LANDSLIDE

A landslide is defined as the movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope.
Landslides are a type of "mass wasting," which denotes any down-slope movement of soil and rock
under the direct influence of gravity. The term "landslide" encompasses five modes of slope movement:
falls, topples, slides, spreads, and flows. These are further subdivided by the type of geologic material
(bedrock, debris, or earth). Debris flows (commonly referred to as mudflows or mudslides) and rock falls
are examples of common landslide types.

Causes of Landslides
While landslides are considered naturally occurring disasters, human-induced changes in
the environment have recently caused their upsurge. Although the causes of landslides are wide
ranging, they have 2 aspects in common; they are driven by forces of gravity and result from failure of
soil and rock materials that constitute the hill slope:

Natural Causes of Landslides

Climate. A significant upsurge in precipitation or ground saturation would dramatically increase

the level of ground water. When sloped areas are completely saturated with water, landslides can
occur. If there is absence of mechanical root support, the soils start to run off.

Effects of Landslides
Lead to economic decline

Landslides have been verified to result in destruction of property. If the landslide is significant, it
could drain the economy of the region or country. After a landslide, the area affected normally
undergoes rehabilitation. This rehabilitation involves massive capital outlay. For example, the 1983
landslide at Utah in the United States resulted in rehabilitation cost of about $500 million. The annual
loss as a result of landslides in U.S.stands at an estimated $1.5 billion.

Decimation of infrastructure

The force flow of mud, debris, and rocks as a result of a landslide can cause serious damage to
property. Infrastructure such as roads, railways, leisure destinations, buildings and communication
systems can be decimated by a single landslide.
 EARTHQUAKE
Causes of Earthquakes
Earthquakes are caused by disturbances in the interior of the earth and other causes.

1. Tectonic Movements: The disturbances inside the earth are called tectonic movements.
These forces bring about changes on the earth surface and physical features like mountains,
plateaus and rift valleys are formed. Most disastrous earthquakes are caused by tectonic
forces. Tectonic forces create tension and pressure and the stress begins to build up inside the
earth. When the stress tends to be more than what the rocks of the earth can bear, the rocks
are broken and displaced from their state of equilibrium. It is known as faulting. The energy
accumulated during faulting is released. This release of energy gives rise to mighty waves.
These waves originate from a point called Focus in the interior of the earth and then spread out
in all directions. On the surface whatever comes into their contact begins to vibrate. The chief
cause of earthquakes felt often in California in the USA is often the San Andreas Fault found
there.
2. Volcanic Eruptions: The volcanic eruptions are often very violent and cause vibrations in the
earth crust. Sometimes the vent of a volcano is blocked temporarily and explosive eruption
takes place suddenly causing tremors in the earth crust. The Krakatoa that erupted in 1883
became the cause of a violent earthquake there.
3. Other Reasons: The roofs of underground caves sometimes give way and release great force
to cause minor tremors in the earth crust. Nuclear explosions also release massive energy to
cause tremors in the earth crust.

Effects of Earthquakes
Earthquakes are less advantageous and more harmful to man. Damage done is chiefly in following
respects:

1. Loss of Property: Severe earthquakes reduce to rubble human structures ranging from huts to
palaces and single storey to multi storey buildings. Even pipelines laid under the ground and
railway lines are damaged or displaced. The best example of this type of damage is Koyana
earthquake in 1970.
2. Loss of Life: Earthquake tremors of a few seconds takes the lives of thousands of people.
Many people have been rendered homeless or suffered injuries in various ways.
3. Changes in the course of rivers: On account of the impact of earthquakes, sometimes rivers
also change their course. Consequently, when floods come they play havoc with people's lives.