TEMA 5: GEOGRAPHIC, HISTORIC AND CULTURAL FRAMEWORK OF THE ENGLISH-

SPEAKING CONUNTRIES. DIDACTIC APPLICATION OF THE MOST MEANINGFUL

GEOGRAPHIC, HISTORIC AND CULTURAL ASPECTS.

1.- INTRODUCTION:

English is spoken in all continents. English is the most widespread language on earth.
English speaking is established in the British Isles, North America, Australia and North Africa.
The English speaking is uncertain in Africa, Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. We will
draw a geographical, historical and cultural outline of the most important English-speaking
countries.
We will study the importance of sociocultural competence to the acquisition of communicative,
and list activities to reach it.

2.- GEOGRAPHIC, HISTORIC AND CULTURAL FRAMEWORK OF THE ENGLISH-

SPEAKING COUNTRIES.

2.1.- EXTENT AND SIGNIFICATION OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

English has spread all over the world. Currently English is spoken and understood in the
whole continent. It is the international language of commerce, science and research. It is easier
to learn for Asiatics and Africans, but France wants to avoid the use of English words. In Spain
there have been campaigns against the American “contamination” in papers, radio, TV or
cinema.
We can say that in South America, English is widely spoken.
Many Caribbean countries are bilingual, they speak English and Spanish.
This demand of English, all over the world, has caused an economic phenomenon, a military
expansion, the scientific advances and the power of media.

2.2.- ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

The Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes, imported English from the continent when they
invaded “Great Britain”, after the arrival of the Roman Empire in the 5 th century.
The language of these three peoples was basically the same, and the know dialects of Old
English developed after their setting in the isles.

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 The Norman Conquest in 1066 caused tremendous linguistic changes from that moment on
we will talk about Middle English.
Characteristics of Middle English were:
 Reductions of inflections.
 Disappearance of the grammatical gender.
 Rigidity in sentence word order.
 Fight among dialects.
 French orthography.
The influence of French and Latin terms modify the structure of the English Language.
About 1250, when the Normans lost Normandy and French language took and important
paper, it began to be questioned whether English should be used as a representative national
language.
Which dialled should become the standard language? Around 1350 the London dialect was
about to become the “winner”.
The political predominance of London as a governing centre facilities the spreading of this
dialect thought the country.
From 1400 onwards French is reduced to the aristocracy and as a vehicle of commercial
transactions with the continent.
From 1650 to 1850 there is a change in the attitude of English people towards their own
language.
There have been some changes in the Standard English, they are a consequence of the
diversification of the “social dialects”.

2.3.- GEOGRAPHIC, HISTORIC AND CULTURAL FRAMEWORK OF THE ENGLISH-

SPEAKING COUNTRIES.
English is the most spoken language in the world after Chinese. We are going to talk about
the general characteristics of the English-speaking countries.
A.- THE UNITED KINGDOM.
In full the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Is made up of England,
Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.
It’s a member of the Commonwealth and European Community. The capital is London. The
currency is sterling pound.
It is a constitutional monarchy, with two houses: House of Lords and House of Commons. The
chief of state is the sovereign, and the head of government is the prime minister.
Its geographic situation has marked its history, characterized by its independence to the
continent. Nowadays this distance has disappeared with the building of the channel tunnel.
Industry has always been the main economic source, here the industrial revolution took place.
Commerce has also been the basic for their prosperity. The UK dominated the maritime routes.

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The British monarchy was founded in 1066 by William the Conqueror, it has been a system, with
a small break of ten years corresponding to the republican government imposed by Oliver
Cromwell.
At the present moment, the monarch is Elisabeth II; she is also the head of the Anglican
Church.
There are two big political parties: the conservative party and the labour party.
The principal river is the Thames. The highest point in UK is Ben Nevis (1343) in Scotland.
The population grew in 1950 with the arrival of Commonwealth emigrants. They came from
India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.

B.- THE REPUBLIC OF IRELAND.

This nation occupies the largest part of an island situated west of Great Britain. The national
language is Irish, but the official one is English. The major religion is Catholicism. Its capital is
Dublin.
Ireland is an unitary multiparty republic, with two houses: senate and the house of
representative. The chief of state is the president and the head of government is the prime
minister. Currency is Irish pound. The highest point is carrantuchill; the major river is the
Shannon. Ireland belongs to the European Community. Ireland obtains the independence from
Great Britain in 1921.
The Irish economy is based on the agriculture. It has not got important mineral resources.
The religious conflict: Catholics and Protestants, The majority of the population in England is
Anglican, the main features of the Anglican Church are the subordination to the Queen and its
positives rejection of the Pope authority.
In Northern Ireland, most of the population is Catholic. In Belfast, the capital, Catholics and
Protestants cause almost daily victims. The IRA, Irish Republican Army, commits terrorist
attacks. The IRA wants the Protestants to abandon Northern Ireland. They want to get the self-
government for the Ulster.

C.- THE UNITED STATES.

English language is an universal language because it has been established in many countries.
This export began in 17th century with the birth of the colonies in North America. The main
reason of the status of English is the great number or inhabitants in USA and the massive
emigrations on the 19th and 20th century.
The USA is a federal republic formed by 50 states.
Two legislatives houses: senate and the house of representative. The head of state and
government is the president.
Its capital is Washington. The first river is Mississippi river. The currency is American dollar.
Religion: there isn’t a principal religion. Protestantism is, perhaps, the most practised.

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 It is a nation of groups, where the minorities try to get equal rights and opportunities. The
language is English, but there are minorities such as Spanish or Asians, trying to keep alive
their language.
It is a very rich country, with important metallic and energy sources. The USA obtains the
independence from Great Britain in 1783. From more than half a century ago the USA is the 1 st
world power. Its history is a long and constant territorial progress, with a great political and
military development.

D.- THE BRITISH EMPIRE

The Victorian Era (1837-1901) was a period of prestige for Great Britain.
In the 16th century Great Britain developed its commercial capacity, by conquering every
strategic point along the mercantile routes. During the 18 th and 19th centuries, they became a
great empire.
All these territories were controlled by generators who imposed their language, their culture
and laws. Most of these territories were colonies for the exploitation, which originated the British
richness and splendour. The population was formed by emigrant who wanted to start a new life.
The different territories got their independence, but some of them were not prepared for self-
governing and have became 3rd world countries ruled by dictators.

E.- THE COMMONWEALTH.

It was founded in 1931 to carry out the dissolution of the British Empire. It is formed by 32
independent nations, they maintain the English crown as their Head of State.
The reason for this institution is the economic interest of the countries that belong to it.
States members: UK, Canada, Trinity and Tobago, Kenya, Nigeria, Zambia, Australia, New
Zealand, etc.

F.- PHILIPPINES.
The republic of Philippines is an independent state since 1946.
Language: Tagalo; English as a commercial language.
Religion: Catholic.
Capital: Manila.
Spain lost the colony in 1898, under the domain of USA in 1935, it was constituted as a
sovereign state under the North American supervision.

G.- THE COMMON LAW.

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 An amazing fact about the English legal system. There is not a penal or civil code. They have
the common law. The sentences are based on previous trials.
The juries are formed by citizens coming from different social classes, they consider if the
accused is guilty or innocent.
In USA, there are federal jurisdictions, every state has its own laws, courts and police.

3.- DIDACTIC APPLICATION OF THE MOST MANINGFUL GEOGRAPHIC HISTORIC AND

CULTURAL ASPECTS.

The teacher of a modern language must teach not only the foreign language but also the
civilization of the countries and people who speak that language.
Apart from history and geography, our pupils must get familiar politics, mass media, etc.

3.1.- HOW CAN WE TEACH ENGLICH CIVILIZATION?

There are 3 different procedures:
1. Interpretative reading.
First we must know the level of the group before planning any activity.
There should be a correspondence between the level of the text and the level of the
group.
Different types of texts. The important result is that they get the signification about the
society or social aspects reflected in the text-
Example: journey around the world in 80 days. The typical gentleman.

2. Practices of oral expression.

We can offer our pupils photographs showing different aspects of British life, they
must say whatever they suggest to them.
We can use a dramatization of a dialogue, eg. “An English breakfast” (foods,
timetable, courtesy sentences), “a tourist visit” (we can use postcards or
photographs). We can mention Christmas, Thanksgiving Day, American
Independence).

3. Didactic use of songs.

They are a pedagogic support for the teaching of civilization.
The songs must have certain characteristics:
- correspondence with the level of the pupils.
- Interesting for the pupils
They can learn some structures with the songs.

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 INTRODUCTION
Every aspect of language is enormously complex. Yet, children learn most of the intricate
system of their mother tongue before the age of six. Before they can add 2+2, children are putting
sentences together, asking questions, negating sentences, using the syntactic, phonological,
morphological, and semantic rules of the language. Children are not taught language as they are
taught arithmetic. They learn language in a different way.
LINGUIST COMPETENCE AND COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
We are far from completely understanding the language acquisition process. We are just
beginning to grapple with those aspects of the human neurological and biological make up which
explain the child’s ability to acquire language. Certainly it is clear that the child is equipped from birth
with the necessary neural prerequisites for language and language use.
Our knowledge of the nature of human language tell us something about what the child
does and does when acquiring a language:
1) Children do not learn a language by storing all the words ant all the
sentences in some giant mental dictionary. The list of words is finite, but no
dictionary can hold all the sentences, which are infinite in number.
2) Children learn to understand sentences they have never heard before, and
to construct sentences, most of which they have never produced before.
3) Children must therefore learn “rules” which permit them to use language
creatively.
4) No one teaches them these rules. Their parents are no more aware of
phonological, syntactic, morphological, and semantic rules than the children
are. Children, then, seem to act like very efficient linguists equipped with a
perfect theory of language, who use this theory to build up the grammar of
the language they hear.
In addition to acquiring the complex rules of the grammar (that is, linguistic
competence), children must also learn the complex rules of the appropriate
social use for language, what certain scholars have called communicative
competence. These include, for example, the greetings which are to be used,
the “taboo” words, the polite forms of address the various styles which are
appropriate to different situations, and so forth.
STAGES OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION IN CHILDREN
Linguists divide the child’s acquisition of a language into prelinguistic and linguistic
stages. There continues to be disagreement as to what should be included in these periods. But
most scholars agree that the earliest cries and whimpers of the newborn cannot be considered
early language. Such noises are completely stimulus-controlled; they are the child’s involuntary
responses to hunger, discomfort, the feeling of well-being, etc.
THE BABBLING STAGE

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 Usually around the sixth month period, the infant begins to babble. The sounds
produced in this period seem to include the sounds of human languages. The role of babbling is
not clearly understood, but it is absolutely clear that in order that the language develop finally,
the child must receive some auditory input.
THE HOLOPHRASTIC STAGE
Sometime after children are one year old, they begin to use same string of sounds
repeatedly to “mean” the same thing. Most children seem to go through the “one word=one
sentence” stage. The child uses just one word to express concepts or predications which will
later be expressed by complex phrases and sentences.
THE TWO-WORD STAGE
Around the time of their second birthday children begin to produce two-word utterances
like: “allgone sock”; “bye-bye boat”; “it ball”; “hi mommy”; “dirty sock”; mummy sock”.
During this stage there are no syntactic or morphological markers; that is, no inflections
for number, tense, or person. The two words a child utters can express a number of different
grammatical relations which will later be expressed by other syntactic devices.
TELEGRAPH TO INFINITY
There does not seem to be any “three-word sentence” stage. When a child starts
stringing more than two words together, the utterances may be two, three, four, or five words or
longer. The words in a “sentence” are not strung together randomly; from a very early stage,
children’s utterances reveal their grasp of the principles of sentence formation.
These first utterances of children which are longer than two words have a special
characteristic. Usually, the small “function” words such as to, the, can, is, etc, are missing ; only
the words which carry the main message –the “content” words– occur. Children often sound as
if they were reading telegrams, which is why such utterances are called “telegraphic speech”.
For example: “Cathy build house”; “No sit here”; “Car stand up table”.
As children acquire more and more language, or more closely approximate the adult
grammar, they not only begin to use function words but also acquire the inflectional and
derivational morphemes of the language. There seems to be a natural order of acquisition of
morphemes. It seems that the suffix –ing is the earliest inflectional morpheme acquired.
Eventually all the other inflections are added, along with the syntactic rules, and finally the
child’s utterances sound like those spoken by adults.
THEORIES OF CHILD LANGUAGE ACQUISISTION
IMITATION
There are those who think that children merely imitate what they hear. Imitation is
involved, of course, but the sentences produced by children show that they are not imitating
adult speech. Even when children are deliberately trying to imitate what they hear, there are
unable to produce sentences which cannot be generated by their grammar.

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 POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
Another theory suggest that children learn to produce “correct” sentences because they
are positively reinforced when they say something right and negatively reinforced when they say
something wrong. This view does not tell us how children construct the correct rules.
Whatever “correction” takes place is based more on the content of the message than on
its form. That is, if a child says ”Nobody don’t like me”, the mother may say “Everybody likes
you2. Besides, all attempts to “correct” a child’s language are doomed to failure. Children don’t
know what they are doing wrong and are even unable to make the corrections when they are
pointed to them.
CREATIVE CONSTRUCTION
The reinforcement theory fails along with the imitation theory. Neither of these views
accounts for the fact that children are constructing their own rules. Different rules govern the
construction of sentences as the grammar is learned.
The “imperfect” sentences children use are perfectly regular. They are not “mistakes” in
the child’s language; they reflect his or her grammar at a certain stage of development. The
child seems to form the simplest and most general rule he can from the language input he
receives, and is so “pleased” with his “theory” that he uses the rule whenever he can.
The most obvious example of this “overgeneralization” is shown when children treat
irregular verbs and nouns as if they were regular. We have probably all heard children say
“goed”, “singed”, or “foots”, “childs”. These mistakes tell us more about how children learn
language than the “correct” forms they use. The child couldn’t be imitating; children use such
forms in families where parents would never utter such “bad English”.
The child’s ability to generalize patterns and construct rules is also shown in the
development of the semantic system. For example, the child learns the word “daddy” and later
applies it to other men.
Thus, a third theory suggests that language acquisition is a creative construction
process, and that children have to “construct” all the rules of the grammar. According to the
famous linguist Noam Chomsky., “it seems plain that language acquisition is based on the
child’s discovery of what from a formal point of view is a deep and abstract theory – a
generative grammar of his language”.
Children seem to be equipped with special abilities or with a “language acquisition
device”, residing principally in the left side of the brain, to know just what they can ignore, to find
all the regularities in the language.
The details of this “innate” device are far from understood. As we gain more information about
brain functions and the preconditions for language acquisition, we will learn more about the nature of
human language.
LEARNING AND ACQUISITION OF A SECOND LANGUAGE
As we compare a child’s acquisition of his mother tongue with the learning and
acquisition of a second or foreign language, it becomes evident that the processes and theories

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 involved seem to be, at least to a certain extent, parallel. Other aspects, on the other hand,
keep less similarity , as it the case with the stages that children go through.
The learning progression does not take place in a linear way, by successive appropriation of
the different subsystems implied, but rather by a global approximation which in the initial stages
implies a considerable simplification and an exclusion of peculiarities that are not perceived as
essential. Progress consists then in a continuous process of completing, polishing and enriching this
global apprehension of the new communication system. Thus, the teaching and learning of a foreign
language should not be viewed so much in terms of a series of elemental units of content which are
perfectly apprehended before proceeding to the next, but in terms of a communication system which is
globally elaborated and whose complexity and communicative potential increases in a progressive
form.
It should be pointed out that the information processing mechanisms often work efficiently even
when the student is not producing utterances. During the first moments in the learning of a foreign
language, there are often silent periods during which the student does not produce at all. This silence,
however, cannot unmistakably be interpreted as a lack of learning; it often covers an intense activity
that cannot be directly observed and which sometime in the future, will let him produce utterances
which reflect the internal representation that he has built during those silent periods. If we accept that
creative construction can take place without generating an immediate production, we will have to admit
that receptive activities specific comprehension competencies can be developed, but also, what is not
so evident, the general communicative competence that is behind every linguistic system.
The above explained makes clear that the process of language learning is complex and that this
process takes place in a personal and distinct way for each individual since the strategies which let the
subject receive and transform the input he receives are always used in a particular way.

SECOND LANGUAJE ACQUISTION THEORY

According to Krashen there are five hypotheses, which try to explain the process of
acquisition of a second language:
THE ACQUISTION-LEARNING HYPOTHESIS
Acquisition in a not conscious process in which the person is not aware of the grammar
or the rules he uses. In many ways acquisition can be compared to the process by which a child
becomes proficient in his mother tongue. In this way, fluency is progressively gained as the
proficiency in consolidated. Errors are accepted as a normal part of the process.
Learning occurs consciously, we have to study the rules which govern a given
language. We are not responsible for our fluency since we depend on the activities suggested
by the teacher. Learning has only one function: as editor or as monitor, that is, to make
corrections and change our output.
THE NATURAL ORDER HYPOTHESIS
This Hypothesis states the grammatical structures are acquired in a fairly predictable
order in L1 native language and L2 (second language). In other words, just as children learn

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their native language in a natural order, so students of a foreign language learn structures in a
predictable way.
Nevertheless two points can be made against this hypothesis:
a) We do not have information about the order of acquisition of every structure in every
language. Besides, there are individual variations.
b) The existence of a natural order of acquisition does not imply that we should teach
second languages following this order.

THE MONITOR HYPOTHESIS

The monitor hypothesis states the relationship between acquisition and learning.
Acquisition plays a far more important role than learning because learning is used as editor or
monitor only. The function of monitor is to make self corrections and change the output before of
after speaking or writing.
But in order to use the monitor, three conditions need be fulfilled:
a) Time: in order to make a self-correction we need time. Self correction can hardly be
used without altering fluency.
b) Focus on form: we have to be aware of the grammar forms we are using and know
that there is a choice of forms.
c) Finally, once we have stopped and concentrated on the form, it is necessary to have
a correct knowledge of the rules so that the proper correction can be made.

Thus, it can be easily deducted that monitor “overusers” may have difficulty in acquiring
fluency. Monitor, however, can be a great help if used for grammar tests and writing.
THE INPUT HYPOTHESIS
We acquire language by understanding input that contains i + 1
“i + 1” means a step by step progression. In order to progress the input (i)
should be only a bit beyond (1) the acquirer’s current level of competence.
We understand language that we do not “know” by using context, extra-linguistic
information, and our knowledge of the world. In the same fashion, language is made
understandable to us through the use of devices such as simplified, visual clues, key
words and phrases, gestures or familiar topics.
We do not teach speaking directly
Speaking fluency emerges on its own over time, thus, the best way to “teach”
speaking is to provide comprehensible input. For the same reason, early speech is
typically not accurate. Direct error correction should be avoided.
The “best” input should not be “grammatically sequenced”
It is enough by providing genuinely interesting and comprehensible input.
Teachers should organize content on the basis of themes or topics which are relevant to
the students’ needs and interests (communication-based syllabus or curriculum).

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 THE AFFECTIVE FILTER HYPOTHESIS
It deals with the effect of affective variables on L2 acquisition. They are variables like
anxiety, motivation or self-confidence.
The affective filter produces a mental block which prevents inputs to enter the “language
acquisition device”.
Krashen summarizes his five hypothesis with a single claim:
“Comprehensible input is the only causative variable in second language acquisition.
People acquire second languages when they obtain comprehensible input and when their
affective filters are low enough to allow the input in”.
AGE DIFFERENCES IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Older acquirers are faster in the early stages of second language acquisition because:
a) they are better at obtaining comprehensible input as they have good conversational
management;
b) they have superior knowledge of the world, which helps to make input
comprehensible;
c) they can participate in conversation earlier, via use of first language syntax.

Younger acquirers tend to attain higher levels of proficiency in second languages than
adults in the long run due to a lower affective filter.
IMPLICATIONS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING
The five hypothesis about L2 acquisition predict that any successful L2 teaching
program must have the following characteristics;
a) It must supply input in the L2 that is:
- Comprehensible.
- Interesting and relevant to students.
The goal is, thus, to transmit messages, not to practice grammar.
b) It must not force students to speak before they are ready and must be
tolerant of errors in early speech. We improve in grammatical accuracy by
obtaining more input, not by error correction.
c) It must put grammar in its proper place. Some adults, and very few children,
are able to use conscious grammar rules to increase the grammatical
accuracy of their output; and even for these people, very strict conditions
(time, focus on form, and knowledge of the rule) need to be fulfilled before
the conscious knowledge of grammar can be applied, given the monitor
hypothesis presented above.
ROLE OF THE FIRST LANGUAGE IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS HYPOTHESIS
The first language has long been considered the major cause of a learner’s problems
with the new language. It “interferes” with the learner’s acquisition of his of her L2.

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 If a structure in L1 differs from that of L2, errors that reflect the structure on the L1 will
be produced. This process has been labelled interference or negative transfer.
Spanish structure: adj + noun: La casa grande
Interference with English: *The house big
If a structure in both languages is the same, there will be positive transfer or zero
interference, and there will be no errors in L2 performance.
Spanish plural marker “-s”: libros
English plural marker “-s”: books
The contrastive Analysis treatment of errors was popular up through the 1960’s. A large
part of the rationale for the Contrastive Analysis hypothesis was drawn from principles of
behaviourist psychology.
There are two central concepts in transfer:
a) the automatic and not conscious use of the old behaviour (habits) in new learning
situations (behaviourist view);
b) the use of past knowledge and experience in new situations (other educational and
psychological views).
In recent years there have been enough data accumulated to place the L2 learner’s first
language in a “respectable” role. Present research results suggest that the major impact the L1 has on
L2 acquisition may have to do with accent, not with grammar.
ERROR ANALYSIS MOVEMENT
Many teachers and researchers noticed that a great number of the errors that students
make could not possibly be traced to their native languages. The theoretical climate of the late
fifties and early sixties provided the ultimate rationale for the error analysis approach:
Noam Chomsky’s, Review of B.F. Skinner’s Verbal Behaviour (1959) questioned the
very core of the behaviourist habit theory which accounts for language learning. Chomsky’s
views, along with Piagetian psychology, succeeded in highlighting the previously neglected
mental make-up of learners as a central force in the learning process, not a habit formation.
Interlingual and developmental errors
The term error is used to refer to any deviation from a selected norm of language
performance, no mater what the characteristics or causes of the deviation might be.
In the Error Analysis view, errors that reflect the learner’s L1 structures are not called
interference but interlingual errors.
Development errors are errors similar to those made by children acquiring their native
tongue. For example, students of English as a foreign often say things such as:
He cans play football very well.
This error is also found in the speech of children acquiring English as their first
language.
Researchers have consistently found that, contrary to widespread opinion, the great
majority of errors made by second language learners are not interlingual, but developmental.

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Although adults tend to exhibit more L1 influence in their errors then children do, adult
interlingual errors also occur in small proportions.
Implications of error analysis for L2 learning
Error Analysis has yielded insights into the L2 acquisition process that have stimulated
major changes in teaching practices. Studying learner’s errors serves two major purposes:
a) it provides data from which interferences about the nature of the language
acquisition process can be made; and
b) it indicates to teachers and curriculum developers, which part of the target language
students have most difficulty to produce correctly and which error types detract
most from a learner’s ability to communicate effectively.
INTERLANGUAGE
Interlanguage is the linguistic system that a learner constructs on his way to the mastery
of a target language.
Methodologically, interlanguage may be said to incorporate the assumption of both
Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis. While Contrastive Analysis contrasts the learner’s
native language and the target language, and conventional Error Analysis involves contrast
between the learner’s performance and the target language, interlanguage take all three
elements into account, explicitly incorporating the contrastive analysis of the learner’s
interlanguage with both his native and the target language.

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