A Seminar Report on

FLOWMETERS

In partial fulfilment of requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
In
Chemical Engineering

By
KANCHAN VYAS
(Reg no.: 170903290)

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

MANIPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(A Constituent Unit of MAHE, Manipal)

Manipal - 576 104

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INDEX
1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 4
1.1 Description .......................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Selection Criteria ................................................................................................................ 4
2.0 Variable Head Flowmeters ..................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Evolution ............................................................................................................................. 5
2.2 Description and Working Principle .................................................................................... 7
2.3 Performance Characteristics ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.4 Applications ...................................................................................................................... 15
3.0 Pitot Tube .............................................................................................................................. 16
3.1 Description and Working Principle .................................................................................. 16
3.2 Performance Characteristics ............................................................................................. 16
3.3 Applications ...................................................................................................................... 17
3.4 Advantages and disadvantages ......................................................................................... 17
4.0 Variable Area Flowmeters…………………………………………………………………….
4.1 Description………………………………………………………………………………….
4.2 Application…………………………………………………………………………………
4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages…………………………………………………………
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 21
Bibliography ............................................................................................................................... 22

ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig.1(Flow rate vs signal) ……………………………….......

Fig.2(Orifice meter) …………………………………
Fig.6(Venturi meter).………………………………………………………….
Fig.7(Pitot Tube) ……………………………….......
Fig.8(Rotameter) …………………………………

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ABSTRACT

Considering variable area flowmeters and the major types of pressure

difference meter such as orifice plates, venture and pitot tube. It outlines the basic
fluid mechanics relevant to both types and describes the various meters available,
their construction , working principle and common applications. The history of the
flowmeters is mentioned to how and what led to the invention of these equipments .
A comparision of the equipments to have a clear concept of the correct usage of the
device in the right place.

The effects of installation on performance and methods of obtaining traceable

calibrations of meters with liquids and gases are discussed. Recent meter
developments and future needs are considered

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Description
In the chemical process industry ,it is desirable to know the amount of fluid flowing to or from
the process equipment .Many different types of flowmeters are used industrially to measure the
rate at which a fluid is flowing through a pipe or duct.

1.2 Selection Criteria

We have learned that it is nearly impossible to accurately narrow the choice down to a single
product based solely on conditions, as multiple products may fit within those specifications.

With most liquid flow measurement instruments, the flow rate is determined inferentially by
measuring the liquid's velocity or the change in kinetic energy. Velocity depends on the
pressure differential that is forcing the liquid through a pipe or conduit. Because the pipe's
cross-sectional area is known and remains constant, the average velocity is an indication of the
flow rate. The basic relationship for determining the liquid's flow rate in such cases is:

Q=VxA

where

Q = liquid flow through the pipe

V = average velocity of the flow

A = cross-sectional area of the pipe

Other factors that affect liquid flow rate include the liquid's viscosity and density, and the
friction of the liquid in contact with the pipe.

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Direct measurements of liquid flows can be made with positive-displacement flowmeters.
These units divide the liquid into specific increments and move it on. The total flow is an
accumulation of the measured increments, which can be counted by mechanical or electronic
techniques.

Reynolds Numbers

The performance of flowmeters is also influenced by a dimensionless unit called the Reynolds
Number. It is defined as the ratio of the liquid's inertial forces to its drag forces.

The equation is:

R = (3160 x Q x Gt)/(D*m) where:

R = Reynolds number Q = liquid's flow rate, gpmGt = liquid's specific gravity

D= inside pipe diameter, in. m= liquid's viscosity, cp

2.0 VARIABLE HEAD FLOWMETERS

2.1 History
The first record of the use of orifices for the measurement of fluids was by Giovanni B.
Venturi, an Italian Physicist, who in 1797 did some work that led to the development of the
modern Venturi Meter by Clemons Herschel in 1886. It has been reported that an orifice meter,
designed by Professor Robinson of Ohio State University was used to measure gas near
Columbus, Ohio, about 1890. About 1903 Mr. T.B. Weymouth began a series of tests in
Pennsylvania leading to the publication of coefficients for orifice meters with flange taps. At
the same time Mr. E.O. Hickstein made a similar series of tests at Joplin, Missouri, from which
he developed data for orifice meters with pipe taps. A great deal of research and experimental
work was conducted by the American Gas Association and the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers between 1924 and 1935 in developing orifice meter coefficients and

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standards of construction for orifice meters. In 1935 a joint A.G.A. - A.S.M.E. report was
issued title “History of Orifice Meters and The Calibration, Construction, and Operation of
Orifices for Metering.

2.2 Types of Variable head flowmeters

In a differential pressure drop device the flow is calculated by measuring the pressure drop over
an obstructions inserted in the flow. The differential pressure flow meter is based on the
Bernoulis equation where the pressure drop and the further measured signal is a function of the
square flow speed.

dp = ρ v2 / 2 (1)
where
dp = pressure difference (Pa, psi)
ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3, slugs/ft3)
v = flow velocity (m/s, in/s)
it is common to use "head" instead of "pressure"
h = dp / γ (2)
where
h = head (m, in)
γ = specific weight (N/m3, lb/ft3)

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 FIG.1

Common types of differential pressure flow meters are:

 Orifice Meter
 Venturi Meter
 Flow Nozzles

2.2 DESCRIPTION

2.2.1 ORIFICE FLOW METER

An Orifice flow meter is the most common head type flow measuring device. An orifice plate
is inserted in the pipeline and the differential pressure across it is measured. 1.4.2.1 Principle of
Operation The orifice plate inserted in the pipeline causes an increase in flow velocity and a
corresponding decrease in pressure. The flow pattern shows an effective decrease in cross
section beyond the orifice plate, with a maximum velocity and minimum pressure at the
venacontracta.

An Orifice Meter is basically a type of flow meter used to measure the rate of flow of Liquid or
Gas, especially Steam, using the Differential Pressure Measurement principle. It is mainly used
for robust applications as it is known for its durability and is very economical.

As the name implies, it consists of an Orifice Plate which is the basic element of the
instrument. When this Orifice Plate is placed in a line, a differential pressure is developed

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across the Orifice Plate. This pressure drop is linear and is in direct proportion to the flow-rate
of the liquid or gas.

Since there is a drop in pressure, just like Turbine Flow meter, hence it is used where a drop in
pressure or head loss is permissible.

FLOW EQUATION

Let us consider one orifice meter fitted in a horizontal pipe as displayed here in following
figure. Let us say that water is flowing through the horizontal pipe.

Let us consider two sections i.e. section 1 and section 2 as displayed here in following figure. A
differential manometer will be connected as displayed in figure at section 1, which will be
approximate 1.5 to 2 times the diameter of pipe upstream from the orifice, and at section 2,
which will be approximate 0.5 times the diameter of the orifice on the downstream side from
the orifice plate.

FIG. 2

d1 = Diameter at section 1 (Inlet section)

P1 = Pressure at section 1 (Inlet section)
v1 = Velocity of fluid at section 1 (Inlet section)
A1 = Area of pipe at section 1 (Inlet section)
d2 = Diameter at section 2
P2 = Pressure at section 2
v2 = Velocity of fluid at section 2

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A2 = Area at section 2

Let us recall the Bernoulli’s equation and applying at section 1 and section 2.
According to Bernoulli’s theorem.....
In an incompressible, ideal fluid when the flow is steady and continuous, the sum of pressure
energy, kinetic energy and potential energy will be constant along a stream line.
Assumptions
Assumptions made for deriving the expression of discharge through the orifice meter is as
mentioned here.
1. Fluid is ideal, i.e. inviscid and incompressible.
2. Fluid flow is steady and continuous
3. Fluid flow is irrotational
4. Frictionless inner surface

We will have following equation after applying Bernoulli’s equation at section 1 and section 2.

Let A0 is the area of the orifice

Co-efficient of contraction, CC = A2/A0
Let us recall the continuity equation and we will have following equation

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Thus we will use the value of CC in above equation of discharge Q and we will have following
result for rate of flow or discharge through orifice meter.

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 Co-efficient of discharge of the orifice meter will be quite small as compared to the co-efficient
of discharge of the venturimeter.

ADVANTAGES

 The Orifice is small plates and easy to install/remove.

 Offer very little pressure drop from which 60% to 65% is recovered.
 The orifice meter can be easily maintained.
 Measures a wide range of flows.
 They have a simple construction.
 They have easily fitted between the flanges.
 They are the most suitable for most gases and liquids.
 They are cheap, The price does not increase dramatically with size.
DISDVANTAGES

 Requires homogeneous fluid.

 Requires single phase liquid
 It requires the flow of axial velocity vectors.
 It causes a pressure drop in the fluid.
 Its accuracy is affected by the density, pressure and viscosity of the fluid.
 The range of measurement of viscosity limits of fluids.
 It requires straight conduits to ensure accuracy is maintained.
 The pipe must be totally special for the measurement of the flow of liquids.
 They have low range capacity.

2.2.2 VENTURI METERS

Venturi tubes are differential pressure producers, based on Bernoulli’s Theorem. General
performance and calculations are similar to those for orifice plates. In these devices, there is a

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continuous contact between the fluid flow and the surface of the primary device. 1.4.3.1 Classic
Venturi Construction : [Long Form Venturi]

The classic Herchel Venturi tube is given in Fig. 1.7. It consists of a cylindrical inlet section
equal to the pipe diameter ; a converging conical section in which the cross sectional area
decreases causing the velocity to increase with a corresponding increase in the velocity head
and a decrease in the pressure head ; a cylindrical throat section where the velocity is constant
so that the decreased pressure head can be measured ; and a diverging recovery cone where the
velocity decreases and almost all of the original pressure head is recovered. The unrecovered
pressure head is commonly called as head loss.

FIG. 3

The classic venturi is always manufactured with a cast iron body and a bronze or stainless steel
throat section. At the midpoint of the throat, 6 to 8 pressure taps connect the throat to an
annular chamber so the throat pressure is averaged. The cross sectional area of the chamber is
1.5 times the cross sectional area of the taps. Since there is no movement of fluid in the annular
chamber, the pressure sensed is strictly static pressure. Usually 4 taps from the external surface
of the venturi into the annular chamber are made. These are offset from the internal pressure
taps. It is through these taps that throat pressure is measured. Limitations This flow meter is
limited to use on clean, non-corrosive liquids and gases, because it is impossible to clean out or
flush out the pressure taps if they clog up with dirt or debris. 1.4.3.2 Short Form Venturi Tubes
In an effort to reduce costs and laying length, manufactures developed a second generation, or
short-form venturi tubes shown in Fig. 1.8.

FIG.4

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Types of Venturi Tubes

Venturis are built in several forms. These include 1. a standard long-form or classic venturi
tube (Fig. 1.7) 2. a modified short form where the outlet cone is shortened (Fig. 1.8) 3. an
eccentric form [Fig. 1.9 (a)] to handle mixed phases or to minimize buildup of heavy materials
and 4. a rectangular form [Fig. 1.9 (b)] used in duct work.

FIG.5

FLOW EQUATIONS OF VENTURI METER

Considering a venturimeter is fitted to a horizontal pipe through which fluid ( water) is flowing
as shown in the figure given below.

FIG.6
Let d1, p1, v1 & a1, are the diameter at the inlet, pressure at the inlet, velocity at the inlet and
area at the cross section 1.
And d2, p2, v2 and a2 are the corresponding values at section 2.
Applying bernoulli’s equation at sections 1 and 2

As the pipe is horizontal, so z1 = z2

Therefore

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(P1 – P2)/ρg is the difference of pressure heads at section 1 and 2 and it is equal to h. so

Substituting this value of h in equation (1), we get

Now applying continuity equation at section 1 and 2

Substituting this value of v1 in equation (2) and solving, we get

Discharge

Substituting value of v2 in above equation

Q is the theoretical discharge under ideal conditions. Actual discharge will be less than the
theoretical discharge. The actual discharge is given by the formula

Where Cd is the coefficient of venturimeter and its value is less than 1.

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 ADVANTAGES :

 Less chance of getting stuck with sediment.

 The discharge coefficient is high.
 Its behaviour can be predicted perfectly.
 It can be installed vertically, horizontally, inclined.
 They are more precise and can be used for a wide range of flows.
 About 90% of the pressure drop can be recovered.
DISADVANTAGES :

 They are large in size and, therefore, where space is limited, they can not be used.
 Initial costs, installation and expensive maintenance.
 Requires a long placement length. That is, the venturi meter must be driven by a straight tube
that has no connections or misalignments to avoid turbulence in the flow, for satisfactory
operation.
 It can not be used in pipes of less than 7.5 cm in diameter.
 Maintenance is not easy.
 It can not be modified to measure the pressure beyond a maximum speed

2.4 Applications

 Natural Gas
 Water Treatment Plants
 Oil Filtration Plants
 Petrochemicals and Refineries

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3.0 PITOT TUBE
In the mid-18th century the French hydraulic engineer Henri Pitot, studying the flow of water
in rivers and canals, invented a device using a abent glass tube—now called the Pitot tube—for
measuring the speed of the flow past a given point Pitot tubes can be very simple devices
with no moving parts used to measure flow velocities.
3.1 Description and Working Principle

DERIVATION

Pitot tubes are used to measure the velocity of a fluid moving through a pipe by taking
advantage of the fact that the velocity at the height of the bend in the tube (stagnation point) is
zero. Some kinetic energy density of the fluid flowing through the pipe is converted into
pressure, resulting in a change in manometer height. Bernoulli's equation is used to calculate
the velocity of the bulk fluid in the pipe by using this pressure difference in the pitot tube:

All terms on the left side represent the stagnation point (entrance of the pitot tube); here is
the stagnation pressure and is the velocity of fluid in the pipe at point 1. All terms on the
right side refer to point 2, a point upstream from the pitot tube. The two points that are being
evaluated are at the same height, so and drop out. Thus we obtain the simplified form of
Bernoulli's equation:

The equation for the difference in pressure in a manometer is substituted into the simplified
Bernoulli equation:

This equation can be rearranged and used to solve for fluid velocity or difference in height of
the fluids in the manometer:

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 .

Here is the static pressure of fluid in the pipe, and are the densities of the fluid in the
pipe and manometer fluid, is specific gravity of fluid in the pipe, is the gravitational
constant and is the difference in height of the manometer fluid.

3.2 Applications
 It is used to measure speed of an aircraft
 It is used to measure speed of a boat
 It is used to measure fluid flows in different industries
 It is used where very high accuracy is not required
 It is used to measure flow profile in a duct or channel

3.3 Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages
 It is easy and economical to install and remove
 It has no moving parts which helps in minimizing frictional losses
 It is small in size
 It is low in cost
 It causes very less pressure loss
Limitations or disadvantages
 Any foreign material in flow, can change the accurate reading.
 Its accuracy is not that good
 It has low rangeability
 It has low sensitivity
 It works better in high velocity flow
 A change in velocity profile can cause significant changes in readings
 It cannot be used with dirty fluids
 Its sensitivity gets disturbed by flow direction

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4.0 VARIABLE AREA FLOWMETER

Variable area flow meters are simple and versatile devices that operate at a relatively constant
pressure drop and measure the flow of liquids, gases, and steam. The position of their float, piston
or vane is changed as the increasing flow rate opens a larger flow area to pass the flowing fluid.
The position of the float, piston or vane provides a direct visual indication of flow rate. Design
variations include the rotameter (a float in a tapered tube), orifice/rotameter combination (bypass
rotameter), open-channel variable gate, tapered plug, and vane or piston designs.They operate at
a constant delta pressure (Δp) and the area changes with the flowrate. The area will increase as
the flowrate through the meter increases to preserve a constant Delta Pressure (Δp). The most
common design of variable area meter is the cone-and-float type, which is also known as
a rotameter

4.1 Description and Working Principle

CONSTRUCTION

FIG.7

A rotameter is made up of a tapered tube and a float inside it. The glass tapered tube has a scale
on the surface or a scale is placed adjacent to it, according to purpose.

Tapered tube:

The tapered tube is placed vertically in the flow channel with a conical shape inside. The
quantity measured is defined by the height of float going up. Glass tubes are used for both
liquid and gas measurement. Metallic tubes are used where the process fluid with high
temperature and pressure.

Float:

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Stainless steal floats are commonly used, there are different types of metals from lead to
aluminium used as floats. A float material, shapes are also varied according to applications
considering density.

Spherical shape floats are used for small flows.

FIG.8

Fluid enters from the bottom of the tapered tube, then some of the fluid strikes directly into the
float bottom and others pass aside the float. Now the float experience two forces in opposite
direction, darg force upward and gravitational force downward.

Fluid flow moves the float upward against gravity.At some point, the flowing area reaches a
point where the pressure-induced force on the floating body exactly matches the weight of the
float. The float will find equilibrium when the area around float generates enough drag equal to
weight - buoyancy.

As the float weight and gravity are constant, the distance float displaced upward is proportional
to the flow velocity of the fluid passing through the tapered tube.

Measuring Principles of Variable Area Flowmeters:

However, the difference in this application is that the value inside the radicand is constant since
the pressure difference will remain constant and the fluid density will likely remain constant as
well. Thus, k will change in proportion to Q. The only variable within k relevant to float
position is the flowing area between the float and the tube walls.

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4.2 Applications
 The rotameter is used in process industries.
 It is used for monitoring gas and water flow in plants or labs.
 It is used for monitoring filtration loading.

.
4.3 Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages
 The rotameter is popular because it has a linear scale, a relatively long measurement
range, and low pressure drop.
 It is simple to install and maintain.
 It can be manufactured in a variety of construction materials and designed to cover a
wide range of pressures and temperatures.
 The rotameter can easily be sized or converted from one kind of service to another. In
general, it owes its wide use to its versatility of construction and applications.
 Because of its functional advantages the rotameter is an exceptionally practical flow
measurement device.
 The pressure drop across the float is low and remains essentially constant as the
flowrate changes. Float response to flowrate changes is linear, and a 10-to-1 flow range
or turndown is standard.
 Variable area flowmeters are commonly used to provide cost-effective local indication
of small liquid or gas flows
Disadvantages:
 Low accuracy – uncertainty on volumetric flowrate is ~2% of reading
 Generally small turndown
 Tendency of float to ‘stick’ at low flows
 Requirement for buoyancy correction in liquids
 Application Cautions for Variable Area Flowmeters

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COMPARISION
VARIABLE HEAD METER
1. The area of constriction/area of flow
is constant and the pressure drop
varies with the flow rate.
2. Simple in construction
3. Relatively cheaper
4. Needss straight runs of pipe before
and after the meter(i.e., without
fittings and valve).
5. It cannot give direct visual readings
of the flow rate.
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VARIABLE AREA METER
1. The pressure drop is constant and the
area of flow/area of constriction
varies with the flowrate.
2. They include rotameters of various
designs.
3. Relatively costly
4. Does not need straight runs of pipe
before and after the meter.
5. It can give direct visul readings of the
flow rate.
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 BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. Patent citations (5) Cited by (50) US3034356A

II. “How to select the best transducer – for industrial applications” Setra Systems
https://www.teesing.com
III. Patent citations (5) Cited by (30) US2667786A
IV. https://patents.google.com/patent/US3751982A/en
V.
VI.
VII. Béla G. Lipták, Instrument Engineers' Handbook, Fourth Edition, Process Measurement and
Analysis, ISA-The Instrumentation, Systems and Automation Society ISBN 0-8493-1083-0
(v. 1)
VIII. History of electronic pressure transducers

http://users.telenet.be/instrumentatie/pressure/pressure-transducer-history.html

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