High Voltage Engineering Introduction

High Voltage Engineering
School of Computing and Electrical Engineering
Content:
 Introduction
 Voltage stresses
 High Voltage study
 Testing voltages
 Lightning impulse voltages
 Switching impulses
 Cathodic Protection
 Voltage multiplier
Bahir Dar University, Faculty of Engineering
 Impulse generator
 Insulation coordination
 Over voltage protection
 Surge arrestors
© Copyright, TassTad-2009
 Arrestor placement
 Spark gap
 Avalanches
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High Voltage Engineering - General
High Voltage Engineering is widely used for :
 Power transfer to large systems;
 Source of energy to the industries;

 Research laboratories;
 Particle accelerators in nuclear research;
 Electrostatics precipitators, up to 100 kV;

 X-ray equipments in medical applications ;
 Modern high voltage laboratories, up to 6 MV or ab
 Study of an internal and external Surge Voltage;

 Study of Insulation coordination; etc…
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The importance of High Voltage study.

The study includes the concepts of :
 Power transmission, voltage stress, and testing with various types of voltage and
 The electrical breakdown of gases.
 The breakdown of liquid and solid dielectrics.
In designing the system’s insulation the two areas of specific importance

are:
(i) Determination of the voltage stresses which the insulation
must withstand, and
(ii) Determination of the response of the insulation when

.
subjected to these voltage stresses.
It also covers the fundamentals of high-voltage laboratory techniques, to provide an

understanding of high-voltage phenomena, and to present the basics of high voltage
insulation design together with the analytical and modern numerical tools available
to high-voltage equipment designers.
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High system voltages necessarily required for bulk power transfer for large systems
 The first public power station was put into service in 1882 in London.
 By 1890 the art in the development of an a.c. generator and transformer

had been perfected, displacing the earlier d.c. system.
 Supplying power to central London over a distance of 28 miles (45 km) at

10 000 V.
 Systems produced direct current at low-voltage, but their service was

limited to highly localized areas and were used mainly for electric lighting.
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Introduction
The electric power (P) transmitted on an overhead a.c. line increases approximately
with the surge impedance loading or the square of the system’s operating voltage.
Thus for a transmission line of surge impedance ZL (≈ 250Ω) at an operating voltage
V, the power transfer capability is approximately,
P = V2 /ZL,
which for an overhead a.c. system leads to the following results:
V,(kV) 400 700 1000 1200 1500
P,(MW) 640 2000 4000 5800 9000

Copyright, TassTad 2009
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In order to be able to estimate how much power a single-circuit at a given voltage can handle, we need to
know the value of positive-sequence line inductance and its reactance at power frequency. Furthermore,
in modern practice, line losses caused by I2R heating of the conductors is gaining in importance because
of the need to conserve energy. Therefore, the use of higher voltages than may be dictated by purely
economic consideration might be found in order not only to lower the current I to be transmitted but also
the conductor resistance R by using bundled conductors comprising of several sub-conductors in parallel.
We will utilize average values of parameters for lines with horizontal configuration as shown below for
preliminary estimates.
When line resistance is neglected, the power that can be transmitted depends upon
(a) the magnitudes of voltages at the ends (ES, ER.),
(b) their phase difference and
(c) the total positive-sequence reactance X per phase, when the shunt capacitive admittance
is neglected.
Thus, P = ES ER. Sin δ /(L.x)
Where,
P = power in MW, 3-phase,
ES, ER. = voltages at the sending-end and receiving end, respectively, in kV line-line,
δ = phase difference between E$ and E,.,
x = positive-sequence reactance per phase, ohm/km, and
L = line length, km.
Average Values of Line Parameters
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*At 20°C. Increase by 12.5% for 50°C.
From consideration of stability, d is limited to about 30°, and for a preliminary estimate
of P, we will take Es = Er = E.
According to the above Formula (criteria), the power-handling capacity of a

single circuit is P = E2 sin δ /L.x.
At unity power factor, at the load P, the current flowing is I = E sin  / 3 L  x;
And the total power loss in the 3-phases will amount to p = 3I2rL = E2. sin2 δ .r/L.x2
Therefore, the percentage power loss is %p = 100 p/P = 100. sin δ .(r/x)
The % power loss and power-handling capacity of lines at various voltage levels
shown here, for δ = 30° and without series-capacitor compensation.
Extra High Voltage A.C

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The following important and useful conclusions can be drawn for preliminary
understanding of trends relating to power-handling capacity of a.c. transmission lines
and line losses.
(1) One 750-kV line can normally carry as much power as four 400-kV circuits for equal distance of
transmission.
(2) One 1200-kV circuit can carry the power of three 750-kV circuits and twelve 400-kV circuits for
the same transmission distance.
(3) Similar such relations can be found from the table.
(4) The power-handling capacity of line at a given voltage level decreases with line length, being
inversely proportional to line length L.
(5) From the above property, we observe that if the conductor size is based on current rating, as line
length increases, smaller sizes of conductor will be necessary. This will increase the danger of high
voltage effects caused by smaller diameter of conductor giving rise to corona on the conductors
and intensifying radio interference levels and audible noise as well as corona loss.
(6) However, the percentage power loss in transmission remains independent of line length since it
depends on the ratio of conductor resistance to the positive-sequence reactance per unit length, and
the phase difference d between Es and Er..
(7) From the values of % p given in above table , it is evident that it decreases as the system voltage is
increased. This is very strongly in favour of using higher voltages if energy is to be conserved.
With the enormous increase in world oil prices and the need for conserving natural resources, this
could sometimes become the governing criterion for selection of voltage for transmission.
The Bonneville Power Administration (B.P.A.) in the U.S.A. has based the choice of 1150 kV for
transmission over only 280 km length of line since the power is enormous (10,000 MW over one
circuit).
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(8) In comparison to the % power loss at 400 kV, we observe that if the same power is
transmitted at 750 kV, the line loss is reduced to (2.5/4.76) = 0.525, at 1000 kV it is
0.78/4.76 = 0.165, and at 1200 kV it is reduced further to 0.124.
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The problems posed in using such high voltages are different from those
encountered at lower voltages.
These are:
a. Increased Current Density because of increase in line loading by using series
capacitors.
b. Use of bundled conductors.
c. High surface voltage gradient on conductors.
d. Corona problems:
 Audible Noise,
 Radio Interference,
 Corona Energy Loss,
 Carrier interference, and
 TV Interference.
e. High electrostatic field under the line.

f. Switching Surge Over voltages which cause more havoc to air-gap insulation
than lightning or power frequency voltages.
g. Increased Short-Circuit currents and possibility of Ferro resonance conditions.
h. Use of gapless metal-oxide arresters replacing the conventional gap-type –
Silicon Carbide arresters, for both lightning and switching-surge duty.

i. Shunt reactor compensation and use of series capacitors, resulting in possible
sub- synchronous resonance conditions and high short circuit currents.
j. Insulation coordination based upon switching impulse levels.(k) Single-pole –
reclosing to improve stability, but 9/15/2019
causing problems with arcing. 10
Testing voltages
Power systems equipment must withstand not only :
 The rated voltage (VN), which corresponds to the highest voltage

of a particular system, but also
 The Over voltages.
It describes the design, performance, application and testing of outdoor insulators.

Both ceramic and composite insulators are included.
Outdoor insulators represent one of the most critical components of transmission

and distribution systems.
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 Testing with lightning impulse voltages.
Lightning strokes terminating on transmission lines will induce

steep rising voltages in the line and set up travelling waves along
the line and may damage the system’s insulation.
 Testing with switching impulses.

Transient over voltages accompanying sudden changes in the state of

power systems, e.g. switching operations or faults, are known as
switching impulse voltages.
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Cathodic Protection
Its a dynamic electrochemical process for the prevention of metallic structures which are
buried, immersed or otherwise in contact with an electrolyte.
Structures to which cathodic protection may be typically applied include:
 Pipelines,
 Tank farms,
 Plant pipe work,
 Steel work,
 Well casings, etc.
In addition to the above, cathodic protection is now commonly used for corrosion prevention
of above ground structural steel and reinforcing steel in concrete.
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Bahir Dar University, Faculty of Engineering School of Computing and Electrical Engineering
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Voltage multiplier with cascaded transformers
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Outline of electrostatic belt-driven generator
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Alternating voltages generator.
Single unit testing transformer with mid-point

potential at core:
Diagram (a) and cross-section (b).
(1) Iron core.

(2) Primary winding.
(3a & b) High-voltage windings.

(4a & b) compensating windings.
(5) Exciting winding
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Testing transformer for 1200 kV r.m.s.
- Comprising three single unit transformers

according to the previous diagram, with
metallic tanks and bushings
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D.C. cascade circuit with cascaded transformers
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Basic circuit of cascaded transformers.
(1) Primary windings.
(2) Secondary h.t. windings.
(3) Tertiary exciting windings

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Single-stage impulse generator circuits (a) and (b).
C1 : discharge capacitance.
C2 : load capacitance.
R1 : front or damping resistance.

R2 : discharge resistance.
(c) Transform circuit

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Basic circuit of a six-stage impulse generator
(Marx generator)
Indoor impulse generator, 20-stage, 4-MV,

200-kJ, with encapsulated sphere gaps
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The most essential factors include:
the magnitude of the switched voltage (some kV up to MV),
the magnitude of the control voltage or signal,
the time delay between control signal and final stage of the switching,
the jitter of the time delay,
the conductivity of the switch in open and closed position,

the inductance of the switch,
the magnitude of the current switched,

the repetition or recurrence frequency, and finally,
the number of switching operations admissible.
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Measurement of high voltages.
Measurement of high voltages – d.c., a.c. or impulse voltages – involves unusual

problems that may not be familiar to specialists in the common electrical measurement
techniques.
These problems increase with the magnitude of the voltage, but are still easy to solve for
voltages of some 10 kV only, and become difficult if hundreds of kilovolts or even
megavolts have to be measured.
The difficulties are mainly related to the large structures necessary to control the
electrical fields, to avoid flashover and sometimes to control the heat dissipation within
the circuits.
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Peak voltage measurements by spark gaps.
Vertical sphere gap.
1. Insulating support.
2. Sphere shank.
3. Operating gear, showing maximum dimensions.
4. High-voltage connection with series resistor.
5. Stress distributor, showing maximum dimensions.
P. Sparking point of h.v. sphere.
A. Height of P above ground plane.
B. Radius of space free from external structures.
X. Item 4 not to pass through this plane within

a distance B from P.
Note: The figure is drawn to scale for a 100-cm sphere gap at radius spacing
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Horizontal sphere gap.

1. Insulating support.
2. Sphere shank.
3. Operating gear, showing maximum dimensions.
4. High-voltage connection with series resistor.
P. Sparking point of h.v. sphere.
A. Height of P above ground plane.
B. Radius of space free from external structures.
X. Item 4 not to pass through this plane within a
distance B from P.
Note: The figure is drawn to scale for a 25-cm sphere gap at a radius spacing.
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Energy in lightning
Schematic representation of various stages of
lightning stroke between cloud and ground.
Positive upward
streamer moves to
meet the strike
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Current distribution and voltage distribution in

ground due to lightning stroke to a building.
Cross-section of a polymer-housed arrester

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Since in general the actual air density during a measurement differs from
the reference conditions, the disruptive voltage of the gap will be given as
Where, Vd0 - corresponds to the table values and

kd is a correction factor related to air density.(to be given in the tables)
The actual relative air density (RAD) is given in general terms by:
Where, p0 = air pressure of standard condition,

p = air pressure at test conditions,

t0= 20°C,
t = temperature in degrees Centigrade at test conditions.
Some factors influencing the gap breakdown such as effects of nearby earthed objects, of humidity, of dust
particles, of irradiation and voltage polarity are to be discussed.
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Air-density correction factor, kd

Sphere gaps have been used since then world wide

– no significant errors could be detected during application of this
measuring method, the sparking voltages as provided by the tables are obviously
within the estimated uncertainties.
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Uniform field gaps
The breakdown voltage of a uniform field gap can be calculated

based upon fundamental physical processes and their dependency
upon the field strength.
The breakdown voltage Vb can be expressed also by
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Some reference books
• M.S. Naidu and V. Kamaraju, High Voltage Engineering, 1996 (Engineering:

621.3 96)
• E. Kuffel and W.S. Zaengl, High Voltage Engineering Fundamentals, 1984

(Engineering: 621.31 56)
• H.M. Ryan, High voltage engineering and testing, 1994 (Engineering 621.319 39)
• T.J. Gallagher, A.J. Pearmain, High voltage : measurement, testing, and design,
1983 (Engineering: 621.31 57 ).

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Avalanches
• High-energy particles ionize molecules by impact

½mv2 +M => M+ + e
• Remember? Force on an electron:
F = e E, but F = ma
… so acceleration ... proportional to the E-field
• Low-energy collisions with molecules ... bounces
• High-energy collisions when the electron’s KE is greater than the
molecules’ ionization energy:

e +M => M+ + e + e
... see AVAL-1
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Avalanches
• 2 electrons => 4 electrons => 8 electrons ... ... see AVAL-2
1+1+2+4+8 positive ions

… and 16 electrons
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Avalanches
2 electrons => 4 electrons => … 1024 electrons => ...
... see AVAL-3 and 4
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Avalanche Growth
• The growth of the positive

ions looks ‘exponential’.
• The number of electrons
produced equals the number
of ions produced – so the area
under the two graphs is equal.

• This is a ‘snapshot’ after about 10 generations, 1024 electrons
and1024 ions. The group of electrons will grow bigger and travel
to the right until it hits the anode, leaving an ever-larger ‘tail’ of
positive ions.
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Avalanche Growth
Pictures of avalanches taken using the ‘Cloud chamber

photography’ technique
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Avalanche Growth
• The ionisation coefficient, α, is defined as the probability

that an electron will make an ionising collision in travelling
unit distance in the direction of the anode.
• In addition there is a possibility (especially for slower-
moving electrons) that an attaching collision takes place:
e + M ==> M–
• The attachment coefficient, η, is defined as the probability,
per unit distance travelled in the direction of the anode, that
an electron will attach to a molecule to form a negative ion.
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Avalanche Growth
• An effective ionisation coefficient, ά, is defined as
ά=α–η
• It is found that ά /p = f(E/p).
• ά /p increases roughly exponentially with E/p

ά /p versus f(E/p)
for air.
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Avalanche Growth
• By integration the size of an avalanche after the original electron has

travelled a distance x towards the anode, is
n(x) = exp(ά x)
- for uniform fields

• Since the value of ά varies with the field, in non-uniform fields the
avalanche size must be expressed as
n(x) = exp (∫ά.dx)

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Avalanche Growth
For a 10-mm gap with 30 kV applied, E = 3 kV/mm

so ά is about 1.3 mm-1 (from the graph)
and
n = eάx = e13 = 4.4 x 105
ά /p versus f(E/p)
for air.
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Avalanche Growth
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SF6
α/p and η/p
versus E/p for
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Avalanche Growth
9/15/2019
for SF6
ά/p versus f(E/p)
ά /p = 26E/p - 230
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Streamers
When an avalanche gets very big, there is recombination in the

overlap region between the positive and negative charges: the photons
produced cause ionisation around the avalanche:
e + M+ => M + photon
and then
Photon + M => M+ + e
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Streamers
These new electrons start new avalanches, which grow especially fast
if they are in the high-field zones: in front of, and behind, the
avalanche ‘head’
+
_
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Streamers
This is a kind of positive feedback - the avalanche ‘explodes’ into a

column of conducting plasma – the ‘mother’ avalanche with a mass
of ‘baby’ avalanches in front and behind.
This is called a streamer.
Positive feedback occurs in that, while the field is maintained, more

and more avalanches occur, the number of charged particles
increases, the current increases – until the source impedance limits
the current to the short-circuit current, thus dropping the voltage

across the gap to near zero.
This defines electrical breakdown.
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Streamers
This number of electrons in the avalanche for this feedback process to ‘go
critical’ is found to be about 108.
Another way of expressing this criterion is in terms of the electron
amplification:
N = 108 = eád
where d is the distance between the two plain-parallel electrodes,

Hence ád = 18.4
Secondary avalanche formation by photoelectrons Space charge field Er around avalanche head
The resultant field strength in fron
of the avalanche is (E + Er) whil
in the positive ion region jus

behind the head the field i
reduced to a value (E - Er.) It i
also evident that the space charg
increases with the avalanch
length eαx.
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The condition for the transition from avalanche to streamer assumes that space
charge field Er approaches the externally applied field (Er ≈ E), hence the breakdown
criterion becomes
 x  17.7  ln x . or in terms of gap “d”  d  17.7  ln d.
C C
Paschen’s Law: Vbdn is a function of pd
Log/log graph of Vb against pd
Approximately linear in ‘engineering region’

High-field limit – ‘brittleness’ effect
Low-field limit – limitation on number of mean free paths

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High Voltage Engineering Introduction

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High Voltage Engineering

School of Computing and Electrical Engineering

High Voltage Engineering is widely used for :

 Power transfer to large systems;

 Source of energy to the industries;

 Electrostatics precipitators, up to 100 kV;

 Study of an internal and external Surge Voltage;

The importance of High Voltage study.

In designing the system’s insulation the two areas of specific importance

(ii) Determination of the response of the insulation when

It also covers the fundamentals of high-voltage laboratory techniques, to provide an

 By 1890 the art in the development of an a.c. generator and transformer

 Supplying power to central London over a distance of 28 miles (45 km) at

 Systems produced direct current at low-voltage, but their service was

V,(kV) 400 700 1000 1200 1500

P,(MW) 640 2000 4000 5800 9000

Average Values of Line Parameters

According to the above Formula (criteria), the power-handling capacity of a

At unity power factor, at the load P, the current flowing is I = E sin  / 3 L  x;

Extra High Voltage A.C

e. High electrostatic field under the line.

Silicon Carbide arresters, for both lightning and switching-surge duty.

 The rated voltage (VN), which corresponds to the highest voltage

It describes the design, performance, application and testing of outdoor insulators.

Outdoor insulators represent one of the most critical components of transmission

and distribution systems.

 Testing with lightning impulse voltages.

Lightning strokes terminating on transmission lines will induce

 Testing with switching impulses.

Transient over voltages accompanying sudden changes in the state of

Structures to which cathodic protection may be typically applied include:

Outline of electrostatic belt-driven generator

Alternating voltages generator.

Single unit testing transformer with mid-point

Diagram (a) and cross-section (b).

(1) Iron core.

(3a & b) High-voltage windings.

Testing transformer for 1200 kV r.m.s.

- Comprising three single unit transformers

Basic circuit of cascaded transformers.

(1) Primary windings.

(2) Secondary h.t. windings.

(3) Tertiary exciting windings

Single-stage impulse generator circuits (a) and (b).

R1 : front or damping resistance.

(c) Transform circuit

Indoor impulse generator, 20-stage, 4-MV,

The most essential factors include:

the magnitude of the switched voltage (some kV up to MV),

the magnitude of the control voltage or signal,

the jitter of the time delay,

the conductivity of the switch in open and closed position,

the inductance of the switch,

the magnitude of the current switched,

the repetition or recurrence frequency, and finally,

the number of switching operations admissible.

Measurement of high voltages.

Measurement of high voltages – d.c., a.c. or impulse voltages – involves unusual

Peak voltage measurements by spark gaps.

Vertical sphere gap.

X. Item 4 not to pass through this plane within

Horizontal sphere gap.

Current distribution and voltage distribution in

Cross-section of a polymer-housed arrester