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PERIOD
Put a question mark at the end of a sentence that is, in fact, a direct
question. (Sometimes writers will simply forget.) Rhetorical
questions (asked when an answer is not really expected), by the
way, are questions and deserve to end with a question mark:
How else should we end them, after all?
What if I said to you, "You've got a real problem here"? (Notice that the
question mark here comes after the quotation mark and there is no period
at the end of the statement.)
(Do not add a period after such a sentence that ends with the title's
question mark. The question mark will also suffice to end the
sentence.) If the question mark is not part of a sentence-ending title,
don't italicize the question mark:
Did he sing the French national anthem, la Marseillaise?
There is only one thing left to do now: confess while you still have time.
The charter review committee now includes the following people:
the mayor
the chief of police
the fire chief
the chair of the town council
You nearly always have a sense of what is going to follow or be on the
other side of the colon. (Compare the function of a semicolon in this
regard.) You will find differing advice on the use of a colon to
introduce a vertical or display list. See Using Numbers and Creating
Lists.
We will often use a colon to separate an independent clause from a
quotation (often of a rather formal nature) that the clause introduces:
Her recipe for gunpowder included saltpeter, dry oatmeal, and ground-
up charcoal briquets. (no colon after "included")
His favorite breakfast cereals were Rice Krispies, Cheerios, and
Wheaties. (no colon after "were")
Her usual advice, I remember, was "Keep your head up as you push the
ball up the court." (no colon after "was")
Whitehead had this to say about writing style: "Style is the ultimate
morality of mind."
If the explanatory statement coming after a colon consists of more
than one sentence, begin the independent clause immediately after
the colon with a capital letter:
There were two reasons for a drop in attendance at NBA games this
season: First, there was no superstar to take the place of Michael
Jordan. Second, fans were disillusioned about the misbehavior of
several prominent players.
If the introductory phrase preceding the colon is very brief and the
clause following the colon represents the real business of the
sentence, begin the clause after the colon with a capital letter:
semicolon [ ; ]
HYPHEN
DASH
The dash is a handy device, informal and esentially playful,
telling you that you're about to take off on a different tack but
still in some way connected with the present course — only
you have to remember that the dash is there, and either put a
second dash at the end of the notion to let the reader know
that he's back on course, or else end the sentence, as here,
with a period.
__
Lewis Thomas
In writing dialogue, the dash is used to show breaks in thought and shifts in tone:
"How many times have I asked you not to —" Jasion suddenly
stopped talking and looked out the window.
"Not to do what?" I prompted.
"Not to — Oh heck, I forget!"
Professors ______ and ______ were suspended without pay for their refusal to grade
papers.
PARENTHESES
Thirty-five years after his death, Robert Frost (we remember him at
Kennedy's inauguration) remains America's favorite poet.
Thirty-five years after his death, Robert Frost remains America's favorite
poet. (We remember him at Kennedy's inauguration.)
BRACKETS
It was the atmosphere of the gym that thrilled Jacobs, not the eight
championship banners hanging from the beams [italics added].
("Italics mine" or "emphasis added" would be other acceptable phrases.)
You can use brackets to include parenthetical material inside
parenthetical material:
ELLIPSIS (SUSPENSION)
APOSTROPHE
’
WE USE AN APOSTROPHE [ ] TO CREATE POSSESSIVE FORMS, CONTRACTIONS, AND
SOME PLURALS. The apostrophe shows where a letter or letters have
been left out of a contracted verb:
Remember that it's means it is or it has. Confusing it's with its, the
possessive of it, is perhaps the most common error in writing.
Remember, too, that there is no appropriate contraction for "there
are." Don't confuse "they're," which means "they are" with "there are"
(which can sound like "ther're," [or some such set of rumbling r's] in
casual speech).
QUOTATION MARKS
If the quoted speech follows an independent clause yet could be part of the same
sentence, use a colon to set off the quoted language:
My mother's favorite quote was from Shakespeare: "This above all, to
thine own self be true."
When an attribution of speech comes in the middle of quoted language, set it apart as
you would any parenthetical element:
"I don't care," she said, "what you think about it."
Be careful, though, to begin a new sentence after the attribution if sense calls for it:
"I don't care," she said. "What do you think?"
On the other hand, if a question ends with a quoted statement that is not a question, the
question mark will go outside the closing quotation mark.
Who said, "Fame means when your computer modem is broken, the repair
guy comes out to your house a little faster"?
A single question mark will suffice to end a quoted question within a question:
"Didn't he ask, 'What did we do, who preceded you?'" queried Johnson.
Authority for this section: New York Public Library Writer's Guide to Style and Usage HarperCollins: New
York. 1994. 277. Cited with permission, examples our own.
SLASH
The slash can be translated as or and should not be used where the
word or could not be used in its place. To avoid gender problems with
pronouns, some writers use he/she, his/her, and him/her. Many
authorities despise that construction and urge writers either to
pluralize when possible and appropriate (to they, their, them) or to
use he or she, etc. instead. Notice there is no space between the
slash and the letters on either side of it.
There is, however, a space when the slash is used to indicate a line-
break in quoted poetry: "The woods are lovely, dark, and deep / but I
have promises to keep." (This way of quoting poetry is limited to four
or five lines of verse, within the normal flow of text.)
When using slashes in a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) for a
World Wide Web address (http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/), be
especially sure not to include spaces and not to confuse the slash
with its backward cousin, \ , used to show file locations on drives.
COMMA
Use a comma + a little conjunction (and, but, for, nor, yet, or, so) to connect
two independent clauses, as in "He hit the ball well, but he ran toward third
base."
Contending that the coordinating conjunction is adequate separation, some writers will
leave out the comma in a sentence with short, balanced independent clauses (such as we
see in the example just given). If there is ever any doubt, however, use the comma, as it
is always correct in this situation.
One of the most frequent errors in comma usage is the placement of a comma after a
coordinating conjunction. We cannot say that the comma will always come before the
conjunction and never after, but it would be a rare event, indeed, that we need to follow
a coordinating conjunction with a comma. When speaking, we do sometimes pause after
the little conjunction, but there is seldom a good reason to put a comma there.
It is permissible to omit the comma after a brief introductory element if the omission
does not result in confusion or hesitancy in reading. If there is ever any doubt, use the
comma, as it is always correct. If you would like some additional guidelines on using a
comma after introductory elements, click HERE.
Use a comma to set off parenthetical elements, as in "The Founders Bridge,
which spans the Connecticut River, is falling down." By "parenthetical element,"
we mean a part of a sentence which can be removed without changing the
essential meaning of that sentence. The parenthetical element is sometimes called
"added information." This is the most difficult rule in punctuation because it is
sometimes unclear what is "added" or "parenthetical" and what is essential to the
meaning of a sentence.
Sometimes the appositive and the word it identifies are so closely related that the
comma can be omitted, as in "His wife Eleanor suddenly decided to open her own
business." We could argue that the name "Eleanor" is not essential to the meaning of the
sentence (assuming he has only one wife), and that would suggest that we can put
commas both before and after the name (and that would, indeed, be correct). But "his
wife" and "Eleanor" are so close that we can regard the entire phrase as one unit and
leave out the commas. With the phrase turned around, however, we have a more definite
parenthetical element and the commas are necessary: "Eleanor, his wife, suddenly
decided to open her own business." Consider, also, the difference between "College
President Ira Rubenzahl voted to rescind the withdrawal policy" (in which we need the
name "Ira Rubenzahl" or the sentence doesn't make sense) and "Ira Rubenzahl, the
college president, voted to rescind the withdrawal policy" (in which the sentence makes
sense without his title, the appositive, and we treat the appositive as a parenthetical
element, with a pair of commas).
As pointed out above (Rule #3), an adverbial clause that begins a sentence is
set off with a comma:
When an adverbial clause comes later on in the sentence, however, the writer
must determine if the clause is essential to the meaning of the sentence or
not. A "because clause" can be particularly troublesome in this regard. In
most sentences, a "because clause" is essential to the meaning of the
sentence, and it will not be set off with a comma:
The Okies had to leave their farms in the midwest because the
drought conditions had ruined their farms.
Sometimes, though, the "because clause" must be set off with a comma to
avoid misreading:
I knew that President Nixon would resign that morning, because
my sister-in-law worked in the White House and she called me
with the news.
Without that comma, the sentence says that Nixon's resignation was the fault
of my sister-in-law. Nixon did not resign because my sister-in-law worked in
the White House, so we set off that clause to make the meaning clearly
parenthetical.
(This last piece of advice relies on the authority of William Strunk's Elements of Style. Examples our own.)
When both a city's name and that city's state or country's name are
mentioned together, the state or country's name is treated as a
parenthetical element.
We visited Hartford, Connecticut, last summer.
Paris, France, is sometimes called "The City of Lights."
When the state becomes a possessive form, this rule is no longer followed:
Hartford, Connecticut's investment in the insurance industry is well
known.
Also, when the state or country's name becomes part of a compound structure, the
second comma is dropped:
Heublein, a Hartford, Connecticut-based company, is moving to another
state.
An absolute phrase is always treated as a parenthetical element, as is
an interjection. An addressed person's name is also always
parenthetical. Be sure, however, that the name is that of someone
actually being spoken to. A separate section on Vocatives, the various
forms that a parenthetical element related to an addressed person's
name can take, is also available.
Their years of training now forgotten, the soldiers broke ranks.
Yes, it is always a matter, of course, of preparation and attitude.
I'm telling you, Juanita, I couldn't be more surprised. (I told Juanita I
couldn't be more surprised. [no commas])
If an attribution of a quoted element comes in the middle of the quotation, two commas
will be required. But be careful not to create a comma splice in so doing.
"The question is," said Alice, "whether you can make words mean so many
things."
"I should like to buy an egg, please," she said timidly. "How do you sell
them?"
Be careful not to use commas to set off quoted elements introduced by the word that or
quoted elements that are embedded in a larger structure:
Peter Coveney writes that "[t]he purpose and strength of . . ."
We often say "Sorry" when we don't really mean it.
And, instead of a comma, use a colon to set off explanatory or introductory language
from a quoted element that is either very formal or long (especially if it's longer than
one sentence):
Peter Coveney had this to say about the nineteenth-century's use of
children
in fiction: "The purpose and strength of . . . . "
(Some writers will leave out the comma that sets off a contrasting phrase beginning with
but.)
Use a comma to avoid confusion. This is often a matter of consistently applying
rule #3.
For most the year is already finished.
For most, the year is already finished.
Outside the lawn was cluttered with hundreds of broken branches.
Outside, the lawn was cluttered with hundreds of broken branches.
Note that we use a comma or a set of commas to make the year parenthetical when
the date of the month is included:
July 4, 1776, is regarded as the birth date of American liberty.
July 1776 was one of the most eventful months in our history.
http://ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/commas.htm