Devasena

GENERATOR PROTECTION
CHAPTER-I
INTRODUCTION
The generators are the most expensive piece of equipment in A.C. power system and are
subjected to most possible troubles than any other equipment. The Aim of the project is to protect
against all these abnormal conditions and yet to keep the protection simple and reliable has
resulted in considerable divergence of opinion on the choice of the protection. Transformers are
used in the power system are also subjected to so many troubles these are used for step-up or
step-down the voltage continuous power supply is required so we have to protect transformer
also & our project also deals with protection of motors.
The purpose of the power system is to generate & supply electrical energy to consumers.
The system should be managed to deliver this energy to the utilization points with both reliability
and economy. The power system represents a very large initial investment so it should be
protected so as give the best service to the consumers.
1.IMPORTANCE OF PROTECTION
A fail free power system is neither economically justifiable nor technically feasible.
Faults can occur in any power system components generator, transformer, motors, buses and
lines – though the transmission lines being exposed to environment are most vulnerable. Faults
fall into two general categories-short circuit faults and open circuit faults. Short-circuit faults are
most ever kind, resulting in a very abnormal high currents. If followed to persist even for short
period of time, short circuit can lead to extensive damage to equipment. Undesirable effects of
short-circuit faults are unmerited below
Arcing faults (most common) can equipment in vicinity leading to, possibly, fire and
explosion, e.g. in transformers and circuit breakers. Power system components carrying
abnormal currents get over heated, with the consequent reduction in the life span of their
insulation. Operating voltages can go above or below their acceptable values, leading to
DEPARTMENT OF EEE, ADAM’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PALVANCHA Page 1

development of another fault or another fault or damage to utilization equipment. Consequent

unbalanced system operation causes overheating of generator rotors. Power flow is severely
restricted, or even completely blocked, while the short circuit lasts.
As a consequence of blockage of power flow, power system areas can lose synchronism.
The longer the fault last, the more is possibility of loss of synchronism. Open circuit faults cause
abnormal system operating and danger to personnel. Voltage tends to rise well beyond acceptable
values in certain parts of the system with possibility of insulation failure and development of
short circuit fault. While open circuit faults can be tolerated for a long period of time than short
circuit fault, these cannot be allowed to persist, and must be removed. We shall devote our
attention to most sever type of fault, i.e. the short circuit faults. There are also other abnormal
operating conditions, which require remedying, but do not fall two categories of faults
mentioned. Two unbalanced conditions are one is heavily unbalanced generator and the other is
loss of excitation. Faults should be instantly detected and faulty section be isolated from the
section in the shortest possible time. It is obviously not possible to do this manually, and it must,
therefore, be accomplished automatically. Faults are detected automatically be means of relays,
and faulty section isolated by C.B. connected to the boundaries of section. The combination of
relays & C.B. is known as protective system.

CHAPTER-II
GENERATOR
2. DEFINATION
The Generator carries out the transformation of mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Fig 2: Generator
2.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE
The A.C. Generator or alternator is based upon the principle of electromagnetic

induction and consists generally of a stationary part called stator and the rotating part called
rotor. The stator housed the armature windings. The rotor houses the field windings. When the
rotor is rotated, the lines of magnetic flux cut through the stator windings.
The magnitude of this E.M.F. is given by the following expression.
E=4.4  FN volts

Where
 = Strength of magnetic filed in Weber
F= Frequency in cycles per second
N= Number of turns in a coil of stator winding
F= PN/120
Here, P= number of poles
N= Revolutions per second of rotor.
Fig 2.1: Generator principal

From the expression it is clear that for the same frequency, number of poles increases
with decrease in speed and vice versa. Therefore, high-speed turbine driven generators have
generally 2 poles.
The first hydrogen-cooled generator, a 60 MW machine, was installed in UK in 1949.

This was a conventionally cooled generator wherein hydrogen replaced air as cooling medium.
The hydrogen in the machine frame was at a pressure of 0.1 Kg/cm2 to obviate the risk of air
leaking into the machine frame and forming an explosive mixture. It was soon found that the
power output from a given frame size could be increased by increasing the hydrogen pressure
and within a short time 3 Kg/cm2 had become a standard pressure. In 1955 the first 100 MV
generators are commissioned and from the same design followed the 120 MW machines, which
came to service in 1958
2.2 GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION
Rotor:
The rotor is the most difficult part of a generator to design. It revolves in most modern
generators at a speed of 3000 revolutions per minute. The problem of guaranteeing the dynamic
strength arid operating stability of such a rotor is complicated by the fact that a massive non-
uniform shaft subjected to a multiplicity of differential stresses must operate in oil lubricated
sleeve bearings supported by a structure mounted on foundations all of which possess complex
dynamic behavior perculiar to themselves. By the passage of fair amount of high current, the
cross section of the conductors should be increased. There is a problem of mechanical weakness
if the size of the conductors is increased. The rotor is a cast steel ingot, and is further forged and
machined. Slots are machined for winding and ventilation.
Rotor Winding:
Silver bearing copper is used for the winding with mica as the insulation between
conductors. When rotating at high speed, centrifugal force tries to lift the windings out of the
slots and they are contained by wedges. The two ends of windings are connected to slip rings,
usually made of forged steel, and mounted on insulated sleeves.

Fig 2.2: Generator Construction
Stator:
The stator is the heaviest load to be transported. The major part of this load is the stator
core. This comprises and inner frame and outer frame. In large generators the frame is
constructed as two separate parts. The fabricated inner cage is inserted in the outer frame after
the stator ctore has been constructed and the winding completed.
Stator core:
The stator core is built up from a large number of “punching” or sections of thin steel
plates. The use of cold rolled grain oriented steel can contribute to reduction in the stator core for
to increase the core stacking factor with improvement in lamination cold rolling and in cold-
building techniques.

Fig 2.3:Stator And Rotor
Stator Winding:
Each stator conductor must be capable of carrying the rated current without
overheating, the insulation must be sufficient to prevent leakage currents flowing between the
phases or to earth. The generator terminals are usually arranged below the stator.
2.3 GENERATION COOLING
Hydrogen Cooling System:
The rotor is cooled by means of gas pick-up cooling, wherein the hydrogen gas in the air
gap is sucked through the scoops on the rotor wedges and is directed to flow along the
ventilating canals milled on the sides of the rotor coil.
Hydrogen is used as a cooling medium in large capacity generator in view of its high heat
carrying capacity and low density. In order to prevent escape of hydrogen from the generator
casing, shaft sealing system is used to provide oil sealing. The hydrogen cooling system mainly
comprises of a gas control stand, a drier, and induction liquid indicator, hydrogen control panel,

gas purity measuring and indicating instrument, valves and necessary instruments necessary for
controlling and the inter-connecting piping.
Fig 2.4: Hydrogen Cooling System
Fig 2.5 Cooling System

The stator winding is cooled by distillate, which is fed from one end of the machine by Teflon
tube and flows through the upper bar and returns back though the lower bar of another slot. The
cooling water used for cooling stator winding calls for the use of very high quality of cooling
water. For this purpose DM water of proper specified resistance is selected
2.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES:
 ADVANTAGES :
 Simple construction
 More powerful 3 phase generators can be made
 Ac voltage is more easily distributed with transformers.
 DISADVANTAGES :
 The electricity grid needs fine co-ordination to ensure that all generators are in ohase with
each other.
 Ac current is significantly more dangerous than the equivalent dc current in electric
shock.
Fig 2.6 Generator In Thermal Station
CHAPTER-III

CIRCUIT BREAKERS
3. INTRODUCTION
Power switching on and OFF operations in any electrical system needs isolation
equipments. In a situation where power handled is very low, say a fan or a lamp, this can be
achieved by a simple ON/OFF switch. But as load increases, for example an ordinary water
heater where current is of the order of 7 to 10 amps, the switch used becomes spring loaded so
that the make and break actions becomes fast and need not depend totally on manual operation.
For higher loads, special circuit breaking equipment called circuit breakers are used. A circuit
breaker (CB) consists essentially of current carrying contacts called electrodes. These contacts
remain engaged when the circuit is ON, but under predetermined conditions, gets separated to
interrupt the circuit. When the contacts are separated in order to interrupt the current, an ARC is
struck between them.
3.1ARC PHENOMENA
The arc consists of a column of noised gas with temperature of about 25000K, in
which the molecules have lost one or more of their electrons resulting in positive ions and
electrons. The electrons, which have a negative charge and being light, are attracted towards the
positive contact (the anode) very and the positive ions are attracted towards the negative contact
(the cathode) relatively slowly. For the initiation of the arc, electrons must be emitted from the
cathode as soon as the contacts begin to separate and this emission is mainly because of (I) Field
Emission and (II) Thermal Emission. The electrons so liberated from the cathode make many
collisions with the atoms and molecules of the gases and existing between the two contacts
during their travel towards the anode. These collisions cause ionization of atoms and the
molecules thus liberating more electrons.
For the current to be interrupted at zero passage, two processes are to be
considered. Firstly, cooling of the arc must be strong enough to bring the arc temperature down
to the values where the gas is no longer ionized. The current will then be prevented from re-
establishing in the opposite direction. Secondly, after the current has ceased to flow, the dielectric
strength between the arcing contacts must be high enough to withstand the voltage, which will
immediately start to build up.

3.2 ARC INTERRUPTION

The common methods used for interruption the arc are
(i) High Resistance Interruption:
In this method the arc is so controlled that its effective resistance increases with time so that the
current is reduced to a value insufficient to maintain it.
The resistance can be increased by

 Lengthening the arc
 Cooing the arc
 Splitting the arc
 Constraining the arc.
(ii) Low Resistance Interruption (Current Zero Interruption):
In this method, the arc resistance is kept low until the current zero where the arc
extinguishes itself naturally and is prevented from re-striking inspire of high re-striking voltage.
A increase of dielectric strength is necessary for successful interruption and this can be achieved
by
 Lengthening of the TS
 Cooling
 Blast effect
Following are the recommended properties for a good are quenching medium.
1. High Dielectric Strength
2. High Thermal Conductivity
3. Good Physical & Chemical Stability
4. Non-inflammable
5. Good Arc Extinguishing Properties
3.3 DEFINATION:

Circuit breakers are switching devices that can make (close), carry, and break (open) an electrical
circuit under both normal and abnormal conditions.
Normal conditions:
Normal conditions are manual and automatic actions occurring within the CB’s ratings
and when operational conditions require circuit switching.
Abnormal Conditions:
Abnormal conditions are those where excessive or fault current conditions require
automatic opening and possibly automatic reclosing after an over-current opening.
Fig 3.1: Circuit Breaker
3.4 PRINCIPLE:
A CB essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts called electrodes. Under normal
operating conditions, these contacts can be opened manually or by remote control whenever
desired. When a fault occurs in any part of the system, trip coils of the CB get energised and the
moving contacts are pulled apart by some mechanism, for operating the circuit.

When the contacts are separated under fault conditions, an arc is struck between them.
The arc produced by the separation of the current carrying contacts is interrupted by a suitable
medium and by adopting suitable techniques for arc extinction.
Operating Mechanism:
An operating mechanism needs some form of energy to open and close the circuit breaker
contacts at the required speed. The circuit breaker mechanism must cause acceleration,
movement, and deceleration at each opening and closing stroke. Equally important the circuit
breaker must stay open or closed until directed either manually or automatically to perform
otherwise.
Conducting Contact Opening:
An energized circuit breaker draws an arc when its conducting contacts are separated.
The temperature of the arc ionizes the insulating medium and sustains the arc. On current zero,
arcing ceases and the voltage across the contacts increases. The voltage build up results in an
arcing re-strike from the electric field and from thermal effects of the initial arc’s charged
particles only when the arc is cooled well below its ionization temperature at current zero will
the arc be fully extinguished and current interruption accomplished.
3.5 CLASSIFICATION OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS:
Depending upon the arc quenching media, the CB’s are classified as
 Oil circuit breaker.
 Air circuit breaker.
 Vacuum circuit breaker.
 SF6 circuit breaker.
 Auto reclosing circuit breaker.

3.6 MINIMUM OIL CIRCUIT BREAKERS:
A minimum oil circuit breaker uses a small container having oil which just enough for are
is extinguishing. The container is being supported on porcelain insulator to give the required
insulation for the live parts from the earth. From the incoming and outgoing connections in the
fixed contact finger as shown in figure
Fig: 3.2: Representation Of Electric Arc In Oil Cb
In the ‘ON’ position the current flows from the upper terminal to the contact fingers
follows the moving contacts and reaches the lower current terminal. When breaking, the moving
contact is pulled downwards by tripping springs and an arc strikes between the contact rod tip
and the stationary arcing rings. As the contact rod continuous its motion downwards the arc
enters the explosion part and is also elongated downwards.

Fig 3.3: MOCB
RATINGS OF 220KV MINIMUM OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER:

Type Voltage : 245/2503
Frequency : 245KV
Insulation level : 50Hz
Normal Current : 2500 A
Breaking : 220KA:5104
Capacity : 0KA/4:6220
Symmetrical/asymmetrical : KA
Ratings of 6.6KV MOCB:

C.B.Type : HKK12/3140
Voltage : 6.6KV
Insulation .Level : 35KV
Normal Current : 2500A
Breaking Current : 43.7KA

Year of Manufacture : 1975
3.7 VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKERS:
The vacuum circuit breaker comprises a pair of a fixed and moving contacts enclosed in
an evacuated housing as shown in fig. A metallic bellow is fixed to the moving contact so that
the housing can be sealed and the moment of the moving contact can be permitted. The vacuum
has high dielectric strength. And is a good arc-extinguishing medium. As the contacts are
separated under high vacuum condition, the arc is extinguished at current zero.
Fig 3.4: Vacuum Circuit Breaker
The vacuum system is one in which the pressure maintained is at value below the
atmospheric pressure and is measured in terms of mm of mercury. One mm of Hg pressure is
known as one torn. In a vacuum the main free path is of the order of few meters and thus when
the electrodes are separated by a few mm an electron crosses the gap without any collision. There
for in a vacuum
RATINGS OF 6.6KV V.C.B.:

C.B type : HC A 12/1240

Voltage : 11KV
INS level : 75KV
Normal Current : 1250A
Breaking Current : 45KA
3.8 AIR BLAST CIRCUIT BREAKERS:
In these breakers a blast of air is established at breaking contacts for compressed air
system at a pressure of 18-20 Kg/Cm 2. The blast do the necessary cooling and thus extinguishes
the arc.
Fast operations, suitability for repeated operation, auto reclosure, unit type multi break
constructions, simple assembly, and modest maintenance are some of the main features of air
blast circuit breakers. A compressors plant necessary to maintain high air pressure in the air
receiver. The air blast circuit breakers are especially suitable for railways and arc furnaces, where
the breaker operates repeatedly. Air blast circuit breaker is used for interconnected lines and
important lines where rapid operation is desired.
High pressure air at a pressure between 20 to 30 kg/ Cm 2stored in the air reservoir. Air is
taken from the compressed air system. Three hollow insulator columns are mounted on the
reservoir with valves at their basis. The double arc extinguished chambers are mounted on the
top of the hollow insulator chambers. The current carrying parts connect the three arc extinction
chambers to each other in series and the pole to the neighbouring equipment. Since there exists a
very high voltage between the conductor and the air reservoir, the entire arc extinction chambers
assembly is mounted on insulator.
Since there are three double arc extinction poles in series, there are six breaks per pole.
Each arc extinction chamber consists of one twin fixed contact. There are two moving contacts.
The moving can move axially so as to open or close. Its position open or close depends on air
pressure and spring pressure.

Fig 3.5: Double Arc & Arc Quenching In Abcb
3.9 SULPHUR HEXAFLUORIDE CIRCUIT BREAKER (SF6):
This type of CB is of similar construction to the dead tank-bulk-oil volume-type of circuit

breaker, but the principle of current interruption is same as that of the Air Blast Circuit Breaker.
It does not, therefore, represent a new conception of circuit breaking but simply employs a new
arc extinguishing medium namely sulphur hexafluoride. The. It is five times heavier than air and
has approximately twice the di-electric strength.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Rating plate of 245 KV SF6 Circuit Breaker:

Voltage -- 245 KV
Frequency – 50 Hz
Normal current at 40 0 C -- 1600/2500 A
Lightning impulse with stand voltage – 1050 KV
S.C breaking current – 40 KA
Line charging breaking current – 125 A
Air pressure – 20.5 bar

Mass – 4000 Kg
Fig 3.6 : Sf6 Circuit Breaker

CHAPTER-IV
RELAYS
4.INTRODUCTION
Relay is an automatic device, which senses an abnormal condition in an electric circuit and
closes its contacts. These contacts in turn close the circuit breaker trip coil circuit, thereby it
opens the circuit breaker and the faulty part of the electric circuit is disconnected from the rest of
the electric circuit.
The capital investment involved in a power system for generation, transmission and
distribution of electrical power is so great that precautions must be taken to ensure that the
equipment not only operates as nearly as possible to peak efficiencies, but also that it is protected
from accidents. The purpose of protective relays and protective relaying systems is to operate
the correct circuit breakers so as to disconnect only the faulty equipment from the system as
quickly as possible, thus minimizing the trouble and damage caused by the faults where they do
occur.
There are two groups of relay equipments used in KTPS. They are
 Primary relaying equipment

 Back up relaying equipment
Primary relaying is the first line of defence for protecting the equipments where as the
back up relaying works only when primary relaying equipment fails, which means back up
relaying is inherently slow in action. Primary relaying may fail because of failure of any of the
following:
 Protective Relays (Moving mechanism etc...)

 Circuit Breaker.
 D.C Tripping voltage Supply.
 Current or Voltage Supply to the Relays.

Since it is required that back up relays should operate in case primary relays fail, the
backup relays should not have any thing common with primary relays. Hitherto, the practice has
been to locate the backup relays at a different station.
A second job of the backup relays is to act as primary protection in case the protection
equipment is taken out for repair and maintenance.
4.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF A PROTECTIVE RELAY:
A protective relay is required to satisfy four basic functional characteristics:
 Reliability
 Selectivity
 Speed
 Sensitivity
i. Reliability: -
The relay should be reliable is a basic requirement. It must operate when it is required.
Since the protective relays remain idle most of the time on the power system, proper
maintenance will play vital role in improving the reliable operation of the relay.
ii. Selectivity: -
It is basic requirement of the relay in which it should be possible to select which part of
the system is faulty and which not and should isolate faulty part of the system from the healthy
one.
iii. Speed: -
A protective relay must operate at the require speed. It should neither be too slow which
may result in damage to the equipment, nor it should be too fast which may result in undesired
operation during transient faults.

iv. Sensitivity: -
A relay should be sufficiently sensitive so that it operates reliably when required under
the actual conditions in the system, which produce the least tendency for operation.
4.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF RELAYS :
 Over current relays.

 Differential relays.
 Distance protection relays.
 Differential over current relays.
 Static relays
Out of these different types of relays, the relays listed below are used in KTPS.
4.3 Over Current Relays:
 Depending upon the time of operations, these relays are characterized as

 Instantaneous Over Current Relay.
 Inverse time Over Current Relay.
 Inverse Definite Minimum Time Over Current Relay.
 Very Inverse Relay.
 Extremely Inverse Relay.

Fig 4.1 : Over Current Relay
Instantaneous Over Current Relay is one in which no intentional time delay is provided
for the operation (apprx 0.1 sec). This type of relay is more effective where the impedance Zs
between the source and the relay is small compared with the impedance Z l of the section to be
protected.
Inverse time current relay is one in which the operating time reduces as actuating quantity
increases in magnitude. The more pronounced the effect is the more inverse the characteristic is
said to be. In fact, all time current curves are inverse to a greater or lesser degree.
4.4 Differential relay:
The dotted line represents the equipment to be protected which may be a transformer, an
alternator, a bus etc. Two suitable CTs are connected with the help of pilot wires. The relay
operating coil is connected between the mid points of the pilot wire. The voltage induced in the
secondary of the CTs will circulate a current through the combined impedance of the pilot wires
and the CTs.
Fig 4.2: Generator Differential Relay

The differential relay is one which operates when the vector difference of two or more electrical
quantities exceeds a predetermined value. This means for a differential relay, it should have
i. Two or more electrical quantities and

ii. These quantities should have phase displacement (normally apprx 180 0),for the operation of
the relay.
The most common application of this relay is current differential type. The simple connection for
this type of protection is shown in the figure.
4.5Distance protection relay:
Whenever over current relaying is found slow or is not selective distance protection
should be used. Since the fault currents depends upon the generating capacity and system
configuration, the distance relays are preferred to over current relays
Fig 4.3: Generator Distance protection Relay
The different types of Distance relays are.,

 Impedance Relay
 Reactance Relay
 Mho Relay.
4.6 Impedance Relay:
Fig 4.4 : Generator Impedance Relay
It responds to the impedance seen by the relay. If the impedance seen by the relay is less
than its settings, the relay operates. The impedance relays are non directional relays and,
therefore, need a directional relay with them.
4.7 Reactance Relay:
A reactance relay responds only to the reactance component of the impedance. A reactance relay
is the non directional really and the directional unit of the type used along with the impedance
relay cannot be used. A Mho relay is used as the starting relay along with the reactance relay.

Fig 4.5: Generator Reactance Relay
4.8 Mho Relay:
Fig 4.6: Generator Mho Relay
Mho relay, inherently being a directional relay, doesn’t need additional unit for the purpose. The
operation of the circuit used in this relay is similar to the circuits for Reactance Relay.

CHAPTER-V
GENERATOR PROTECTIONS
The core of an electrical power system is generator. During the abnormal operating condition
certain components of generators are subjected to increased stress and therefore, could fail,
referred to faults. It cans either internal fault or external fault depending upon whether they are
inside or out side the machine. The machine with fault must be tripped immediately. The
corrective measures against generator’s abnormal operation are taken care by stubborn protective
system.
The Generator in KTPS-VI Stage has following specifications
5. GENERATOR PARAMETERS
Rated output : 588MVA, 500MW
Rated Voltage : 21KV
Rated Current : 16166A
Rated Frequency : 50 HZ
Sub-transient reactance (Xd”) : 7.2 %
Transient reactance (Xd’) : 24.1%
Synchronous reactance (Xd) : 210%
Tolerance ON Reactance : ±15%
Maximum continuous negative phase-

Sequence current (I2) : 8%

Maximum value of (I22t) : 10

Task of the Protective System:
 Detect abnormal condition and defect
 Limit its scope by switching isolate the defect.
 Alarm the operating staff.
 Unload and / or trip the machine immediately.
Requirement of Protective Devices:
 Selectivity:
Only that part of installation actually containing fault should be disconnected.
 Safety against the fault tripping
There should be no trip when there is no fault.
 Reliability:
The device must always act within the required time.
 Sensitivity:
This is the lowest signal input value at which the protective device must act
 Tripping time:
This is allowable time for relay to operate accurately without causing any error
5.1GENERATOR PROTECTION FUNCTIONS:
The core of an electrical power system is generator. During the abnormal operating condition
certain components of generators are subjected to increased stress and therefore, could fail,
referred to faults. It can be either internal fault or external fault depending upon whether they are
inside or outside the machine. The machine with fault must be tripped immediately. The
corrective measures against generator’s abnormal operation are taken care by stubborn protective
system.

5.2TYPES OF PROTECTIONS FOR AN ALTERNATOR
The generators bring the most important and costliest equipment of a power system it is
provided with a vast range of protection schemes, which are enumerated below:
1. Stator protection:
 Percentage differential protection
 Protection against stator inter turn faults
 Stator over heating protection
2. Rotor protection:
 Field ground fault protection
 Loss of excitation protection
 Protection against rotor over heating because of unbalanced phase stator
currents.
3. Protection against abnormal running:

The protection schemes employed for protection against various
miscellaneous faults or abnormal operating conditions are as follows:
 Negative Phase Sequence Protection
 Over load protection
 Over voltage protection
 Over speed protection
 Protection against motoring
 Protection against pole slipping
 Protection against Reverse power

Each of the protection schemes is explained explicitly in the forth- coming

analysis.
5.3ANALYSIS OF FAULTS AND PROTECTION SCHEMES

 STATOR FAULTS
 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS:
A 3-phase fault is called a symmetrical fault. All the three phase may be short-circuited to
the ground (LLLG) or they may be short-circuited without involving the ground (LLL). It is a
standard fault and is used to determine systems fault level.
A direct short circuit between different phases of the winding causes a severe fault
current to flow inside the effected machine and cause highly extensive damage. As a result there
is distinct differential between the current at the neutral and terminal ends of the particular
winding. This difference is detected by differential relay.
Phase-phase faults, they may occur on the end portion of stator coils or in the slots if the winding
involves two coil sides in the same slot. In the latter case, the fault will involve earth in a very
short time. Phase fault current is limited by the method of earthling the neutral point.
 UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS:
Single phase to ground, phase-to-phase short circuits, single-phase open circuit and two-
phase open circuit are unsymmetrical types of faults. Two or more faults occurring
simultaneously on a system are known as multiple or simultaneous faults.
Of all the faults short circuit fault is most dangerous which has the following
consequences on the system.
1. Heavy short circuit current may cause damage to the equipment or any other element of
the system due to overheating and high mechanical forces set up due to heavy current.
2. Arcs associated with short circuits may cause fire hazards.
3. Short circuits may cause the unbalancing of supply voltages and currents, thereby heating
rotating machines.

5.4 ELECTRICAL PROTECTIONS

1. Generator differential
2. Earth Fault Protection:
a. Stator earth fault
b. Stator earth fault, stand by
c. Rotor earth fault
3. Stator inter turn fault.
4. Negative phase sequence.
5. Generator back-up impedance protection
6. Loss of excitation
7. Pole slipping
8. Over voltage
9. Over fluxing
10. Low forward power
11. Reverse power.
5.5 GENERATOR DIFFERENTIAL:
A direct short circuit between different phases of the winding causes a severe fault
current to flow inside the effected machine and cause highly extensive damage. As a result
there is distinct differential between the current at the neutral and terminal ends of the
particular winding. This difference is detected by differential relay.
The current entering and leaving the protected object are determined current transformers
and compared by relays by means of differential circuit as shown in fig. A fault inside the
protected zone is fed from either one side or both sides depending upon the current sources
present, thus producing a difference current in the differential circuit. If this differential
circuit exceeds a set of percentage of the current flowing in the protected object, the relay
picks up

Fig 5.1: Percentage Differential Scheme For Generator Stator Winding
The relay used is designated 87G 1(GR1) &87G2(GR2) type. It is to operate 10% (0.5
amp) relay current which corresponds to 1000 Amp fault current
This protection provides 100% protection against phase- phase faults but it provides only 80-
85% against ground faults. It is because it is influenced by the magnitude of earth fault current,
which depends on the method of neutral grounding. As the alternator is grounded through
impedance, the differential protection is supplemented by sensitive earth fault relays.
In case of stator faults the tripping of circuit breaker to isolate the faulty generator is not
sufficient to prevent to further damage, as the alternator will still continue to supply power to the
fault until its field excitation is suppressed. So it initiates an auxiliary relay, which in turn trips
the main C.B. shuts down the prime mover and coolant is provided and alarm is operated.
Mainly Two Types of Differential Schemes;
1. High Impedance Differential Protection Schemes

2. Low Impedance Differential Protection Schemes

HIGH IMPEDANCE DIFFERENTIAL SCHEME:

 Simple & Low cost Scheme
 Only Pickup setting & Easy to set it
 Stabilizing resister Increases stability of relay against high through fault current
Operating on current balance principal
 Non-linear resistor or Metros is required for surge voltage absorb during internal &
through fault Condition
 Special PS class CTs (With low turn ratio errors) of identical ratio & ratings required for
scheme
 CAG34, MFAC34, MCAG34, etc. relays are used as high impedance differential relays.
 Much suitable for Generator/Motor Generator
Fig 5.2: Block Diagram For High Impedance Differential Scheme
Essential Requirement for High Impedance Differential Scheme are;

 Equal CT Ratio

 Low CT secondary winding resistance

 Adequate knee-point voltage output from CTs
 Low lead burdens
 Harmonic Settings are not available, so scheme is difficult to Applied for Transformer
 Three Winding differential protection scheme become a more complex than low
impedance
Scheme.
Setting Criteria:
Typical Recommended setting is 10% or 20%
 Relay Operating Time should be less than 50ms.
 Ensure through fault stability by adjusting proper value of stabilizing resistor
LOW IMPEDANCE DIFFERENTIAL SCHEME:
 Complex & Higher cost Scheme compared to High impedance scheme

 Settings are more complex & %Slope Characteristics settings are differ from
manufacturer’s to manufacturer’s
 The scheme is also called as a percentage differential scheme
For External faults----- High restraint current
For internal faults----- Low restraint current
 High sensitivity during internal faults
 Chance of mal-operation of relay during high through fault current
 Much suitable for Transformer
 Normally, Single Slope Characteristic is sufficient if the Protection is Applied for
Generator/Motor because both the CTs are on same voltage level, so we can minimize
%CT error during an external fault

Fig 5.3: Grtsh Of Differential Scheme
Slope is not start from origin & depends on “IS2”setting.
5.6 EARTH FAULT PROTECTION:
a. STATOR EARTH FAULT (MAIN):

The generator neutral is earthed through the primary winding of the neutral grounding
transformer of rating (500 KVA, 15.75/.24 kV ratios, here we have to use VI stage particulars) .
The secondary winding of transformer is shorted through loading resistance of .42 ohms for an
earth fault in the generator the E/F current flow in the primary of the neutral grounding
transformer. As a result a voltage across the resistor is developed which activates stator earth
fault sensing relay. The reason for this kind of protection is due to mechanical damages resulting
from insulation fatigue creep age of conductor bases, vibration of conductor or other fittings of
cooling systems.
The earth fault relay designated is RAGEA type 64G. The relay has an inverse definite
minimum time characteristics. Generally 5% Generator winding starting from neutral point
remains unprotected because a fault in this portion will generate too low voltage for relay
operation.
b. STATOR EARTH FUALT PROTECTION:

The relay is connected across of the generator PT secondary edges. When there is no E/F
the sum of phase voltages of the generator. Hence the voltage across the relay is zero. The
voltage across the point a & b will assume a positive value when one phase voltage drops
because of earth fault on that phase.
The relay designated is 64G , RAGEA static type relay. It has inverse time voltage
characteristics.
Fig 5.4: Stator Earth Fault Protection
100%EARTH FAULT PROTECTION FOR THE ENTIRE STATOR WINDING (64G)

All of the methods for earth fault protection detailed so far leave part of the winding
unprotected. In most cases, this is of no consequence as the probability of a fault occurring in the
5% of the winding nearest the neutral connection is very low, due to the reduced phase to earth
voltage. However, a fault can occur anywhere along the stator windings in the event of insulation
failure due to localised heating from a core fault. In cases where protection for the entire winding
is required, perhaps for alarm only, there are various methods available.

a. Measurement of third harmonic voltage

b. Low frequency voltage injection
a. MEASUREMENT OF THIRD HARMONIC VOLTAGE:

One method is to measure the internally generated third harmonic voltage that appears
across the earthling impedance due to the flow of third harmonic currents through the shunt
cTSacitance of the stator windings etc. When a fault occurs in the part of the stator winding
nearest the neutral end, the third harmonic voltage drops to near zero, and hence a relay element
that responds to third harmonic voltage can be used to detect the condition. As the fault location
moves progressively away from the neutral end, the drop in third harmonic voltage from healthy
conditions becomes less, so that at around 20-30% of the winding distance, it no longer becomes
possible to discriminate between healthy and a faulty winding. Hence, a conventional earth-fault
scheme should be used in conjunction with a third harmonic scheme, to provide overlTSping
cover of the entire stator winding.
LOW- FREQUENCY VOLTAGE INJECTION:

Another method for protecting the entire stator winding of a generator is to deploy
signal injection equipment to inject a low frequency voltage between the stator star point
and earth. An earth fault at any winding location will result in the flow of a measurable
injection current to cause protection operation. This form of protection can provide earth
fault protection when the generator is at standstill, prior to run-up. It is also an
TSpropriate method to TSply for constant speed synchronous machines. Such machines
may be employed for variable speed motoring in pumped-storage generation schemes or
for starting a large gas turbine prime mover.
REG 316 along with REX11 injection kit is used for protection of 100% Generator Earth
Fault.

Fig 5.5: Stator Earth Fault Protection By Low Frequency Injection Method
5.7 STATOR INTER TURN FAULT PROTECTION 64(GIT):
When leakage occurs between the turns in the same phase of a winding the induced
voltage is reduced and there will be a voltage difference between the center of the voltage
triangle and neutral of the machine. Merz price circulating current system protects against phase-
to- ground and phase-to-phase faults. It does not protect against turn-to-turn fault on the same
phase winding of the stator. It is because the current that this type of fault produces flows in a
local circuit between the turns involved and does not create a difference between the currents
entering and leaving the winding at its two ends where current transformers are Applied. It is
usually unnecessary to provide inter turn fault protection because they invariably develop into
earth faults.
In single turn generator there is no necessity of protection against inter turn faults.
However it is provided for multi turn generators such as hydroelectric generators. These
generators have double winding armatures owing to the very heavy currents, which they have to
carry.

Figure shows the arrangement of a 3-phase double wound generator. The relays RC
provide protection against phase to ground and phase-to-phase faults whereas relays R 1 provide
protection against inter turn faults. S1 and S2 are the stator windings of one phase.
Two current transformers are connected on the circulating current principle. Under
normal conditions, the current in the stator windings are equal and the currents in secondaries of
the two C.T.s round the loop then are same at all points and no current flows through the relay R1.
If a short circuit develops between the adjacent turns on S1 the currents in stator windings S1 and
S2 will no longer be equal. Therefore unequal currents will be induced in the secondaries of C.T.s
and the difference of these two current flows through the relay R 1. The relay then closes its
contacts to clear the generator from the system.
64(GIT), REG670 Relay is used for this type of protection.
Fig 5.6: Inter Turn Fault Protection
ROTOR FAULTS
ROTOR EARTH FAULT (64F):
First ground leakage in the rotor circuit of the generator does not adversely affect
the operation, Danger arise if a second fault occur causing current to be diverted in part at least,
from the intervening turns which can burn the conductor causing severe damage to the rotor. If a
large portion of winding is shorted the field flux pattern may change the flux concentration at
one pole and wide dispensation at the other the attractive forces which is proportional to the
square of the flux density will be stronger at one pole than the other which will cause high
vibrations and may damage the bearings and may sufficiently displace the rotor thereby fouling
the stator.
Rotor E/F protection is provided by monitoring the Insulation Resistance value of rotor winding.
< 5 K alarm with 10 sec time delay
<0.5 K Trip with 2 sec time delay
Relay used for this protection is REG 316 along with REX11 injection kit
Fig 5.7: Rotor Earth Fault Protection

ROTOR EARTH FAULT PROTECTION FOR BRUSHLESS GENERATORS:

A brushless generator has an excitation system consisting of:
1. A main exciter with rotating armature and stationary field windings
2. A rotating rectifier assembly, carried on the main shaft line out
3. A controlled rectifier producing the d.c.
Voltage for the main exciter field is fed from an a.c.source (often a small ‘pilot’ exciter).
Hence, no brushes are required in the generator field circuit. All control is carried out in the field
circuit of the main exciter. Detection of a rotor circuit earth fault is still necessary, for this
protection the terminal of the injection kit is connected to the star point of the main exciter
through a cTSacitor and detects the fault by measuring the rotor insulation resistance.
CTSacitive coupling blocks normal DC
Field voltage, preventing discharge of Large
Current
Low Frequency voltage output is the
Square wave output
Fig 5.8: Block Diagram Of Rotor Earth Fault Protection For Brushless Generators

GENERATOR INTER-TURN FAULT
Stator Inter Turn Fault:

When leakage occurs between the turns in the same phase of a winding the
induced voltage is reduced and there will be a voltage difference between the center of
the voltage triangle and neutral of the machine.
Therefore, in a generator having one winding per phase, a voltage transformer is
connected between each phase terminals and, the neutral of the winding, the secondary winding
transformer leads being connected in open delta, when inter turn leakage occur at the ends of the
open delta, it is detected by the polarized voltage relay, for generators having several parallel
windings per phase, the neutral ends are connected together to as many neutrals as parallel
windings per phase. These neutrals are then joined through current transformer to current relay,
or though voltage transformer to voltage relay. If an inter turn fault occur in the machine, the
current transformer carries transient current or alternatively voltage transformer produce thereby
picking up relay and tripping the generator.
The relay designated 64(GIT) and RXEG / RXEDK type static relay is used for
this type of protection.
ROTOR SHORTED TURN PROTECTION:

Shorted section of field winding will result in an unsymmetrical rotor flux pattern and in
potentially damaging rotor vibration. Detection of such an electrical fault is possible using a
probe consisting of a coil placed in the air gTS. The flux pattern of the positive and negative
poles is measured and any significant difference in flux pattern between the poles is indicative of
a shorted turn or turns. Automated waveform comparison techniques can be used to provide a
protection scheme, or the waveform can be inspected visually at regular intervals. An immediate
shutdown is not normally required unless the effect of the fault is severe. The fault can be kept
under observation until a suitable shutdown for repair can be arranged. Repair will take some
time, since it means unthreading the rotor and dismantling the winding. Since short-circuited
turns on the rotor may cause damaging vibration and the detection of field faults for all degrees

of abnormality is difficult, the provision of a vibration a detection scheme is desirable – this

forms part of the mechanical protection of the generator.
ABNORMAL RUNNING CONDITIONS
UNBALANCED LOADING:
A three-phase balanced load produces a reaction field that, to a first TSproximation, is

constant and rotates synchronously with the rotor field system. Any unbalanced condition can be
resolved into positive, negative and zero sequence components. The positive sequence
component is similar to the normal balanced load. The zero sequence components produce no
main armature reaction.
NEGATIVE PHASE SEQUENCE CURRENT

The currents in three-phase machine are normally in balance, but if a fault occurs on the
supplied or supplying system, this balance can be influenced. Single phase and two-phase faults,
phase rupture or asymmetric loading on the system can give rise to unbalanced currents, hence
negative sequence currents.
These currents generate a machine stator flux that has the same rotational speed as the
rotor flux but rotates in the opposite direction. Relative to the rotor, the stator flux therefore
rotates at double the power system frequency and generates eddy currents in the rotor . The high
frequency of these eddy currents causes the outer parts of the rotor and the winding to become
heated. If the negative sequence current is of high magnitude, or if it persists for long periods of
time, these rotor parts can be damaged due to overheating.
5.8NEGATIVE PHASE SEQUENCE CURRENT PROTECTION:

It is normally assumed that a generator can sustain negative sequence currents which
exceed a given minimum value for a period of time ‘t’, which is determined from the following
equation:

Fig 5.9: Negative Phase Sequence Protection
t = K (I m / Insc) 2
Where
I m = rated current of the machine
Insc= negative sequence current
K = a constant in seconds that is characteristic for the generator. This constant
represents the length of time the machine can withstand a negative phase-sequence
current equal to rated current.
The validity of this equation is based on the assumption that all the energy generated by the
negative sequence current is transmitted in the form of heat to the rotor without any losses, to the
surroundings.
46G, REG 670 relay is used for this protection.
5.9 GENERATOR BACKUP IMPEDANCE PROTECTION:

Three-phase zone impedance is provided for the back-up protection of generator
against external three phases and phase to phase fault in 400 KV systems. The zone of
impedance relay should be extended beyond 400 kV switchyard and it should be

connected to trip the generator after a time delay of 1 to 1.5 seconds so that the generator
is tripped only when 400 kV protection has not cleared the fault even in the second zone.
The relay used is designated 21 G1(GR1),21G2 (GR2) and RAKZB type relay is
used for this protection.
5.10 LOSS OF EXCITATION:
 Operating region of Generator
Failure of field system leads to losing synchronism and resulting in running above
the synchronous speed. It acts as an induction generator, the main flux is being produced
by wattles stator current drawn from the system. Operation as an induction generator
necessitates the flow of slip frequency current in the rotor, damper windings, float
wedges excitation under these conditions requires a large reactive component which
TSproaches the value of rated out put of the machine. The induced currents in the rotor as
result of this condition, rotor would get over heated due to the slip frequency current. The
magnitude of the reactive power drawn from the system is a function of the machine
reactance and the system source impedance. The resultant current will not be steady state,
but is pulsing, and conventional time delayed over current relays cannot protect the
generator. Also it could over load the grid, which may not be able to supply the required
MVAR.
The relay used is designated 40G1(GR1), 40G2(GR2) and RAGPC is suitable for
all types of synchronous machines to protect from the loss of excitation.
LOSS OF EXCITATION PROTECTION (40G):
When loss of excitation is accompanied by under voltage it will initiate classA trip
otherwise class-B trip if the grid is able to sustain the voltage dip.
The relay used is designated as 40G and is suitable for all types of synchronous
machines to protect from the loss of excitation.
The most widely used method for detecting a generator loss of field is the use of offset mho
distance relays to sense the variation of impedance as viewed from the generator terminals.

When a generator loses excitation while operating at various levels of loading, the variation of
TSparent impedance as viewed at the machine terminals.
Fig 5.10: Offset Mho Distance Relay Characteristics
Two types of distance relaying schemes are used for detecting the impedance seen during a loss
of field. One TSproach uses an offset mho distance relay. The above figure illustrates the typical
characteristic of such relay. The generator full load operating condition is represented by point A.
When excitation is lost, such as from a shorted field winding, the TSparent impedance of the
generator traces a locus of points ending inside the operating characteristic. The impedance locus
terminals to the right of the (-x) ordinate and TSproaches impedance values somewhat higher
than the average of the direct and quadrature axes sub transient impedances of the generator. The
curve from B point represents a locus of points of a moderately loaded generator. Curve C
represents the locus of a highly loaded and under excited generator. In this case, the impedance
locus may oscillate in and out of the relay characteristic depending upon its setting. For a loss of
field at no load, the impedance as viewed from the machine terminals varies between the direct
and quadrature axes synchronous reactances (xd, xq).
5.11 POLE SLIPPING (98G):
The asynchronous operation of machine while the excitation is still intact unlike the loss of
excitation, cause severe shock to the both machine and grid due to violent operation oscillations
in the both active power and reactive power. Because of these machine fall out of step or usually
known as pole slipping trip. The oscillations may disTSpear in few seconds, in that case it is not
desirable to trip the machine. If however an angular displacement of the rotor exceeds the
stability limit of the rotor will slip a pole pitch. If this disturbances has been sufficiently reduced
by the time this has occurred, the machine should regain synchronism, But if it does not. It must
be isolated from the system.

The swing curves can be detected by the impedance relay. The relay has two measuring
elements set at two values near the impedance as seen from the relay as relay impedance seen by
the relay changes it comes in the operating zone of the two relays one after the other. The
sequential operation is observed by auxiliary relays, Since the fault would be within the 55 ms.
However, during pole slipping, two elements would operate sequentially and a trip command is
given when both have operated.
The relay can be set to be in the operation for swing up to +_ 90 deg. corresponding to the
stability limit of the generator.
The relay used is designated 98 G and is of solid-state design of ZTO type.

In order to discriminate against swing on the grid the tripping is through an impedance relay (98
GY) set with a reach up to the 400 kV yard.
REG 670 RELAYis used for protection against pole slip or out of step
Four quadrant operation of AC Machines

Q-Generation
Synchronous Motor Leading Region
P-Absorption
Synchronous Generator
Lagging Region
P-Generation
Synchronous Motor Lagging Region Synchronous Generator leading

Region
Induction Motor
Q-Absorption Induction Generator

5.12 OVER VOLTAGE:

Over voltages on a generator may occur due to transient surges on the network, or
prolonged power frequency .Over voltages may arise from a variety of conditions. Surge
arrestors may be required to protect against transient over voltages, but relay protection may be
used to protect against power frequency over voltages. A sustained overvoltage condition should
not occur for a machine with a healthy voltage regulator, but it may be caused by the following
contingencies:
a). Defective operation of the automatic voltage regulator when the machine is in isolated
operation
b).Operation under manual control with the voltage regulator out of service. A sudden
variation of the load, in particular the reactive power component, will give rise to a substantial
change in voltage because of the large voltage regulation inherent in a typical alternator
c).Sudden loss of load (due to tripping of outgoing feeders, leaving the set isolated or
feeding a very small loa
d) may cause a sudden rise in terminal voltage due to the trTSped field flux and/or over
speed.
OVER VOLTAGE PROTECTION (59G):

The generator winding is rated for 21 kV terminal voltage, sustained over voltage would
unduly stress the winding insulation and may lead to failure after some time. To protect the
machine against the over voltage, the protection relay senses the voltage at the secondary of the
bus duct PTs. The relay is set to operate at 10% rise in the terminal voltage. A time delay of 3
seconds is provided to take care of transient over voltage arising from line charging, switching
cTSacity faults etc.
LOW FORWARD POWER:

It TSpears when there is insufficient load to utilize the out power of machine. i.e. steam
input is responsible for active power output of the generator, if load on machine suddenly
decreases, the power consumption is less, which decreases load angle( ).

LOW FORWARD POWER PROTECTION (37L):

Low forward power protection is often used as an interlocking function to enable opening
of the main circuit breaker for non-urgent trips – e.g. for a stator earth fault on a high-impedance
earthed generator, it is not good practice to open the main circuit breaker simultaneously with
tripping of the prime mover for non-urgent trips. For a steam turbine, for example, there is a risk
of overspeeding due to energy storage in the trTSped steam, after steam valve tripping, or in the
event that the steam valve(s) do not fully close for some reason. For urgent trip conditions, such
as stator differential protection operation, the risk involved in simultaneous prime mover and
generator breaker tripping must be accepted.
 REVERSE POWER:
The generator must be detected from the grid as soon as turbine stop/control has closed,
completely shutting off the steam. Continued full speed turbine rotation causes lot of turbulence
of the trTSped steam, which result in increase of temperature. Thus turbine will be subjected to
excessive thermal overstress, vibrations.
 REVERSE POWER PROTECTION (32R):
Fig 5.11: Reverse Power Protection

There is back-up arrangement to trip generator if it does not trip within 2 seconds i.e. on
L.F.P. protection. This is known as reverse power protection, which acts in two stages.
1st stage reverse power relay operates after 5 seconds time delay and includes stop valve
closing/turbine trip .2nd stage reverse power relay acts after 60 seconds time delay which trips the
generator irrespective of the either stop valve closing or turbine trip. This acts as a final back up
to L.P.F. protection.
 UNDER FREQUENCY PROTECTION (81G):

The governor fitted to the prime mover normally provides protection against over
frequency under frequency may occur as a result of over load of generators operating on an
isolated system, or a serious fault on the power system that results in a deficit of generation
compared to load
The under frequency protection

 Prevents the steam turbine & Generator from exceeding the permissible operating time at
reduced frequencies.
 Ensures that the Generating unit is separated from the network at a present value of
frequency that is less than the final stage of system load shedding.
 Prevents the AVR from exiting the machine at reduced speeds when protective relays may
not perform at all.
 Prevents over fluxing of the generator. The over fluxing relay is used to protect against
small over fluxing for long periods while the over voltage and under frequency relay also
protected against large over fluxing for short times.
 The stator under frequency relay measures the frequency of the stator terminal voltage.
 Though under frequency tripping is recommended by turbine manufacturers, care should
be taken by grid operator personal in ensuring, that machines not run at lower frequencies
and instead resort to means like load shedding in the event of over load.
Requirements:
1. Have one alarm stage two tripping stages.

2. Shall have settings of range 45 Hz to 55 Hz with a least count of 0.1 Hz for each
stage.
3. Shall have under voltage blocking.
5.13 OVER FLUXING:

Over fluxing occurs when the ratio of voltage to frequency is too high. The iron saturates
owing to the high flux density and results in stray flux occurring in components not designed to
carry it. Overheating can then occur, resulting in damage. The problem affects both direct-and
indirectly-connected generators. Either excessive voltage, or low frequency, or a combination of
both can result in over fluxing, a voltage to frequency ratio in excess of 1.05p.u. Normally, being
indicative of this condition.
Excessive flux can arise transiently, which is not a problem for the generator. For
example, a generator can be subjected to a transiently high power frequency voltage, at nominal
frequency, immediately after full load rejection. Sustained over fluxing can arise during run up,
if excitation is applied too early with the AVR in service, or if the generator is run down, with the
excitation still applied. Most AVRs’ have an over fluxing protection facility included. This may
only be operative when the generator is on open circuit, and hence fail to detect over fluxing
conditions due to abnormally low system frequency. However, this facility is not engineered to
protection relay standards, and should not be solely relied upon to provide over fluxing
protection.
A separate relay element is therefore desirable and provided in most modern
relays.
Fundamental Voltage & Flux relation:
EAVE = N*Flux*Frequency But, Form Factor (ERMS/EAVE) is 1.11;
ERMS = 1.11*N*Flux*Frequency
Flux = (ERMS) / (1.11*N*Frequency)
Flux = (VN / FN)--- (Volts/Hz)
 Flux increases when System voltage rises at Rated Frequency
 Flux increases when System Frequency fall at Rated Voltage

 Saturation of Magnetic Core of the GT due to exceeded the V/Hz ratios

 Serious Over heating will occur in bolts &support structure of machine which destroys
their own insulation as well as coil insulation if the phenomenon persist for longer duration
Specific Over Fluxing Protection is not Mandatory & It is generally offered as an optional by
other Protection like Over Voltage. Protection should be in circuit whenever field CB is closed.
 Generator should continuous withstand 105% of rated excitation at full load
Normally Inverse & DMT type relays are used for Application.
LOCAL BREAKER BACK-UP PROTECTION:
This is protection against the main generator breaker failure which may occur due to-
(1) Mechanical failure
(2) Trip circuit not healthy
Hence, this protection acts as a back –up to the main generator by tripping all
breakers connected to that particular bus. The relay designated as 51 and RAICA used for
breaker failure protection.
RELAY SENSING:
(1) D.C. to the relay extended through trip command (either 86 G or 286 G or B/B
Protection trip)
(2) Over current element senses actual fault persisting.
When both the above conditions are satisfied LBB protection acts as with a time
(0.2 sec) to trip all other breaker connected to the bus.
The LBB protection initiates bus bar protection.
OVER LOADING
Practice, in a large interconnected power system, the frequency rarely falls outside
normal limits. However, such an extreme situation can occur, if the power system becomes

disconnected into separate areas or islands, so that each generation of group of generators is
supplying its own block of load. In some areas we will have too much generation available;
hence the frequency will initially rise. In other areas there will be insufficient generation, and if
load shedding is not rTSidly initiated, the generator will become overloaded. The consequences
will be:
1) A rise in stator current. Leads to overheating of stator winding.
2) A fall in frequency
3) A fall in voltage
OVER HEATING OF STATOR WINDING

The over load operation of alternator results in over heating of the stator windings.
Normally an over current relay with time delay adjustments should serve the purpose of
protection. But because the temperature of winding may reach dangerous values even though the
alternator is not fully load, if an over current relay is used it has got to be discriminated with
respect to other current relays on the system and since we are using this relay at the source, it
will be the slowest in operation and hence poses a serious problem to the stator windings.
STATOR OVER HEATING PROTECTION:
The most reliable method will so be one, which senses the temperature of the winding,
and depending upon the temperature gives an operating signal. The temperature detector coils
(thermostats or thermo couples) are embedded at various points in the stator winding to give an
indication of temperature condition.
Generators rated below 50MW are not provided with temperature detecting for overload
protection. They are provided with thermal relays, which use bimetallic strips as overload
sensing device. The heating and cooling characteristics of these strips are matched with the
heating and cooling characteristics of the machine to be protected. The thermal relay will not
respond to overheating due to failure of the cooling system. The stator winding may be protected
from overheating by the installation of an extremely inverse time over current relay (50/51) set to
operate just before the stator winding short time thermal limit is reached. To present this relay
operating during normal operation, a combined instantaneous element is usually connected as a

permissive for the time over current contacts. This will prevent operation of the unit below 115
per cent of maximum rated current.
LOW FREQUENCY:
The governor fitted to the prime mover normally provides protection against over
frequency.
“Low” frequency can occur as a result of system overload.
Causes:
 Demand of Active Power suddenly Increases in Power Grid
 Islanded system, inadequate input quantity and quality of fuel (i.e. Problem occur in
Steam valve in Steam Turbine or Fuel Pump in Diesel Engine/Gas Engine etc.)
 Islanded system, Two or more Machines are running in parallel, more than 70% load &
outage of machine due to machine fault, increases load on another machine to create under
frequency on running machine.
If the turbine generator operates below 49.5 Hz, serious vibration and consequent damage
may occur to the large, low-pressure turbine blades. The turbine is permitted to operate at low
frequency only for very short periods of time typically:
48.5 -- 49.5 Hz - 60 Minutes accumulated
47.5 -- 48.5 Hz - 10 Minutes accumulated
LOW FREQUENCY PROTECTION (81GUF):

It’s a Prime-mover Protection. Each turbine is having critical speed. Operation of
machine at a speed which is close to critical speed would causes excessive vibration in Prime
mover & also it produces mechanical stress in turbine blades. Prolonged operation at under
frequency would result
into damage of Prime mover.
As per IEC, BS and ANSI standards, limits of voltage & frequency variation within which the
generator can operate at full load without exceeding specified temperature by more than 10
degree.
Setting Criteria:

Based on Generator Permissible Loading Curve (Say: 48.5Hz for 50Hz)

 Normally, Stage-1 is the delayed tripping(Say: 48.5Hz for 3s-10s)
 Stage-2 element is also delayed but operating is lesser than Stage-1 element
(Say: 48Hz for 0.5s - 5s)
 Operation at Frequency below 47.5Hz allowed only for 2-hours in entire life of set
(Turbine)
The relay used is designated as (81GUF) for this type of protection

Low Frequency protection is beneficial as,
 Prevents the steam turbine & Generator from exceeding the permissible operating time at
reduced frequencies.
 Ensures that the Generating unit is separated from the network at a present value of
frequency that is less than the final stage of system load shedding.
 Prevents the AVR from exciting the machine at reduced speeds when protective relays
may not perform at all.
 Prevents over fluxing of the generator. The over fluxing relay is used to protect against
small over fluxing for long periods while the over voltage and under frequency relay also
protected against large over fluxing for short times.
 The stator under frequency relay measures the frequency of the stator terminal voltage.
 Though under frequency tripping is recommended by turbine manufacturers, care should
be taken by grid operator personal in ensuring, that machines not run at lower frequencies
and instead resort to means like load shedding in the event of over load.
Requirements:
1) Have one alarm stage two tripping stages.
2) Shall have settings of range 45 Hz to 55 Hz with a least count of 0.1 Hz for each
stage.
4. Shall have under voltage blocking.
A fall in voltage

The voltage regulator will increase excitation on the generator in order to maintain line
voltage, and this may lead to overheating in the rotor. To protect the rotor, over current protection
is sometimes installed in the excitation circuit. This relay is set to alarm the operator.
LOAD REJECTION:
Sudden rejection of load from generator leads to several faults, they are,
1. High Frequency
2. Low forward power
HIGH FREQUENCY:
As the generator is synchronized to the power system, it is responsive to

disturbances, which occur on the system. Certain protective devices are installed to protect
against these conditions. One typical example is that of frequency. Large steam turbines are
designed to operate within a very narrow range of speed i.e. between 49.5 and 50.5 Hz. “High”
frequency can occur as a result of load rejection, perhTSs as a consequence of tripping of
transmission lines or load feeders.
HIGH FREQUENCY PROTECTION (81G)

The turbine governor will normally control the turbine speed and maintain
frequency close to normal. In case the governor loses control, the turbine is fitted with an over
speed trip, which is set to operate at 110 per cent, say 55 Hz.
Setting Criteria:
Based on Transient Stability (Say: 50.5Hz for 50Hz),
 Normally, Stage-1 is the delayed tripping (Say: 50.5Hz for 3s-10s)
 Stage-2 element is also delayed but operating is lesser than Stage-1 element
(Say: 51Hz for 0.5s - 5s)
 Operation at Frequency above 51.5Hzallowed only for 2-hours in entire life of set
(Turbine)
The limits of generator operation are indicated by the unit’s cTSability curve. A typical unit’s
curve is shown,

Fig5.12: Capacity Curve Of A Generator
This shows the combination of megawatts and mega vars that can be produced by the
generator at different power factors. Positive vars are vars supplied by the generator. Negative
vars are fed into the generator from the power system.
We cannot maintain the same MVA at lower power factor, due to the temperature limit of
the rotor winding. The cTSability of the generator is reduced at low lagging power factor.
On the leading power factor side, very low excitation current may cause the rotor to fall
out of step, due to loss of magnetic torque. This is the steady-state stability limit. There is yet
another limit beyond this – the overheating of stator iron – which results from excessive flow of
cTSacitive currents.
What would hTSpen if the generator suffered a complete loss of field perhTSs due to a
defect in the excitation circuit? In this situation, remember, the generator is still connected to the
power system, and is still delivering megawatts because it is still being driven by its prime
mover. However, it will no longer supply vars.
On the contrary, it will draw vars (reactive power) from then system in order to maintain
excitation. The power factor will move to, say, 0.5 leading. So the generator will continue

running and producing power as an induction generator. However, this will probably lead to low
voltage at the generator terminals, and, more importantly, serious overheating will occur in the
stator iron. If the field cannot be restored promptly, the unit should be down. The loss of field
relay (40) may be used for alarm or to initiate tripping of the unit.
Nowadays, loss of field is detected by measurement on the generator high voltage side.
One method is to use a mega var meter set to operate when the imported (that is negative) mega
vars reach a high level, implying that the unit is operating as an inductiongenerator.
A more common method is to install an impedance relay, which compares the state of
voltage and current.
5.14 FAILURE OF THE PRIME MOVER:

When a generator operating in parallel with others loses its power input, it remains in
synchronism with the system and continues to run as a synchronous motor, drawing sufficient
power to drive the prime mover. This condition may not TSpear to be dangerous and in some
circumstances will not be so. However, there is a danger of further damage being caused.
OVER SPEED:
The speed of a turbo-generator set rises when the steam input is in excess of that required
to drive the load at nominal frequency. The speed governor can normally control the speed, and,
in any case, a set running in parallel with others in an interconnected system cannot accelerate
much independently even if synchronism is lost. However, if load is suddenly lost when the HV
circuit breaker is tripped, the set will begin to accelerate rTSidly. The speed governor is designed
to prevent a dangerous speed rise even with a 100% load rejection ,but nevertheless an additional
centrifugal over speed trip device is provided to initiate an emergency mechanical shutdown if
the over speed exceeds 10%.
To minimize over speed on load rejection and hence the mechanical stresses on the rotor,
the following sequence is used whenever electrical tripping is not urgently required
i. Trip prime mover or gradually reduce power input to zero
ii. Allow generated power to decay towards zero
iii. Trip generator circuit breaker only when generatedpower is close to zero or when the power
flow starts to reverse, to drive the idle turbine

BACK UP PROTECTIONS
LOCAL BREAKER BACK-UP PROTECTION (51G):
This is protection against the main generator breaker failure which may occur due to-
1).Mechanical failure
2).Trip circuit not healthy
Hence, this protection acts as a back –up to the main generator by tripping all
breakers connected to that particular bus. The relay designated as 51G used for breaker
failure protection.
GENERATOR BACKUP IMPEDANCE PROTECTION (21G):

Three-phase zone impedance is provided for the back-up protection of generator
against external three phases and phase to phase fault in 400 KV systems. The zone of
impedance relay should be extended beyond 400 kV switchyard and it should be
connected to trip the generator after a time delay of 1 to 1.5 seconds so that the generator
is tripped only when 400 kV protections has not cleared the fault even in the second zone.
REG 670 relay is used for this type of protection.
CONCLUSION

Thus the generator being the costliest and most important equipment of the power system
and is subjected to more types of faults than any other equipment of the power system, protection
of alternators requires a large number of protection relays, which control a number of auxiliary
relays with logic interconnections to perform various tripping and alarm functions. This results in
large protection panels, complicated external wiring and a lot number cost, complex testing,
maintenance and troubleshooting procedures.
A number of trip outputs are also required for controlling different circuit breakers of the
generating plant. Selection of the trip out puts will depend on the type of conditions detected.
This is mainly due to the necessity of safeguarding the generating plant and ensuring maximum
plant availability. Therefore, tripping logic is normally required as part of the protection system.
In some Applications, more complex logic such as blocking and interlocking may need to be
including as well.
Microprocessor based relays are the present day advanced equipment used in practical
installations. Supervisory control and data acquisition systems employing digital panels and
computers are the advanced equipment adopted for efficient interface between different elements
of the power system leading to excellent monitoring system, data collection and storage process
over specific period of time and performance of the whole power system.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

 Hand Book Of Transformers, BHEL, Tata McGraw Hill
 Basic Electrical Engineering by M.L.Anwani
 Electrical Technology by B.L.Theraja
 Electrical Machines by J.B.Guptha
 Electrical Machines by P.S.Bhimbra
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GENERATOR PROTECTION

DEPARTMENT OF EEE, ADAM’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PALVANCHA Page 1

development of another fault or another fault or damage to utilization equipment. Consequent

DEPARTMENT OF EEE, ADAM’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PALVANCHA Page 2

2.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE

The A.C. Generator or alternator is based upon the principle of electromagnetic

The magnitude of this E.M.F. is given by the following expression.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE, ADAM’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PALVANCHA Page 3

 = Strength of magnetic filed in Weber

F= Frequency in cycles per second

N= Number of turns in a coil of stator winding

Here, P= number of poles

N= Revolutions per second of rotor.

Fig 2.1: Generator principal

DEPARTMENT OF EEE, ADAM’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PALVANCHA Page 4

The first hydrogen-cooled generator, a 60 MW machine, was installed in UK in 1949.

2.2 GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION

DEPARTMENT OF EEE, ADAM’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PALVANCHA Page 5

Fig 2.2: Generator Construction

DEPARTMENT OF EEE, ADAM’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PALVANCHA Page 6

Fig 2.3:Stator And Rotor

2.3 GENERATION COOLING

Hydrogen Cooling System:

DEPARTMENT OF EEE, ADAM’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PALVANCHA Page 7

Fig 2.4: Hydrogen Cooling System

Fig 2.5 Cooling System

DEPARTMENT OF EEE, ADAM’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PALVANCHA Page 8

2.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES:

Fig 2.6 Generator In Thermal Station

DEPARTMENT OF EEE, ADAM’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PALVANCHA Page 9

DEPARTMENT OF EEE, ADAM’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PALVANCHA Page 10

3.2 ARC INTERRUPTION

The resistance can be increased by

DEPARTMENT OF EEE, ADAM’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PALVANCHA Page 11

Fig 3.1: Circuit Breaker

DEPARTMENT OF EEE, ADAM’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PALVANCHA Page 12

Conducting Contact Opening:

3.5 CLASSIFICATION OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS:

 Oil circuit breaker.

 Air circuit breaker.

 Vacuum circuit breaker.

 SF6 circuit breaker.

 Auto reclosing circuit breaker.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE, ADAM’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PALVANCHA Page 13

3.6 MINIMUM OIL CIRCUIT BREAKERS:

Fig: 3.2: Representation Of Electric Arc In Oil Cb

DEPARTMENT OF EEE, ADAM’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PALVANCHA Page 14

Fig 3.3: MOCB

RATINGS OF 220KV MINIMUM OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER:

Ratings of 6.6KV MOCB:

DEPARTMENT OF EEE, ADAM’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PALVANCHA Page 15

Year of Manufacture : 1975

3.7 VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKERS:

Fig 3.4: Vacuum Circuit Breaker

RATINGS OF 6.6KV V.C.B.:

DEPARTMENT OF EEE, ADAM’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PALVANCHA Page 16

C.B type : HC A 12/1240

3.8 AIR BLAST CIRCUIT BREAKERS:

DEPARTMENT OF EEE, ADAM’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PALVANCHA Page 17

Fig 3.5: Double Arc & Arc Quenching In Abcb

3.9 SULPHUR HEXAFLUORIDE CIRCUIT BREAKER (SF6):

This type of CB is of similar construction to the dead tank-bulk-oil volume-type of circuit

Rating plate of 245 KV SF6 Circuit Breaker: