration of particulate
degradable COD: DISCUSSIONOF FIELDAND EXPERIMENTAL
c~o 1 RESULTS
k, C~ (5) The particle size information derived from these
Oh field and laboratory studies has several implications
920 AUDREYD. LEVINEet al.
for the planning, design, operation and monitor-
ing of biological wastewater treatment processes.
Because wastewater particulate organics can influ-
ence biological treatment process kinetics, modifying
the size distribution of wastewater particles prior to
biological treatment can be significant in some cases.
Implications for design based on evaluation of the
organic content of wastewater particles are presented.
Wastewater particle size characterization
Particle size characterizations as represented by
Smgs or Smgo provide information on the size ranges
of organic particulate contaminants in wastewater
at various stages of treatment. These parameters,
in conjunction with conventional wastewater char-
acterization parameters, provide more insight into
physical, chemical, and biological treatability of
wastewater. Based on the data reported here and
from previous studies, particles remaining in waste-
water after aerobic biological treatment are in the
macrocolloidal size range (1-10/~m). The detention
time of the process and the operating mode dictate
the degree to which particle size controls process
kinetics. For the anaerobic systems investigated,
macrocolloidal particles were removed effectively.
Similar findings have been reported by Karr and
Keinath (1978), Lawler et al. (1986), and Dean et al.
(1986).
An alternative for improving the efficiency of bio-
logical treatment units is to include a preprocessing
step to tailor the particle size distribution to a range
that is kinetically advantageous for biological treat-
ment. For example, the use of chemical coagulants
to improve sedimentation, shear pumping, sonic dis-
integration, or the use of primary effluent filtration
following primary sedimentation are potential pre-
treatment options for removing supracolloidal par-
ticles prior to biological treatment. The benefits of
using physical or chemical treatment units upstream
of biological treatment include the potential for in-
creased hydraulic loading and decreased organic
loading to biological reactors, nutrient removal due
to altering the carbon to nitrogen or carbon to
phosphorus ratios, and increased treatment capacity
of existing systems.
Effect o f size o / organic particles on biological
treatment
The experimental results presented in this paper
provide evidence that treatment kinetics can be influ-
enced by particle size. Removal of particulate organic
matter results from physical mechanisms such as
entrapment in flocs, sedimentation, and biological
mechanisms that are controlled to some degree by
hydrolysis. It appears that kinetic limitations are
more significant for removal of organic wastewater
particulates in the macrocolloidal size range. There-
fore, for wastewaters containing a large fraction of
organic components in the macrocolloidal size range,
some type of preprocessing prior to aerobic biological
treatment may enhance the overall rate of biological
conversion. Such a pretreatment study by Karlsson
(1988) confirmed the value of particle size modifi-
cation by using chemical coagulants to improve
removal of particulate organic matter in primary
sedimentation, thus increasing capacity and im-
proving nutrient removal in secondary treatment.
Similar observations were reported earlier by Balmat
(1957).
One type of particle size modification that was
considered in the present study is the use of granular-
medium primary effluent filtration prior to biological
treatment for wastewaters containing supracolloidal
particulate matter. The use of filtration reduces the
organic loading to the biological system by reducing
the concentration of supracolloidal organic particles.
Eliminating the slowly degradable particles prior
to aerobic biological treatment promotes more effec-
tive utilization of the biological treatment capacity.
The actual degree of treatment improvement realized
depends on the detention time of the system, degree
of recirculation, and other process variables. High-
rate systems (such as the pilot-scale biotowers and
high-rate activated sludge in this study) are more
sensitive to the concentration of macrocolloidal and
supracolloidal particulate organics in process influ-
ents than biological treatment systems that are oper-
ated at longer detention times (such as extended
aeration activated sludge plants and oxidation
ponds).
To design more effective biological wastewater
treatment systems, it is important to consider waste-
water characterization in determining the sequence
of treatment operations and processes and also the
specific reactor configuration. For treatment of par-
ticulate organics, one available option is to use a
reactor capable of supporting higher biomass concen-
trations and retaining particulate organics within the
system longer than the liquid fraction, for example
sludge blanket reactors that are used for anaerobic
treatment. Another alternative is to modify the
characteristics of the wastewater prior to biological
treatment, either by removing macrocolloidal and
supracolloidal particles, or by modifying particulate
organics to enhance their biological treatability.
Karlsson (1990) has investigated the concept of utiliz-
ing hydrolyzed particulate organics removed in pre-
treatment processes to provide a carbon source for
denitrification. The optimum engineering solution
depends on the wastewater characteristics, the design
constraints, and economics.
SUMMARY AND C O N C L U S I O N S
The experimental findings presented in this paper
support the concept that particle size characterization
can be used to develop more efficient treatment
designs for wastewaters containing particulate or-
ganic contaminants, such as municipal wastewaters.
The membrane filtration measurement approach used
 Particulate contaminants in wastewater
in this study can be readily adapted to most field
situations due to the minimal equipment require-
ments. The use of membrane filtration separation
is an effective tool for monitoring macrocolloidal
particles concentrations in wastewater.
Particle size characterization of wastewater
through determination of Sm~ and Stag o provides a
basis for evaluating the potential for modifying par-
ticle size distributions using pretreatment. The major
advantage of particle size control is to overcome
some of the kinetic limitations which preclude the use
of high-rate biological treatment systems. For high-
rate biological treatment processes, pretreatment to
remove or modify particulate matter can have a
major impact on process performance and reliability.
In conventional types of biological treatment systems
such as activated sludge and oxidation ponds where
longer detention times are available, fine tuning of
particle size is less critical.
If the proposed particle size concept is incorporated
into process design considerations, it is likely that
the higher removal rates that can be achieved by
preprocessing of wastewater could result in the design
of smaller, more efficient, and more cost-effective
treatment units. The capacity of biological treatment
units can be used more efficiently by applying
material with a particle size distribution that is opti-
mal for biological treatment. Such an approach is
particularly important for wastewater reclamation
and reuse where operational reliability is of utmost
importance.
Acknowledgements--The research reported in this paper
was supported by Zimpro Corporation of Rothschild, Wis.,
and the Engineering Research Institute and Graduate
College of Iowa State University.
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