I.

The Reproduction of Plants

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe how plants reproduce.

Angiosperms, also called flowering plants, have seeds enclosed within an ovary
while gymnosperms have unenclosed or "naked" seeds on the surface of their leaves or scales.

How do angiosperms and gymnosperms reproduce?

Reproduction in Angiosperms
Flowers are the sexual reproductive organs in angiosperms. They consist of
the androecium (male reproductive structure) and gynoecium (female reproductive structure).

Male Reproductive Parts of the Flower

Androecium is the male reproductive structure of the plant that consists of a whorl of stamens.

The stamen is comprised of the filament and the anther. The filament is a long, slender stalk that
holds the anther while the anther produces the pollen grains (male reproductive cells).

(a) Stamen
(b) a cut section of the anther

Female Reproductive Parts of the Flower

Gynoecium is the female reproductive structure of a flower. It may consist of a single pistil
(monocarpellary) or may have several pistils (multicarpellary).

The pistil is made up of the stigma, the style, and the ovary. The style is a slender stalk that
supports the stigma while the stigma is the sticky part that receives the pollen. The ovary is the
basal sac that contains the ovules (female reproductive cells).
Both the male and female gametes of the flowers are non-motile. They are brought together by
pollination.

Pollination
Pollination unites the male and female reproductive cells or gametes. It takes place when the
pollen grains from the male anther are transferred to the female stigma.

Types of Pollination
 Autogamy is a type of pollination where pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of the
same flower.
 Geitonogamy is a type of pollination where pollen grains are transferred to the stigma
of another flower of the same plant.
 Xenogamy, also called cross-pollination, is a type of pollination where pollen grains are
transferred to the stigma of a different plant.

Agents of Pollination
 Abiotic agents are nonliving things that aid in the transfer of pollen grains from the anther
to the stigma. They include wind and water.
 Biotic agents are living things that aid in pollination. They include animals and even
humans.

Example
A bee, which sips nectar from flowers, transfers the pollen grains from one flower to another. It is
an example of a biotic agent.

Tips
In pollination, the pollen grains are transferred to the female reproductive structures of a flowering
plant. However, it does not guarantee the transfer of the correct type of pollen to another flower
since the pollen grains are of the same species as the stigma where it came from. It is the pistil of
the flower that recognizes whether the pollen is the correct type or not.
If the received pollen is of the right type, the pistil recognizes and accepts the pollen to promote
post-pollination events that lead to fertilization.
Fertilization
Fertilization takes place when the sperm (germinated pollen) unites with the egg (ovule) forming a
fertilized egg called a zygote.

Process of Fertilization
1. The pollen grain attaches to the stigma.
2. Each pollen grain becomes a part of the pollen tube, which grows down the neck of the
style and reaches the ovary.
3. Sperm cells are discharged into the embryo sac, fertilizing the egg cell.

Double Fertilization
During double fertilization, the pollen grain enters the ovary and releases two sperm cells. One
sperm cell unites with the egg cell forming a diploid cell or zygote. The other sperm cell bonds with
two polar nuclei forming a triploid endosperm nucleus.

Post-fertilization
During post-fertilization, the zygote develops into an embryo while the endosperm
nucleus develops into the endosperm.

Also, the ovule, which contains the embryo and endosperm, matures into a seed while
the ovary forms the pericarp of the fruit.

The seed is the beginning of the next generation. It grows into a seedling and then into a mature
plant. The mature plant then produces flowers that contain the reproductive cells.
Reproduction in Gymnosperms
Unlike angiosperms, gymnosperms do not have flowers and fruits. Their ovules, which become
seeds, are on the surface of a scale or modified leaf. Examples of gymnosperms include cycads
and conifers.

Most gymnosperms have reproductive parts called cones. They produce two kinds of cones: the
male and the female cones. The male cones produce the pollen while the female cones contain
at least one ovule.

Pollination
In gymnosperms, the main pollinating agent is wind. Wind carries the pollen from the male cones to
the female cones. A sticky substance secreted by the ovule collects the pollen.

Fertilization
After pollination, the ovule closes and seals in the pollen. One sperm cell fertilizes the egg cell
forming a zygote.

Post-Fertilization
The fertilized egg develops into an embryo, and the other parts of the ovule mature into the seed
coat and food store.

Try it!
Collect a Hibiscus or a gumamela flower. Using a magnifying glass, observe the pollen grains in an
open anther of the flower.

If a microscope is available, get a pollen sample, place it on a glass slide with a drop of water, and
observe the pollen grains under the microscope.

What do you observe?

What do you think?

How do humans contribute to the pollination of angiosperms and gymnosperms?

Key Points
 Angiosperms have seeds enclosed within an ovary while gymnosperms have unenclosed
or "naked" seeds on the surface of their leaves or scales.
 The flower consists of the gynoecium (female reproductive structure)
and androecium (male reproductive structure).
 Most gymnosperms have reproductive parts called cones. The male cones produce the
pollen while the female cones contain at least one ovule.
 Pollination unites the male and female reproductive cells or gametes.
 Fertilization is the union of pollen grain and ovule in the ovary.
 During double fertilization, one sperm cell fertilizes the ovule forming the zygote (diploid)
while the other sperm cell unites with the two polar nuclei to form the endosperm (triploid).
  In angiosperm fertilization, the zygote matures into an embryo while the rest of the ovule
develops into a fruit.

 In gymnosperm fertilization, the zygote matures into an embryo while the rest of the ovule
develops into a seed.

II. The Reproduction of Animals

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the different ways of how representative
animals reproduce.

Animals produce sounds which are significant in their reproduction. It is an essential feature of
living organisms because, without reproduction, life will not exist.

How do different animals ensure continuity of species?

There are two types of reproduction that exists in living organisms: asexual and sexual
reproduction. Asexual reproduction is common among lower form of animals while sexual
reproduction can be found in more complex animals.

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Asexual Reproduction
This type of reproduction does not need two parents to produce an individual. Therefore, the
offspring produced is the exact copy of the parent animal. Most common forms are fission,
fragmentation, and budding.

Fission
Fission is a type of asexual reproduction wherein two individuals will form as the parent divides in
half. The illustration below shows a sea anemone undergoing fission.
Fragmentation
Fragmentation, the breaking of body parts into fragments, is always followed by regeneration and
regrowth of lost parts. Even if the animal is broken into many pieces, each piece will grow into a
new individual. Planarians, as shown in the illustration below, as well as sponges, cnidarians,
bristle worms, and sea squirts reproduce by fragmentation.

Budding
Budding is when an outgrowth called a bud grows and develops from the parent animal and would
eventually separate to become a new individual. This type of reproduction is common in certain
species of coral and hydra.

Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction needs two parents to produce an offspring. The combination of the genes from
both parents increases the chances of species variation. Therefore, species extinction is highly
unlikely. Fertilization, the union of egg and sperm cells, could happen internally or externally.

External Fertilization
In external fertilization, the union of egg and sperm occurs outside the female reproductive tract.
This is common among most species of bony fish and amphibians. As shown in the illustration
below, the clasping of the male frog induces the female to release eggs, over which the male
releases his sperm.
Most eggs of the amphibians develop in the water but others carry them on their back or in their
vocal sacs as shown below.

Internal Fertilization
In internal fertilization, the union of egg and sperm occurs within the female reproductive tract.
Animals that undergo in this type of reproduction produce offspring in any of the following ways:
oviparity, ovoviviparity, and viviparity.

 Oviparity – after the eggs are fertilized internally, it would complete its development
outside the mother’s body. The egg would receive its nourishment through its yolk. This is
found in some bony and cartilaginous fish (including clown fish and blue tangs), most
reptiles, some amphibians, all birds, and a few mammals (monotremes).
 Ovoviviparity – the eggs are also fertilized internally and receive its nourishment through
its yolk. However, eggs will complete its development within the mother. They are then fully
developed when they are hatched and released by the mother. This is common in some
bony fish (including mollies, guppies, and mosquito fish), some cartilaginous fish, and many
reptiles.
 Viviparity – the eggs are developed internally and receive nourishment directly from the
mother’s blood through placenta rather than from the yolk. This can be found in most
cartilaginous fish (including lemon sharks), some amphibians, a few reptiles, and almost all
mammals including humans.

Explore!
Jellyfish reproduction involves both sexual and asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction occurs in
the adult stage where males release sperm and females release eggs. When sperm and egg
combine, it will form a small larva called planula. These planulae will attach to rocks and become
polyps. During this stage, they can reproduce asexually by elongating then budding off to produce
many young jellyfish.

Why do you think many species of jellyfish produce offspring extraordinarily quickly?
Try it!
Tell whether the following scenarios are under asexual or sexual reproduction and state the
advantages and disadvantages of having these qualities.
1. offspring are genetically variable
2. every offspring is genetically identical
3. slower rate of reproduction
4. faster rate of reproduction
5. needs only one parent to produce an offspring
6. needs two parents to produce an offspring
7. extinction of species is unlikely

What do you think?

Earthworms are hermaphrodite, contains both eggs and sperms. When mating, the two worms are
lined up against each other with each head facing in opposite directions. Sperms are only passed
from each other which then fertilize each other’s eggs. Then a cocoon forms in each worm.

In spite of having both eggs and sperms, why do earthworms do not self-fertilize?

Key Points
 Reproduction is an important feature of living organisms because it ensures continuity of
species.
 The two types of reproduction that exist in living organisms are asexual and sexual
reproduction.
 Asexual reproduction involves only one parent to produce a new individual. The offspring
is the exact copy of the parent animal. Most common forms are fission, fragmentation, and
budding.
 Fission is a type of asexual reproduction wherein two individuals will form as the parent
divides in half.
 Fragmentation involves the breaking of body parts into fragments. Each piece will
regenerate and become a new individual.
 Budding is when a bud grows and develops from the parent animal then would eventually
separate to become a new individual.
 Sexual reproduction needs two parents to produce an offspring. The combination of the
genes from both parents increases the chances of species variation.
 Fertilization could happen internally or externally.
 External fertilization involves the union of egg and sperm outside the female reproductive
tract.
 Internal fertilization involves the union of egg and sperm within the female reproductive
tract. Animals that undergo in this type of reproduction produce offspring in any of the
following ways: oviparity, ovoviviparity, and viviparity.

III. DNA: Its Role in Inheritance and Protein Synthesis

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain how the information in the DNA allows the
transfer of genetic information and synthesis of proteins.

What do you observe in this diagram?

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) contains the genetic information of almost all living organisms. It
contains nucleotides composed of a five-carbon sugar deoxyribose and a phosphate group. There
are four nucleotides in a DNA: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C).

The nucleic acid sequence indicates the order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA strand. The
nucleotides or nucleotide bases (A, C, T, G) of a DNA strand or a sequence can be complementary
to another sequence. Cytosine pairs with guanine, and adenine pairs with thymine in the
complementary DNA strand.

The sequence of the DNA strand contains codes of information that provide instructions for making
proteins needed by organisms in order to grow and live. In our diagram in the previous lesson
chapter, the recipe was transcribed into English for one to make the recipe. The same with DNA, if
not transcribed, it will not give instructions to make proteins needed by our cells.

Role of DNA in Inheritance

Genes are short segments of DNA that are the basic units of heredity. Every individual has two
copies of each gene, one from the father and the other from the mother. They are responsible for
all the traits that an individual inherits from their parents. The sperm and egg cells carry 23
chromosomes each. When they unite, a total of 46 chromosomes will be produced. The only thing
that makes us unique from each other is the slight variations in the genes. For example, most of us
have black eyes, some have brown eyes. We all have genes for eye colors, but the differences in
the genes dictate whether a person will have black or brown eyes.

Role of DNA in Protein Synthesis

The DNA plays an important role in the synthesis of proteins. Proteins play an important role in the
cells’ functions and structures. There are three processes involved in the production of
proteins: replication, transcription, and translation.

Replication
Replication refers to the process of copying one DNA to produce two identical DNA molecules.
During this process, the DNA unwinds, and both strands of the double helix will serve as templates
for producing new strands of DNA.

Transcription
Transcription is the process by which the genetic information in the DNA strand is transcribed to
the messenger RNA (mRNA). This RNA is called the messenger RNA because it carries the
message copied from the DNA to produce proteins. In this process, RNA uses complementary
coding where the bases are matched up, similar to how DNA forms a double helix. The difference
between RNA and DNA is that instead of thymine, RNA makes use of uracil.

Translation
Translation is the process wherein protein molecules are assembled from the information encoded
in mRNA. As a whole, the synthesis of proteins is made possible by the DNA which provides the
information needed to create proteins in the body.
Explore!
A girl is alleged to be the lost daughter of a rich business man. Now that this man is very ill and
wanted to be sure that this girl is his daughter, he ordered his staff to get samples from her and do
DNA paternity testing. The results found were inconclusive. Why do you think the results were
inconclusive?

Try it!
Go to a hospital and observe the X-ray technicians. Why do you think the technician stands behind
the lead walls, and the other persons must not enter the room while doing the X-ray?

What do you think?

What happens when an organism undergoes mutation?

Key Points
 DNA contains the genetic information of almost all living organisms.
 The nucleotide consists of deoxyribose and a phosphate group.
 There are four nucleotides in a DNA: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G),
and cytosine (C).
 Genes are short segments of DNA that are the basic units of heredity.
 Replication refers to the process of copying one DNA to produce two identical DNA
molecules.
 Transcription is the process by which the genetic information in the DNA strand is
transcribed to the messenger RNA (mRNA).
 Translation is the process wherein protein molecules are assembled from the information
encoded in mRNA.

IV. Genetic Engineering and Its Applications in Reproduction

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
 describe the process of genetic engineering;
 conduct a survey of the current uses of genetically modified organisms (GMOs); and
 evaluate the benefits and risks of using GMOs.

Have you ever heard of genetically modified organisms?

Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology
Genetic engineering means modifying genes in a living organism to produce genetically modified
organisms (GMOs) also known as transgenic organisms. It is a modern type of genetic
modification. In this process, the gene of interest is physically removed and placed in an organism
to be modified. This method is more rapid and specific than the traditional plant breeding because a
gene coding for a specific trait could be transferred to an organism. Genetic engineering is an
application of biotechnology which uses biological systems, processes, or organisms to create
products intended to improve the quality of human life.

How is genetic engineering done?

As shown in the illustration above, copies of the recombinant plasmid— a circular, double-
stranded DNA molecule, will be isolated and transferred to other organisms. Depending on the
gene of interest, genetic engineering has various applications in the field of medicine, environment,
and agriculture.

To help you describe the processes involved in genetic engineering, let us use Bt corn, a
genetically modified pest resistant plant as an example. This plant was grown in the Philippines
against Asian corn borer, a major pest in corn.

DNA Isolation (isolating plasmid and gene of interest)

The first step in creating a pest-resistant plant is isolating the plasmid of Agrobacterium and pest-
resistant gene from a bacteria, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt).
  Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a gram-negative soil bacteria cause crown gall disease in
plants but its tumor-inducing plasmid is usually used in genetic engineering because of its
ability to integrate its DNA into a plant’s genome.
 The resistant gene would be obtained in the DNA of Bacillus thuringiensis. This
bacterium produces a protein known as Cry1Ab toxin that is lethal to the larval stage
of lepidopterans (moth family).

Ligation (gene insertion to the plasmid)

When the resistant gene is inserted into the isolated plasmid, they are cleaved using the same
restriction enzyme before they are combined using DNA ligases. Restriction enzymes are also
called restriction endonucleases. Once they recognize a specific nucleotide sequence, they
cleave the strands.

Transformation (plasmid is placed back into bacterial cell)

The recombinant plasmid would then be placed back to the bacterium in a process
called transformation.

Selection (identification of the desired clone)

The nutrient media with X-gal (special galactose sugar) are used to select the transformed bacteria
containing the recombinant plasmid with the gene of interest.
The selected bacteria would then infect the cell of corn and integrate the gene into the plant’s DNA.
When the plant cell divides, each daughter cell receives the new gene. The transformed corn plant
is now pest-resistant.

The inserted gene producing the toxin in the genetically modified crop is only lethal to specific
target pests.

Current Uses of GMOs

The genes of bacteria, plants, and animals are being modified to improve the quality of human life.
Depending on the gene of interest, GMOs have many uses in agriculture, medicine, and the
environment.

Uses of Genetically Modified Bacteria

 Escherichia coli creates a synthetic human insulin.
 Cyanobacteria is used to yield polyhydroxybutyrate to produce bioplastic.

Uses of Genetically Modified Plants

 Bt corn is a pest-resistant plant against corn-infesting larvae.
 Banana vaccine is an edible vaccine against hepatitis virus.
 Golden rice is a genetically modified rice that produces beta-carotene.

Uses of Genetically Modified Animals

 Bioluminescent animals are used to identify different types of cells to detect diseases.
 Some bioluminescent animals such as glofish became novelty pets to humans.
 Fast-growing salmon are genetically modified salmon to continually produce growth
hormones.

Advantages of GMOs
The GMOs offer many benefits to mankind such as:
 Increased productivity. This enables farmers to have higher crop yields and reduced
pesticide use. (e.g. Bt corn)
 Reduced pesticide use. Since GM crops are modified for a specific pest, the use of
pesticide against that pest is reduced or removed.
 Improved nutrition like the high beta carotene content of Golden Rice. GM crops such
as Golden Rice with improved nutrition (high in beta carotene) reduces eye-related
problems like blindness due to malnutrition.
 Aided disease detection. Diseases can be identified because of protein trackers in
bioluminescent animals.
Disadvantages of GMOs
GMOs also raised concerns from people because of its possible harm to the environment and
mankind such as:
 Reduced biodiversity of non-damaging insects. Pest resistant crops (e.g. Bt corn) lead
to unintended harm to non-crop damaging insects such as larvae of Monarch butterflies
when affected by pollen of Bt corn.
 Decreased pesticide effectivity. Pest resistant crops seem to reduce the need for
pesticide at first but it would increase later on.
 Produced allergic reactions. Some people develop an allergic response to GM crops
when exposed to them.
 Led to a higher cost for GM seeds. Farmers buy new seeds every year. Farmers using
second generation seeds would lead them to Supreme Court with a charge of patent
infringement.

Explore!
As of 2014, International Rice Research Institute declared that the Philippines would have field
trials of GM rice known as Golden rice (high in beta-carotene). However, the farmers in the Bicol
region together with other independent organizations expressed strong opposition against it. Given
all the benefits of golden rice and GMOs in general, why do you think there are still controversies
underlying the production of GMOs?
What do you think?
Substantial amounts of human insulin and numerous different proteins are created using genetic
engineering. However, even if the approach is done correctly, it does not work for producing human
hemoglobin. Why do you think so?

Key Points
 Genetic engineering means altering genes in a living organism to produce a Genetically
Modified Organism (GMO).
 Biotechnology is a technology using biological systems, processes, or organisms to create
products intended to improve the quality of human life.
 The following are the steps in genetic engineering: DNA isolation, ligation, transformation,
and selection.
 DNA isolation is isolating the plasmid and gene of interest.
 Ligation involves sealing the gene of interest into the plasmid after they are both cut with
the same restriction enzyme.
 Transformation is a process wherein cells ingest foreign DNA from the surroundings.
 Selection is the process where the bacteria containing the recombinant plasmid with the
gene of interest is selected and will be used to integrate the gene of interest in the host
organism.
 Depending on the gene of interest, GMOs have many uses in agriculture (e.g. pest resistant
plants), medicine (e.g. edible vaccines), and environment (e.g. butanol production).
 GMOs offer many benefits to mankind such as increased productivity, improved nutrition,
disease detection, and cheaper medicines.
 Possible risks about GMO such as reduced biodiversity, decrease pesticide effectivity,
allergic reactions, and high cost for GM seeds posed concerns to many people.