Brill’s Encyclopedia of Buddhism

Volume II:
Lives

Editor-in-chief
Jonathan A. Silk

Editors
Richard Bowring
Vincent Eltschinger
Michael Radich

Editorial Advisory Board

Lucia Dolce
Berthe Jansen
John Jorgensen
Christian Lammerts
Francesco Sferra

LEIDEN | BOSTON

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 Contents

Prelims
Contributors ............................................................................................................................................................. xi
Editors and Editorial Board .................................................................................................................................. xxxiii
Primary Sources Abbreviations........................................................................................................................... xxxv
Books Series and Journals Abbreviations ......................................................................................................... xxxvii
General Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................................... xlii
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................. xliv

Section One:
Śākyamuni: South Asia .......................................................................................................................................... 3
Barlaam and Josaphat ............................................................................................................................................ 39

Section Two:

South & Southeast Asia:

Ajātaśatru .................................................................................................................................................................. 51
Āryadeva.................................................................................................................................................................... 60
Āryaśūra..................................................................................................................................................................... 70
Asaṅga/Maitreya(nātha)....................................................................................................................................... 73
Bhāviveka .................................................................................................................................................................. 81
Brahmā, Śakra, and Māra ...................................................................................................................................... 85
Buddhaghoṣa............................................................................................................................................................ 92
Buddhas of the Past: South Asia ......................................................................................................................... 95
Buddhas of the Past and of the Future: Southeast Asia ............................................................................... 109
Candragomin ........................................................................................................................................................... 121
Candrakīrti................................................................................................................................................................ 125
Ḍākinī ......................................................................................................................................................................... 132
Devadatta .................................................................................................................................................................. 141
Dharmakīrti .............................................................................................................................................................. 156
Dharmapāla .............................................................................................................................................................. 168
Dharmottara............................................................................................................................................................. 173
Dignāga ...................................................................................................................................................................... 179
Early Sarvāstivāda Masters ................................................................................................................................... 186
Gavampati in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................................................... 191
Gopadatta ................................................................................................................................................................. 196
Guṇaprabha.............................................................................................................................................................. 198
Haribhadra................................................................................................................................................................ 204
Haribhaṭṭa ................................................................................................................................................................. 209
Harivarman............................................................................................................................................................... 211
Harṣa .......................................................................................................................................................................... 214
Hayagrīva................................................................................................................................................................... 218
Indian Tantric Authors: Overview ...................................................................................................................... 228
Jñānagarbha ............................................................................................................................................................. 261
Jñānapāda ................................................................................................................................................................. 264

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vi Contents

Jñānaśrīmitra ........................................................................................................................................................... 269

Kamalaśīla ................................................................................................................................................................ 272
Karuṇāmaya ............................................................................................................................................................. 279
Kṣemendra ................................................................................................................................................................ 286
Kumāralāta ............................................................................................................................................................... 293
Mahādeva.................................................................................................................................................................. 298
Maitreya..................................................................................................................................................................... 302
Mārīcī ......................................................................................................................................................................... 325
Mātṛceṭa .................................................................................................................................................................... 332
Nāgārjuna .................................................................................................................................................................. 335
Paccekabuddhas/Pratyekabuddhas in Indic Sources ................................................................................... 348
Phra Malai in Thailand and Southeast Asia..................................................................................................... 357
Prajñākaragupta ...................................................................................................................................................... 363
Ratnākaraśānti......................................................................................................................................................... 366
Ratnakīrti .................................................................................................................................................................. 371
Saṅghabhadra .......................................................................................................................................................... 374
Śaṅkaranandana ..................................................................................................................................................... 378
Śaṅkarasvāmin ........................................................................................................................................................ 382
Śāntarakṣita .............................................................................................................................................................. 383
Śāntideva ................................................................................................................................................................... 391
Sarasvatī/Benzaiten................................................................................................................................................ 398
Śāriputra .................................................................................................................................................................... 409
Scholars of Premodern Pali Buddhism ............................................................................................................. 420
Seers (ṛṣi/isi) and Brāhmaṇas in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................ 437
Siddhas....................................................................................................................................................................... 443
Śrīlāta ......................................................................................................................................................................... 452
Sthiramati ................................................................................................................................................................. 456
Śubhagupta............................................................................................................................................................... 458
Tantric Buddhist Deities in Southeast Asia ..................................................................................................... 463
Thera/Therī in Pali and Southeast Asian Buddhism ..................................................................................... 474
Udbhaṭasiddhasvāmin .......................................................................................................................................... 479
Upagupta ................................................................................................................................................................... 481
Vāgīśvarakīrti ........................................................................................................................................................... 490
Vasubandhu .............................................................................................................................................................. 492
Vināyaka .................................................................................................................................................................... 507
Yama and Hell Beings in Indian Buddhism ..................................................................................................... 513

East Asia:
Ākāśagarbha in East Asia ...................................................................................................................................... 521
Arhats in East Asian Buddhism .......................................................................................................................... 529
Aśvaghoṣa (East Asian Aspects) ......................................................................................................................... 540
Avalokiteśvara in East Asia................................................................................................................................... 546
Dizang/Jizō ............................................................................................................................................................... 562
Jianzhen (Ganjin) ................................................................................................................................................... 571
Mahākāla in East Asia............................................................................................................................................ 576
Mahākāśyapa in Chan-inspired Traditions...................................................................................................... 586
Mañjuśrī in East Asia ............................................................................................................................................. 591
Maudgalyāyana (Mulian)...................................................................................................................................... 600
Musang (Wuxiang) ................................................................................................................................................. 608
Tejaprabhā ................................................................................................................................................................ 612
Yinyuan Longqi (Ingen) ........................................................................................................................................ 616

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 Contents vii

China:
Amoghavajra ............................................................................................................................................................ 623
An Shigao .................................................................................................................................................................. 630
Chengguan ................................................................................................................................................................ 642
Daoxuan .................................................................................................................................................................... 648
Falin ............................................................................................................................................................................ 653
Faxian ......................................................................................................................................................................... 657
Fazun .......................................................................................................................................................................... 662
Hanshan Deqing ..................................................................................................................................................... 668
Hongzhi Zhengjue .................................................................................................................................................. 673
Huihong (see Juefan Huihong)
Huineng (see Shenxiu)
Huiyuan (see Lushan Huiyuan)
Jigong.......................................................................................................................................................................... 679
Juefan Huihong ....................................................................................................................................................... 684
Liang Wudi................................................................................................................................................................ 689
Lokakṣema ................................................................................................................................................................ 700
Luo Qing .................................................................................................................................................................... 707
Lushan Huiyuan ...................................................................................................................................................... 711
Mazu Daoyi............................................................................................................................................................... 722
Mingben (see Zhongfeng Mingben)
Nāgārjuna in China ................................................................................................................................................ 727
Nenghai...................................................................................................................................................................... 735
Ouyang Jingwu ........................................................................................................................................................ 741
Ouyi Zhixu ................................................................................................................................................................ 748
Paramārtha ............................................................................................................................................................... 752
Qian Qianyi............................................................................................................................................................... 759
Qisong ........................................................................................................................................................................ 764
Shenhui (see Shenxiu)
Shenxiu, Huineng, and Shenhui ......................................................................................................................... 768
Śubhākarasiṃha...................................................................................................................................................... 777
Wumen ...................................................................................................................................................................... 782
Wuxiang (see East Asia: Musang)
Wuzhu ........................................................................................................................................................................ 787
Xiao Ziliang............................................................................................................................................................... 791
Yinshun...................................................................................................................................................................... 795
Yixing ......................................................................................................................................................................... 800
Yuan Hongdao ......................................................................................................................................................... 806
Yuanwu Keqin .......................................................................................................................................................... 810
Zhanran ..................................................................................................................................................................... 814
Zhi Qian ..................................................................................................................................................................... 818
Zhili............................................................................................................................................................................. 826
Zhixu (see Ouyang Zhixu)
Zhiyi............................................................................................................................................................................ 833
Zhongfeng Mingben............................................................................................................................................... 839
Zhuhong .................................................................................................................................................................... 844

Korea:
Chinul......................................................................................................................................................................... 853
Hyujŏng ..................................................................................................................................................................... 860
Ich’adon ..................................................................................................................................................................... 864

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viii Contents

Kihwa ......................................................................................................................................................................... 869

Kim Sisŭp .................................................................................................................................................................. 873
Kyŏnghŏ..................................................................................................................................................................... 877
Kyunyŏ ....................................................................................................................................................................... 882
Muhak Chach’o ........................................................................................................................................................ 887
Musang (see East Asia)
Pou .............................................................................................................................................................................. 891
Tosŏn .......................................................................................................................................................................... 895
Ŭich’ŏn ....................................................................................................................................................................... 900
Ŭisang ........................................................................................................................................................................ 903
Wŏnch’ŭk .................................................................................................................................................................. 908
Wŏnhyo...................................................................................................................................................................... 913
Yi Nŭnghwa .............................................................................................................................................................. 918

Japan:
Amaterasu Ōmikami .............................................................................................................................................. 923
Annen......................................................................................................................................................................... 930
Benzaiten (see South and Southeast Asia: Sarasvatī)
Dōgen ......................................................................................................................................................................... 933
Dōhan......................................................................................................................................................................... 941
Eisai (see Yōsai)
Eison ........................................................................................................................................................................... 944
En no Gyōja .............................................................................................................................................................. 951
Enchin ........................................................................................................................................................................ 956
Ennin .......................................................................................................................................................................... 961
Ganjin (see East Asia: Jianzhen)
Genshin ..................................................................................................................................................................... 967
Hachiman ................................................................................................................................................................. 971
Hakuin ....................................................................................................................................................................... 976
Hōnen ........................................................................................................................................................................ 980
Ikkyū Sōjun ............................................................................................................................................................... 987
Ingen (see East Asia: Yinyuan Longqi)
Ippen Chishin .......................................................................................................................................................... 991
Jakushō ...................................................................................................................................................................... 995
Jiun Sonja .................................................................................................................................................................. 998
Jizō (see East Asia: Dizang)
Jōjin............................................................................................................................................................................. 1002
Jōkei ............................................................................................................................................................................ 1006
Kakuban .................................................................................................................................................................... 1011
Keizan Jōkin ............................................................................................................................................................. 1016
Kōmyō ........................................................................................................................................................................ 1020
Kūkai .......................................................................................................................................................................... 1026
Kūya ............................................................................................................................................................................ 1036
Menzan Zuihō ......................................................................................................................................................... 1041
Monkan ..................................................................................................................................................................... 1047
Mugai Nyodai ........................................................................................................................................................... 1057
Mujaku Dōchū ......................................................................................................................................................... 1062
Musō Soseki .............................................................................................................................................................. 1066
Myōe ........................................................................................................................................................................... 1071
Nichiren ..................................................................................................................................................................... 1076
Nōnin.......................................................................................................................................................................... 1088

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 Contents ix
Raiyu........................................................................................................................................................................... 1094
Ryōgen........................................................................................................................................................................ 1097
Saichō ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1102
Saigyō ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1107
Shinran....................................................................................................................................................................... 1111
Shōtoku Taishi ......................................................................................................................................................... 1117
Tenjin ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1122
Tenkai ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1128
Yōsai/Eisai ................................................................................................................................................................. 1134
Zaō .............................................................................................................................................................................. 1139

Tibetan Cultural Sphere

Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters ................................................................................................................ 1145
Ge sar of Gling ......................................................................................................................................................... 1159
Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers ............................................................................................. 1165
Gtsang smyon Heruka ........................................................................................................................................... 1171
Lcang skya Rol pa’i Rdo rje ................................................................................................................................... 1175
Mi la ras pa................................................................................................................................................................ 1181
The Mongolian Jebdzundamba Khutugtu Lineage ....................................................................................... 1191
Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism ............................................................................................................ 1197
The Sa skya School’s Five Forefathers................................................................................................................ 1213
Spirits of the Soil, Land, and Locality in Tibet ................................................................................................ 1226
Ston pa Gshen rab: The Bön Buddha ................................................................................................................. 1233
Tibet's Crazy Yogins ................................................................................................................................................ 1239
Tsong kha pa and his Immediate Successors .................................................................................................. 1246
Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet ..................................................................................................................... 1254

Appendix To Volume I:
Buddhist Narrative Literature in Japan ............................................................................................................. 1269
Poetry: Japan ............................................................................................................................................................ 1286
Korean Sŏn Literature............................................................................................................................................ 1294

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 Ratnākaraśānti
Renowned as the “Omniscient One of the Degen-
erate Age” (kalikālasarvajña; Sankrtyayana, 1935,
35n4) and as guardian of Vikramaśīla’s eastern gate
during its golden age (Chimpa & Chattopadhyaya,
1970, 295; Roerich, 1949, 206; “southern gate” in
Dowman, 1985, 99), Ratnākaraśānti – also known as
Ratnākara, Śāntipā, Śāntipa, Śānti, Rin chen ’byung
gnas zhi ba, and Dkon mchog ’byung gnas (c. 970–
1045 CE) – was considered the preeminent scholar
and one of the foremost tantric adepts (siddha) of
his time (D 4085, in the colophon by Śāntibhadra;
see below). His reputation as a scholar in India
and Tibet is established not only by the number
of superlative epithets, titles, and honorifics regu-
larly attached to his name, but also by the number
of other well-known scholars who are said to have
studied with him (Isaacson & Sferra, et al., 2014;
64, 425, 427). Through his students, many of whom
were seminal figures in the New Translation (sar
ma) period, including *Adhīśa (a.k.a. →Atiśa, 982–
1054), Maitrīpā (1007–1085), Śraddhākaravarman
(late 10th cent., the most prolific Indian collabora-
tor of Rin chen bzang po), Kuśalabhadra (late 11th
cent.; Roerich, 1949, 847), Kalahaṃsakumāra (late
11th cent.; cf. Kalahaṃsakumārapāda, 107), and
’Brog mi Śākya ye shes (992–1074, Roerich, 1949, 206,
373, 380), Ratnākaraśānti greatly influenced the
subsequent development of monastic tantric Bud-
dhism in India and Tibet.
Aside from his prominence as a teacher, Ratnā-
karaśānti was a prolific writer to whom 40 works are
attributed in the Tibetan Tanjur under his various
aliases (Seton, 2015, 288–299). His works cover a wide
variety of topics in sūtra and tantra, but aim to pres-
ent a single, consistent and coherent framework for
the practice of tantra based on his interpretation of
Prajñāpāramitā from the perspective of his particu-
lar nirākāra (“Representation free”) Yogācāra view-
point. For Ratnākaraśānti, the two methods (naya)
of Mahāyāna practice, namely pāramitānaya and
mantranaya, both lead to the same goal. The slow
and painstaking pāramitā method is for those with
unbridled (uddāma) energy (dhāma) and strength
(bala). The swift and painless mantra method is
for the intensely faithful who have already done
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their work (kṛti) (Luo Hong, 2013, 2v.4–8). However,
according to Ratnākaraśānti, the efficacy of both of
these methods depends on Prajñāpāramitā – a term
that he explains as primarily referring to the noble
path of bodhisattvas on the bhūmis, not to the
fruitional awareness of a buddha as →Dignāga (5th
cent.) and →Haribhadra (9th cent.) had suggested
(Seton, 2015, 263–268) – since Prajñāpāramitā alone
transforms everything else into a path. In this way,
Ratnākaraśānti’s explanation not only of sūtra but
also of tantra revolves around his interpretation of
the path implicit in the Prajñāpāramitā scriptures.
Furthermore, Ratnākaraśānti couches his discus-
sion of both the pāramitā and mantra methods in
ultraconservative Yogācāra terms.
Philosophically, Ratnākaraśānti interprets the
three natures (svabhāva) in alignment with the
Madhyāntavibhāga and Triṃśikā, maintaining
the established (pariniṣpanna) nature to be the
emptiness of what is imagined (parikalpita) in the
dependent (paratantra) nature. Ratnākaraśānti’s
vehement argument that his nirākāra viewpoint
represents the true purport of the founders of
both the Yogācāra and Mādhyamika philosophi-
cal schools has caused some traditional and mod-
ern scholars to claim that Ratnākaraśānti himself
should be classified as a Mādhyamika of one sort
or another (Seyfort Ruegg, 1969, 61n2; 1981, 122;
see Kajiyama, 1965). However, although the name
“Mādhyamika” can be applied to many viewpoints,
a close analysis of Ratnākaraśānti’s doxography and
his own designation of his view as “Nirākāravādin”
suggests that his argument for the equivalence of
Yogācāra and Mādhyamika schools hinges upon
his assertion that Mādhyamika cannot ultimately
deny reflexive awareness without undermining
the authority (pramāṇya) of its own negations,
since nothing can be verifiably perceived as absent
or logically refuted without implicitly uphold-
ing the existence of reflexive awareness. Thus,
both schools, according to Ratnākaraśānti, must
ultimately arrive at the same Nirākāravāda view-
point. Furthermore, in Ratnākaraśānti’s interpre-
tation of this Nirākāravāda viewpoint, a buddha is
explained to be the merging of transmundane and
BEB, vol. II
 Ratnākaraśānti
pure mundane awareness that is ultimately free of
ākāras (representations) but, out of compassion,
deliberately retains a small amount of cognitive dis-
tortion (bhrānti) in order to help and interact with
unawakened beings whose representations he sees
in pure form as suchness.
In his explanation of the mantra method, Ratnā-
karaśānti seems to have taken the Hevajratantra as
the highest tantric authority (Isaacson, 2000, 122–
123.). But, since he admits that the esoteric practices
described in the Hevajratantra might not be right
for everyone given the differences in their inclina-
tions (ruci), he also comments on other tantras,
such as the Guhyasamāja, and others he considered
lower, such as the Sarvarahasya. In the higher level
of practice, Ratnākaraśānti distinguishes the two
stages, namely utpattikrama (“the stage of arising”)
and utpannakrama (“the stage of having arisen”), in
a very particular way. The utpattikrama entails both
the “arising” as the deity through five phases of visu-
alization and arising of Four Blisses through culti-
vating them in sequence. Notably, he explains the
sequence of the third and fourth Bliss, respectively,
to be the Innate (sahaja) Bliss and the Bliss of Ces-
sation (virama), which runs counter to other main-
stream scholars who explain these in the reverse
order (Isaacson & Sferra, et al., 2014; 97). The utpan-
nakrama entails the cultivation after a practitioner
has “arisen” already as the deity and cultivated the
blisses sequentially. In this stage, the practitioner
cultivates only the Innate Bliss, which is realized to
be the nature of everything (Tripathi & Negi, 2001,
ch. 1,viii, 91–93; Isaacson, personal communication).
In general, Ratnākaraśānti’s thought on sūtra
and tantra is quoted by subsequent Indian scholars
and by Tibetan authors from all major lineages, but
his impact on actual Tibetan Buddhist praxis was
limited. First, at the level of sūtra, most Tibetan
schools, seeing themselves as Mādhyamikas, cat-
egorically disavowed his classic Nirākāravādin-
Yogācāra viewpoint and upheld Haribhadra’s
explanation of Prajñāpāramitā. Perhaps in reac-
tion to this onesidedness, early proponents of the
controversial Tibetan Gzhan stong (“Emptiness of
Other”) school – who appreciated Ratnākaraśānti’s
tenacious explanation of Yogācāra and vigorous
critique of the so-called nihilistic interpretation of
Madhyamaka – not only praised Ratnākaraśānti but
claimed him as an Indian proponent of their own
so-called Great Madhyamaka (eg. Sparham, 2001,
208n11). In the 13th century, Bcom ldan Rig pa’i ral
gri’s Dbu ma rgyan gyi rnam par bshad pa tshig don
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367
gsal ba’i me tog (W1PD153536) even went so far as
to re-interpret Ratnākaraśānti’s standpoint in the
*Madhyamakālaṃkāravṛtti in line with the Tibetan
Gzhan stong position which, contra Ratnākaraśānti,
came to hold four buddha bodies, not three, and
the established (pariniṣpanna) nature as the emp-
tiness not just of the imagined but of the depen-
dent nature, and finally the supremacy of the
Kālacakratantra, rather than the Hevajratantra.
Second, at the level of tantra, Sa skya masters nei-
ther followed nor transmitted his system, even
though they recognized Ratnākaraśānti’s uncred-
ited influence on other mainstream Indian Hevajra
interpretations and considered Ratnākaraśānti’s
explanation to be closest to the root tantra itself
(Sobisch, 2008, 5, 38, 40–41). These limitations not-
withstanding, the degree to which Ratnākaraśānti
contributed to the development of Buddhism in
India and Tibet has been generally underappreci-
ated until relatively recently by modern scholars,
in part because of the daunting breadth of his writ-
ings, and in part because Tibetan authorities with
sectarian Mādhyamika agendas attempted to vilify,
marginalize, and discredit him (Davidson,2005,
170–171; Seton, 2015, 46–56), thereby making it dif-
ficult to unravel the details of his legacy.
Life
Given the uncertainties of Tibetan historiography
and the sectarian attempts to downplay his role in
Tibetan Buddhist history, it is not surprising that
even the most basic facts about Ratnākaraśānti’s life
are difficult to establish, and Sanskrit and Tibetan
biographical sources disagree on a number of
important points.
The precise dates of Ratnākaraśānti’s birth, activ-
ity, and death are unknown. Abhayadatta (12th
cent.) places Ratnākaraśānti’s birth during the reign
of the Pāla Emperor Devapāla (810–850), but on the
basis of philological, philosophical, and biographi-
cal evidence, most scholars agree Ratnākaraśānti
was born in the late tenth century slightly before →
Jñānaśrīmitra, →Ratnakīrti, and Adhīśa (Lokesh
Chandra, 1982, 94:5ff; Seton, 2015, 40; Tani, 1999,
363–364). If Ratnākaraśānti were only slightly older
than they, his date of birth would be roughly 970.
Ratnākaraśānti is said to have taken his post at
Vikramaśīla during the regency of *Canaka (namely
*Cāṇaka or *Cāṇakya, active early 11th cent.) accord-
ing to Tāranātha (Chimpa & Chattopadhyaya, 1970,
368 Ratnākaraśānti
294) and to have become famous before Brog
mi’s visit there (c. 1010–1020; Davidson, 2005, 169;
Stearns, 2001, 84), meaning that his activity would
have begun in the early 11th century. As for his
death, several sources (Dowman, 1985, 99; Lokesh
Chandra, 1982, 137) suggest that Ratnākaraśānti
lived a very long life and was still alive and func-
tioning as the Elder in charge of Vikramaśīla in
1041, when Adhīśa departed for Tibet. Although
some Tibetan travelers fail to mention him being
at Vikramaśīla during this period (Shizuka, 2010,
78–75), Ratnākaraśānti was known to have traveled
to teach for several years at a time (Dowman, 1985,
99–102) and could have merely been absent during
their visit. Whatever the case, Adhīśa is reputed to
have said while in Tibet after 1042 that Buddhism in
India was suffering at that time, because he himself
had left for Tibet, while his teacher Ratnākaraśānti
had “left” (’das pa) India, and his other main teacher
Dharmakīrtiśrī (late 10th cent.) had “died” (grongs;
Lokesh Chandra, 1982, 86, 94:5ff). On the basis of
Adhīśa’s comments, it seems reasonable to suppose
that Ratnākaraśānti’s death may have occurred after
1042. Finally, since Śāntibhadra – who wrote the col-
ophon to the *Madhyamālaṃkāropadeśa treating
Ratnākaraśānti’s life as a thing of the past (D 4085,
sems tsam, hi, 231a1; Seton, 2015, 23) – is thought
to have died circa 1050 CE (Templeman, 1992, 371),
Ratnākaraśānti seems to have died before 1050.
Few sources contain any information about
Ratnākaraśānti’s early life, but those that do disagree
with one another. ’Jam dbyang mkhyen tse dbang
phyug (1524–1568) suggests that Ratnākaraśānti
was born, educated, and became a great teacher
in the West in Oḍḍiyāna, after which he moved
east to Magadha because his chosen deity told
him go there in order to benefit the Buddhist doc-
trine (Stearns 2006,171). On the other hand, Sum pa
mkhan po (1704–1788) reports that Ratnākaraśānti
was born – sources variously say into a kṣatriya,
vaiśya, or brāhmaṇa family – in Magadha, and
received his Sarvāstivādin ordination at Oṭantapurī
before studying at Vikramaśīla and taking a post
there (Mimaki, 1992, 301). Sum pa mkhan po’s
account is the more likely, because Ratnākaraśānti
is called an “Easterner” (pūrvadeśīya) in a 12th-
century Sanskrit manuscript (Isaacson, personal
communication), because he is often associated
with other known Easterners, and because he
is reputed to have traveled (miraculously) from
Vikramaśīla to Oḍḍiyāna (rather than the oppo-
site direction) at the invitation of a wisdom ḍākinī
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(D 4085, sems tsam, hi, 231a1; Mimaki, 1992, 302;
Seton, 2015, 23), which could explain the confusion
about his connection with Oḍḍiyāna. Wherever
Ratnākaraśānti was actually born, his disciples later
claimed that his birth was foreordained by the Bud-
dha in the Mdo sde dad pa cher ’byung ba’i mdo (pos-
sible corruption of *Mahāyānaprasādaprabhāvana
-sūtra), in the Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra and the
Mañjuśrīmūlatantra in order to destroy what they
saw as the increasing hegemony of Candrakīrti’s
incorrect and nihilistic interpretation of Nāgārjuna’s
Madhyamaka (D 4085, sems tsam, hi, 231a5; Seyfort
Ruegg, 1981, 122).
The narrative section of the Rnam thar rgyas pa
yongs grags (94.5) – which likely contains traces of
the mid-11th century firsthand accounts of Nag tsho
Tshul khrims rgyal ba (1011–1065?) who studied with
Ratnākaraśānti himself – describes Ratnākaraśānti
as the senior-most student of *Dharmakīrtiśrī (also
known as Bla ma Gser ling pa, *Dharmakīrti of
Suvarṇadvīpa, Dharmapāla, and Dharmarakṣita).
Although no other source mentions *Dharmakīrtiśrī
as his teacher, Ratnākaraśānti is said to have medi-
tated for seven years in Ma la ba (Mimaki, 1992, 301),
which could easily derive from a typographical or
editorial mistake for Malaya in Suvarṇadvīpa (rather
than Malaya or Malava in southern India), the place
in which *Dharmakīrtiśrī (b. late 10th cent.) wrote his
Durbodhālokā commentary on the prajñāpāramitā
(Sarkar 1986, 36–40; Seton, 2015; 39–44). Whether or
not *Dharmakīrtiśrī was his teacher, Ratnākaraśānti
is described in all other extant Tibetan sources as hav-
ing been a student of other teachers, namely Nāropā
(Roerich, 1949, 380; Chimpa & Chattopadhyāya,
1970, 299; Mimaki, 1992, 302), Mañjuśrībhadra
(Lokesh Chandra, 1982, 82.3), Bodhibhadra (Lokesh
Chandra, 1982, 82.1), Thaganapā (a.k.a. Sa ’gebs pa’i
zhabs; Lokesh Chandra, 1982, 76.3; Roerich, 1949,
373) Koṭālipā (Dowman, 1985, 97), Jitāri (Mimaki,
1992, 302), Ratnakīrti (Mimaki, 1992, 302), and
Kṛṣṇa/Samayavajra (Mimaki, 1992, 302). The reports
in these Tibetan transmission lists, histories, and
hagiographic accounts are unreliable and some-
times contradict other evidence, but it is not pos-
sible to evaluate here the likelihood whether any of
the names adduced could be considered that of an
important teacher of Ratnākaraśānti (Seton, 2015,
21–56).
In Ratnākaraśānti’s midlife, his status as a
scholar and siddha earned him not only power
and position within Vikramaśīla but seems to have
attracted  large  funds and teaching offers from
 Ratnākaraśānti
abroad. As primary guru of Adhīśa and acting head
(dbu mdzad pa) of Vikramaśīla, Ratnākaraśānti is
reported to have expressed his appreciation for
Tibetan gold and to have loaned his student Adhīśa
to the Tibetans for three years in exchange for a
large amount of gold that went to temple repair,
to staff support, and to himself (Lokesh Chandra,
1982, 137.6). It is perhaps in connection with fund-
raising of this sort that Ratnākaraśānti came to be
described as having been showered in extravagant
gifts by kings (Dowman, 1985, 100) and as having
miraculously turned water into liquid gold that he
distributed among the monks (Chimpa & Chatto-
padhyaya 1970, 300).
Works
Ratnākaraśānti produced a large number of com-
mentaries on a variety of topics, with an unusually
consistent style, terminology, and viewpoint. Among
extant works, one finds commentaries on tantric
theory and practice, Prajñāpāramitā, Madhyamaka,
Yogācāra, Pramāṇa, metrics, riddles, and a short song
of Mahāmudrā. His magna opera are his tryptich of
perfection method works, namely Sāratamāpañjikā
(cf. Jaini, 1979), Śuddhimatī (D 3801), and Prajñā-
pāramitopadeśa (D 4079), and his tryptich of
mantra method works, namely Muktāvalīpañjikā
(D 1189; Tripathi & Negi, 2001), Bhramaharasādhana
(D 1245; Isaacson, 2002), and Hevajrasaha-
jasadyoga (D 1246; Isaacson 2001). His main
doxographical works are the *Vijñaptimātratāsid-
dhi  (D  4259), *Madhyamapratipadāsiddhi-nāma-
Madhyamakālaṃkāravṛtti (D 4072), and *Madhya-
makālaṃkāropadeśa (D 4085), which present
refutations of the major Mādhyamika systems,
including those of Candrakīrti and Śāntarakṣita.
Since these works contain minimal refutation of
non-Buddhist viewpoints, they appear to be aimed
at a primarily Buddhist audience.
Given Ratnākaraśānti’s fame as a scholar, it is not
surprising that some works were incorrectly attrib-
uted to him. Scholars have identified four works
wrongly attributed to Ratnākaraśānti (D 2476 –
Isaacson 2001, 483; D 3712; Hiyashi, 1999; Kano, 2016,
79–86; D 3935 – Hiyashi, 1999, 56; Kano, 2016, 79–86;
Seton, 2015, 297; D 1995 –Sanskrit MS, NAK 5–7871 =
NGMPP B 104/10; Vikrama Project, 2013, personal
communication). The only subcommentary on any
of Ratnākaraśānti’s works known to have been writ-
ten by any indigenous Tibetan author is Bcom ldan
For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV
369
Rig pa’i ral gri’s Dbu ma rgyan gyi rnam par bshad pa
tshig don gsal ba’i me tog (Bka’ gdams gsung’ bum
phyogs bsgrigs thengs gsum pa, vol I, 473–527; gsung
thor bu, vol. I, 567–622). For a more complete list of
works with descriptions and bibliographic details,
see Seton (2015, 288–299). For a list of tantric works
extant in Sanskrit, see Isaacson (2001, 482–483).
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